Search

Search Results

• 1. [Article] AI - Stream Habitat Conditions in Western Oregon, 1999

  Abstract -- The physical habitat of a stream forms the template from which the biological community can develop. The structure and complexity of the stream habitat influences the species composition, distribution, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: AI - Stream Habitat Conditions in Western Oregon, 1999 Abstract -- The physical habitat of a stream forms the template from which the biological community can develop. The structure and complexity of the stream habitat influences the species composition, distribution, and production of the fish community. Assessing the status of stream habitat conditions in coastal Oregon streams is important for monitoring the effects of landscape and aquatic management practices on the character of riparian stream habitat. Comprehensive habitat assessments are also important for watershed assessments, restoration planning, and for studying the relationship between stream habitat, fish abundance, and fish distribution. The goals of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OPSW) Habitat Monitoring Program are to 1) provide an annual update on the status of stream habitat in Western Oregon, and 2) track trends in habitat over time. This report on stream habitat conditions covers sampling that occurred between June and October of 1999. The report is grouped into six different areas: • Current habitat status by Gene Conservation Area (GCA) • The status of habitat in relation to landscape variables • An assessment of the high quality habitat existing on the landscape • A comparison of 1998 and 1999 stream conditions • An analysis of habitat variable precision • An assessment of fish distribution outside of known coho salmon distribution Title: AI - Stream Habitat Conditions in Western Oregon, 1999 Abstract -- The physical habitat of a stream forms the template from which the biological community can develop. The structure and complexity of the stream habitat influences the species composition, distribution, and production of the fish community. Assessing the status of stream habitat conditions in coastal Oregon streams is important for monitoring the effects of landscape and aquatic management practices on the character of riparian stream habitat. Comprehensive habitat assessments are also important for watershed assessments, restoration planning, and for studying the relationship between stream habitat, fish abundance, and fish distribution. The goals of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OPSW) Habitat Monitoring Program are to 1) provide an annual update on the status of stream habitat in Western Oregon, and 2) track trends in habitat over time. This report on stream habitat conditions covers sampling that occurred between June and October of 1999. The report is grouped into six different areas: • Current habitat status by Gene Conservation Area (GCA) • The status of habitat in relation to landscape variables • An assessment of the high quality habitat existing on the landscape • A comparison of 1998 and 1999 stream conditions • An analysis of habitat variable precision • An assessment of fish distribution outside of known coho salmon distribution Close

• 2. [Article] AI - Reference Site Selection and Survey Results 2000

  Abstract -- The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) Aquatic Inventories Project conducts stream habitat surveys as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The goal of these surveys ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: AI - Reference Site Selection and Survey Results 2000 Abstract -- The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) Aquatic Inventories Project conducts stream habitat surveys as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The goal of these surveys is to document the status and trends of stream conditions that exist in coastal drainages of western Oregon. To better interpret landscape patterns in aquatic habitat character, the Aquatic Inventories Project has sought to improve the definition of a set of reference conditions from which to compare habitat survey sites. Over the past three years, the set of reference conditions used in analyses was selected from basin-wide habitat surveys conducted between 1992 and 1997. These conditions did not adequately represent the variety of stream sizes, geologic types, or ecoregions present in all coastal streams. The Aquatic Inventories Project selected a set of new reference survey locations that better represent reference conditions in coastal streams for a variety of ecoregions, geologic types, and basins. The reference sites selected for the year 2000 represented watershed areas with low impact from human activities such as roads, development, and forest management. Ideally, areas would have been selected that were completely free from human disturbance, but we concluded it was more important to represent a larger geographic range of conditions across the landscape. Title: AI - Reference Site Selection and Survey Results 2000 Abstract -- The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) Aquatic Inventories Project conducts stream habitat surveys as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The goal of these surveys is to document the status and trends of stream conditions that exist in coastal drainages of western Oregon. To better interpret landscape patterns in aquatic habitat character, the Aquatic Inventories Project has sought to improve the definition of a set of reference conditions from which to compare habitat survey sites. Over the past three years, the set of reference conditions used in analyses was selected from basin-wide habitat surveys conducted between 1992 and 1997. These conditions did not adequately represent the variety of stream sizes, geologic types, or ecoregions present in all coastal streams. The Aquatic Inventories Project selected a set of new reference survey locations that better represent reference conditions in coastal streams for a variety of ecoregions, geologic types, and basins. The reference sites selected for the year 2000 represented watershed areas with low impact from human activities such as roads, development, and forest management. Ideally, areas would have been selected that were completely free from human disturbance, but we concluded it was more important to represent a larger geographic range of conditions across the landscape. Close

• 3. [Image] A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl

  	ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl Author: Thomas, Jack Ward Year: 1990, 2010 ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references Title: A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl Author: Thomas, Jack Ward Year: 1990, 2010 ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references Close

• 4. [Article] Neacoxie Watershed

  Abstract -- Previously, little information was known about the ecology or the condition of native habitats in the Neacoxie sub-watershed that drains from the city of Warrenton into the north section of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Neacoxie Watershed Abstract -- Previously, little information was known about the ecology or the condition of native habitats in the Neacoxie sub-watershed that drains from the city of Warrenton into the north section of the Necanicum Estuary in the city of Seaside. In 2002, the Necanicum Watershed Council completed an assessment for the Necanicum River watershed, but with major knowledge gaps for the Neacoxie watershed, which includes the Neacoxie Creek corridor and the Clatsop Plains. In order for the North Coast Land Conservancy (NCLC) and other land managers to develop stewardship priorities and to make informed decisions about land management actions in this region, additional information was required. Together with the Necanicum Watershed Council and the North Coast Watershed Association, NCLC secured funding to conduct habitat inventories of the Neacoxie watershed. The Neacoxie Watershed Assessment summarizes the results of terrestrial plant transects and aquatic plant surveys completed in the summer of 2011 on ten properties owned by the North Coast Land Conservancy (NCLC) in the Neacoxie Creek watershed (please refer to Appendices A & B). Habitat types include stabilized sand dunes dominated by coastal prairie habitat, interdunal wetland swales and lakes, upland Sitka spruce forest, and forested wetlands. Percent composition of each plant community type observed was calculated. Invasive non-native plant species were recorded. Surveys were also conducted for both native and non-native plants in four water bodies owned by NCLC or adjacent to land trust properties. The plant community data that were collected will be used to evaluate baseline ecological conditions in the Neacoxie watershed. Plant communities can be used as indicators of long-term tidal and hydrologic conditions as well as the ecological health of the landscape. Repeated measurements can be used to assess community changes over time and to assess how plant community composition compares to that described for natural conditions. This information will assist the land trust in making science-based stewardship decisions on its properties, and can be used by other landowners to better understand changes occurring in plant communities in similar habitats on their properties as a result of human disturbance (e.g., land development, farming, grazing) and invasion by non-native plants. Title: Neacoxie Watershed Abstract -- Previously, little information was known about the ecology or the condition of native habitats in the Neacoxie sub-watershed that drains from the city of Warrenton into the north section of the Necanicum Estuary in the city of Seaside. In 2002, the Necanicum Watershed Council completed an assessment for the Necanicum River watershed, but with major knowledge gaps for the Neacoxie watershed, which includes the Neacoxie Creek corridor and the Clatsop Plains. In order for the North Coast Land Conservancy (NCLC) and other land managers to develop stewardship priorities and to make informed decisions about land management actions in this region, additional information was required. Together with the Necanicum Watershed Council and the North Coast Watershed Association, NCLC secured funding to conduct habitat inventories of the Neacoxie watershed. The Neacoxie Watershed Assessment summarizes the results of terrestrial plant transects and aquatic plant surveys completed in the summer of 2011 on ten properties owned by the North Coast Land Conservancy (NCLC) in the Neacoxie Creek watershed (please refer to Appendices A & B). Habitat types include stabilized sand dunes dominated by coastal prairie habitat, interdunal wetland swales and lakes, upland Sitka spruce forest, and forested wetlands. Percent composition of each plant community type observed was calculated. Invasive non-native plant species were recorded. Surveys were also conducted for both native and non-native plants in four water bodies owned by NCLC or adjacent to land trust properties. The plant community data that were collected will be used to evaluate baseline ecological conditions in the Neacoxie watershed. Plant communities can be used as indicators of long-term tidal and hydrologic conditions as well as the ecological health of the landscape. Repeated measurements can be used to assess community changes over time and to assess how plant community composition compares to that described for natural conditions. This information will assist the land trust in making science-based stewardship decisions on its properties, and can be used by other landowners to better understand changes occurring in plant communities in similar habitats on their properties as a result of human disturbance (e.g., land development, farming, grazing) and invasion by non-native plants. Close

• 5. [Image] A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest

  	Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Close

• 6. [Image] The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference

  	Cover title; "March 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference Year: 1999, 2004 Cover title; "March 1999." Title: The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference Year: 1999, 2004 Cover title; "March 1999." Close

• 7. [Image] Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway

  	Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway Author: Wilson, Robert Michael Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations. Title: Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway Author: Wilson, Robert Michael Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations. Close

• 8. [Image] A strategy for achieving healthy watersheds in Oregon

  	"January 2001."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A strategy for achieving healthy watersheds in Oregon Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2001, 2004 "January 2001." Title: A strategy for achieving healthy watersheds in Oregon Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2001, 2004 "January 2001." Close

• 9. [Image] Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010

  	Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010 Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office. Year: 2000, 2005, 2004 Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem. Title: Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010 Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office. Year: 2000, 2005, 2004 Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem. Close

• 10. [Image] An examination of the Klamath Basin crisis : restructuring the discourse within an identity-based framework

  	Thesis (B.A.) -- Whitman College, 2002; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An examination of the Klamath Basin crisis : restructuring the discourse within an identity-based framework Author: Dornsife, Alison M. Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 Thesis (B.A.) -- Whitman College, 2002; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83) Title: An examination of the Klamath Basin crisis : restructuring the discourse within an identity-based framework Author: Dornsife, Alison M. Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 Thesis (B.A.) -- Whitman College, 2002; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83) Close

• 11. [Image] The Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds

  	KCAMATH FALLS. QREEON THE OREGON PLAN FOR SALMON AND WATERSHEDS The purpose of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds ( the " Oregon Plan") as stated in the Plan and reaffirmed in this Executive Order ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds Author: Oregon. Office of the Governor Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 KCAMATH FALLS. QREEON THE OREGON PLAN FOR SALMON AND WATERSHEDS The purpose of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds ( the " Oregon Plan") as stated in the Plan and reaffirmed in this Executive Order is to restore Oregon's wild salmon and trout populations and fisheries to sustainable and productive levels that will provide substantial environmental, cultural, and economic benefits and to improve water quality. The Oregon Plan is a long- term, ongoing effort that began as a focused set of actions by state, local, tribal and private organizations and individuals in October of 1995. The Oregon Plan first addressed coho salmon on the Oregon Coast, was then broadened to include steelhead trout on the coast and in the Lower Columbia River, and is now expanding to all at- risk wild salmonids throughout the state. The Oregon Plan addresses all factors for decline of these species, including watershed conditions arid fisheries, to the extent those factors can be affected by the state. The Oregon Plan was endorsed and funded by the Oregon Legislature in 1997 through Oregon Senate Bill 924 ( 1 997 Or. Laws, ch. 7) and House Bill 3700 ( 1 997 Or. Laws, ch.' 8). The Oregon Plan is described in two principal documents: " The Oregon Plan," dated March 1997, and " The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds, Supplement I - steelhbad," dated January 1998. As used in this Executive Order, + the Oregon Plan also incorporates the Healthy Streams Partnership ( Oregon Senate Bill 101 0, 1 993- Or. Laws, ch. 263). The Oregon Plan is a cooperative effort of state, local, federal, tribal and private organizations and individuals. Although the Oregon Plan contains a strong foundation of protective regulations -- continuing existing regulatory programs and speeding the implementation of others - an essential principle of the Plan is the need to move beyond prohibitions and to encourage efforts to improve conditions for salmon through non- regulatory means. Many of the most significant contributions to the Oregon Plan are private and quasi- governmental efforts to protect and . restore salmon on working landscapes, including efforts by watershed councils. Salmon and trout restoration requires action and sacrifice across the entire economic and geographic spectrum of Oregon. The commercial and sport fishing industries in Oregon have been heavily affected by complete or partial closures of fisheries. The forest industry operates under the Oregon Forest Practices Act, and has contributed substantially to salmon recovery through habitat restoration projects on private lands and by funding a large pan of the state recovery efforts. The agriculture and mining industries are also taking actions that will protect and restore salmon and trout habitat and improve water quality ( including financial support of restoration efforts by the mining industry). Urban areas are developing water conservation programs, spending funds for wastewater treatment improvements to reduce point source pollution, reducing non- point source pollution and reducing activities that degrade riparian areas. All citizens of Oregon share responsibility for declining populations of wild salmon and trout, and it is important that there be both a broad commitment to reversing these historic trends and a sense that the burdens of restoration are being shared by all of society. It is also important that there be independent scientific oversight of the Oregon Plan. This oversight is being provided by the Independent Mutidisciplinary Science Team ( IMST), established under Oregon Senate Bill 924 ( 1 997 Or. Laws, ch. 7). ~ d'ditional legislative oversight for the Oregon Plan is being provided by the Joint Legislative Committee on . Salmon and Stream Enhancement ( the " Joint Committee!'). Under the federal Endangered Species Act ( ESA) the U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service . . ( F& WS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS) are responsible for identifying species that are threatened or endangered, and for developing programs to conserve and recover lhose species. F& WS and NMFS have now listed salmonids under the ESA on the entire Oregon Coast, the lower Columbia River ( including most of the Portland metropolitan area). the la math River basin, and in the upper Columbia and Snake River basins. More listings are expected within the next year. To date, the F& WS and NMFS generally have not had the resources to develop and implement effective recovery plans for fisheries. In addition, in many areas a large proportion of the habitat that list'ed'salmonids depend on is located on private lands, where the regulatory tools under the ESA are relatively ' ill- defined and indirect. Finally, federal agencies alone, even if they take an active regulatory approach. to recovery, will not restore listed salmonids. The federal ESA may work to prohibit certain actions, but there is simply too much habitat on private lands for restoration to succeed without pro- active involvement and incentives for individuals, groups, and local governments to take affirmative actions to restore habitat on working landscapes. In April, 1997 the State of Oregon and NMFS entered into a Memorandum of Agreement ( MOA) under which the State agreed to continue existing measures under the March 1997 Oregon Plan and to take certain additional actions to protect and restbre coho salmon on the Oregon Coast. On May 6, 1997, NMFS determined that the Oregon Coast Evolutionarily Significant Unit ( ESU) of coho salmon did not warrant listing as a threatened or endangered species under the ESA. On June 2, 1998, the US. District Court for Oregon ordered NMFS to reconsider its decision without taking into account any parts of the Oregon Plan or MOA that are not " current enforceable measures." The U. S. District Court for Oregon also held that the MOA was speculative, due to the fact that it provided for termination by either party on thirty days notice, and that therefore the MOA could not be considered by NMFS ' in its listing decision. Under court order, NMFS reconsidered its decision without taking into account the application in the future of the harvest and hatchery measures contained in the Oregon Plan, or the habitat improvement programs being undertaken under the Oregon Plan, or the commitments made by the State of Oregon in the MOA for improvement of applicable habitat measures. Accordingly, NMFS listed Oregon Coast .. . coho as threatened undefthe ESA on or about October 2, 1998. - The MOA provided for the State of Oregon to take actions necessary to ensfie that - Oregon Coast coho did not warrant listing as a threatened or endangered species under the federal ESA. Now that Oregon Coast coho are listed as a threatened species as a- result of the U. S. District Court's order, the central purpose of the MOA has been eliminated. Due to the uncertainties created by the District Court's decision and the increasing extent of salmonids listed or proposed for listing under the federal ESA, it is important that the status of the State of Oregon's substantive commitments under the MOA and the purpose of the Oregon Plan be clarified. Through this Executive Order, the State of Oregon reaffirms its intent to play the leading role in protecting and restoring Oregon Coast coho and other salmonids. through the implementation of the Oregon Plan. This Executive Order provides the framework and direction for state agencies to implement ( to the extent of their authorities) the Oregon Plan in a timely and effective manner. This Executive Order also provides a framework for extending the state's efforts beyond a focus on Oregon Coast coho, to watersheds and fisheries statewide. Consistent with the principle of adaptive management, this Order applies the experience gained to date in implementing the Oregon Plan to provide additional detailed direction to state agencies. Finally, this Executive Order establishes a public involvement process to prioritize continuing efforts under the Oregon Plan. NOW THEREFORE, IT IS HEREBY ORDERED AND DIRECTED: ( 1) Overall Direction ( a) Agencies of the State of Oregon will, consistent with their authorities, fully implement the state agency efforts described in the Oregon Plan and in this Executive Order. ( b) The overall objective for state agencies under the Oregon Plan and this Executive Order is to protect and restore salmonids and to improve water quality. ( c) The Governor will, in cooperation with the Joint Committee, IMST, affected state agencies, watershed councils, and other affected local entities and persons develop and implement, a process to set biological and habitat goals and objectives to protect and restore salmonids on a basin or regional basis as soon as practicable. Once these goals and objectives are established, they will be used by state agencies . . . to evaluate their regulatory and non- regulatory programs and measures relating to the protection and re'storation of salmonids. Through this on- going evaluation, state agencies will determine any changes to their programs or measures that may be necessary to meet the biological and habitat goals and objectives. In the interim, the following objectives in subsections ( d) and ( e) shall apply to agencies' implem'entation of the OregGn Plan and this Executive Order. . . ( d) Actions that state agencies take, fund and/ or authorize that are primarily for a purpose other than restoration of salmonids or the habitat they depend upon will, considering the anticipated duration and geographic scope of the actions: ( A) to the maximum extent practicable minimize and mitigate adverse effects of the actions on salmoni. ds or the habitat they depend on; and ( 8) not appreciably reduce the likelihood of the survival and recovery of salmonids in the wild. ( e) State agencies will take, fund and/ or authorize actions that are primarily for the purpose of restoring salmonids or the habitat they depend upon, including actions implementing the Oregon Plan, with the goal of producing a conservation benefit that ( if taken together with comparable and related actions by all persons and entities within the range of the species) is likely to result in sustainable population levels of salmonids in the foreseeable future, and in population levels of salmonids that provide substantial environmental, cultural and economic benefits to Oregonians in the long term. ( f) With the broadening of the Oregon Plan,' prioritizing all agency actions according to coho core areas is no longer appropriate. Each state agency participating in the Oregon Plan, in consultation with ODFW and other partners involved in the implementation of the Plan and through a public involvement process, will modify their existing work programs in the Oregon Plan to prioritize agency measures to protect and restore salmonids in a timely and effective manner. The work programs will continue to identify key specific outcomes, refine and improve designations of priority areas, and establish completion dates. These modifications will be submitted to the , Governor, the Joint Committee, and to the appropriate boards and commissions as soon as possible, but in no event later than June 1, 1999. Progress reports on action plans will be submitted to the Governor, the Joint Committee, and to the appropriate boards and commissions on an annual basis. In prioritizing their efforts,' state agencies shall consider how to maximize conservation -, benefits for salmonids and the habitat they depend on within limited resources and - . whether their- actions are likely to increase populations of salmonids in the foreseeable future. I p ( g) State agencies will work cooperatively with landowners, local entities and other persons taking actions to protect or restore salmonids. ( h) As the Oregon Plan grows in geographic scope and . in intensity of activity,' there is a growing need to streamline and prioritize state agency activity at the . regional level. One proposal has been to organize state natural resource agency field operations along hydrologic units. Therefore, state agencies will consider this proposal and, through the collective efforts of state agency directors, develop an organization plan that focuses state agency field effort on the activities and areas of highest priority under the Oregon Plan. ( i) State. agencies will continue to encourage and work with agencies of the U. S. government to implement the federal measures described in the Oregon Plan.. In addition, the state agencies will work with the federal government to develop additional means of protecting and restoring salmonids. Where appropriate, state agencies will request that federal agencies obtain incidental take permits under Section 7 of the federal ESA for state actions that ace funded or authorized by a , federal agency. ( j) State agencies will help support efforts to evaluate watershed conditions, and to develop'specific strategic plans to provide for flood management, water quality improvement, and salmonid restoration in basins around the state, including the Willamette basin through the Willamette Restoration Initiative. ( k) The IMST will continue to provide oversight to ensure the use of the best scientific information available as the basis for implementation of and for adaptive changes to the Oregon Plan. State agencies will ensure that the IMST receives data and other information reasonably required for its functions in a timely manner. The Governor's Natural Resources Office ( GNRO) has requested that the IMST's initial priority be review of the freshwater habitat needs of coho and the relationship between population levels, escapement levels, and habitat characteristics. The GNRO also will continue to request that the IMST annually review monitoring results and identify where the Oregon Plan warrants change for scientific or technical reasons and make recommend& ions to the appropriate agency on those adjustments that appear necessary. Agencies will report their responses to any recommendations by . . the IMST to the Governor and to the Joint Committee. Any other changes identified by the IMST as necessary to achieve properly functioning riparian and aquatic habitat conditions required to, protect and restore salmonids will be forwarded to the appropriate governmental entity for its consideration of the adoption of new, changed, or supplemental measures as rapidly as possible while providing for public involvement: Each state agency, by June 1, 1999, will ratify a monitoring team charter through an interagency memorandum. A draft of the charter is contained in the 1998 Oregon Plan Annual Report. ( I) Monitoring is a key element of the Oregon Plan. Each state agency will actively support the monitoring strategy described in the Oregon Plan. Each affected agency will participate on the monitoring team to coordinate activities and integrate analyses. Each agency will implement . an appropriate monitoring program to assess the effectiveness of their programs and measures in meeting the objectives set forth in the Oregon Planon an annual basis. In addition, agencies with regulatory programs that are included in the Oregon Plan will determine levels of compliance with regulatory standards and identify and act on opportunities to improve compliance levels: ( m) If information gathered regarding the effectiveness of measures in the Oregon Plan shows that existing strategies within state control are not achie, ving expected improvements and objectives, the agency( ies1 responsible for those measures will seek appropriate changes in their regulations, policies, programs, r-measures and other areas of the Oregon Plan, as required to protect and restore coho and other sal'monids. Such modification or supplementation will be done as rapidly as possible, consistent with public involvement. ( n) Agencies are using geographically- referenced data in their efforts under the Oregon Plan, and will be using Geographic Information Systems ( GIs) in the analysis of these , data. In doing so, the State GIs Plan, developed by the Oregon Geographic lnformation Council ( OGIC) ( see Executive Order 96- 40) will be followed, with specific adherence to the Plan guidance on data documentation, coordination and data sharing. The agency with primary responsibility for gathering and updating the specific data will be responsible for meeting the requirements of the Plan, and to ensure coordination- with OGIC, the State Service Center for GIs and other' cooperating agencies. In addition, state agencies will cooperate with the Governor's Watershed Enhancement Board ( GWEB), Soil and. Water Conservation Districts ( SWCDs), local waters$ ed councils, landowners and others in making these essential data available. ( 0) Geographically- based strategies to assess and achieve habitat needs and adequate escapement levels will be used, and the state agencies will continue with the development of standardized watershed assessment protocols, including a -- cumulative effects assessment. State agencies will also continue with the development of habitat restoration guides to evaluate and direct habitat restoration efforts. ( 2) Continuation and Expansion of Existing Efforts. Without limiting the generality of section ( l)( a) of this Executive Order, the following subsections of this Executive Order describe some of the many efforts in the Oregon Plan where the initial phase of work has been completed, and where efforts will be continued. ( a) The Oregon Fish & Wildlife Commission ( OFWC), the Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife ( ODFW), and the Pacific Fishery Management Council ( PFMC) are managing ocean and terminal fisheries according to the measures set forth in the Oregon Plan ( ODFW I- A. l and Ill- A. l). These measures set a maximum mortality rate ( resulting from other fisheries) for any of four disaggregated stocks of coho of fifteen percent ( 1 5%) under poor ocean conditions. In 1997, the mortality rate. from harvest is estimated to have been between nine and eleven percent ( 9- 1 1 %). ODFW and OFWC will continue these measures in state waters, and will actively support continued implementation of the ocean harvest measures by the PFMC ( Amendment 13 to the Council's salmon management plan) until and unless a different management regime agreeable to NMFS is adopted. ( b) The OFWC and ODFW will ensure that the fish hatchery measures set forth in the Oregon Plan are continued by the OFWC and ODFW. ODFW is marking all hatchery coho on the Oregon Coast. This marking will allow increased certainty in estimating hatchery stray rates beginning in 1999. Available data on hatchery stray rates for coho and steelhead are being provided to NMFS on an annual basis. The number of hatchery coho released is estimated to have been 1.7 million in 1998 - substantially below the level called for in the Oregon Plan. This number will be reduced to 1.2 million in 1999. In addition, ODFW has, and will continue to provide. annual reports regarding: ( i) the number of juvenile hatchery coho that are released by brood year, locations and dates of release, life stage, and broodstock origin; ( ii) the number of adult coho taken for broodstock for each hatchery, the location and date of collection, and the origin ( hatchery or natural); ( iii) the number of hatchery coho . . estimated to have spawned in natural habitat by basin; ( iv) the estimated percentage of hatchery coho% the total natural spawning population; and ( v) the mortality of naturally- spawning coho resulting from each fishery. NMFS may provide comments about hatchery prograk affecting coho to ODFW, with any concerns to be resolved between NMFS and ODFW. - - ( c) ln addition to recent modifications to hatchery practices and programs, a new vision is needed for how Oregon will utilize hatcheries in the best and most effective manner. Therefore, the ODFW and the OFWC shall engage in a process to create a strategic plan for fish hatcheries in Oregon over the next decade ( including state and federally- funded hatcheries, private hatcheries, and the STEP program). The essential elements of this process are as follows: ( i) Impartial analysis - conduct an impartial analysis of the scientific bases, and the social and economic effects of Oregon hatchery programs utilizing existing analyses and review where feasible, but conducting new analyses if necessary; ( ii) Review the Wild Fish Management Policy ( WFMP) - because the future plan for hatcheries in Oregon is dependent on implementation of the WFMP, ODFW shall conduct a science and stakeholder review to determine if this significant policy should be revised and shall make any revision by July 2000; ( iii) Frame alternative strategies -- convene a group of stockholders to . frame alternative strategies, including outcomes and descriptions, of how hatcheries will be used in Oregon over the next decade ( these strategies will address the use of hatcheries for wild fish population recovery including supplementation, research and monitoring, public education, and sport and commercial fishing opportunities); ( iv) Public review and selection of a strategy -- the OFWC shall, after public review and ' ;-'-!&%; f$'. i comment, adopt a strategic plan to guide development of future hatchery programs, incorporating the strategy developed and adopted in accordance with subpart ( iii) of this paragraph. ( d) Criteria and guidelines directing the design of projects that may affect fish passage have been established in a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU) between the Oregon Department of Transportation ( ODOT), ODFW, the Oregon Department of Forestry ( ODF), the Oregon Department of Agriculture ( ODA), the Division of State Lands ( DSL) and the Federal Highway Administration. These guidelines apply to the design, construction and consultations of projects affecting fish passage. Under the MOU, projects requiring regulatory approvals that follow these criteria and guidelines are expedited. Oregon agencies will continue to provide technical assistance to ensure that the criteria and guidelines are applied appropriately in restoration projects, as well as any other projects that may affect fish passage through road crossings and similar structures. ODFW will work with state agencies, local governments, and watershed councils to ensure that Oregon's standards for fish passage set forth in Exhibit A to the MOU are understood and are implemented. - ( e) Fish presence, stream habitat, road and culvert surveys have been conducted for roads within ODOT jurisdiction and county roads in coastal basins, the Lower Columbia basin, the Willamette basin, and the Grande Ronbe/ lmnaha basins. Among the results of these surveys is the finding that culvert barriers to fish passage affect a substantial quantity of salmonid habitat. For example, surveys of county and state highways in western Oregon found over 1,200 culverts that are barriers to passage. As a result, ODOT is placing additional priority on restoring fish access. For 1998, ODOT repaired or replaced 35 culverts restoring access to 101 miles of salmonid habitat. For 1999, the Oregon Transportation Commission will be asked to fund approximately $ 4.0 million for culvert modification. ODOT and the Commission will continue to examine means to speed restoration of fish passage and to coordinate priorities with ODFW. ( f) Draft watershed assessment protocols have been developed and are being field tested. Beginning in 1999, SWCDs, watershed councils and others will be able to use the protocols as the basis for action plans to identify and prioritize opportunities to protect and restore salmonids. Watershed action plans have already been completed in a number of basins including the Rogue, Coos, Coquille and Grande Ronde. State agencies will work to support these watershed assessments and plans to the maximum extent practicable. Where watershed action plans have been developed under the protocols, GWEB will ensure that projects funded through the Watershed Improvement Grant Fund are consistent with watershed action plans, and other state agencies will work with SWCDs and watershed councils to ensure that activities they authorize, fund or undertake are consistent with watershed action plans to the maximum extent practicable. ( g) The State of Oregon has developed interim aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guidelines for 1998. State agencies involved with restoration activities ( ODFW, ODF, DSL, ODA, DEQ, and GWEB) will continue to develop and refine the interim guidelines for final publication in April 1999. The guidelines will be applied in restoration activities funded or authorized by state agencies. The purpose of ' the guidelines will be to define aquatic restoration and to identify and encourage aquatic habitat restoration techniques to restore salmonids. . . ( h) ODA and O ~ hFave each entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with the Oregon Department'of Environmental Quality relating to the development of . Total Maximum Daily Loads ( TMDLs) and Water Quality Management Area Plans ( WQMAPs). O Dw~ ill adopt. a nd implement WQMAPs ( through the Healthy Streams Partnership) and ODF , will review the adequacy of forest practices rules to meet water quality standards. ODF and ODA will evaluate the effectiveness of these measures in achieving water quality standards on a regular basis and implement any changes required to meet the standards. ( i) Agencies are implementing a coordinated monitoring program, as described in the Oregon Plan. This program includes technical support and standardized protocols for watershed councils, stream habitat surveys, forest practice effectiveness monitoring, water withdrawal monitoring, ambient water quality monitoring, and biotic index studies, as well as fish presence surveys and salmonid abundance and survival monitoring in selected subbasins. State agencies are also' working to coordinate monitoring efforts by state, federal, and local entities, including watershed councils. State agencies will work actively to ensure that the monitoring measures' in the Oregon Plan are continued. - .. ( j) GWEB has put into place new processes for identifying and coordinating the delivery of financial and technical assistance to individuals, agencies, watershed councils and soil and water conservation districts as they implement watershed ' restoration projects to improve water quality and restore aquatic resources. Over $ 25 ' million has been distributed for watershed restoration projects in the last ten years. During the present ( 1 997- 99 biennium) GWEB has awarded over $ 1 2 million dollars in f- state and federal funds for technical'assistance and watershed restoration activities to implement the Oregon Plan. GWEB and state agencies will continue to seek financial resources to be allocated by GWEB for watershed restoration activities at the local and. statewide levels. ( k) State agencies will continue to encourage, support and work to provide incentives for local, tribal, and private . efforts to implement the Oregon Plan. In addition, state agencies will continue to provide financial assistance to local entities for projects to protect and restore salmonids to the extent consistent with their budgetary and legal authorities, and consistent with their work programs in the Oregon Plan. To the. maximum extent practicable, state agencies will also provide technical assistance and planning tools to provide local conservation groups to assist in and target watershed restoration efforts. These efforts ( during 1996 and 1997) are reported in " The Oregon. Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: Watershed Restoration Inventory, 1998." ~ u s c afe w of the important efforts that have been completed include: ( A) Eighty- two watershed councils have joined with forty- five Soil and Water Conservation Districts as well as private and public landowners to implement on- the- ground projects' to protect and restore salmonids. During 1996 and 1997, a reported $ 27.4 million was spent on 1,234 watershed restoration projects on non-federal lands. Both the amount spent and the number of projects represent significant increases ( of over 300 percent) over prior years. In 1996- 97, watershed councils, SWCDs and other organizations and individuals completed: ( i) 138 stream fencing projects, involving at least 301 miles of streambank; ( ii) 196 riparian area planting projects, involving at least 11 1 miles of streams; and ( iii) 458 instream habitat improvement projects. . . . ( B) Private and state forest landowners are implementing key efforts under the Oregon Plan, including the road risk and remediation program ( ODF- 1 and 2). Under this effort in 1996 and 1997, close to 4,000 miles of roads'have been surveyed to identify risks that the roads may pose to salmonid habitat. As the risks are identified, they are then prioritized for remediation following an established. protocol. Already, 52 miles of forest roads have been closed, 843 miles of road repair and reconstruction projects to - protect salmonid habitat have been completed, and an additional 14 miles of roads have been decommissioned or relocated.. In addition, 530 culverts have been replaced, upgraded or installed for fish passage purposes, improving access to a reported 146 stream miles. ( C) Organizations working in Tillamook County have developed the I ." J aw#~ t Tillamook County Performance Partnership. The Partnership is implementing the \*. Tillamook Bay National Estuary Program by addressing water quality, fisheries, floodplain management and economic development in the county. Among the actions that the Partnership has already accomplished are: ( i) the closure of seven miles of degraded forest roads and the rehabilitation of 469 miles of roads to meet current standards, at a cost of $ 1 8 million; ( ii) the fencing of 53 miles of streambank, and the construction of three cattle bridges and 100 alternative cattle watering sites, at a cost of $ 214,000; and ( iii) the completion of 24 instream restoration projects and 34 barbs protecting 4,200 feet of streambank, at a cost of $ 1.3 million dollars. ( D) The Confederated Tribes of the Grande Ronde Community of Oregon have completed a forest management plan that establishes standards for the protection of aquatic resources that are comparable to those found in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy ' of the Northwest Forest Plan. . % ( E) A combination of funding from the Oregon Wildlife Heritage Foundation and the National Fish and Wildlife Heritage Foundation ( private, non- profit organizations) is provi, ding support for seven biologists to design restoration projects. These projects are prioritized based on stream surveys, and are carried out with the voluntary participation and support of landowners. A ten- year monitoring plan has been funded- and implemented to determine project effectiveness: ( F) The Oregon Cattlemen's Association has implemented its WESt Program that is designed to help landowners better understand their watersheds and stream functions through assessments and monitoring. h he WESt Program brings landowners together along stream reaches, and offers a series of workshops, conducted on a site specific basis, free of charge. The workshops include riparian ecology, setting goals and objectives, Proper Functioning Condition ( PFC), data. collection and monitoring. Over 25 workshops have been held, with attendance ranging from 5 to 30 landowners per workshop. The WESt Program is sponsored by the Oregon Cattlemen's Association, DEQ, Oregon State University, and GWEB. ( G) Within the Tillamook State Forest road network 1,902 culverts have been replaced or added to'improve road drainage and to disconnect storm water runoff from roads reducing stream sediment impacts. Additionally, some of these culverts also improved fish passage at stream crossings. In this process, ODF has also replaced six culverts with bridges improving fish passage to approximately four miles of stream. The Tillamook State Foresl in conjunction with many partners, such F-as the Association of Northwest Steelheaders, G W EB, Simpson Timber Company, Tillamook County, the FishAmerica Foundation, Hardrock Construction Company, the Oregon Wildlife Heritage Foundation, the F& WS, the Oregon Youth Conservation Corps, Columbia Helicopters and Terra Helicopters, has also recently completed instream placement of over 400 rootwads, trees and boulders at a cost of $ 300,000 for habitat enhancement. ( 3) Key Agency Efforts. Continuation and completion of the following state agency efforts is critical to the success of the Oregon Plan. State agencies will make continuation or completion ( as appropriate) of the following efforts a high priority. ( a) The State of Oregon and the US. Department of Agriculture have entered into a Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program ( CREP). This cost- share program, one of the first of its kind, . will be used to reduce the impacts of agricultural practices through water quality. add habitat improvement. The objectives of the CREP are to: ( i) provide incentives'for farmers and ranchers to establish riparian buffers; ( ii) protect - . and restore at least 4,000 miles of stream habitat by providing up to 95,000 acres of riparian buffeis; ( i4) restore up to 5,000 acres of wetlands that will benefit salmonids; and ( iv) provide a mechanism for farmers and ranchers to comply with Oregon's ,- Senate Bill 101 0 ( 1 993 Or. Laws, ch. 263). ( b) ODF will work with non- industrial forest landowners to'administer the Stewardship Incentive Program and the Forest Resources Trust programs to protect and restore riparian and wetland areas that benefit salmonids. ( c) The Oregon Board of Forestry will determine, with the assistance of an advisory committee, to what extent changes to forest practices are needed to meet state water quality standards and to protect and restore salmonids. A substantial body of information regarding the effectiveness of current practices is being . developed. This information includes: ( i) the IMST report regarding . the role of forest practices and forest habitat in protecting and restoring salmonids; and ( ii) a series of - monitoring projects that include the Storms of 1996 study, a riparian areas study, a stream temperature study, and a road drainage study. Using this information, as well as other available scientific information including scientific information from NMFS, the advisory committee will make recommendations to the Board at both site and watershed scales on threats to salmonid habitat relating to sediment, water temperature, freshwater habitat needs, roads and fish passage. Based on the advisory committee's recommendations and other scientific information, the Board will make every effort to make its determinations by June 1999. The Board may . . determine that the most effective means of achieving any necessary changes to . - d;.~ .;* i;. z . I:@;.. %- .~ + k forest practices is through regulatory changes, statutory changes or through other programs . including programs to create incentives for forest landowners. In the event that the Board determines that legislative changes. are necessary to carry out its determinations, the Board will transmit any recommendations for such changes to the . Governor and to the Joint Committee at the earliest possible date. ( d) Consistent with administrative rule, and statutory and constitutional mandates for the management of state forests, ODF State Forest management plans will include an aquatic conservation strategy that has a high likelihood of protecting and restoring properly functioning aquatic habitat for salmonids on state forest lands. ( e) ODF will present to NMFS a Habitat Conservation Plan ( HCP) under Section 10 of the federal ESA that includes the Clatsop and Tillamook State Forests. ODF has already completed scierkific review and has public review underway for this draft HCP. The scientific and public review comments will be considered by ODF in . . completing the draft HCP. The draft HCP will be presented to NMFS by June 1999. An HCP for the ~ jliotSt tate Forest was approved by the US. Fish & Wildlife Service in 1995. In October af 1997, ODF and DSL forwarded the Elliott State Forest HCP to NMFS with the request that it be reviewed to determine whether it has a high likelihood of protecting and restoring properly functioning aquatic habitat conditions on state forest lands necessary to protect and restore salmonids. Based on discussions surrounding the NMFS review, ODF and DSL will determine what revisions, if any, are required to the Elliott HCP and/ or Forest Management Plan to ensure a high likelihood of protecting and restoring properly functioning aquatic habitat for salmonids. ( f) Before the OFWC adopts and implements fishery regulations that may result in taking of coho, ODFW will provide NMFS with'all available scientific information and analyses pertinent to the proposed regulation where the harvest measures are not under the jurisdiction of the PFMC, including results of the Oregon Plan monitoring and evaluation program. This information, together with the proposed regulation and supporting analysis, will be provided at least two weeks prior to the OFWC's action, to give NMFS time to review and comment on the proposed regulations. ( g) ODFW will evaluate the effects of predation on salmonids, and . will . work with . affected federal agencies to determine whether changes to programs and law relating to predation are warranted in order to protect and restore salmonids. P ( h) Under Oregon Senate Bill 101 0 ( 1 993 Or. Laws, ch. 2631, ODA will adopt Agricultural Water Qualify Management Area Plans ( AWQMAPs) for Tier I and Tier ll watersheds by the end of 2002. The AWQMAPs will be designed and implemented to meet load allocations for agriculture needed to achieve state water quality . . standards. In addition, ODA will work with ODFW, DEQ, GWEB, SWCDs, federal . agencies and watershed councils to determine to what extent additional measures related to achieving properly functioning riparian and aquatic habitat on agricultural lands are needed to protect and restore salmonids, giving attention first to priority areas identified in. the Oregon Plan. In the event ODA is unable to reach a consensus regarding such measures, ODA will ask the IMST to review areas of substantive ' scientific disagreement and to'make recommendations to ODA regarding how they should be resolved. In the event that legislative changes are needed to implement such measures, ODA will transmit any recommendations for such changes to. the Governor and to the Joint Committee at the earliest possible date. In addition, any measures identified as rieeded by ODA will be implemented at the earliest practicable time. * . ( i) ODFW will expedite its applications for instream water rights and OWRD will process such applications promptly where flow deficits are identified as adversely affecting salmonids, and where such rights. are not already in place. The Oregon - water Resources Department ( OWRD) and the Oregon Water Resources Commission ( OWRC) will- also seek to facilitate flow restoration targeted to streams identified by OWRD and ODFW as posing the most critical low- flow barriers to salmonids. In addition, where necessary, OWRD will continue to work with the Oregon State Police to provide enforcement of water use. Where illegal water uses are identified, OWRD will ensure outcomes consistent with maintenance and restoration of flows. ( j) The Oregon Environmental Quality commission ( EQC). and DEQ will evaluate and will make every effort to utilize their authorities to continue to provide additional protection to . priority areas ( as determined under section 1 ( f) of this Executive Order), including in- stream flow protection under state law, and antidegradation policy under . the federal Clean Water Act ( including Outstanding Resource Waters designations . and high quality waters designations). . ( k) DSL has proposed to adopt changes to its Essential Salmonid Habitat rules that will provide additional protection for spawning and rearing areas of anadromous salmonids. In addition, ODFW and DSL will consult with the OWRC to determine where it is necessary to administratively close priority areas ( including ' work under General Authorizations) to fill and removal activities in order to protect salmonids. . . DSL, ODFW, ODF and ODA also will work together to identify means of regulating the . uy- w :.-:: st. removal of organic material ( such as large woody debris) from streams where such removal would adversely affect salmonids and would not be contrary to other agency mandates. ( I) DSL will seek the advice of the IMST regarding whether gravel removal affects gravel and/ or sediment budgets in a manner that adversely affects salmonids. ( m) The Department of Land Conservation and ~ e v e l o p r n e n t ' ( ~ ~ acn~ d ) th, e Land Conservation- and Development Commission ( LCDC) will evaluate and, to the extent feasible, speed implementation of existing Goal 5 requirements for riparian corridors. ( n) DLCD, DEQ, ODF, ODA, ODFW, and DSL and their respective boards and commissions will evaluate and implement programs to protect and restore riparian vegetation for the purposes of achieving statewide water quality standards and . . protecting and restoring a aquatic habitat for salmonids. ' ( 0) DLCD, with, the assistance of DSL and ODFW, and in consultation with coastal cities and counties, shall review the requirements of Statewide Planning Goal i 6 as they pertain to estuarine resources important to the restoration of salmonids, and shall, report its findings to LCDC for its consideration. ( p) The Oregon State Police will work to facilitate the existing cooperative relationship with the NMFS Office of ~ a Ewnfo rcement, as well as tomaintain cooperation with other enforcement entities, in order to enhance law enforcement, public awareness and voluntary compliance related to harvest, habitat and other issues addressed in the Oregon Plan. ( q) The Oregon Parks and Recreation Department will continue to work to p. rovide information and education to the public on salmon and steelhead needs through park programs and interpretive aids. ( r) The Oregon Marine Board will work to ensure fish friendly boating and to develop boating facilities that protect salmonids. ( s) State natural resource agencies will continue, to the extent feasible, to support watershed councils by providing technical assistance to develop watershed assessments, restoration plans and to develop watershed priorities to benefit 7- salmonids. In addition, state natural resource agencies will work'on a larger . .:.... watershed scale to develop basin- wide restoration priorities. ( 4) Future Modifications; Public Involvement for the Oregon Plan Generally. The GNRO will solicit public co'mments and input from participants in the Oregon Plan regarding whether there are refinements or changes to the Plan and/ or the organizational framework for implementing the Plan that are necessary or desirable based on the experience gained over the past three years, or resulting from the widespread listings and proposed listings of salmon and trout under the federal ESA. Based on this public involvement, the GNRO will provide a report and recommendations to the Governor and the Joint Committee regarding whether modifications are necessary to the Oregon Plan in order to protect and restore coho and other salmonids. ( 5) Definitions. For purioses'of this Executive Order: . . ( aj The " Oregon Plan" means the Oregon Coastal Salmon Recovery lnitiative, dated March 1991, and the Steelhead. Supplement, dated January 1998. " Oregon Plan," as used in this Order, is intended to be consistent with the definition of the' Oregon Coastal Salmon Recovery lnitiative in Oregon Senate Bill 924 ( 1997 Or. Laws, .- cti. 7), and to include the Healthy Streams Partnership ( 1 993 Or. Laws, ch. 263). -. - ( b) " Protect" has the meaning given in section ( l)( d) of this Executive Order. ( c) " Restore" has the meaning'given in section ( l)( e) of this Executive Order. Restore necessarily includes actions to manage salmonids to provide for adequate escapement levels, and actions to increase the quantity and improve the quality of properly functioning habitat upon which salmonids depend. ( d) " Coho" means native wild coho salmon found in rivers and lakes along the Oregon Coast. ( el " Salmonids" means native wild salmon, char and trout in the State of Oregon. ( 6) Effective Date; Relation to Federal ESA. This Executive Order will take effect on the date that it is filed with the Secretary of State. The State of Oregon will continue to work with NMFS to determine the appropriate relationship between the Oregon Plan and NMFS's efforts under the federal ESA. Done at Salem, Oregon, this $ day of & ~ 4 y , 1999. ha26 . ~ it& er, M. D. Suz adnd .~. ow& end DEPUTY SECR~ ARYOF - STATE Title: The Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds Author: Oregon. Office of the Governor Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 KCAMATH FALLS. QREEON THE OREGON PLAN FOR SALMON AND WATERSHEDS The purpose of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds ( the " Oregon Plan") as stated in the Plan and reaffirmed in this Executive Order is to restore Oregon's wild salmon and trout populations and fisheries to sustainable and productive levels that will provide substantial environmental, cultural, and economic benefits and to improve water quality. The Oregon Plan is a long- term, ongoing effort that began as a focused set of actions by state, local, tribal and private organizations and individuals in October of 1995. The Oregon Plan first addressed coho salmon on the Oregon Coast, was then broadened to include steelhead trout on the coast and in the Lower Columbia River, and is now expanding to all at- risk wild salmonids throughout the state. The Oregon Plan addresses all factors for decline of these species, including watershed conditions arid fisheries, to the extent those factors can be affected by the state. The Oregon Plan was endorsed and funded by the Oregon Legislature in 1997 through Oregon Senate Bill 924 ( 1 997 Or. Laws, ch. 7) and House Bill 3700 ( 1 997 Or. Laws, ch.' 8). The Oregon Plan is described in two principal documents: " The Oregon Plan," dated March 1997, and " The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds, Supplement I - steelhbad," dated January 1998. As used in this Executive Order, + the Oregon Plan also incorporates the Healthy Streams Partnership ( Oregon Senate Bill 101 0, 1 993- Or. Laws, ch. 263). The Oregon Plan is a cooperative effort of state, local, federal, tribal and private organizations and individuals. Although the Oregon Plan contains a strong foundation of protective regulations -- continuing existing regulatory programs and speeding the implementation of others - an essential principle of the Plan is the need to move beyond prohibitions and to encourage efforts to improve conditions for salmon through non- regulatory means. Many of the most significant contributions to the Oregon Plan are private and quasi- governmental efforts to protect and . restore salmon on working landscapes, including efforts by watershed councils. Salmon and trout restoration requires action and sacrifice across the entire economic and geographic spectrum of Oregon. The commercial and sport fishing industries in Oregon have been heavily affected by complete or partial closures of fisheries. The forest industry operates under the Oregon Forest Practices Act, and has contributed substantially to salmon recovery through habitat restoration projects on private lands and by funding a large pan of the state recovery efforts. The agriculture and mining industries are also taking actions that will protect and restore salmon and trout habitat and improve water quality ( including financial support of restoration efforts by the mining industry). Urban areas are developing water conservation programs, spending funds for wastewater treatment improvements to reduce point source pollution, reducing non- point source pollution and reducing activities that degrade riparian areas. All citizens of Oregon share responsibility for declining populations of wild salmon and trout, and it is important that there be both a broad commitment to reversing these historic trends and a sense that the burdens of restoration are being shared by all of society. It is also important that there be independent scientific oversight of the Oregon Plan. This oversight is being provided by the Independent Mutidisciplinary Science Team ( IMST), established under Oregon Senate Bill 924 ( 1 997 Or. Laws, ch. 7). ~ d'ditional legislative oversight for the Oregon Plan is being provided by the Joint Legislative Committee on . Salmon and Stream Enhancement ( the " Joint Committee!'). Under the federal Endangered Species Act ( ESA) the U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service . . ( F& WS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS) are responsible for identifying species that are threatened or endangered, and for developing programs to conserve and recover lhose species. F& WS and NMFS have now listed salmonids under the ESA on the entire Oregon Coast, the lower Columbia River ( including most of the Portland metropolitan area). the la math River basin, and in the upper Columbia and Snake River basins. More listings are expected within the next year. To date, the F& WS and NMFS generally have not had the resources to develop and implement effective recovery plans for fisheries. In addition, in many areas a large proportion of the habitat that list'ed'salmonids depend on is located on private lands, where the regulatory tools under the ESA are relatively ' ill- defined and indirect. Finally, federal agencies alone, even if they take an active regulatory approach. to recovery, will not restore listed salmonids. The federal ESA may work to prohibit certain actions, but there is simply too much habitat on private lands for restoration to succeed without pro- active involvement and incentives for individuals, groups, and local governments to take affirmative actions to restore habitat on working landscapes. In April, 1997 the State of Oregon and NMFS entered into a Memorandum of Agreement ( MOA) under which the State agreed to continue existing measures under the March 1997 Oregon Plan and to take certain additional actions to protect and restbre coho salmon on the Oregon Coast. On May 6, 1997, NMFS determined that the Oregon Coast Evolutionarily Significant Unit ( ESU) of coho salmon did not warrant listing as a threatened or endangered species under the ESA. On June 2, 1998, the US. District Court for Oregon ordered NMFS to reconsider its decision without taking into account any parts of the Oregon Plan or MOA that are not " current enforceable measures." The U. S. District Court for Oregon also held that the MOA was speculative, due to the fact that it provided for termination by either party on thirty days notice, and that therefore the MOA could not be considered by NMFS ' in its listing decision. Under court order, NMFS reconsidered its decision without taking into account the application in the future of the harvest and hatchery measures contained in the Oregon Plan, or the habitat improvement programs being undertaken under the Oregon Plan, or the commitments made by the State of Oregon in the MOA for improvement of applicable habitat measures. Accordingly, NMFS listed Oregon Coast .. . coho as threatened undefthe ESA on or about October 2, 1998. - The MOA provided for the State of Oregon to take actions necessary to ensfie that - Oregon Coast coho did not warrant listing as a threatened or endangered species under the federal ESA. Now that Oregon Coast coho are listed as a threatened species as a- result of the U. S. District Court's order, the central purpose of the MOA has been eliminated. Due to the uncertainties created by the District Court's decision and the increasing extent of salmonids listed or proposed for listing under the federal ESA, it is important that the status of the State of Oregon's substantive commitments under the MOA and the purpose of the Oregon Plan be clarified. Through this Executive Order, the State of Oregon reaffirms its intent to play the leading role in protecting and restoring Oregon Coast coho and other salmonids. through the implementation of the Oregon Plan. This Executive Order provides the framework and direction for state agencies to implement ( to the extent of their authorities) the Oregon Plan in a timely and effective manner. This Executive Order also provides a framework for extending the state's efforts beyond a focus on Oregon Coast coho, to watersheds and fisheries statewide. Consistent with the principle of adaptive management, this Order applies the experience gained to date in implementing the Oregon Plan to provide additional detailed direction to state agencies. Finally, this Executive Order establishes a public involvement process to prioritize continuing efforts under the Oregon Plan. NOW THEREFORE, IT IS HEREBY ORDERED AND DIRECTED: ( 1) Overall Direction ( a) Agencies of the State of Oregon will, consistent with their authorities, fully implement the state agency efforts described in the Oregon Plan and in this Executive Order. ( b) The overall objective for state agencies under the Oregon Plan and this Executive Order is to protect and restore salmonids and to improve water quality. ( c) The Governor will, in cooperation with the Joint Committee, IMST, affected state agencies, watershed councils, and other affected local entities and persons develop and implement, a process to set biological and habitat goals and objectives to protect and restore salmonids on a basin or regional basis as soon as practicable. Once these goals and objectives are established, they will be used by state agencies . . . to evaluate their regulatory and non- regulatory programs and measures relating to the protection and re'storation of salmonids. Through this on- going evaluation, state agencies will determine any changes to their programs or measures that may be necessary to meet the biological and habitat goals and objectives. In the interim, the following objectives in subsections ( d) and ( e) shall apply to agencies' implem'entation of the OregGn Plan and this Executive Order. . . ( d) Actions that state agencies take, fund and/ or authorize that are primarily for a purpose other than restoration of salmonids or the habitat they depend upon will, considering the anticipated duration and geographic scope of the actions: ( A) to the maximum extent practicable minimize and mitigate adverse effects of the actions on salmoni. ds or the habitat they depend on; and ( 8) not appreciably reduce the likelihood of the survival and recovery of salmonids in the wild. ( e) State agencies will take, fund and/ or authorize actions that are primarily for the purpose of restoring salmonids or the habitat they depend upon, including actions implementing the Oregon Plan, with the goal of producing a conservation benefit that ( if taken together with comparable and related actions by all persons and entities within the range of the species) is likely to result in sustainable population levels of salmonids in the foreseeable future, and in population levels of salmonids that provide substantial environmental, cultural and economic benefits to Oregonians in the long term. ( f) With the broadening of the Oregon Plan,' prioritizing all agency actions according to coho core areas is no longer appropriate. Each state agency participating in the Oregon Plan, in consultation with ODFW and other partners involved in the implementation of the Plan and through a public involvement process, will modify their existing work programs in the Oregon Plan to prioritize agency measures to protect and restore salmonids in a timely and effective manner. The work programs will continue to identify key specific outcomes, refine and improve designations of priority areas, and establish completion dates. These modifications will be submitted to the , Governor, the Joint Committee, and to the appropriate boards and commissions as soon as possible, but in no event later than June 1, 1999. Progress reports on action plans will be submitted to the Governor, the Joint Committee, and to the appropriate boards and commissions on an annual basis. In prioritizing their efforts,' state agencies shall consider how to maximize conservation -, benefits for salmonids and the habitat they depend on within limited resources and - . whether their- actions are likely to increase populations of salmonids in the foreseeable future. I p ( g) State agencies will work cooperatively with landowners, local entities and other persons taking actions to protect or restore salmonids. ( h) As the Oregon Plan grows in geographic scope and . in intensity of activity,' there is a growing need to streamline and prioritize state agency activity at the . regional level. One proposal has been to organize state natural resource agency field operations along hydrologic units. Therefore, state agencies will consider this proposal and, through the collective efforts of state agency directors, develop an organization plan that focuses state agency field effort on the activities and areas of highest priority under the Oregon Plan. ( i) State. agencies will continue to encourage and work with agencies of the U. S. government to implement the federal measures described in the Oregon Plan.. In addition, the state agencies will work with the federal government to develop additional means of protecting and restoring salmonids. Where appropriate, state agencies will request that federal agencies obtain incidental take permits under Section 7 of the federal ESA for state actions that ace funded or authorized by a , federal agency. ( j) State agencies will help support efforts to evaluate watershed conditions, and to develop'specific strategic plans to provide for flood management, water quality improvement, and salmonid restoration in basins around the state, including the Willamette basin through the Willamette Restoration Initiative. ( k) The IMST will continue to provide oversight to ensure the use of the best scientific information available as the basis for implementation of and for adaptive changes to the Oregon Plan. State agencies will ensure that the IMST receives data and other information reasonably required for its functions in a timely manner. The Governor's Natural Resources Office ( GNRO) has requested that the IMST's initial priority be review of the freshwater habitat needs of coho and the relationship between population levels, escapement levels, and habitat characteristics. The GNRO also will continue to request that the IMST annually review monitoring results and identify where the Oregon Plan warrants change for scientific or technical reasons and make recommend& ions to the appropriate agency on those adjustments that appear necessary. Agencies will report their responses to any recommendations by . . the IMST to the Governor and to the Joint Committee. Any other changes identified by the IMST as necessary to achieve properly functioning riparian and aquatic habitat conditions required to, protect and restore salmonids will be forwarded to the appropriate governmental entity for its consideration of the adoption of new, changed, or supplemental measures as rapidly as possible while providing for public involvement: Each state agency, by June 1, 1999, will ratify a monitoring team charter through an interagency memorandum. A draft of the charter is contained in the 1998 Oregon Plan Annual Report. ( I) Monitoring is a key element of the Oregon Plan. Each state agency will actively support the monitoring strategy described in the Oregon Plan. Each affected agency will participate on the monitoring team to coordinate activities and integrate analyses. Each agency will implement . an appropriate monitoring program to assess the effectiveness of their programs and measures in meeting the objectives set forth in the Oregon Planon an annual basis. In addition, agencies with regulatory programs that are included in the Oregon Plan will determine levels of compliance with regulatory standards and identify and act on opportunities to improve compliance levels: ( m) If information gathered regarding the effectiveness of measures in the Oregon Plan shows that existing strategies within state control are not achie, ving expected improvements and objectives, the agency( ies1 responsible for those measures will seek appropriate changes in their regulations, policies, programs, r-measures and other areas of the Oregon Plan, as required to protect and restore coho and other sal'monids. Such modification or supplementation will be done as rapidly as possible, consistent with public involvement. ( n) Agencies are using geographically- referenced data in their efforts under the Oregon Plan, and will be using Geographic Information Systems ( GIs) in the analysis of these , data. In doing so, the State GIs Plan, developed by the Oregon Geographic lnformation Council ( OGIC) ( see Executive Order 96- 40) will be followed, with specific adherence to the Plan guidance on data documentation, coordination and data sharing. The agency with primary responsibility for gathering and updating the specific data will be responsible for meeting the requirements of the Plan, and to ensure coordination- with OGIC, the State Service Center for GIs and other' cooperating agencies. In addition, state agencies will cooperate with the Governor's Watershed Enhancement Board ( GWEB), Soil and. Water Conservation Districts ( SWCDs), local waters$ ed councils, landowners and others in making these essential data available. ( 0) Geographically- based strategies to assess and achieve habitat needs and adequate escapement levels will be used, and the state agencies will continue with the development of standardized watershed assessment protocols, including a -- cumulative effects assessment. State agencies will also continue with the development of habitat restoration guides to evaluate and direct habitat restoration efforts. ( 2) Continuation and Expansion of Existing Efforts. Without limiting the generality of section ( l)( a) of this Executive Order, the following subsections of this Executive Order describe some of the many efforts in the Oregon Plan where the initial phase of work has been completed, and where efforts will be continued. ( a) The Oregon Fish & Wildlife Commission ( OFWC), the Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife ( ODFW), and the Pacific Fishery Management Council ( PFMC) are managing ocean and terminal fisheries according to the measures set forth in the Oregon Plan ( ODFW I- A. l and Ill- A. l). These measures set a maximum mortality rate ( resulting from other fisheries) for any of four disaggregated stocks of coho of fifteen percent ( 1 5%) under poor ocean conditions. In 1997, the mortality rate. from harvest is estimated to have been between nine and eleven percent ( 9- 1 1 %). ODFW and OFWC will continue these measures in state waters, and will actively support continued implementation of the ocean harvest measures by the PFMC ( Amendment 13 to the Council's salmon management plan) until and unless a different management regime agreeable to NMFS is adopted. ( b) The OFWC and ODFW will ensure that the fish hatchery measures set forth in the Oregon Plan are continued by the OFWC and ODFW. ODFW is marking all hatchery coho on the Oregon Coast. This marking will allow increased certainty in estimating hatchery stray rates beginning in 1999. Available data on hatchery stray rates for coho and steelhead are being provided to NMFS on an annual basis. The number of hatchery coho released is estimated to have been 1.7 million in 1998 - substantially below the level called for in the Oregon Plan. This number will be reduced to 1.2 million in 1999. In addition, ODFW has, and will continue to provide. annual reports regarding: ( i) the number of juvenile hatchery coho that are released by brood year, locations and dates of release, life stage, and broodstock origin; ( ii) the number of adult coho taken for broodstock for each hatchery, the location and date of collection, and the origin ( hatchery or natural); ( iii) the number of hatchery coho . . estimated to have spawned in natural habitat by basin; ( iv) the estimated percentage of hatchery coho% the total natural spawning population; and ( v) the mortality of naturally- spawning coho resulting from each fishery. NMFS may provide comments about hatchery prograk affecting coho to ODFW, with any concerns to be resolved between NMFS and ODFW. - - ( c) ln addition to recent modifications to hatchery practices and programs, a new vision is needed for how Oregon will utilize hatcheries in the best and most effective manner. Therefore, the ODFW and the OFWC shall engage in a process to create a strategic plan for fish hatcheries in Oregon over the next decade ( including state and federally- funded hatcheries, private hatcheries, and the STEP program). The essential elements of this process are as follows: ( i) Impartial analysis - conduct an impartial analysis of the scientific bases, and the social and economic effects of Oregon hatchery programs utilizing existing analyses and review where feasible, but conducting new analyses if necessary; ( ii) Review the Wild Fish Management Policy ( WFMP) - because the future plan for hatcheries in Oregon is dependent on implementation of the WFMP, ODFW shall conduct a science and stakeholder review to determine if this significant policy should be revised and shall make any revision by July 2000; ( iii) Frame alternative strategies -- convene a group of stockholders to . frame alternative strategies, including outcomes and descriptions, of how hatcheries will be used in Oregon over the next decade ( these strategies will address the use of hatcheries for wild fish population recovery including supplementation, research and monitoring, public education, and sport and commercial fishing opportunities); ( iv) Public review and selection of a strategy -- the OFWC shall, after public review and ' ;-'-!&%; f$'. i comment, adopt a strategic plan to guide development of future hatchery programs, incorporating the strategy developed and adopted in accordance with subpart ( iii) of this paragraph. ( d) Criteria and guidelines directing the design of projects that may affect fish passage have been established in a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU) between the Oregon Department of Transportation ( ODOT), ODFW, the Oregon Department of Forestry ( ODF), the Oregon Department of Agriculture ( ODA), the Division of State Lands ( DSL) and the Federal Highway Administration. These guidelines apply to the design, construction and consultations of projects affecting fish passage. Under the MOU, projects requiring regulatory approvals that follow these criteria and guidelines are expedited. Oregon agencies will continue to provide technical assistance to ensure that the criteria and guidelines are applied appropriately in restoration projects, as well as any other projects that may affect fish passage through road crossings and similar structures. ODFW will work with state agencies, local governments, and watershed councils to ensure that Oregon's standards for fish passage set forth in Exhibit A to the MOU are understood and are implemented. - ( e) Fish presence, stream habitat, road and culvert surveys have been conducted for roads within ODOT jurisdiction and county roads in coastal basins, the Lower Columbia basin, the Willamette basin, and the Grande Ronbe/ lmnaha basins. Among the results of these surveys is the finding that culvert barriers to fish passage affect a substantial quantity of salmonid habitat. For example, surveys of county and state highways in western Oregon found over 1,200 culverts that are barriers to passage. As a result, ODOT is placing additional priority on restoring fish access. For 1998, ODOT repaired or replaced 35 culverts restoring access to 101 miles of salmonid habitat. For 1999, the Oregon Transportation Commission will be asked to fund approximately $ 4.0 million for culvert modification. ODOT and the Commission will continue to examine means to speed restoration of fish passage and to coordinate priorities with ODFW. ( f) Draft watershed assessment protocols have been developed and are being field tested. Beginning in 1999, SWCDs, watershed councils and others will be able to use the protocols as the basis for action plans to identify and prioritize opportunities to protect and restore salmonids. Watershed action plans have already been completed in a number of basins including the Rogue, Coos, Coquille and Grande Ronde. State agencies will work to support these watershed assessments and plans to the maximum extent practicable. Where watershed action plans have been developed under the protocols, GWEB will ensure that projects funded through the Watershed Improvement Grant Fund are consistent with watershed action plans, and other state agencies will work with SWCDs and watershed councils to ensure that activities they authorize, fund or undertake are consistent with watershed action plans to the maximum extent practicable. ( g) The State of Oregon has developed interim aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guidelines for 1998. State agencies involved with restoration activities ( ODFW, ODF, DSL, ODA, DEQ, and GWEB) will continue to develop and refine the interim guidelines for final publication in April 1999. The guidelines will be applied in restoration activities funded or authorized by state agencies. The purpose of ' the guidelines will be to define aquatic restoration and to identify and encourage aquatic habitat restoration techniques to restore salmonids. . . ( h) ODA and O ~ hFave each entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with the Oregon Department'of Environmental Quality relating to the development of . Total Maximum Daily Loads ( TMDLs) and Water Quality Management Area Plans ( WQMAPs). O Dw~ ill adopt. a nd implement WQMAPs ( through the Healthy Streams Partnership) and ODF , will review the adequacy of forest practices rules to meet water quality standards. ODF and ODA will evaluate the effectiveness of these measures in achieving water quality standards on a regular basis and implement any changes required to meet the standards. ( i) Agencies are implementing a coordinated monitoring program, as described in the Oregon Plan. This program includes technical support and standardized protocols for watershed councils, stream habitat surveys, forest practice effectiveness monitoring, water withdrawal monitoring, ambient water quality monitoring, and biotic index studies, as well as fish presence surveys and salmonid abundance and survival monitoring in selected subbasins. State agencies are also' working to coordinate monitoring efforts by state, federal, and local entities, including watershed councils. State agencies will work actively to ensure that the monitoring measures' in the Oregon Plan are continued. - .. ( j) GWEB has put into place new processes for identifying and coordinating the delivery of financial and technical assistance to individuals, agencies, watershed councils and soil and water conservation districts as they implement watershed ' restoration projects to improve water quality and restore aquatic resources. Over $ 25 ' million has been distributed for watershed restoration projects in the last ten years. During the present ( 1 997- 99 biennium) GWEB has awarded over $ 1 2 million dollars in f- state and federal funds for technical'assistance and watershed restoration activities to implement the Oregon Plan. GWEB and state agencies will continue to seek financial resources to be allocated by GWEB for watershed restoration activities at the local and. statewide levels. ( k) State agencies will continue to encourage, support and work to provide incentives for local, tribal, and private . efforts to implement the Oregon Plan. In addition, state agencies will continue to provide financial assistance to local entities for projects to protect and restore salmonids to the extent consistent with their budgetary and legal authorities, and consistent with their work programs in the Oregon Plan. To the. maximum extent practicable, state agencies will also provide technical assistance and planning tools to provide local conservation groups to assist in and target watershed restoration efforts. These efforts ( during 1996 and 1997) are reported in " The Oregon. Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: Watershed Restoration Inventory, 1998." ~ u s c afe w of the important efforts that have been completed include: ( A) Eighty- two watershed councils have joined with forty- five Soil and Water Conservation Districts as well as private and public landowners to implement on- the- ground projects' to protect and restore salmonids. During 1996 and 1997, a reported $ 27.4 million was spent on 1,234 watershed restoration projects on non-federal lands. Both the amount spent and the number of projects represent significant increases ( of over 300 percent) over prior years. In 1996- 97, watershed councils, SWCDs and other organizations and individuals completed: ( i) 138 stream fencing projects, involving at least 301 miles of streambank; ( ii) 196 riparian area planting projects, involving at least 11 1 miles of streams; and ( iii) 458 instream habitat improvement projects. . . . ( B) Private and state forest landowners are implementing key efforts under the Oregon Plan, including the road risk and remediation program ( ODF- 1 and 2). Under this effort in 1996 and 1997, close to 4,000 miles of roads'have been surveyed to identify risks that the roads may pose to salmonid habitat. As the risks are identified, they are then prioritized for remediation following an established. protocol. Already, 52 miles of forest roads have been closed, 843 miles of road repair and reconstruction projects to - protect salmonid habitat have been completed, and an additional 14 miles of roads have been decommissioned or relocated.. In addition, 530 culverts have been replaced, upgraded or installed for fish passage purposes, improving access to a reported 146 stream miles. ( C) Organizations working in Tillamook County have developed the I ." J aw#~ t Tillamook County Performance Partnership. The Partnership is implementing the \*. Tillamook Bay National Estuary Program by addressing water quality, fisheries, floodplain management and economic development in the county. Among the actions that the Partnership has already accomplished are: ( i) the closure of seven miles of degraded forest roads and the rehabilitation of 469 miles of roads to meet current standards, at a cost of $ 1 8 million; ( ii) the fencing of 53 miles of streambank, and the construction of three cattle bridges and 100 alternative cattle watering sites, at a cost of $ 214,000; and ( iii) the completion of 24 instream restoration projects and 34 barbs protecting 4,200 feet of streambank, at a cost of $ 1.3 million dollars. ( D) The Confederated Tribes of the Grande Ronde Community of Oregon have completed a forest management plan that establishes standards for the protection of aquatic resources that are comparable to those found in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy ' of the Northwest Forest Plan. . % ( E) A combination of funding from the Oregon Wildlife Heritage Foundation and the National Fish and Wildlife Heritage Foundation ( private, non- profit organizations) is provi, ding support for seven biologists to design restoration projects. These projects are prioritized based on stream surveys, and are carried out with the voluntary participation and support of landowners. A ten- year monitoring plan has been funded- and implemented to determine project effectiveness: ( F) The Oregon Cattlemen's Association has implemented its WESt Program that is designed to help landowners better understand their watersheds and stream functions through assessments and monitoring. h he WESt Program brings landowners together along stream reaches, and offers a series of workshops, conducted on a site specific basis, free of charge. The workshops include riparian ecology, setting goals and objectives, Proper Functioning Condition ( PFC), data. collection and monitoring. Over 25 workshops have been held, with attendance ranging from 5 to 30 landowners per workshop. The WESt Program is sponsored by the Oregon Cattlemen's Association, DEQ, Oregon State University, and GWEB. ( G) Within the Tillamook State Forest road network 1,902 culverts have been replaced or added to'improve road drainage and to disconnect storm water runoff from roads reducing stream sediment impacts. Additionally, some of these culverts also improved fish passage at stream crossings. In this process, ODF has also replaced six culverts with bridges improving fish passage to approximately four miles of stream. The Tillamook State Foresl in conjunction with many partners, such F-as the Association of Northwest Steelheaders, G W EB, Simpson Timber Company, Tillamook County, the FishAmerica Foundation, Hardrock Construction Company, the Oregon Wildlife Heritage Foundation, the F& WS, the Oregon Youth Conservation Corps, Columbia Helicopters and Terra Helicopters, has also recently completed instream placement of over 400 rootwads, trees and boulders at a cost of $ 300,000 for habitat enhancement. ( 3) Key Agency Efforts. Continuation and completion of the following state agency efforts is critical to the success of the Oregon Plan. State agencies will make continuation or completion ( as appropriate) of the following efforts a high priority. ( a) The State of Oregon and the US. Department of Agriculture have entered into a Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program ( CREP). This cost- share program, one of the first of its kind, . will be used to reduce the impacts of agricultural practices through water quality. add habitat improvement. The objectives of the CREP are to: ( i) provide incentives'for farmers and ranchers to establish riparian buffers; ( ii) protect - . and restore at least 4,000 miles of stream habitat by providing up to 95,000 acres of riparian buffeis; ( i4) restore up to 5,000 acres of wetlands that will benefit salmonids; and ( iv) provide a mechanism for farmers and ranchers to comply with Oregon's ,- Senate Bill 101 0 ( 1 993 Or. Laws, ch. 263). ( b) ODF will work with non- industrial forest landowners to'administer the Stewardship Incentive Program and the Forest Resources Trust programs to protect and restore riparian and wetland areas that benefit salmonids. ( c) The Oregon Board of Forestry will determine, with the assistance of an advisory committee, to what extent changes to forest practices are needed to meet state water quality standards and to protect and restore salmonids. A substantial body of information regarding the effectiveness of current practices is being . developed. This information includes: ( i) the IMST report regarding . the role of forest practices and forest habitat in protecting and restoring salmonids; and ( ii) a series of - monitoring projects that include the Storms of 1996 study, a riparian areas study, a stream temperature study, and a road drainage study. Using this information, as well as other available scientific information including scientific information from NMFS, the advisory committee will make recommendations to the Board at both site and watershed scales on threats to salmonid habitat relating to sediment, water temperature, freshwater habitat needs, roads and fish passage. Based on the advisory committee's recommendations and other scientific information, the Board will make every effort to make its determinations by June 1999. The Board may . . determine that the most effective means of achieving any necessary changes to . - d;.~ .;* i;. z . I:@;.. %- .~ + k forest practices is through regulatory changes, statutory changes or through other programs . including programs to create incentives for forest landowners. In the event that the Board determines that legislative changes. are necessary to carry out its determinations, the Board will transmit any recommendations for such changes to the . Governor and to the Joint Committee at the earliest possible date. ( d) Consistent with administrative rule, and statutory and constitutional mandates for the management of state forests, ODF State Forest management plans will include an aquatic conservation strategy that has a high likelihood of protecting and restoring properly functioning aquatic habitat for salmonids on state forest lands. ( e) ODF will present to NMFS a Habitat Conservation Plan ( HCP) under Section 10 of the federal ESA that includes the Clatsop and Tillamook State Forests. ODF has already completed scierkific review and has public review underway for this draft HCP. The scientific and public review comments will be considered by ODF in . . completing the draft HCP. The draft HCP will be presented to NMFS by June 1999. An HCP for the ~ jliotSt tate Forest was approved by the US. Fish & Wildlife Service in 1995. In October af 1997, ODF and DSL forwarded the Elliott State Forest HCP to NMFS with the request that it be reviewed to determine whether it has a high likelihood of protecting and restoring properly functioning aquatic habitat conditions on state forest lands necessary to protect and restore salmonids. Based on discussions surrounding the NMFS review, ODF and DSL will determine what revisions, if any, are required to the Elliott HCP and/ or Forest Management Plan to ensure a high likelihood of protecting and restoring properly functioning aquatic habitat for salmonids. ( f) Before the OFWC adopts and implements fishery regulations that may result in taking of coho, ODFW will provide NMFS with'all available scientific information and analyses pertinent to the proposed regulation where the harvest measures are not under the jurisdiction of the PFMC, including results of the Oregon Plan monitoring and evaluation program. This information, together with the proposed regulation and supporting analysis, will be provided at least two weeks prior to the OFWC's action, to give NMFS time to review and comment on the proposed regulations. ( g) ODFW will evaluate the effects of predation on salmonids, and . will . work with . affected federal agencies to determine whether changes to programs and law relating to predation are warranted in order to protect and restore salmonids. P ( h) Under Oregon Senate Bill 101 0 ( 1 993 Or. Laws, ch. 2631, ODA will adopt Agricultural Water Qualify Management Area Plans ( AWQMAPs) for Tier I and Tier ll watersheds by the end of 2002. The AWQMAPs will be designed and implemented to meet load allocations for agriculture needed to achieve state water quality . . standards. In addition, ODA will work with ODFW, DEQ, GWEB, SWCDs, federal . agencies and watershed councils to determine to what extent additional measures related to achieving properly functioning riparian and aquatic habitat on agricultural lands are needed to protect and restore salmonids, giving attention first to priority areas identified in. the Oregon Plan. In the event ODA is unable to reach a consensus regarding such measures, ODA will ask the IMST to review areas of substantive ' scientific disagreement and to'make recommendations to ODA regarding how they should be resolved. In the event that legislative changes are needed to implement such measures, ODA will transmit any recommendations for such changes to. the Governor and to the Joint Committee at the earliest possible date. In addition, any measures identified as rieeded by ODA will be implemented at the earliest practicable time. * . ( i) ODFW will expedite its applications for instream water rights and OWRD will process such applications promptly where flow deficits are identified as adversely affecting salmonids, and where such rights. are not already in place. The Oregon - water Resources Department ( OWRD) and the Oregon Water Resources Commission ( OWRC) will- also seek to facilitate flow restoration targeted to streams identified by OWRD and ODFW as posing the most critical low- flow barriers to salmonids. In addition, where necessary, OWRD will continue to work with the Oregon State Police to provide enforcement of water use. Where illegal water uses are identified, OWRD will ensure outcomes consistent with maintenance and restoration of flows. ( j) The Oregon Environmental Quality commission ( EQC). and DEQ will evaluate and will make every effort to utilize their authorities to continue to provide additional protection to . priority areas ( as determined under section 1 ( f) of this Executive Order), including in- stream flow protection under state law, and antidegradation policy under . the federal Clean Water Act ( including Outstanding Resource Waters designations . and high quality waters designations). . ( k) DSL has proposed to adopt changes to its Essential Salmonid Habitat rules that will provide additional protection for spawning and rearing areas of anadromous salmonids. In addition, ODFW and DSL will consult with the OWRC to determine where it is necessary to administratively close priority areas ( including ' work under General Authorizations) to fill and removal activities in order to protect salmonids. . . DSL, ODFW, ODF and ODA also will work together to identify means of regulating the . uy- w :.-:: st. removal of organic material ( such as large woody debris) from streams where such removal would adversely affect salmonids and would not be contrary to other agency mandates. ( I) DSL will seek the advice of the IMST regarding whether gravel removal affects gravel and/ or sediment budgets in a manner that adversely affects salmonids. ( m) The Department of Land Conservation and ~ e v e l o p r n e n t ' ( ~ ~ acn~ d ) th, e Land Conservation- and Development Commission ( LCDC) will evaluate and, to the extent feasible, speed implementation of existing Goal 5 requirements for riparian corridors. ( n) DLCD, DEQ, ODF, ODA, ODFW, and DSL and their respective boards and commissions will evaluate and implement programs to protect and restore riparian vegetation for the purposes of achieving statewide water quality standards and . . protecting and restoring a aquatic habitat for salmonids. ' ( 0) DLCD, with, the assistance of DSL and ODFW, and in consultation with coastal cities and counties, shall review the requirements of Statewide Planning Goal i 6 as they pertain to estuarine resources important to the restoration of salmonids, and shall, report its findings to LCDC for its consideration. ( p) The Oregon State Police will work to facilitate the existing cooperative relationship with the NMFS Office of ~ a Ewnfo rcement, as well as tomaintain cooperation with other enforcement entities, in order to enhance law enforcement, public awareness and voluntary compliance related to harvest, habitat and other issues addressed in the Oregon Plan. ( q) The Oregon Parks and Recreation Department will continue to work to p. rovide information and education to the public on salmon and steelhead needs through park programs and interpretive aids. ( r) The Oregon Marine Board will work to ensure fish friendly boating and to develop boating facilities that protect salmonids. ( s) State natural resource agencies will continue, to the extent feasible, to support watershed councils by providing technical assistance to develop watershed assessments, restoration plans and to develop watershed priorities to benefit 7- salmonids. In addition, state natural resource agencies will work'on a larger . .:.... watershed scale to develop basin- wide restoration priorities. ( 4) Future Modifications; Public Involvement for the Oregon Plan Generally. The GNRO will solicit public co'mments and input from participants in the Oregon Plan regarding whether there are refinements or changes to the Plan and/ or the organizational framework for implementing the Plan that are necessary or desirable based on the experience gained over the past three years, or resulting from the widespread listings and proposed listings of salmon and trout under the federal ESA. Based on this public involvement, the GNRO will provide a report and recommendations to the Governor and the Joint Committee regarding whether modifications are necessary to the Oregon Plan in order to protect and restore coho and other salmonids. ( 5) Definitions. For purioses'of this Executive Order: . . ( aj The " Oregon Plan" means the Oregon Coastal Salmon Recovery lnitiative, dated March 1991, and the Steelhead. Supplement, dated January 1998. " Oregon Plan," as used in this Order, is intended to be consistent with the definition of the' Oregon Coastal Salmon Recovery lnitiative in Oregon Senate Bill 924 ( 1997 Or. Laws, .- cti. 7), and to include the Healthy Streams Partnership ( 1 993 Or. Laws, ch. 263). -. - ( b) " Protect" has the meaning given in section ( l)( d) of this Executive Order. ( c) " Restore" has the meaning'given in section ( l)( e) of this Executive Order. Restore necessarily includes actions to manage salmonids to provide for adequate escapement levels, and actions to increase the quantity and improve the quality of properly functioning habitat upon which salmonids depend. ( d) " Coho" means native wild coho salmon found in rivers and lakes along the Oregon Coast. ( el " Salmonids" means native wild salmon, char and trout in the State of Oregon. ( 6) Effective Date; Relation to Federal ESA. This Executive Order will take effect on the date that it is filed with the Secretary of State. The State of Oregon will continue to work with NMFS to determine the appropriate relationship between the Oregon Plan and NMFS's efforts under the federal ESA. Done at Salem, Oregon, this $ day of & ~ 4 y , 1999. ha26 . ~ it& er, M. D. Suz adnd .~. ow& end DEPUTY SECR~ ARYOF - STATE Close

• 12. [Image] Draft upper Williamson River Watershed assessment

  	"Prepared for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Foundation, and the Upper Williamson River Catchment Group, in cooperation with the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group, and the Klamath Watershed Council."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Draft upper Williamson River Watershed assessment Author: David Evans and Associates, Inc. Year: 2004, 2005 "Prepared for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Foundation, and the Upper Williamson River Catchment Group, in cooperation with the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group, and the Klamath Watershed Council." Title: Draft upper Williamson River Watershed assessment Author: David Evans and Associates, Inc. Year: 2004, 2005 "Prepared for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Foundation, and the Upper Williamson River Catchment Group, in cooperation with the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group, and the Klamath Watershed Council." Close

• 13. [Image] Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004

  	CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Close

• 14. [Image] Weather based technologies for residential irrigation scheduling: technical review report: prepared for Municipal Water District

  	"May 2004"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Weather based technologies for residential irrigation scheduling: technical review report: prepared for Municipal Water District Year: 2004, 2005 "May 2004" Title: Weather based technologies for residential irrigation scheduling: technical review report: prepared for Municipal Water District Year: 2004, 2005 "May 2004" Close

• 15. [Image] The South Portal Project : creating a sense of arrival

  	"Holistic planning for Lake Ewauna & the south entry to the City of Klamath Falls"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The South Portal Project : creating a sense of arrival Author: Carpenter Design, Inc. Year: 2005 "Holistic planning for Lake Ewauna & the south entry to the City of Klamath Falls" Title: The South Portal Project : creating a sense of arrival Author: Carpenter Design, Inc. Year: 2005 "Holistic planning for Lake Ewauna & the south entry to the City of Klamath Falls" Close

• 16. [Image] Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 2

  	Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 2 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005, 2004 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 2 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005, 2004 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Close

• 17. [Image] Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide

  	"May 1999"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide Author: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "May 1999" Title: Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide Author: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "May 1999" Close

• 18. [Image] Recreational use and carrying capacity for the Klamath River

  	ABSTRACT These reports document recreation use and estimate carrying capacities for the Klamath River in northern California. The river section studied runs from Interstate 5 near Yreka to the town of ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recreational use and carrying capacity for the Klamath River Author: Shelby, Bo Year: 1984, 2005 ABSTRACT These reports document recreation use and estimate carrying capacities for the Klamath River in northern California. The river section studied runs from Interstate 5 near Yreka to the town of Orleans, and includes the lower sections of the Scott and Salmon River tributaries. A major highway runs along the river throughout the study area, with numerous; access points. The study covers the summer river running season and the fall salmon/ steel head fishing season. Because of the differences in time periods and activities, the study was done in two separate parts, each with a separate report. This document combines the two. The summer season report is presented first, followed by the fall season report. Each of these is preceeded by its own table of contents, list of tables, and summary of findings, and each is followed by its own appendices. The reports are separated by a colored page for easy reference. Data were collected by sampling, observation, and counting as well as a user questionnaire. Th? study presents a detailed description of river sections and documents recreational use by location and activity type. Carrying capacities are estimated for both river running and fishing activities. Estimates include discussions of ecological, facility, physical, and social carrying capacities, distinguishing descriptive and evaluative components. Limiting factors vary, depending on the activity and location. The more developed setting and the variety of activities and capacities distinguishes this project from earlier river capacity studies. Title: Recreational use and carrying capacity for the Klamath River Author: Shelby, Bo Year: 1984, 2005 ABSTRACT These reports document recreation use and estimate carrying capacities for the Klamath River in northern California. The river section studied runs from Interstate 5 near Yreka to the town of Orleans, and includes the lower sections of the Scott and Salmon River tributaries. A major highway runs along the river throughout the study area, with numerous; access points. The study covers the summer river running season and the fall salmon/ steel head fishing season. Because of the differences in time periods and activities, the study was done in two separate parts, each with a separate report. This document combines the two. The summer season report is presented first, followed by the fall season report. Each of these is preceeded by its own table of contents, list of tables, and summary of findings, and each is followed by its own appendices. The reports are separated by a colored page for easy reference. Data were collected by sampling, observation, and counting as well as a user questionnaire. Th? study presents a detailed description of river sections and documents recreational use by location and activity type. Carrying capacities are estimated for both river running and fishing activities. Estimates include discussions of ecological, facility, physical, and social carrying capacities, distinguishing descriptive and evaluative components. Limiting factors vary, depending on the activity and location. The more developed setting and the variety of activities and capacities distinguishes this project from earlier river capacity studies. Close

• 19. [Image] Klamath Basin GIS directory

  	The Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) - Humboldt State University Geographic Information Systems Work Group (HSU-GIS Group) was established to support ERO's mission to develop an ecosystem ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Basin GIS directory Year: 1995, 2005 The Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) - Humboldt State University Geographic Information Systems Work Group (HSU-GIS Group) was established to support ERO's mission to develop an ecosystem restoration strategy for the Klamath Basin and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services responsibilities to the President's Forest Plan. Priorities for developing GIS seamless layers for the basin are established by ERO in consultation with bioregional cooperators : Fish & Wildlife Service-Klamath/Central Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Forest Service - Regions 5 & 6, Bureau of Land Management- California & Oregon, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Geological Survey, California & Oregon state agencies, tribal governments, and various other publics. Comprehensive seamless co-registered data layers are needed for bioregional research, planning and management. The needed GIS data layers include political & administrative boundaries; lithospheric,hydrographic & atmospheric elements; plant & animal community characteristics; socio-economic components; and descriptive landscape statistics including temporal dimensions. The ERO-HSU GIS Group's primary geographic domain is the 10.5 million acre Klamath Province as described in the President's Forest Plan for northern California & southern Oregon. The Province includes the Klamath -Trinity River hydrobasins as well as the Smith River watershed. While gathering and editing public domain data sets for the Klamath Province, the GIS Group has also compiled data layers for the larger Klamath Economic Zone which extends from the northern crest of the Rogue River watershed in Oregon southward to the southern crest of the Russian River watershed, just north of the San Francisco Bay area. The work of the ERO-HSU GIS Group is threefold: (1) development and dissemination of spatial analysis products with our first efforts directed at compiling existing information; (2) research on ecosystem assessment methodology; and (3) education & training of agency personnel and graduate students. The completed GIS layers and resulting map products are available upon request. By early 1996, an information dissemination mechanism will be in-place using the INTERNET as part of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The data development work is currently established at three scales: 1:100,000, 1:24,000 and 1:12,000. We have assembled small scale data layers (1:100,000) for the Klamath Province & the Klamath Economic Zone. In the near future, we will concentrate solely upon the more detailed GIS data layers at a medium scale (1:24,000), based on USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle maps. Subsequently, we will integrate stream habitat information at large scale Title: Klamath Basin GIS directory Year: 1995, 2005 The Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) - Humboldt State University Geographic Information Systems Work Group (HSU-GIS Group) was established to support ERO's mission to develop an ecosystem restoration strategy for the Klamath Basin and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services responsibilities to the President's Forest Plan. Priorities for developing GIS seamless layers for the basin are established by ERO in consultation with bioregional cooperators : Fish & Wildlife Service-Klamath/Central Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Forest Service - Regions 5 & 6, Bureau of Land Management- California & Oregon, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Geological Survey, California & Oregon state agencies, tribal governments, and various other publics. Comprehensive seamless co-registered data layers are needed for bioregional research, planning and management. The needed GIS data layers include political & administrative boundaries; lithospheric,hydrographic & atmospheric elements; plant & animal community characteristics; socio-economic components; and descriptive landscape statistics including temporal dimensions. The ERO-HSU GIS Group's primary geographic domain is the 10.5 million acre Klamath Province as described in the President's Forest Plan for northern California & southern Oregon. The Province includes the Klamath -Trinity River hydrobasins as well as the Smith River watershed. While gathering and editing public domain data sets for the Klamath Province, the GIS Group has also compiled data layers for the larger Klamath Economic Zone which extends from the northern crest of the Rogue River watershed in Oregon southward to the southern crest of the Russian River watershed, just north of the San Francisco Bay area. The work of the ERO-HSU GIS Group is threefold: (1) development and dissemination of spatial analysis products with our first efforts directed at compiling existing information; (2) research on ecosystem assessment methodology; and (3) education & training of agency personnel and graduate students. The completed GIS layers and resulting map products are available upon request. By early 1996, an information dissemination mechanism will be in-place using the INTERNET as part of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The data development work is currently established at three scales: 1:100,000, 1:24,000 and 1:12,000. We have assembled small scale data layers (1:100,000) for the Klamath Province & the Klamath Economic Zone. In the near future, we will concentrate solely upon the more detailed GIS data layers at a medium scale (1:24,000), based on USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle maps. Subsequently, we will integrate stream habitat information at large scale Close

• 20. [Image] Forestry program for Oregon

  	This document sets forth the Board of Forestry's strategic vision for Oregon's forests for the next eight years
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forestry program for Oregon Author: Oregon State Board of Forestry Year: 2003, 2005 This document sets forth the Board of Forestry's strategic vision for Oregon's forests for the next eight years Title: Forestry program for Oregon Author: Oregon State Board of Forestry Year: 2003, 2005 This document sets forth the Board of Forestry's strategic vision for Oregon's forests for the next eight years Close

• 21. [Image] Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999

  	"December 10, 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Close

• 22. [Image] Recovery of wild salmonids in western Oregon forests : Oregon Forest Practices Act rules and the measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds

  	"September 8, 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recovery of wild salmonids in western Oregon forests : Oregon Forest Practices Act rules and the measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "September 8, 1999." Title: Recovery of wild salmonids in western Oregon forests : Oregon Forest Practices Act rules and the measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "September 8, 1999." Close

• 23. [Image] The scientific basis for artificial propagation in the recovery of wild anadromous salmonids in Oregon

  	"January 11, 2001."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The scientific basis for artificial propagation in the recovery of wild anadromous salmonids in Oregon Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 2001, 2005 "January 11, 2001." Title: The scientific basis for artificial propagation in the recovery of wild anadromous salmonids in Oregon Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 2001, 2005 "January 11, 2001." Close

• 24. [Image] Pinniped and seabird predation : implications for recovery of threatened stocks of salmonids in Oregon under the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds

  	"December 22, 1998."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Pinniped and seabird predation : implications for recovery of threatened stocks of salmonids in Oregon under the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 22, 1998." Title: Pinniped and seabird predation : implications for recovery of threatened stocks of salmonids in Oregon under the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 22, 1998." Close

• 25. [Image] Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon

  	"Serial no. 108-104."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources. Subcommittee on Water and Power Year: 2005 "Serial no. 108-104." Title: Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources. Subcommittee on Water and Power Year: 2005 "Serial no. 108-104." Close

• 26. [Image] Influences of human activity on stream temperatures and existence of cold-water fish in streams with elevated temperature: report of a workshop: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Corvallis, OR, October 5-6, 2000

  	Executive Summary The Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (IMST) convened a panel of experts on stream temperature and fish ecology on October 5-6, 2000 for a scientific workshop on human influences ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Influences of human activity on stream temperatures and existence of cold-water fish in streams with elevated temperature: report of a workshop: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Corvallis, OR, October 5-6, 2000 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (IMST) convened a panel of experts on stream temperature and fish ecology on October 5-6, 2000 for a scientific workshop on human influences on stream temperature and responses by salmonids. The workshop was designed to review and discuss scientifically credible data and publications about 1) factors related to human activity that influence stream temperature and 2) behavioral, physical, and ecological mechanisms of cold water fish species for existing in streams with elevated temperatures. The goal of the workshop was to review empirical evidence and to identify points of agreement, disagreement, and knowledge gaps within the scientific community concerning the factors that influence stream temperature and fish responses to elevated temperatures. This information will assist the IMST in preparing a broader temperature report on Oregon's stream temperature water quality standards and their implementation. This report is prepared by the IMST. It was reviewed by workshop participants and revised by the IMST accordingly. The report includes abstracts of plenary presentations on factors that influence stream temperatures and fish responses, and the results of group discussions. The workshop participants focused on three main questions and were asked to list statements of agreement and disagreement, and to identify gaps in the scientific knowledge related to each question: ? How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? ? Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? ? How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? The workshop participants provided answers to the questions in the form of bullets. The answers below represent the IMST's summation of the workshop findings and were reviewed by the participants. Several gaps in the scientific basis for specific questions or relationships were identified. The participants found no areas of disagreement for which technical information was available. They noted that any disagreements were not related to scientific interpretation, but were based on concerns or opinions about application, regulation, and management. How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? The influence of riparian vegetation on stream temperature is cumulative and complex, varying by site, over time, and across regions. Riparian vegetation can directly affect stream temperature by intercepting solar radiation and reducing stream heating. The influence of riparian shade in controlling temperature declines as streams widen in downstream reaches, but the role of riparian vegetation in providing water quality and fish habitat benefits continues to be important. Besides providing shade, riparian vegetation can also indirectly affect stream temperature by influencing microclimate, affecting channel morphology, affecting stream flow, influencing wind speed, affecting humidity, affecting soil temperature, using water, influencing air temperature, enhancing infiltration, and influencing thermal radiation. It is critical to know the site potential to understand what vegetation a site can support. There is not a good scientific understanding of how much vegetation shading is required to affect stream temperature. 1 This lack of understanding may be due to the spatial and temporal variability in landscape components, and the resulting variability in both the direct and indirect influences of vegetation on stream temperature. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize about the effects of vegetation on stream temperature. Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? The answer to this question is yes, other physical changes in the stream system can modify stream temperatures. Stream temperature is a product of complex interactions between geomorphology, soil, hydrology, vegetation, and climate within a watershed. Changes in these factors will result in changes in stream temperature. Human activities influence stream temperature by affecting one or more of four major components: riparian vegetation, channel morphology, hydrology, and surface/subsurface interactions. Stream systems vary substantially across the landscape, and site-specific information is critical to understanding stream temperature responses to human activities. How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? Workshop participants identified several mechanisms that might explain the ability of fish populations to exist at higher than expected temperatures. The first mechanism was that the fish may have physiological adaptations to survive exposures to high temperatures. A second possibility was that stream habitats may contain cooler microhabitats that fish can occupy as refuge from higher temperatures. A third consideration is that ecological interactions may be different under differing thermal conditions resulting, for example, in changes in disease virulence or cumulative effects of stressors. Finally, since substantial differences exist between laboratory and field studies, it is difficult to apply results of laboratory studies to fish responses in the field. It is important to note that these proposed mechanisms are speculative and, as the list of gaps indicates, substantial experimental work is required to establish their influences on fish in different stream systems. Workshop Summaiy Workshop participants recognized gaps in the available science. Additional knowledge about human influences on stream temperatures and, consequently, influences on cold-water fish populations, will improve our ability to prevent further degradation of stream habitat and will enhance efforts geared towards the recovery of depressed fish populations. Even with these gaps, there was enough agreement on factors that influence stream temperature to indicate information is available to start developing and implementing management practices that are designed to reduce stream warming. It was suggested that managers should consider riparian vegetation, channel morphology, and hydrology, and should account for site differences. Title: Influences of human activity on stream temperatures and existence of cold-water fish in streams with elevated temperature: report of a workshop: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Corvallis, OR, October 5-6, 2000 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (IMST) convened a panel of experts on stream temperature and fish ecology on October 5-6, 2000 for a scientific workshop on human influences on stream temperature and responses by salmonids. The workshop was designed to review and discuss scientifically credible data and publications about 1) factors related to human activity that influence stream temperature and 2) behavioral, physical, and ecological mechanisms of cold water fish species for existing in streams with elevated temperatures. The goal of the workshop was to review empirical evidence and to identify points of agreement, disagreement, and knowledge gaps within the scientific community concerning the factors that influence stream temperature and fish responses to elevated temperatures. This information will assist the IMST in preparing a broader temperature report on Oregon's stream temperature water quality standards and their implementation. This report is prepared by the IMST. It was reviewed by workshop participants and revised by the IMST accordingly. The report includes abstracts of plenary presentations on factors that influence stream temperatures and fish responses, and the results of group discussions. The workshop participants focused on three main questions and were asked to list statements of agreement and disagreement, and to identify gaps in the scientific knowledge related to each question: ? How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? ? Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? ? How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? The workshop participants provided answers to the questions in the form of bullets. The answers below represent the IMST's summation of the workshop findings and were reviewed by the participants. Several gaps in the scientific basis for specific questions or relationships were identified. The participants found no areas of disagreement for which technical information was available. They noted that any disagreements were not related to scientific interpretation, but were based on concerns or opinions about application, regulation, and management. How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? The influence of riparian vegetation on stream temperature is cumulative and complex, varying by site, over time, and across regions. Riparian vegetation can directly affect stream temperature by intercepting solar radiation and reducing stream heating. The influence of riparian shade in controlling temperature declines as streams widen in downstream reaches, but the role of riparian vegetation in providing water quality and fish habitat benefits continues to be important. Besides providing shade, riparian vegetation can also indirectly affect stream temperature by influencing microclimate, affecting channel morphology, affecting stream flow, influencing wind speed, affecting humidity, affecting soil temperature, using water, influencing air temperature, enhancing infiltration, and influencing thermal radiation. It is critical to know the site potential to understand what vegetation a site can support. There is not a good scientific understanding of how much vegetation shading is required to affect stream temperature. 1 This lack of understanding may be due to the spatial and temporal variability in landscape components, and the resulting variability in both the direct and indirect influences of vegetation on stream temperature. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize about the effects of vegetation on stream temperature. Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? The answer to this question is yes, other physical changes in the stream system can modify stream temperatures. Stream temperature is a product of complex interactions between geomorphology, soil, hydrology, vegetation, and climate within a watershed. Changes in these factors will result in changes in stream temperature. Human activities influence stream temperature by affecting one or more of four major components: riparian vegetation, channel morphology, hydrology, and surface/subsurface interactions. Stream systems vary substantially across the landscape, and site-specific information is critical to understanding stream temperature responses to human activities. How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? Workshop participants identified several mechanisms that might explain the ability of fish populations to exist at higher than expected temperatures. The first mechanism was that the fish may have physiological adaptations to survive exposures to high temperatures. A second possibility was that stream habitats may contain cooler microhabitats that fish can occupy as refuge from higher temperatures. A third consideration is that ecological interactions may be different under differing thermal conditions resulting, for example, in changes in disease virulence or cumulative effects of stressors. Finally, since substantial differences exist between laboratory and field studies, it is difficult to apply results of laboratory studies to fish responses in the field. It is important to note that these proposed mechanisms are speculative and, as the list of gaps indicates, substantial experimental work is required to establish their influences on fish in different stream systems. Workshop Summaiy Workshop participants recognized gaps in the available science. Additional knowledge about human influences on stream temperatures and, consequently, influences on cold-water fish populations, will improve our ability to prevent further degradation of stream habitat and will enhance efforts geared towards the recovery of depressed fish populations. Even with these gaps, there was enough agreement on factors that influence stream temperature to indicate information is available to start developing and implementing management practices that are designed to reduce stream warming. It was suggested that managers should consider riparian vegetation, channel morphology, and hydrology, and should account for site differences. Close

• 27. [Image] Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 1]

  	4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 1] Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Lakeview Resource Area Office. Lakeview District Year: 2002, 2006, 2005 4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover Title: Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 1] Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Lakeview Resource Area Office. Lakeview District Year: 2002, 2006, 2005 4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover Close

• 28. [Image] Technical assistance and the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: a statewide assessment by the Healthy Streams Partnership

  	"November 2002"; 66 p. in various paginations: ill., form -- Executive summary ([6]p.)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Technical assistance and the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: a statewide assessment by the Healthy Streams Partnership Author: Healthy Streams Partnership Year: 2002, 2007, 2005 "November 2002"; 66 p. in various paginations: ill., form -- Executive summary ([6]p.) Title: Technical assistance and the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: a statewide assessment by the Healthy Streams Partnership Author: Healthy Streams Partnership Year: 2002, 2007, 2005 "November 2002"; 66 p. in various paginations: ill., form -- Executive summary ([6]p.) Close

• 29. [Image] Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Close

• 30. [Image] Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters

  	"July 2003."; "GAO-03-514."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters Author: United States. General Accounting Office Year: 2003, 2005 "July 2003."; "GAO-03-514." Title: Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters Author: United States. General Accounting Office Year: 2003, 2005 "July 2003."; "GAO-03-514." Close

• 31. [Image] Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998

  	ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998 Author: Campbell, S. G Year: 2001, 2007, 2005 ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs. Title: Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998 Author: Campbell, S. G Year: 2001, 2007, 2005 ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs. Close

• 32. [Image] Handbook for developing watershed plans to restore and protect our waters

  	Draft; Title from title screen (viewed on Mar. 17, 2006); "October 2005."; "EPA 841-B-05-005."; Includes bibliographical references
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Handbook for developing watershed plans to restore and protect our waters Author: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Draft; Title from title screen (viewed on Mar. 17, 2006); "October 2005."; "EPA 841-B-05-005."; Includes bibliographical references Title: Handbook for developing watershed plans to restore and protect our waters Author: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Draft; Title from title screen (viewed on Mar. 17, 2006); "October 2005."; "EPA 841-B-05-005."; Includes bibliographical references Close

• 33. [Image] IMST review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 biological opinions on management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and related reports: a report of the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds

  	This report is a review of scientific research done by various organizations involved in the Klamath Reclamation Project to assess the "status and management of coho salmon in the Klamath River and . . ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: IMST review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 biological opinions on management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and related reports: a report of the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2003, 2004 This report is a review of scientific research done by various organizations involved in the Klamath Reclamation Project to assess the "status and management of coho salmon in the Klamath River and . . . management of Upper Klamath Lake and its watershed"; "April 16, 2003"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 104-112) Title: IMST review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 biological opinions on management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and related reports: a report of the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2003, 2004 This report is a review of scientific research done by various organizations involved in the Klamath Reclamation Project to assess the "status and management of coho salmon in the Klamath River and . . . management of Upper Klamath Lake and its watershed"; "April 16, 2003"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 104-112) Close

• 34. [Image] Biological assessment of the Klamath Project's continuing operations on southern Oregon/Northern California esu coho salmon and critical habitat for southern Oregon/northern California esu coho salmon

  	The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is the responsible Federal agency for operation of the Klamath Project (Project). Operation of the Project has been the subject of numerous previous consultations ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biological assessment of the Klamath Project's continuing operations on southern Oregon/Northern California esu coho salmon and critical habitat for southern Oregon/northern California esu coho salmon Year: 2001, 2004 The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is the responsible Federal agency for operation of the Klamath Project (Project). Operation of the Project has been the subject of numerous previous consultations with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) and one with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Severe drought conditions in 1992 and 1994 and resultant associated shortages in project water supplies coupled with the 1997 listing of the southern Oregon/northern California (SONCC) coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, as threatened in the Klamath River downstream from the Project led to a review of Reclamation 19s operations. This biological assessment (BA) describes the effects on federally-listed species (i.e., coho salmon) and its designated critical habitat from on-going operation of the project based on historic operations, as described in this BA. The biological opinion (BO) addressing this BA and any subsequent BA amendments will be among the information that will inform the development of alternatives of the long-term operations plan and environmental impact statement (EIS). Reclamation is developing a long-term operations plan and EIS for the Project. The preferred alternative for implementation from the long-term operations plan would be the subject of a separate future ESA consultation. This BA describes the needs of anadromous fish with emphasis on SONCC coho salmon. It was developed using the best available scientific and commercial information on anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Coho salmon were listed as threatened on June 6, 1997 (NMFS 1997). The NMFS published a final rule designating critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon in May, 1999 (NMFS 1999a). Designated critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon encompasses accessible reaches of all rivers (including estuarine areas and tributaries) between the Mattole River in California and the Elk River in Oregon. Critical habitat includes all waterways, substrate, and adjacent riparian zones below longstanding, naturally impassable barriers. The areas upstream from Iron Gate Dam (IGD) (river mile 190) were not proposed critical habitat because areas downstream were considered sufficient for the conservation of the species. Reclamation has not evaluated whether the action that is the subject of this BA is consistent with its trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. There are several important scientific reports and analyses (e.g., Phase II flow study) currently not available to Reclamation concerning threatened coho salmon, their habitat, and water quality as it relates to appropriate river flows that may be necessary to operate the Project consistent with the trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. When this additional information becomes available, Reclamation intends to consider it during the development of the Project operations plans and include it in subsequent consultations with NMFS, as appropriate. Title: Biological assessment of the Klamath Project's continuing operations on southern Oregon/Northern California esu coho salmon and critical habitat for southern Oregon/northern California esu coho salmon Year: 2001, 2004 The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is the responsible Federal agency for operation of the Klamath Project (Project). Operation of the Project has been the subject of numerous previous consultations with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) and one with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Severe drought conditions in 1992 and 1994 and resultant associated shortages in project water supplies coupled with the 1997 listing of the southern Oregon/northern California (SONCC) coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, as threatened in the Klamath River downstream from the Project led to a review of Reclamation 19s operations. This biological assessment (BA) describes the effects on federally-listed species (i.e., coho salmon) and its designated critical habitat from on-going operation of the project based on historic operations, as described in this BA. The biological opinion (BO) addressing this BA and any subsequent BA amendments will be among the information that will inform the development of alternatives of the long-term operations plan and environmental impact statement (EIS). Reclamation is developing a long-term operations plan and EIS for the Project. The preferred alternative for implementation from the long-term operations plan would be the subject of a separate future ESA consultation. This BA describes the needs of anadromous fish with emphasis on SONCC coho salmon. It was developed using the best available scientific and commercial information on anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Coho salmon were listed as threatened on June 6, 1997 (NMFS 1997). The NMFS published a final rule designating critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon in May, 1999 (NMFS 1999a). Designated critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon encompasses accessible reaches of all rivers (including estuarine areas and tributaries) between the Mattole River in California and the Elk River in Oregon. Critical habitat includes all waterways, substrate, and adjacent riparian zones below longstanding, naturally impassable barriers. The areas upstream from Iron Gate Dam (IGD) (river mile 190) were not proposed critical habitat because areas downstream were considered sufficient for the conservation of the species. Reclamation has not evaluated whether the action that is the subject of this BA is consistent with its trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. There are several important scientific reports and analyses (e.g., Phase II flow study) currently not available to Reclamation concerning threatened coho salmon, their habitat, and water quality as it relates to appropriate river flows that may be necessary to operate the Project consistent with the trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. When this additional information becomes available, Reclamation intends to consider it during the development of the Project operations plans and include it in subsequent consultations with NMFS, as appropriate. Close

• 35. [Image] Resolving the Klamath

  	"October 1999"; Cover title
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Resolving the Klamath Year: 1999, 2004 "October 1999"; Cover title Title: Resolving the Klamath Year: 1999, 2004 "October 1999"; Cover title Close

• 36. [Image] Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin

  	"Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Braunworth, William S. Year: 2003, 2004 "Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html Title: Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Braunworth, William S. Year: 2003, 2004 "Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html Close

• 37. [Image] The Oregon conservation strategy

  	v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Close

• 38. [Image] Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status

  	EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status Author: Buchanan, David V; Hanson, Mary L; Hooton, Robert M Year: 1997, 2007, 2005 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River systems. No bull trout have been observed in Oregon's coastal systems. A total of 69 bull trout populations in 12 basins are currently identified in Oregon. A comparison of the 1991 bull trout status (Ratliff and Ho well 1992) to the revised 1996 status found that 7 populations were newly discovered and 1 population showed a positive or upgraded status while 22 populations showed a negative or downgraded status. The general downgrading of 32% of Oregon's bull trout populations appears largely due to increased survey efforts and increased survey accuracy rather than reduced numbers or distribution. However, three populations in the upper Klamath Basin, two in the Walla Walla Basin, and one in the Willamette Basin showed decreases in estimated population abundance or distribution. Some Oregon river basins have bull trout populations at extreme risk of extinction. This statewide status review listed only 19% of the bull trout populations in Oregon with a ulow risk of extinction" or "of special concern." Therefore, 81% of Oregon's bull trout populations are considered to be at a "moderate risk of extinction," "high risk of extinction," or "probably extinct." Populations in the Hood, Klamath, and Powder basins, as well as the Odell Lake population in the Deschutes basin, which contain only a few remaining bull trout, are examples of populations having a "moderate" or "high risk" of extinction. Approximately 55% of current bull trout distribution occurs on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. A much smaller proportion occurs on Bureau of Land Management managed lands (2%). Only 16% of current bull trout distribution occurs within a protected area defined as Wilderness, Wild and Scenic River, or within a National Park. The Northwest Forest Plan, Inland Native Fish Strategy, and Interim Strategies for Managing Anadromous Fish-producing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of California have provided increased protection for bull trout habitat depending on their scope and geographic areas affected, and the extent to which they are being effectively implemented in watersheds containing bull trout. Recent reduction in timber production on National Forests (up to 50% in western Oregon National Forests and over 30% in eastern Oregon National Forests) should help improve riparian and stream habitat conditions for bull trout. The remaining bull trout distribution occurs on private, state, or tribal owned lands. A comparison of approximately 39 locations throughout the state with protective angling regulations on bull trout (in some areas more than one bull trout population is protected by one regulation) shows that all state managed areas were upgraded in a protective angling status or at least maintained in 1996 compared to 1989. Restrictive angling regulations prohibit angler harvest of all bull trout populations in Oregon except for one in the Deschutes Basin. Restrictive bull trout angling regulation changes (including the elimination of bull Vll trout harvest in all spawning areas) may be the major reasons why the Metolius River/Lake Billy Chinook and mainstem McKenzie River populations have shown significant increases in abundance. Statewide stocking of non-native brook trout, including the high lakes stocking program, has been discontinued in locations where managers believe brook trout could migrate downstream and potentially interact with native bull trout. Hatchery stocking of legal rainbow trout to promote recreational fisheries has been discontinued in most locations near bull trout populations to avoid incidental catch of bull trout. The spatial and temporal distributions of bull trout reported for each river basin in this status report should be used as an accurate baseline for fisheries managers. Current distribution and relative change of distribution should be useful indicators of population health and status. The GIS maps in this report provide a template to add new layers of data such as critical spawning and juvenile rearing areas, or as a method to compare distribution changes through time. Length frequency data are presented for most Oregon bull trout populations. This should provide estimates for the presence of multiple age classes and the percent of fluvial size life history component. Vlll Title: Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status Author: Buchanan, David V; Hanson, Mary L; Hooton, Robert M Year: 1997, 2007, 2005 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River systems. No bull trout have been observed in Oregon's coastal systems. A total of 69 bull trout populations in 12 basins are currently identified in Oregon. A comparison of the 1991 bull trout status (Ratliff and Ho well 1992) to the revised 1996 status found that 7 populations were newly discovered and 1 population showed a positive or upgraded status while 22 populations showed a negative or downgraded status. The general downgrading of 32% of Oregon's bull trout populations appears largely due to increased survey efforts and increased survey accuracy rather than reduced numbers or distribution. However, three populations in the upper Klamath Basin, two in the Walla Walla Basin, and one in the Willamette Basin showed decreases in estimated population abundance or distribution. Some Oregon river basins have bull trout populations at extreme risk of extinction. This statewide status review listed only 19% of the bull trout populations in Oregon with a ulow risk of extinction" or "of special concern." Therefore, 81% of Oregon's bull trout populations are considered to be at a "moderate risk of extinction," "high risk of extinction," or "probably extinct." Populations in the Hood, Klamath, and Powder basins, as well as the Odell Lake population in the Deschutes basin, which contain only a few remaining bull trout, are examples of populations having a "moderate" or "high risk" of extinction. Approximately 55% of current bull trout distribution occurs on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. A much smaller proportion occurs on Bureau of Land Management managed lands (2%). Only 16% of current bull trout distribution occurs within a protected area defined as Wilderness, Wild and Scenic River, or within a National Park. The Northwest Forest Plan, Inland Native Fish Strategy, and Interim Strategies for Managing Anadromous Fish-producing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of California have provided increased protection for bull trout habitat depending on their scope and geographic areas affected, and the extent to which they are being effectively implemented in watersheds containing bull trout. Recent reduction in timber production on National Forests (up to 50% in western Oregon National Forests and over 30% in eastern Oregon National Forests) should help improve riparian and stream habitat conditions for bull trout. The remaining bull trout distribution occurs on private, state, or tribal owned lands. A comparison of approximately 39 locations throughout the state with protective angling regulations on bull trout (in some areas more than one bull trout population is protected by one regulation) shows that all state managed areas were upgraded in a protective angling status or at least maintained in 1996 compared to 1989. Restrictive angling regulations prohibit angler harvest of all bull trout populations in Oregon except for one in the Deschutes Basin. Restrictive bull trout angling regulation changes (including the elimination of bull Vll trout harvest in all spawning areas) may be the major reasons why the Metolius River/Lake Billy Chinook and mainstem McKenzie River populations have shown significant increases in abundance. Statewide stocking of non-native brook trout, including the high lakes stocking program, has been discontinued in locations where managers believe brook trout could migrate downstream and potentially interact with native bull trout. Hatchery stocking of legal rainbow trout to promote recreational fisheries has been discontinued in most locations near bull trout populations to avoid incidental catch of bull trout. The spatial and temporal distributions of bull trout reported for each river basin in this status report should be used as an accurate baseline for fisheries managers. Current distribution and relative change of distribution should be useful indicators of population health and status. The GIS maps in this report provide a template to add new layers of data such as critical spawning and juvenile rearing areas, or as a method to compare distribution changes through time. Length frequency data are presented for most Oregon bull trout populations. This should provide estimates for the presence of multiple age classes and the percent of fluvial size life history component. Vlll Close

• 39. [Image] Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds biennial report, 2005-2007

  	The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Biennial Report 2005-2007. This is the sixth report on the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The report provides an update on the accomplishments and continuing ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds biennial report, 2005-2007 Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2006, 2007 The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Biennial Report 2005-2007. This is the sixth report on the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The report provides an update on the accomplishments and continuing efforts of people throughout Oregon to improve and protect clean water and recover and maintain healthy populations offish and wildlife in our watersheds. The Oregon Plan is unique because it engages communities in the restoration and long-term stewardship of their watersheds. This extraordinary effort encourages local partnerships and voluntary actions to improve the conditions of our watersheds. Over the years, these actions have made Oregon a national leader in local cooperative conservation. This report collects project and condition data, voluntary private lands restoration information, and agency program accomplishments under the Oregon Plan. Consistent with the past two reports, this document continues to provide specific data on each of the state's fifteen reporting basins. A new element to this report is the inclusion of stories about the people, partnerships, and on-the-ground projects that are benefiting watersheds and communities across the state. Thanks to the many Oregon Plan partners who contributed to this report. Thomas M. Byler Executive Director Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Title: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds biennial report, 2005-2007 Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2006, 2007 The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Biennial Report 2005-2007. This is the sixth report on the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The report provides an update on the accomplishments and continuing efforts of people throughout Oregon to improve and protect clean water and recover and maintain healthy populations offish and wildlife in our watersheds. The Oregon Plan is unique because it engages communities in the restoration and long-term stewardship of their watersheds. This extraordinary effort encourages local partnerships and voluntary actions to improve the conditions of our watersheds. Over the years, these actions have made Oregon a national leader in local cooperative conservation. This report collects project and condition data, voluntary private lands restoration information, and agency program accomplishments under the Oregon Plan. Consistent with the past two reports, this document continues to provide specific data on each of the state's fifteen reporting basins. A new element to this report is the inclusion of stories about the people, partnerships, and on-the-ground projects that are benefiting watersheds and communities across the state. Thanks to the many Oregon Plan partners who contributed to this report. Thomas M. Byler Executive Director Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Close

• 40. [Image] Official annual, Medford District, Ninth Corps Area, Civilian Conservation Corps.

  	Annual; Description based on: 1938 issue; Cover title
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Official annual, Medford District, Ninth Corps Area, Civilian Conservation Corps. Author: Civilian Conservation Corps (U.S.). Medford District Year: 1938, 2008, 2006 Annual; Description based on: 1938 issue; Cover title Title: Official annual, Medford District, Ninth Corps Area, Civilian Conservation Corps. Author: Civilian Conservation Corps (U.S.). Medford District Year: 1938, 2008, 2006 Annual; Description based on: 1938 issue; Cover title Close

• 41. [Article] “Up On the Mountain”: Ethnobotanical Importance of Montane Sites In Pacific Coastal North America

  The Pacific Coastal Mountains of western North America have immense ethnobotanical significance. Since time immemorial, Indigenous Peoples have journeyed from permanent settlements in lowland regions to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: “Up On the Mountain”: Ethnobotanical Importance of Montane Sites In Pacific Coastal North America Author: Turner, Nancy J., Deur, Douglas, Mellott, Carla Rae Year: 2011 The Pacific Coastal Mountains of western North America have immense ethnobotanical significance. Since time immemorial, Indigenous Peoples have journeyed from permanent settlements in lowland regions to upland sites in order to harvest and process a range of plant resources –foods, materials and medicines– as well as to hunt and fish, and undertake spiritual activities. Two culturally significant montane areas, widely separated geographically, are described as case examples: pt-e´n’i (Botanie Valley) in Nlaka’pmx territory of southern interior British Columbia, famous for its abundance of edible root resources; and iwamkani, an iconic huckleberry picking location for the Klamath in southern Oregon. Patterns of montane use are notably consistent throughout the region. Indigenous People intentionally modified montane landscapes through fire and other means to enhance resource productivity and predictability. In turn, mountain environments and resources have significantly influenced Indigenous Peoples’ lifeways and knowledge systems. The integrity of montane biocultural systems has been threatened by industrial development, fire suppression and, most recently, the changing global climate. Yet, montane areas remain as key elements of biocultural heritage and must be protected for continued social-ecological health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples. Title: “Up On the Mountain”: Ethnobotanical Importance of Montane Sites In Pacific Coastal North America Author: Turner, Nancy J., Deur, Douglas, Mellott, Carla Rae Year: 2011 The Pacific Coastal Mountains of western North America have immense ethnobotanical significance. Since time immemorial, Indigenous Peoples have journeyed from permanent settlements in lowland regions to upland sites in order to harvest and process a range of plant resources –foods, materials and medicines– as well as to hunt and fish, and undertake spiritual activities. Two culturally significant montane areas, widely separated geographically, are described as case examples: pt-e´n’i (Botanie Valley) in Nlaka’pmx territory of southern interior British Columbia, famous for its abundance of edible root resources; and iwamkani, an iconic huckleberry picking location for the Klamath in southern Oregon. Patterns of montane use are notably consistent throughout the region. Indigenous People intentionally modified montane landscapes through fire and other means to enhance resource productivity and predictability. In turn, mountain environments and resources have significantly influenced Indigenous Peoples’ lifeways and knowledge systems. The integrity of montane biocultural systems has been threatened by industrial development, fire suppression and, most recently, the changing global climate. Yet, montane areas remain as key elements of biocultural heritage and must be protected for continued social-ecological health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples. Close

• 42. [Article] Channel Shallowing as Mitigation of Coastal Flooding

  Here, we demonstrate that reductions in the depth of inlets or estuary channels can be used to reduce or prevent coastal flooding. A validated hydrodynamic model of Jamaica Bay, New York City (NYC), is ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Channel Shallowing as Mitigation of Coastal Flooding Author: Orton, Philip M., Talke, Stefan A., Jay, David A., Yin, Larry, Blumberg, Alan F., Georgas, Nickitas, Zhao, Haihong, Roberts, Hugh J., MacManus, Kytt Year: 2015 Here, we demonstrate that reductions in the depth of inlets or estuary channels can be used to reduce or prevent coastal flooding. A validated hydrodynamic model of Jamaica Bay, New York City (NYC), is used to test nature-based adaptation measures in ameliorating flooding for NYC’s two largest historical coastal flood events. In addition to control runs with modern bathymetry, three altered landscape scenarios are tested: (1) increasing the area of wetlands to their 1879 footprint and bathymetry, but leaving deep shipping channels unaltered; (2) shallowing all areas deeper than 2 m in the bay to be 2 m below Mean Low Water; (3) shallowing only the narrowest part of the inlet to the bay. These three scenarios are deliberately extreme and designed to evaluate the leverage each approach exerts on water levels. They result in peak water level reductions of 0.3%, 15%, and 6.8% for Hurricane Sandy, and 2.4%, 46% and 30% for the Category-3 hurricane of 1821, respectively (bay-wide averages). These results suggest that shallowing can provide greater flood protection than wetland restoration, and it is particularly effective at reducing "fast-pulse" storm surges that rise and fall quickly over several hours, like that of the 1821 storm. Nonetheless, the goal of flood mitigation must be weighed against economic, navigation, and ecological needs, and practical concerns such as the availability of sediment. Title: Channel Shallowing as Mitigation of Coastal Flooding Author: Orton, Philip M., Talke, Stefan A., Jay, David A., Yin, Larry, Blumberg, Alan F., Georgas, Nickitas, Zhao, Haihong, Roberts, Hugh J., MacManus, Kytt Year: 2015 Here, we demonstrate that reductions in the depth of inlets or estuary channels can be used to reduce or prevent coastal flooding. A validated hydrodynamic model of Jamaica Bay, New York City (NYC), is used to test nature-based adaptation measures in ameliorating flooding for NYC’s two largest historical coastal flood events. In addition to control runs with modern bathymetry, three altered landscape scenarios are tested: (1) increasing the area of wetlands to their 1879 footprint and bathymetry, but leaving deep shipping channels unaltered; (2) shallowing all areas deeper than 2 m in the bay to be 2 m below Mean Low Water; (3) shallowing only the narrowest part of the inlet to the bay. These three scenarios are deliberately extreme and designed to evaluate the leverage each approach exerts on water levels. They result in peak water level reductions of 0.3%, 15%, and 6.8% for Hurricane Sandy, and 2.4%, 46% and 30% for the Category-3 hurricane of 1821, respectively (bay-wide averages). These results suggest that shallowing can provide greater flood protection than wetland restoration, and it is particularly effective at reducing "fast-pulse" storm surges that rise and fall quickly over several hours, like that of the 1821 storm. Nonetheless, the goal of flood mitigation must be weighed against economic, navigation, and ecological needs, and practical concerns such as the availability of sediment. Close

• 43. [Article] Linking Ecology and Economics for Ecosystem Management

  This article outlines an approach, based on ecosystem services, for assessing the trade-offs inherent in managing humans embedded in ecological systems. Evaluating these trade-offs requires an understanding ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Linking Ecology and Economics for Ecosystem Management Author: Farber, Stephen, Costanza, Robert, Childers, Daniel L., Erickson, Jon, Gross, Katherine, Grove, Morgan, Hopkinson, Charles S., Kahn, James, Pincetl, Stephanie, Troy, Austin, Warren, Paige, Wilson, Matthew Year: 2006 This article outlines an approach, based on ecosystem services, for assessing the trade-offs inherent in managing humans embedded in ecological systems. Evaluating these trade-offs requires an understanding of the biophysical magnitudes of the changes in ecosystem services that result from human actions, and of the impact of these changes on human welfare.We summarize the state of the art of ecosystem services?based management and the information needs for applying it. Three case studies of Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) sites?coastal, urban, and agricultural? illustrate the usefulness, information needs, quantification possibilities, and methods for this approach. One example of the application of this approach, with rigorously established service changes and valuations taken from the literature, is used to illustrate the potential for full economic valuation of several agricultural landscape management options, including managing for water quality, biodiversity, and crop productivity. Title: Linking Ecology and Economics for Ecosystem Management Author: Farber, Stephen, Costanza, Robert, Childers, Daniel L., Erickson, Jon, Gross, Katherine, Grove, Morgan, Hopkinson, Charles S., Kahn, James, Pincetl, Stephanie, Troy, Austin, Warren, Paige, Wilson, Matthew Year: 2006 This article outlines an approach, based on ecosystem services, for assessing the trade-offs inherent in managing humans embedded in ecological systems. Evaluating these trade-offs requires an understanding of the biophysical magnitudes of the changes in ecosystem services that result from human actions, and of the impact of these changes on human welfare.We summarize the state of the art of ecosystem services?based management and the information needs for applying it. Three case studies of Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) sites?coastal, urban, and agricultural? illustrate the usefulness, information needs, quantification possibilities, and methods for this approach. One example of the application of this approach, with rigorously established service changes and valuations taken from the literature, is used to illustrate the potential for full economic valuation of several agricultural landscape management options, including managing for water quality, biodiversity, and crop productivity. Close

• 44. [Article] Oregon Natural Areas Plan

  The rich diversity of ecosystems and native plants and animals is one of Oregon's most distinctive and valued qualities. Our state contains rain forests, dry forests, oak woodlands, alpine meadows, prairies, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon Natural Areas Plan Author: Oregon Natural Heritage Advisory Council Year: 2010 The rich diversity of ecosystems and native plants and animals is one of Oregon's most distinctive and valued qualities. Our state contains rain forests, dry forests, oak woodlands, alpine meadows, prairies, deserts, marshes, estuaries, dunes, rocky headlands, lakes and streams. There are a number of reasons it is so diverse. First are the extremes of climate, with rainfall ranging from over 200 inches a year along Oregon’s north coast, to less than 7 inches a year in the Alvord Desert, and temperatures from the very mild banana belt along the coast near the California border to the extremes of the high alpine areas of the Wallowa Mountains. Secondly, Oregon is diverse geographically and geologically, having ancient serpentine landscapes in the Siskiyou Mountains and recent volcanics in the Cascades and the deepest gorge in North America at Hells Canyon. Lastly, Oregon is a floristic crossroads, with arctic boreal species finding their southern limit, Rocky Mountain species common in northeastern Oregon, Great Basin species in southeastern Oregon, and California coastal and Sierra species in the southwest, all mixing with native northwestern taxa to create a wide array of habitats. Title: Oregon Natural Areas Plan Author: Oregon Natural Heritage Advisory Council Year: 2010 The rich diversity of ecosystems and native plants and animals is one of Oregon's most distinctive and valued qualities. Our state contains rain forests, dry forests, oak woodlands, alpine meadows, prairies, deserts, marshes, estuaries, dunes, rocky headlands, lakes and streams. There are a number of reasons it is so diverse. First are the extremes of climate, with rainfall ranging from over 200 inches a year along Oregon’s north coast, to less than 7 inches a year in the Alvord Desert, and temperatures from the very mild banana belt along the coast near the California border to the extremes of the high alpine areas of the Wallowa Mountains. Secondly, Oregon is diverse geographically and geologically, having ancient serpentine landscapes in the Siskiyou Mountains and recent volcanics in the Cascades and the deepest gorge in North America at Hells Canyon. Lastly, Oregon is a floristic crossroads, with arctic boreal species finding their southern limit, Rocky Mountain species common in northeastern Oregon, Great Basin species in southeastern Oregon, and California coastal and Sierra species in the southwest, all mixing with native northwestern taxa to create a wide array of habitats. Close

• 45. [Article] Demography and the Evolution of Logistic Organization on the Northern Northwest Coast Between 11,000 and 5,000 cal BP

  Focusing on the relationship between demography and sedentary behavior, this thesis explores changes to mobility strategies on the Northern Northwest Coast of North America between 11,000 and 5,000 cal ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Demography and the Evolution of Logistic Organization on the Northern Northwest Coast Between 11,000 and 5,000 cal BP Author: Brown, Thomas Jay Year: 2016 Focusing on the relationship between demography and sedentary behavior, this thesis explores changes to mobility strategies on the Northern Northwest Coast of North America between 11,000 and 5,000 cal BP. Drawing on a regional database of radiocarbon dates, it uses summed probability distributions (SPDs) of calibrated dates as a proxy for population change, in combination with syntheses of previously published technological, paleo environmental and settlement pattern data to test three hypotheses derived from the literature about the development of logistic mobility among maritime hunter-gatherers on the Northern Coast. In all, each of the hypotheses proposes that early peoples on the coast were foragers that utilized high levels of residential mobility, who later adopted collector (logistic) strategies. Two of the hypotheses emphasize the role of population growth and/or packing and resource distribution in this transformation, while the third emphasizes population replacement. Other issues addressed within this thesis are whether or not the forager-collector continuum, as it is used for terrestrial hunter-gatherers, can be applied to those in aquatic settings. Also explored, is the question of whether the available data is sufficient for making and/or testing claims about early mobility patterns in the region. The results of the demographic models suggest that while population levels were volatile, volatility declined through time and that there is no significant trend in either growth or decline of overall population levels throughout the region. This thesis also confirmed that significant changes to mobility, as evidenced by the emergence of semi-sedentary to sedentary living, begin to appear by ~7,000 cal BP. However, there appears to be little, if any correlation between the advent of more sedentary and logistic behavior and any of the variables tested here. Thus this author suggests, in agreement with Ames (1985; 2004) and Binford (2001) that the distribution of resources and labor organization needs within aquatic environments are sufficient without any other drivers for the development and intensification of logistic mobility. The principle analytic contribution of this research comes from the demographic modeling that relied on the construction of summed probability distributions. Though these methods have become commonplace in other settings (namely Europe), this thesis presents the first application of these methods within the time period and region covered. Moreover, this research is one of the only of its kind to address demographic histories within coastal landscapes that utilizes both marine and terrestrial 14C samples. In order to explore possible biases within the database, comparisons of marine and terrestrial SPDs were made between sub-sections of the region (i.e. Haida Gwaii, Southeast Alaska and the Dundas Islands). Though patterning between each of these areas was consistent, these comparative methods revealed an unexpected finding; a massive population crash throughout the region that began between ~9,000-8,800 cal BP and lasted till around 8,400 cal BP. Importantly, this crash was witnessed within all of the individual sub-areas and within SPDs made from both the marine and terrestrial 14C samples, though the reasons behind this collapse and verification of its existence require future research. However, finding this collapse at all further highlighted the need for use of correctly calibrated 14C dates, as the gap in 14C dates effectively disappears when using uncalibrated dates, which has been a longstanding tradition within Northwest archaeology. Title: Demography and the Evolution of Logistic Organization on the Northern Northwest Coast Between 11,000 and 5,000 cal BP Author: Brown, Thomas Jay Year: 2016 Focusing on the relationship between demography and sedentary behavior, this thesis explores changes to mobility strategies on the Northern Northwest Coast of North America between 11,000 and 5,000 cal BP. Drawing on a regional database of radiocarbon dates, it uses summed probability distributions (SPDs) of calibrated dates as a proxy for population change, in combination with syntheses of previously published technological, paleo environmental and settlement pattern data to test three hypotheses derived from the literature about the development of logistic mobility among maritime hunter-gatherers on the Northern Coast. In all, each of the hypotheses proposes that early peoples on the coast were foragers that utilized high levels of residential mobility, who later adopted collector (logistic) strategies. Two of the hypotheses emphasize the role of population growth and/or packing and resource distribution in this transformation, while the third emphasizes population replacement. Other issues addressed within this thesis are whether or not the forager-collector continuum, as it is used for terrestrial hunter-gatherers, can be applied to those in aquatic settings. Also explored, is the question of whether the available data is sufficient for making and/or testing claims about early mobility patterns in the region. The results of the demographic models suggest that while population levels were volatile, volatility declined through time and that there is no significant trend in either growth or decline of overall population levels throughout the region. This thesis also confirmed that significant changes to mobility, as evidenced by the emergence of semi-sedentary to sedentary living, begin to appear by ~7,000 cal BP. However, there appears to be little, if any correlation between the advent of more sedentary and logistic behavior and any of the variables tested here. Thus this author suggests, in agreement with Ames (1985; 2004) and Binford (2001) that the distribution of resources and labor organization needs within aquatic environments are sufficient without any other drivers for the development and intensification of logistic mobility. The principle analytic contribution of this research comes from the demographic modeling that relied on the construction of summed probability distributions. Though these methods have become commonplace in other settings (namely Europe), this thesis presents the first application of these methods within the time period and region covered. Moreover, this research is one of the only of its kind to address demographic histories within coastal landscapes that utilizes both marine and terrestrial 14C samples. In order to explore possible biases within the database, comparisons of marine and terrestrial SPDs were made between sub-sections of the region (i.e. Haida Gwaii, Southeast Alaska and the Dundas Islands). Though patterning between each of these areas was consistent, these comparative methods revealed an unexpected finding; a massive population crash throughout the region that began between ~9,000-8,800 cal BP and lasted till around 8,400 cal BP. Importantly, this crash was witnessed within all of the individual sub-areas and within SPDs made from both the marine and terrestrial 14C samples, though the reasons behind this collapse and verification of its existence require future research. However, finding this collapse at all further highlighted the need for use of correctly calibrated 14C dates, as the gap in 14C dates effectively disappears when using uncalibrated dates, which has been a longstanding tradition within Northwest archaeology. Close

• 46. [Article] A Morphologic Proxy for Debris Flow Erosion With Application to the Earthquake Deformation Cycle, Cascadia Subduction Zone, USA

  In unglaciated steeplands, valley reaches dominated by debris flow scour and incision set landscape form as they often account for > 80% of valley network length and relief. While hillslope and fluvial ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A Morphologic Proxy for Debris Flow Erosion With Application to the Earthquake Deformation Cycle, Cascadia Subduction Zone, USA Author: Penserini, Brian D., Roering, Joshua J., Strieg, Ashley Year: 2017 In unglaciated steeplands, valley reaches dominated by debris flow scour and incision set landscape form as they often account for > 80% of valley network length and relief. While hillslope and fluvial process models have frequently been combined with digital topography to develop morphologic proxies for erosion rate and drainage divide migration, debris-flow-dominated networks, despite their ubiquity, have not been exploited for this purpose. Here, we applied an empirical function that describes how slope-area data systematically deviate from so-called fluvial power-law behavior at small drainage areas. Using airborne LiDAR data for 83 small (~ 1 km2) catchments in the western Oregon Coast Range, we quantified variation in model parameters and observed that the curvature of the power-law scaling deviation varies with catchment-averaged erosion rate estimated from cosmogenic nuclides in stream sediments. Given consistent climate and lithology across our study area and assuming steady erosion, we used this calibrated denudation-morphology relationship to map spatial patterns of long-term uplift for our study catchments. By combining our predicted pattern of long-term uplift rate with paleoseismic and geodetic (tide gauge, GPS, and leveling) data, we estimated the spatial distribution of coseismic subsidence experienced during megathrust earthquakes along the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Our estimates of coseismic subsidence near the coast (0.4 to 0.7 m for earthquake recurrence intervals of 300 to 500 years) agree with field measurements from numerous stratigraphic studies. Our results also demonstrate that coseismic subsidence decreases inland to negligible values > 25 km from the coast, reflecting the diminishing influence of the earthquake deformation cycle on vertical changes of the interior coastal ranges. More generally, our results demonstrate that debris flow valley networks serve as highly localized, yet broadly distributed indicators of erosion (and rock uplift), making them invaluable for mapping crustal deformation and landscape adjustment. © 2017 Elsevier B.V. Title: A Morphologic Proxy for Debris Flow Erosion With Application to the Earthquake Deformation Cycle, Cascadia Subduction Zone, USA Author: Penserini, Brian D., Roering, Joshua J., Strieg, Ashley Year: 2017 In unglaciated steeplands, valley reaches dominated by debris flow scour and incision set landscape form as they often account for > 80% of valley network length and relief. While hillslope and fluvial process models have frequently been combined with digital topography to develop morphologic proxies for erosion rate and drainage divide migration, debris-flow-dominated networks, despite their ubiquity, have not been exploited for this purpose. Here, we applied an empirical function that describes how slope-area data systematically deviate from so-called fluvial power-law behavior at small drainage areas. Using airborne LiDAR data for 83 small (~ 1 km2) catchments in the western Oregon Coast Range, we quantified variation in model parameters and observed that the curvature of the power-law scaling deviation varies with catchment-averaged erosion rate estimated from cosmogenic nuclides in stream sediments. Given consistent climate and lithology across our study area and assuming steady erosion, we used this calibrated denudation-morphology relationship to map spatial patterns of long-term uplift for our study catchments. By combining our predicted pattern of long-term uplift rate with paleoseismic and geodetic (tide gauge, GPS, and leveling) data, we estimated the spatial distribution of coseismic subsidence experienced during megathrust earthquakes along the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Our estimates of coseismic subsidence near the coast (0.4 to 0.7 m for earthquake recurrence intervals of 300 to 500 years) agree with field measurements from numerous stratigraphic studies. Our results also demonstrate that coseismic subsidence decreases inland to negligible values > 25 km from the coast, reflecting the diminishing influence of the earthquake deformation cycle on vertical changes of the interior coastal ranges. More generally, our results demonstrate that debris flow valley networks serve as highly localized, yet broadly distributed indicators of erosion (and rock uplift), making them invaluable for mapping crustal deformation and landscape adjustment. © 2017 Elsevier B.V. Close

• 47. [Article] Impacts of Permafrost Degradation on a Stream in Taylor Valley, Antarctica

  The McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica are an ice-free landscape that supports a complex, microbially dominated ecosystem despite a severely arid, cold environment (< 5 cm water equivalent/y, − 18 ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Impacts of Permafrost Degradation on a Stream in Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Sudman, Zachary, Gooseff, Michael N., Fountain, Andrew G., Levy, Joseph S. Year: 2017 The McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica are an ice-free landscape that supports a complex, microbially dominated ecosystem despite a severely arid, cold environment (< 5 cm water equivalent/y, − 18 °C mean annual air temperature). Recent observations of permafrost degradation in the coastal zones of the MDV suggest that this region is nearing a threshold of rapid landscape change. In 2012, substantial thermokarst development was observed along several kilometers of the west branch of Crescent Stream in Taylor Valley mostly in the form of bank failures, whereas the adjacent east branch was unaffected. The objective of this study was to quantify the changes to the stream banks of the west branch of Crescent Stream and to determine the impacts on the composition of the stream bed material. Three annually repeated terrestrial LiDAR scans were compared to determine the rates of ground surface change caused by thermokarst formation on the stream bank. The areal extent of the thermokarst was shown to be decreasing; however, the average vertical rate of retreat remained constant. Field measurements of bed materials indicated that the west branch and the reach downstream of the confluence (of east and west branches) consistently contained more fines than the unaffected east branch. This suggests that the finer bed material is a result of the thermokarst development on the west branch. These finer bed material compositions are likely to increase the mobility of the bed material, which will have implications for stream morphology, stream algal mat communities, and downstream aquatic ecosystems. Title: Impacts of Permafrost Degradation on a Stream in Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Sudman, Zachary, Gooseff, Michael N., Fountain, Andrew G., Levy, Joseph S. Year: 2017 The McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica are an ice-free landscape that supports a complex, microbially dominated ecosystem despite a severely arid, cold environment (< 5 cm water equivalent/y, − 18 °C mean annual air temperature). Recent observations of permafrost degradation in the coastal zones of the MDV suggest that this region is nearing a threshold of rapid landscape change. In 2012, substantial thermokarst development was observed along several kilometers of the west branch of Crescent Stream in Taylor Valley mostly in the form of bank failures, whereas the adjacent east branch was unaffected. The objective of this study was to quantify the changes to the stream banks of the west branch of Crescent Stream and to determine the impacts on the composition of the stream bed material. Three annually repeated terrestrial LiDAR scans were compared to determine the rates of ground surface change caused by thermokarst formation on the stream bank. The areal extent of the thermokarst was shown to be decreasing; however, the average vertical rate of retreat remained constant. Field measurements of bed materials indicated that the west branch and the reach downstream of the confluence (of east and west branches) consistently contained more fines than the unaffected east branch. This suggests that the finer bed material is a result of the thermokarst development on the west branch. These finer bed material compositions are likely to increase the mobility of the bed material, which will have implications for stream morphology, stream algal mat communities, and downstream aquatic ecosystems. Close

• 48. [Article] Modeling coastal landscape dynamics

  Examines methods used to predict the way ecological systems respond to human modifications. Coastal marshes; Process-based dynamic spatial ecosystem simulation models; Coastal ecological landscape spatial ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Modeling coastal landscape dynamics Author: Costanza, Robert, Sklar, Fred Hal, White, Mary L. Year: 1990 Examines methods used to predict the way ecological systems respond to human modifications. Coastal marshes; Process-based dynamic spatial ecosystem simulation models; Coastal ecological landscape spatial simulation model; Scenario analysis. Title: Modeling coastal landscape dynamics Author: Costanza, Robert, Sklar, Fred Hal, White, Mary L. Year: 1990 Examines methods used to predict the way ecological systems respond to human modifications. Coastal marshes; Process-based dynamic spatial ecosystem simulation models; Coastal ecological landscape spatial simulation model; Scenario analysis. Close

• 49. [Article] Evaluating spatial patterns of drought-induced tree mortality in a coastal California pine forest

  This is an author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-a...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluating spatial patterns of drought-induced tree mortality in a coastal California pine forest Author: Baguskas, Sara A., Still, Christopher J., Bookhagen, Bodo, Peterson, Seth H. This is an author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-and-management/. Title: Evaluating spatial patterns of drought-induced tree mortality in a coastal California pine forest Author: Baguskas, Sara A., Still, Christopher J., Bookhagen, Bodo, Peterson, Seth H. This is an author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-and-management/. Close

• 50. [Article] The interactive effects of excess reactive nitrogen and climate change on aquatic ecosystems and water resources of the United States

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Springer ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The interactive effects of excess reactive nitrogen and climate change on aquatic ecosystems and water resources of the United States Author: Baron, J. S., Hall, E. K., Harrison, J. A., Bernhardt, E. S., Nolan, B. T., Finlay, J. C., Chan, F., Boyer, E. W. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Springer and can be found at: http://www.springer.com/?SGWID=0-102-0-0-0. Title: The interactive effects of excess reactive nitrogen and climate change on aquatic ecosystems and water resources of the United States Author: Baron, J. S., Hall, E. K., Harrison, J. A., Bernhardt, E. S., Nolan, B. T., Finlay, J. C., Chan, F., Boyer, E. W. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Springer and can be found at: http://www.springer.com/?SGWID=0-102-0-0-0. Close

• 51. [Article] Landscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) : version 1.1 : user guide

  The LAndscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) model, version 1.1, is a spatial simulation model developed to provide forest landscape planning simulations for the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Landscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) : version 1.1 : user guide Author: Lennette, Marie, Oregon State University. Forest Research Laboratory, Bettinger, Pete, 1962- The LAndscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) model, version 1.1, is a spatial simulation model developed to provide forest landscape planning simulations for the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS). It is designed to help policymakers, managers, and planners think through alternative management scenarios and their potential effects on the ecological and economic resources of Oregon's Coast Range forests. LAMPS simulates changes to landscape structure over time, incorporating the management intentions of the four major landowner groups and vegetation dynamics. Socioeconomic and ecological information is used to track and allocate activities across the landscape. LAMPS projects, with relatively high resolution, forest conditions across broad areas, all ownership groups, and a planning horizon of 100 yr. This user guide provides instructions on how to use LAMPS for forest landscape simulations of alternative forest policies for the Coast Range of Oregon. Title: Landscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) : version 1.1 : user guide Author: Lennette, Marie, Oregon State University. Forest Research Laboratory, Bettinger, Pete, 1962- The LAndscape Management Policy Simulator (LAMPS) model, version 1.1, is a spatial simulation model developed to provide forest landscape planning simulations for the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS). It is designed to help policymakers, managers, and planners think through alternative management scenarios and their potential effects on the ecological and economic resources of Oregon's Coast Range forests. LAMPS simulates changes to landscape structure over time, incorporating the management intentions of the four major landowner groups and vegetation dynamics. Socioeconomic and ecological information is used to track and allocate activities across the landscape. LAMPS projects, with relatively high resolution, forest conditions across broad areas, all ownership groups, and a planning horizon of 100 yr. This user guide provides instructions on how to use LAMPS for forest landscape simulations of alternative forest policies for the Coast Range of Oregon. Close

• 52. [Article] Emerging Contaminants in Oregon Coastal Waters: Hotspots, Landscape Drivers and Synergistic Effects on Bivalves

  This presentation focuses on the following research questions: Types and levels of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in Oregon’s coastal ocean? Levels of CECs in native and commercial oysters? ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Emerging Contaminants in Oregon Coastal Waters: Hotspots, Landscape Drivers and Synergistic Effects on Bivalves Author: Granek, Elise F., Fish, William, Strecker, Angela L. Year: 2013 This presentation focuses on the following research questions: Types and levels of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in Oregon’s coastal ocean? Levels of CECs in native and commercial oysters? Ecological effects (growth, reproductive output, etc.) of these contaminants in marine bivalves? Title: Emerging Contaminants in Oregon Coastal Waters: Hotspots, Landscape Drivers and Synergistic Effects on Bivalves Author: Granek, Elise F., Fish, William, Strecker, Angela L. Year: 2013 This presentation focuses on the following research questions: Types and levels of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in Oregon’s coastal ocean? Levels of CECs in native and commercial oysters? Ecological effects (growth, reproductive output, etc.) of these contaminants in marine bivalves? Close

• 53. [Article] Predictive mapping of forest composition and structure with direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation in coastal Oregon, U.S.A.

  Spatially explicit information on the species composition and structure of forest vegetation is needed at broad spatial scales for natural resource policy analysis and ecological research. We present a ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Predictive mapping of forest composition and structure with direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation in coastal Oregon, U.S.A. Author: Ohmann, Janet L., Gregory, Matthew Jay Spatially explicit information on the species composition and structure of forest vegetation is needed at broad spatial scales for natural resource policy analysis and ecological research. We present a method for predictive vegetation mapping that applies direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation to ascribe detailed ground attributes of vegetation to each pixel in a digital landscape map. The gradient nearest neighbor method integrates vegetation measurements from regional grids of field plots, mapped environmental data, and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery. In the Oregon coastal province, species gradients were most strongly associated with regional climate and geographic location, whereas variation in forest structure was best explained by Landsat TM variables. At the regional level, mapped predictions represented the range of variability in the sample data, and predicted area by vegetation type closely matched sample-based estimates. At the site level, mapped predictions maintained the covariance structure among multiple response variables. Prediction accuracy for tree species occurrence and several measures of vegetation structure and composition was good to moderate. Vegetation maps produced with the gradient nearest neighbor method are appropriately used for regional-level planning, policy analysis, and research, not to guide local management decisions. Title: Predictive mapping of forest composition and structure with direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation in coastal Oregon, U.S.A. Author: Ohmann, Janet L., Gregory, Matthew Jay Spatially explicit information on the species composition and structure of forest vegetation is needed at broad spatial scales for natural resource policy analysis and ecological research. We present a method for predictive vegetation mapping that applies direct gradient analysis and nearest-neighbor imputation to ascribe detailed ground attributes of vegetation to each pixel in a digital landscape map. The gradient nearest neighbor method integrates vegetation measurements from regional grids of field plots, mapped environmental data, and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery. In the Oregon coastal province, species gradients were most strongly associated with regional climate and geographic location, whereas variation in forest structure was best explained by Landsat TM variables. At the regional level, mapped predictions represented the range of variability in the sample data, and predicted area by vegetation type closely matched sample-based estimates. At the site level, mapped predictions maintained the covariance structure among multiple response variables. Prediction accuracy for tree species occurrence and several measures of vegetation structure and composition was good to moderate. Vegetation maps produced with the gradient nearest neighbor method are appropriately used for regional-level planning, policy analysis, and research, not to guide local management decisions. Close

• 54. [Article] Carbon Stocks of Tropical Coastal Wetlands within the Karstic Landscape of the Mexican Caribbean

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Public Library of Science and can be found at: http://www.plos.org/.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Carbon Stocks of Tropical Coastal Wetlands within the Karstic Landscape of the Mexican Caribbean Author: Kauffman, J. Boone, Adame, Maria Fernanda, Reza, Miriam, Torres, Olmo, Gamboa, Julieta N., Herrera-Silveira, Jorge A., Medina, Israel, Caamal, Juan P. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Public Library of Science and can be found at: http://www.plos.org/. Title: Carbon Stocks of Tropical Coastal Wetlands within the Karstic Landscape of the Mexican Caribbean Author: Kauffman, J. Boone, Adame, Maria Fernanda, Reza, Miriam, Torres, Olmo, Gamboa, Julieta N., Herrera-Silveira, Jorge A., Medina, Israel, Caamal, Juan P. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Public Library of Science and can be found at: http://www.plos.org/. Close

• 55. [Article] Recovery of Wild Salmonids in Western Oregon Lowlands

  This report was prepared by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team to the Oregon Plan for Salmon and watersheds.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recovery of Wild Salmonids in Western Oregon Lowlands Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) This report was prepared by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team to the Oregon Plan for Salmon and watersheds. Title: Recovery of Wild Salmonids in Western Oregon Lowlands Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) This report was prepared by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team to the Oregon Plan for Salmon and watersheds. Close

• 56. [Article] Resource Selection by the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) Relative to Terrestrial-Based Habitats and Meteorological Conditions

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article was published by the Public Library of Science and is in the public domain.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Resource Selection by the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) Relative to Terrestrial-Based Habitats and Meteorological Conditions Author: Schwarz, Carl J., George, Daniel, Burnett, L. Joseph, Rivers, James W., Johnson, J. Matthew, Haig, Susan M., Glendening, John W., Grantham, Jesse This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article was published by the Public Library of Science and is in the public domain. Title: Resource Selection by the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) Relative to Terrestrial-Based Habitats and Meteorological Conditions Author: Schwarz, Carl J., George, Daniel, Burnett, L. Joseph, Rivers, James W., Johnson, J. Matthew, Haig, Susan M., Glendening, John W., Grantham, Jesse This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article was published by the Public Library of Science and is in the public domain. Close

• 57. [Article] Relationships among juvenile anadromous salmonids, their freshwater habitat, and landscape characteristics over multiple years and spatial scales in the Elk River, Oregon

  Research on the distribution of juvenile salmonids in streams has been dominated by studies examining small areas over short periods. However, information relevant to freshwater influences on population ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Relationships among juvenile anadromous salmonids, their freshwater habitat, and landscape characteristics over multiple years and spatial scales in the Elk River, Oregon Author: Burnett, Kelly M. Research on the distribution of juvenile salmonids in streams has been dominated by studies examining small areas over short periods. However, information relevant to freshwater influences on population persistence is likely to derive from longer-term, multi-scale studies. Relationships were examined among juvenile anadromous salmonids, their freshwater habitat, and landscape characteristics throughout the Elk River, Oregon over 7 years at multiple spatial scales. Ocean-type chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (0. kisutch), coastal cutthroat trout (0. clarki) and winter-run steelhead (0. mykiss) comprised the salmonid assemblage. Habitat selection was quantified at stream system, valley segment, and channel unit scales by selection ratios estimated with bootstrapping methods. Unconstrained valleys in tributaries and pools in the mainstem were typically selected by each species except steelhead, which often avoided these. Valley segment types generally did not differ for characteristics routinely assessed in stream surveys. Thus, fish probably perceived other biotic or abiotic differences among valley segment types. Evidence suggested competition may have influenced selection by coho and chinook salmon. Discriminant analysis indicated that level of use by juvenile chinook salmon appeared related to valley segment type and spatial position. Unconstrained valleys, nearby valley segments, and valley segments with larger, deeper pools, containing more wood were most highly used by chinook salmon. Mean volume and maximum depth of pools were each directly related to catchment area, which explained more variation than landscape characteristics summarized at any of five spatial scales. At each scale except the most spatially extensive, wood density in valley segments was negatively related to the percent area in resistant rock types and positively related to the percent area in mature to old forests. The most variation was explained with these landscape variables summarized at an intermediate spatial scale (i.e., sub-catchment). Although spatial scales appeared similar in processes affecting wood density, finer scales omitted key source areas for wood delivery, and coarser scales included source areas less tightly coupled to wood dynamics in surveyed channels. If only 1 or 2 years of data or one spatial scale had been examined, as commonly occurs, conclusions may have differed substantially from those in this study. Title: Relationships among juvenile anadromous salmonids, their freshwater habitat, and landscape characteristics over multiple years and spatial scales in the Elk River, Oregon Author: Burnett, Kelly M. Research on the distribution of juvenile salmonids in streams has been dominated by studies examining small areas over short periods. However, information relevant to freshwater influences on population persistence is likely to derive from longer-term, multi-scale studies. Relationships were examined among juvenile anadromous salmonids, their freshwater habitat, and landscape characteristics throughout the Elk River, Oregon over 7 years at multiple spatial scales. Ocean-type chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (0. kisutch), coastal cutthroat trout (0. clarki) and winter-run steelhead (0. mykiss) comprised the salmonid assemblage. Habitat selection was quantified at stream system, valley segment, and channel unit scales by selection ratios estimated with bootstrapping methods. Unconstrained valleys in tributaries and pools in the mainstem were typically selected by each species except steelhead, which often avoided these. Valley segment types generally did not differ for characteristics routinely assessed in stream surveys. Thus, fish probably perceived other biotic or abiotic differences among valley segment types. Evidence suggested competition may have influenced selection by coho and chinook salmon. Discriminant analysis indicated that level of use by juvenile chinook salmon appeared related to valley segment type and spatial position. Unconstrained valleys, nearby valley segments, and valley segments with larger, deeper pools, containing more wood were most highly used by chinook salmon. Mean volume and maximum depth of pools were each directly related to catchment area, which explained more variation than landscape characteristics summarized at any of five spatial scales. At each scale except the most spatially extensive, wood density in valley segments was negatively related to the percent area in resistant rock types and positively related to the percent area in mature to old forests. The most variation was explained with these landscape variables summarized at an intermediate spatial scale (i.e., sub-catchment). Although spatial scales appeared similar in processes affecting wood density, finer scales omitted key source areas for wood delivery, and coarser scales included source areas less tightly coupled to wood dynamics in surveyed channels. If only 1 or 2 years of data or one spatial scale had been examined, as commonly occurs, conclusions may have differed substantially from those in this study. Close

• 58. [Article] Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of an active margin coast from the Pleistocene to the present : examples from southwestern Oregon

  This study illustrates geoarchaeological and paleoenvironmental approaches to the investigation of an active margin coastal setting and provides examples of how information gleaned through examination ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of an active margin coast from the Pleistocene to the present : examples from southwestern Oregon Author: Punke, Michele Leigh This study illustrates geoarchaeological and paleoenvironmental approaches to the investigation of an active margin coastal setting and provides examples of how information gleaned through examination of the stratigraphic record can reveal depositional signatures that provide insights into the geomorphic and tectonic forces active within coastal river basins. Three case studies from the southern Oregon coast illustrate the complex relationship between tectonics and geomorphic processes along an active margin coast such as Oregon's Cascadia subduction zone. This work illustrates that the differential preservation of late Pleistocene-age terrestrial deposits in Oregon's coastal landscape, and the early cultural sites they may contain, is not random but can be closely related to larger tectonogeomorphic processes operating at local and regional scales. Detailed subsurface investigation of one case study site, the lower Sixes River valley, reveals a complex history of depositional environment evolution in relation to geomorphic and tectonic forces. Litho- and biostratigraphic data sets are used to develop a depositional environment reconstruction for the lower Sixes River site through time. This reconstruction of the depositional environment from the late Pleistocene to the present indicates a transgressive evolution that differs from models of transgressive coastal facies and from other studied Northwest coast estuarine life histories. Factors such as eustatic sea level rise, regional and local tectonic alteration of the landscape, sediment supply, or valley morphology may have played roles in the creation and preservation of this atypical depositional sequence. Litho- and biostratigraphic evidence of six Cascadia subduction zone earthquakes younger than 6200 cal yr BP is recorded in a long sediment core from the Sixes River valley. All six of these events correlate with events previously reported for the area by Kelsey et al. (2002). At least five additional plate boundary earthquakes lowered tidal marshes and freshwater wetlands prior to 6200 cal yr BP. The presence within the lower Sixes River valley of an intertidal environment capable of recording Cascadia subduction zone earthquakes dating to the late Pleistocene and early Holocene has not been found at any other location on the Northwest coast. Title: Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of an active margin coast from the Pleistocene to the present : examples from southwestern Oregon Author: Punke, Michele Leigh This study illustrates geoarchaeological and paleoenvironmental approaches to the investigation of an active margin coastal setting and provides examples of how information gleaned through examination of the stratigraphic record can reveal depositional signatures that provide insights into the geomorphic and tectonic forces active within coastal river basins. Three case studies from the southern Oregon coast illustrate the complex relationship between tectonics and geomorphic processes along an active margin coast such as Oregon's Cascadia subduction zone. This work illustrates that the differential preservation of late Pleistocene-age terrestrial deposits in Oregon's coastal landscape, and the early cultural sites they may contain, is not random but can be closely related to larger tectonogeomorphic processes operating at local and regional scales. Detailed subsurface investigation of one case study site, the lower Sixes River valley, reveals a complex history of depositional environment evolution in relation to geomorphic and tectonic forces. Litho- and biostratigraphic data sets are used to develop a depositional environment reconstruction for the lower Sixes River site through time. This reconstruction of the depositional environment from the late Pleistocene to the present indicates a transgressive evolution that differs from models of transgressive coastal facies and from other studied Northwest coast estuarine life histories. Factors such as eustatic sea level rise, regional and local tectonic alteration of the landscape, sediment supply, or valley morphology may have played roles in the creation and preservation of this atypical depositional sequence. Litho- and biostratigraphic evidence of six Cascadia subduction zone earthquakes younger than 6200 cal yr BP is recorded in a long sediment core from the Sixes River valley. All six of these events correlate with events previously reported for the area by Kelsey et al. (2002). At least five additional plate boundary earthquakes lowered tidal marshes and freshwater wetlands prior to 6200 cal yr BP. The presence within the lower Sixes River valley of an intertidal environment capable of recording Cascadia subduction zone earthquakes dating to the late Pleistocene and early Holocene has not been found at any other location on the Northwest coast. Close

• 59. [Article] Aspects of the early life history of juvenile salmonids in the Dungeness River Estuary

  The decline of many Pacific salmon stocks has stimulated interest in the early life history and habitat requirements of juvenile salmon. Although estuarine habitat associations of juvenile salmon have ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Aspects of the early life history of juvenile salmonids in the Dungeness River Estuary Author: Sather, Nichole K. The decline of many Pacific salmon stocks has stimulated interest in the early life history and habitat requirements of juvenile salmon. Although estuarine habitat associations of juvenile salmon have been investigated in many coastal areas of the eastern Pacific Ocean, until recently, little was known about juvenile salmonid ecology within the Straits of Juan de Fuca. During the Spring/Summer outmigration period in 2006 and 2007, I examined the early life history of the five species of anadromous salmon in the Dungeness River estuary on the north Olympic Peninsula, Washington. I sampled multiple spatial scales within several habitat types to characterize salmon distribution and habitat use. My results presented in this thesis are segregated into two components: 1) tidal marsh ecology of juvenile salmonids in the Dungeness River estuary, and 2) the landscape-scale distribution of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness River estuary. I examined the population of juvenile salmonids within blind tidal sloughs near the vicinity of the Dungeness River delta. Salmonids were present within the tidal marshes throughout the entire outmigration period (e.g., March through July). Juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) were the most abundant salmonid species within the marshes. Based on the temporal distribution and size structure of juvenile Chinook salmon in the estuary I identified at least four life history types: 1) a fry strategy included a large pulse of fish emigrating from the river at a small size (e.g., 35-45mm FL) during late winter and early spring months; 2) the second group of fish was the least abundant group emigrating from the river from April through mid May at sizes ranging from 50-75mm FL; 3) the third group of migrants entered the estuary between from late spring through the summer months at larger sizes than the initial groups (e.g., 60-90mm FL); and 4) the final group of Chinook salmon included a stream-type yearling strategy. In addition to the four life history strategies identified for Chinook salmon, I detected at least three groups of chum salmon migrating into the estuary. These groups were distinguished by their size and timing of migration and are further described according to different rearing strategies. The distribution of juvenile salmonids was most strongly influenced by the degree of connectivity (i.e., distance) between the tidal marshes and the mouth of the Dungeness River. Habitat complexity and opportunity also governed the distribution of juvenile salmonids within the tidal marshes. I also sampled three regions of the estuary with a beach seine to investigate the nearshore distribution of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness River estuary: the delta face, inner Bay, and outer Bay. Among the three regions, species composition was highly variable between 2006 and 2007. The most common salmonids encountered within the beach seine sites included Chinook salmon, chum salmon (O. kisutch), and pink salmon (O. gorbuscha). The relative abundance of salmonids was highest near the delta face and lowest within the outer bay area. The landscape-scale distribution and habitat use of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness River estuary is largely influenced by ecosystem connectivity, but is also linked to biotic characteristics of the fish (e.g., life history type and fish size). Although the Dungeness includes hydrogeomorphic characteristics (e.g., steep river gradient, composition of sand spits in the estuary) unique to other Pacific Northwest watersheds, this system produces a variety of life history types comparable to other estuaries. Understanding the mechanisms that drive the distribution of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness will supply local resource managers with a baseline with which to establish ecosystem restoration goals. Title: Aspects of the early life history of juvenile salmonids in the Dungeness River Estuary Author: Sather, Nichole K. The decline of many Pacific salmon stocks has stimulated interest in the early life history and habitat requirements of juvenile salmon. Although estuarine habitat associations of juvenile salmon have been investigated in many coastal areas of the eastern Pacific Ocean, until recently, little was known about juvenile salmonid ecology within the Straits of Juan de Fuca. During the Spring/Summer outmigration period in 2006 and 2007, I examined the early life history of the five species of anadromous salmon in the Dungeness River estuary on the north Olympic Peninsula, Washington. I sampled multiple spatial scales within several habitat types to characterize salmon distribution and habitat use. My results presented in this thesis are segregated into two components: 1) tidal marsh ecology of juvenile salmonids in the Dungeness River estuary, and 2) the landscape-scale distribution of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness River estuary. I examined the population of juvenile salmonids within blind tidal sloughs near the vicinity of the Dungeness River delta. Salmonids were present within the tidal marshes throughout the entire outmigration period (e.g., March through July). Juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) were the most abundant salmonid species within the marshes. Based on the temporal distribution and size structure of juvenile Chinook salmon in the estuary I identified at least four life history types: 1) a fry strategy included a large pulse of fish emigrating from the river at a small size (e.g., 35-45mm FL) during late winter and early spring months; 2) the second group of fish was the least abundant group emigrating from the river from April through mid May at sizes ranging from 50-75mm FL; 3) the third group of migrants entered the estuary between from late spring through the summer months at larger sizes than the initial groups (e.g., 60-90mm FL); and 4) the final group of Chinook salmon included a stream-type yearling strategy. In addition to the four life history strategies identified for Chinook salmon, I detected at least three groups of chum salmon migrating into the estuary. These groups were distinguished by their size and timing of migration and are further described according to different rearing strategies. The distribution of juvenile salmonids was most strongly influenced by the degree of connectivity (i.e., distance) between the tidal marshes and the mouth of the Dungeness River. Habitat complexity and opportunity also governed the distribution of juvenile salmonids within the tidal marshes. I also sampled three regions of the estuary with a beach seine to investigate the nearshore distribution of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness River estuary: the delta face, inner Bay, and outer Bay. Among the three regions, species composition was highly variable between 2006 and 2007. The most common salmonids encountered within the beach seine sites included Chinook salmon, chum salmon (O. kisutch), and pink salmon (O. gorbuscha). The relative abundance of salmonids was highest near the delta face and lowest within the outer bay area. The landscape-scale distribution and habitat use of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness River estuary is largely influenced by ecosystem connectivity, but is also linked to biotic characteristics of the fish (e.g., life history type and fish size). Although the Dungeness includes hydrogeomorphic characteristics (e.g., steep river gradient, composition of sand spits in the estuary) unique to other Pacific Northwest watersheds, this system produces a variety of life history types comparable to other estuaries. Understanding the mechanisms that drive the distribution of juvenile salmonids within the Dungeness will supply local resource managers with a baseline with which to establish ecosystem restoration goals. Close

• 60. [Article] Forecasting the response of Earth's surface to future climatic and land use changes: A review of methods and research needs

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forecasting the response of Earth's surface to future climatic and land use changes: A review of methods and research needs Author: Pelletier, Jon D., Ruggiero, Peter, Murray, A. Brad, Pierce, Jennifer L., et al. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. on behalf of the American Geophysical Union. The published article can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%292328-4277/issues Title: Forecasting the response of Earth's surface to future climatic and land use changes: A review of methods and research needs Author: Pelletier, Jon D., Ruggiero, Peter, Murray, A. Brad, Pierce, Jennifer L., et al. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. on behalf of the American Geophysical Union. The published article can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%292328-4277/issues Close

• 61. [Article] The epidemiology of sudden oak death in Oregon forests

  The phytopathogen Phytophthora ramorum (Werres, DeCock & Man in't Veld), causal agent of Sudden Oak Death (SOD) of oaks (Quercus spp.) and tanoaks (Notholithocarpus densiflorus syn. Lithocarpus densiflorus), ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The epidemiology of sudden oak death in Oregon forests Author: Peterson, Ebba K. The phytopathogen Phytophthora ramorum (Werres, DeCock & Man in't Veld), causal agent of Sudden Oak Death (SOD) of oaks (Quercus spp.) and tanoaks (Notholithocarpus densiflorus syn. Lithocarpus densiflorus), is established in coastal forests of the western United States. Since the discovery of SOD in the Douglas-fir / tanoak forests of southwest Oregon in 2001, a multiagency effort has ensued with the goal of fully eliminating P. ramorum from this originally small and isolated area. In this study we investigated the epidemiology of SOD in Oregon, particularly as it affects the success of the eradication program. Two approaches were taken to discern the mechanism of long distance dispersal: first, a landscape analysis of the spatial relationship between SOD sites and roads or streams, features associated with movement of infested soils, and, second, a local analysis to discern if understory infection is originating from soil or stream-borne inoculum. Using a restricted randomization test we concluded that SOD sites were no closer to roads than expected by chance, which is inconsistent with soil dispersal by people. While we found evidence that SOD sites were preferentially closer to waterways, inoculum had not moved away from streams into adjacent understory foliage. The local distribution of understory infection around SOD positive trees indicated that primary inoculum is infecting overstory canopies first, suggesting that P. ramorum is dispersing in air currents. Regression modeling indicated that weather conditions two years before detection could explain variation in the maximum distance inoculum moved each year of the epidemic between 2001 and 2010. This two year delay between infection and detection has allowed ample time for infested sites to contribute to further spread. Model results were consistent with observations made the summer of 2011, when trees likely infected by secondary inoculum at non-eradicated sites developed symptoms but were still undetectable by aerial surveys. Due to the prevalence of infection on tanoak, opportunities for sporulation and infection occur more often in Oregon than in California. These data can explain the failure to eliminate P. ramorum. Nevertheless, we did find evidence that the eradication program has significantly reduced the potential size of the SOD epidemic in Oregon. Title: The epidemiology of sudden oak death in Oregon forests Author: Peterson, Ebba K. The phytopathogen Phytophthora ramorum (Werres, DeCock & Man in't Veld), causal agent of Sudden Oak Death (SOD) of oaks (Quercus spp.) and tanoaks (Notholithocarpus densiflorus syn. Lithocarpus densiflorus), is established in coastal forests of the western United States. Since the discovery of SOD in the Douglas-fir / tanoak forests of southwest Oregon in 2001, a multiagency effort has ensued with the goal of fully eliminating P. ramorum from this originally small and isolated area. In this study we investigated the epidemiology of SOD in Oregon, particularly as it affects the success of the eradication program. Two approaches were taken to discern the mechanism of long distance dispersal: first, a landscape analysis of the spatial relationship between SOD sites and roads or streams, features associated with movement of infested soils, and, second, a local analysis to discern if understory infection is originating from soil or stream-borne inoculum. Using a restricted randomization test we concluded that SOD sites were no closer to roads than expected by chance, which is inconsistent with soil dispersal by people. While we found evidence that SOD sites were preferentially closer to waterways, inoculum had not moved away from streams into adjacent understory foliage. The local distribution of understory infection around SOD positive trees indicated that primary inoculum is infecting overstory canopies first, suggesting that P. ramorum is dispersing in air currents. Regression modeling indicated that weather conditions two years before detection could explain variation in the maximum distance inoculum moved each year of the epidemic between 2001 and 2010. This two year delay between infection and detection has allowed ample time for infested sites to contribute to further spread. Model results were consistent with observations made the summer of 2011, when trees likely infected by secondary inoculum at non-eradicated sites developed symptoms but were still undetectable by aerial surveys. Due to the prevalence of infection on tanoak, opportunities for sporulation and infection occur more often in Oregon than in California. These data can explain the failure to eliminate P. ramorum. Nevertheless, we did find evidence that the eradication program has significantly reduced the potential size of the SOD epidemic in Oregon. Close

• 62. [Article] Beaver ecology on the west Copper River Delta, Alaska

  Since the 1964 earthquake and geologic uplift, beavers (Castor canadensis) have expanded their historic range from the inland (outwash plain) Copper River Delta, Alaska to the once tidally influenced ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Beaver ecology on the west Copper River Delta, Alaska Author: Cooper, Erin E. Since the 1964 earthquake and geologic uplift, beavers (Castor canadensis) have expanded their historic range from the inland (outwash plain) Copper River Delta, Alaska to the once tidally influenced areas of the outer area (uplifted marsh). The uplift presents a unique opportunity to observe beaver expansion, habitat selection and influence on hydrologic structure of a coastal wetland ecosystem after a major disturbance. First, I examined the relationship between the sites of active beaver lodges and associated water and vegetative features (Chapter 2). I hypothesized that active lodge sites would be associated with distinct water features and woody vegetation types in each landscape. I used aerial photographic and ground survey methods to compare sightability and to determine habitat associations. I developed an a priori set of models to determine active beaver lodge occurrence using logistic regression with presence and absence as the response variables and water features and vegetation cover as the dependent variables. My results were similar between survey methods but differed between the two major landscape types. In the uplifted marsh, odds of an active lodge occurrance increased with the presence of former tidal sloughs and an increase in mixed shrub coverage. The odds of an active lodge occurrence increased with the presence of streams and decreased with increasing closed cottonwood-alder-willow coverage in the outwash plain. Post earthquake uplift, beaver now exploit a unique topographic setting through the use and modification of former tidal sloughs and a transitioning mixed shrub vegetation community. Second, I quantified the influence of beaver on the surface water of the West Copper River Delta using remote sensing (Chapter 3). Water features were documented from digitized aerial photographs from 1959, 1974, 1986, 1992/1993, and 1996. My results showed that surface water area in beaver influenced water impoundments increased from 0 to 20% from 1959 to 1996, concurrent with beaver colonization of the uplifted marsh. These results suggest that beavers may have altered the trajectory of wetland change on the West Copper River Delta by raising the water table within open water basins and flooding those areas that would have otherwise drained. Beaver may be used an effective management tool in wetland restoration where key habitat features are available. Title: Beaver ecology on the west Copper River Delta, Alaska Author: Cooper, Erin E. Since the 1964 earthquake and geologic uplift, beavers (Castor canadensis) have expanded their historic range from the inland (outwash plain) Copper River Delta, Alaska to the once tidally influenced areas of the outer area (uplifted marsh). The uplift presents a unique opportunity to observe beaver expansion, habitat selection and influence on hydrologic structure of a coastal wetland ecosystem after a major disturbance. First, I examined the relationship between the sites of active beaver lodges and associated water and vegetative features (Chapter 2). I hypothesized that active lodge sites would be associated with distinct water features and woody vegetation types in each landscape. I used aerial photographic and ground survey methods to compare sightability and to determine habitat associations. I developed an a priori set of models to determine active beaver lodge occurrence using logistic regression with presence and absence as the response variables and water features and vegetation cover as the dependent variables. My results were similar between survey methods but differed between the two major landscape types. In the uplifted marsh, odds of an active lodge occurrance increased with the presence of former tidal sloughs and an increase in mixed shrub coverage. The odds of an active lodge occurrence increased with the presence of streams and decreased with increasing closed cottonwood-alder-willow coverage in the outwash plain. Post earthquake uplift, beaver now exploit a unique topographic setting through the use and modification of former tidal sloughs and a transitioning mixed shrub vegetation community. Second, I quantified the influence of beaver on the surface water of the West Copper River Delta using remote sensing (Chapter 3). Water features were documented from digitized aerial photographs from 1959, 1974, 1986, 1992/1993, and 1996. My results showed that surface water area in beaver influenced water impoundments increased from 0 to 20% from 1959 to 1996, concurrent with beaver colonization of the uplifted marsh. These results suggest that beavers may have altered the trajectory of wetland change on the West Copper River Delta by raising the water table within open water basins and flooding those areas that would have otherwise drained. Beaver may be used an effective management tool in wetland restoration where key habitat features are available. Close

• 63. [Article] Influence of landscape-scale variables on the age and growth of coastal cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii in headwater streams

  This thesis provides the first general description of the natural variation in age structure, growth rates, and survival in headwater populations of coastal cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Influence of landscape-scale variables on the age and growth of coastal cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii in headwater streams Author: Rehe, William G. This thesis provides the first general description of the natural variation in age structure, growth rates, and survival in headwater populations of coastal cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii from western Oregon, and a subsequent synthesis of these life-history characteristics across the range of the subspecies. Age, growth, and survival were estimated by analyzing scales from 4,250 fish collected from 37 headwater watersheds in western Oregon from 1999 to 2001. Age was validated for 234 marked and recaptured coastal cutthroat trout from two watersheds, and >94% of the scales exhibited the expected number of annuli between capture dates. Variation among readings was low (< 9%), and there was only a slight bias between readings for older fish (primarily age-5 fish). Missing first-year annuli, often observed in cutthroat trout subspecies, were not observed for these populations. Mean relative growth rates decreased with age and size. In three populations maximum age was 3 years, but in the majority, maximum age was 4 (24 populations) or 5 years (8 populations). Annual survival rates of age-3 coastal cutthroat trout (i.e., between age-2 and age-3) ranged from 23% to 65%. Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) was used to select multiple regression models that "best" described biological response (i.e., length at age-1, mean length, and survival) to physical habitat variables. The model with January water temperature and calcium ions as predictor variables was the "best approximating model" for predicting mean length at age 1. The model with maximum pool depth and stream channel connectivity was most useful for predicting mean fish length in a watershed, and mean survival was best predicted by a model with mean July water temperature and maximum pool depth as predictor variables. Summary of range-wide life-history data for coastal cutthroat trout suggests that patterns in growth, age, and length do not follow a generalized geographic trend from north to south, and at least some differences appear to be related to life-history type. Title: Influence of landscape-scale variables on the age and growth of coastal cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii in headwater streams Author: Rehe, William G. This thesis provides the first general description of the natural variation in age structure, growth rates, and survival in headwater populations of coastal cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii from western Oregon, and a subsequent synthesis of these life-history characteristics across the range of the subspecies. Age, growth, and survival were estimated by analyzing scales from 4,250 fish collected from 37 headwater watersheds in western Oregon from 1999 to 2001. Age was validated for 234 marked and recaptured coastal cutthroat trout from two watersheds, and >94% of the scales exhibited the expected number of annuli between capture dates. Variation among readings was low (< 9%), and there was only a slight bias between readings for older fish (primarily age-5 fish). Missing first-year annuli, often observed in cutthroat trout subspecies, were not observed for these populations. Mean relative growth rates decreased with age and size. In three populations maximum age was 3 years, but in the majority, maximum age was 4 (24 populations) or 5 years (8 populations). Annual survival rates of age-3 coastal cutthroat trout (i.e., between age-2 and age-3) ranged from 23% to 65%. Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) was used to select multiple regression models that "best" described biological response (i.e., length at age-1, mean length, and survival) to physical habitat variables. The model with January water temperature and calcium ions as predictor variables was the "best approximating model" for predicting mean length at age 1. The model with maximum pool depth and stream channel connectivity was most useful for predicting mean fish length in a watershed, and mean survival was best predicted by a model with mean July water temperature and maximum pool depth as predictor variables. Summary of range-wide life-history data for coastal cutthroat trout suggests that patterns in growth, age, and length do not follow a generalized geographic trend from north to south, and at least some differences appear to be related to life-history type. Close

• 64. [Article] Ecological thresholds, climate extremes, and tree species' distributions across the Pacific coastal United States

  Species' distributions across the landscape are perhaps the least understood yet most conspicuous features of life on earth. Ecologists have long studied species' distributions; yet, many questions remain ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Ecological thresholds, climate extremes, and tree species' distributions across the Pacific coastal United States Author: Lintz, Heather E. Species' distributions across the landscape are perhaps the least understood yet most conspicuous features of life on earth. Ecologists have long studied species' distributions; yet, many questions remain about why species occur where they do. Such questions persist largely because species' distributions are complex systems with challenging properties like non-linearity, high dimensionality, and strong interactions. One impediment to our understanding of species' distributions is the use of standard quantitative approaches, which have limitations when applied to data from complex systems. The objective of this work is to develop tools that can be used to improve our understanding of natural complexity, in particular, factors relating to species’ distributions at large scales. Our study systems are tree species’ distributions from Forest Inventory Analysis (FIA) sites across the Pacific coastal USA. This work advances the detection and measurement of thresholds in response surfaces (e.g. representing tree species’ niches), the evaluation of the consequences of a major change in sampling and measurement methodology associated with the FIA program, and the relationship of climatic extremes and means to tree species’ distributions. For more detailed abstract information, please see the pdf. Title: Ecological thresholds, climate extremes, and tree species' distributions across the Pacific coastal United States Author: Lintz, Heather E. Species' distributions across the landscape are perhaps the least understood yet most conspicuous features of life on earth. Ecologists have long studied species' distributions; yet, many questions remain about why species occur where they do. Such questions persist largely because species' distributions are complex systems with challenging properties like non-linearity, high dimensionality, and strong interactions. One impediment to our understanding of species' distributions is the use of standard quantitative approaches, which have limitations when applied to data from complex systems. The objective of this work is to develop tools that can be used to improve our understanding of natural complexity, in particular, factors relating to species’ distributions at large scales. Our study systems are tree species’ distributions from Forest Inventory Analysis (FIA) sites across the Pacific coastal USA. This work advances the detection and measurement of thresholds in response surfaces (e.g. representing tree species’ niches), the evaluation of the consequences of a major change in sampling and measurement methodology associated with the FIA program, and the relationship of climatic extremes and means to tree species’ distributions. For more detailed abstract information, please see the pdf. Close

• 65. [Article] Landscape-scale evaluation of genetic structure among barrier-isolated populations of coastal cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki clarki

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Landscape-scale evaluation of genetic structure among barrier-isolated populations of coastal cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki clarki Author: Guy, Troy J. Title: Landscape-scale evaluation of genetic structure among barrier-isolated populations of coastal cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki clarki Author: Guy, Troy J. Close

• 66. [Article] Simulated response of ecosystem processes to climate change in northern California and western Nevada

  In order to investigate potential climate impacts on landscape-scale ecosystem processes, I implemented a dynamic general vegetation model (DGVM) over a large domain in northern California and western ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Simulated response of ecosystem processes to climate change in northern California and western Nevada Author: McGlinchy, Maureen C. In order to investigate potential climate impacts on landscape-scale ecosystem processes, I implemented a dynamic general vegetation model (DGVM) over a large domain in northern California and western Nevada on a rectangular grid of ca. 800-meter spatial resolution. I used 100 years of observed, monthly climate and nine future climate projections in an attempt to explore the range of possible climate futures in the region. I selected three general circulation models (MIROC3.2(medres), UKMO-HadCM3 and CSIRO-Mk3.0), incorporating a range of 2xCO₂ temperature sensitivity. Each GCM was run through three carbon dioxide emissions scenarios (SRES A2, A1B and B1). For this analysis, I focused the study on the simulated ecological impacts under the three A2 scenarios. Historical observations and future climate scenarios were interpolated to the 800-meter grid by the PRISM model. MC1, a systems-based DGVM, compared favorably to observed data for simulations of vegetation distribution and annual streamflow. MC1 slightly overestimated annual production in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains and underestimated it in the Coast Range and Eastern Cascades. MC1 displayed a low bias for annual area burned and high bias for pyrogenic emissions. Validation of simulated model output was complicated because MC1 does not consider the effects of land management on ecosystems and the study region is heavily-impacted by development, logging, fire suppression, grazing and pre-European, indigenous land-use and burning. Under all future climate projections, an increase in growing season length and temperature led to the replacement of tundra and subalpine vegetation types with temperate conifer forest. Increased winter minimum temperatures promoted the expansion of mixed needleleaf-broadleaf forest, particularly in the mid-elevations of the Sierra Nevada and in coastal forests. In the MIROC3.2 and HadCM3 scenarios, ecosystem-level net primary productivity (NPP) did not increase with enhanced CO₂ fertilization because production remained limited by water, even though both NPP and water-use-efficiency were increased at the leaf level in proportion to CO₂ concentration. Increases in NPP were projected in CSIRO-Mk3, but increased precipitation and warmer temperatures also increased rates of heterotrophic respiration for no net gain in net ecosystem productivity (NEP). Fire extent and severity increased in all scenarios, mostly driven by significant decreases in mountainous snowpack and earlier snowmelt. Thus, a relatively constant NEP and increased fire emissions produced decreases in total ecosystem carbon across all future scenarios. Projected annual streamflow varied between future climate scenarios and was highly influenced by projected precipitation. In all future simulations, high-elevation mountainous landscapes were highly sensitive to projected changes in climate, largely attributable to an increased growing season and temperature, decreased snowpack and reduced fire return interval. Coastal forests were also highly susceptible to changes in vegetation type and increases in fire. Several sources contribute to uncertainty in MC1, including input datasets, model assumptions, uncertainties in ecosystem science, and questions of scale. Therefore, these results should be considered preliminary, but useful in suggesting a range of plausible ecological futures as we continue to refine model capabilities. Title: Simulated response of ecosystem processes to climate change in northern California and western Nevada Author: McGlinchy, Maureen C. In order to investigate potential climate impacts on landscape-scale ecosystem processes, I implemented a dynamic general vegetation model (DGVM) over a large domain in northern California and western Nevada on a rectangular grid of ca. 800-meter spatial resolution. I used 100 years of observed, monthly climate and nine future climate projections in an attempt to explore the range of possible climate futures in the region. I selected three general circulation models (MIROC3.2(medres), UKMO-HadCM3 and CSIRO-Mk3.0), incorporating a range of 2xCO₂ temperature sensitivity. Each GCM was run through three carbon dioxide emissions scenarios (SRES A2, A1B and B1). For this analysis, I focused the study on the simulated ecological impacts under the three A2 scenarios. Historical observations and future climate scenarios were interpolated to the 800-meter grid by the PRISM model. MC1, a systems-based DGVM, compared favorably to observed data for simulations of vegetation distribution and annual streamflow. MC1 slightly overestimated annual production in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains and underestimated it in the Coast Range and Eastern Cascades. MC1 displayed a low bias for annual area burned and high bias for pyrogenic emissions. Validation of simulated model output was complicated because MC1 does not consider the effects of land management on ecosystems and the study region is heavily-impacted by development, logging, fire suppression, grazing and pre-European, indigenous land-use and burning. Under all future climate projections, an increase in growing season length and temperature led to the replacement of tundra and subalpine vegetation types with temperate conifer forest. Increased winter minimum temperatures promoted the expansion of mixed needleleaf-broadleaf forest, particularly in the mid-elevations of the Sierra Nevada and in coastal forests. In the MIROC3.2 and HadCM3 scenarios, ecosystem-level net primary productivity (NPP) did not increase with enhanced CO₂ fertilization because production remained limited by water, even though both NPP and water-use-efficiency were increased at the leaf level in proportion to CO₂ concentration. Increases in NPP were projected in CSIRO-Mk3, but increased precipitation and warmer temperatures also increased rates of heterotrophic respiration for no net gain in net ecosystem productivity (NEP). Fire extent and severity increased in all scenarios, mostly driven by significant decreases in mountainous snowpack and earlier snowmelt. Thus, a relatively constant NEP and increased fire emissions produced decreases in total ecosystem carbon across all future scenarios. Projected annual streamflow varied between future climate scenarios and was highly influenced by projected precipitation. In all future simulations, high-elevation mountainous landscapes were highly sensitive to projected changes in climate, largely attributable to an increased growing season and temperature, decreased snowpack and reduced fire return interval. Coastal forests were also highly susceptible to changes in vegetation type and increases in fire. Several sources contribute to uncertainty in MC1, including input datasets, model assumptions, uncertainties in ecosystem science, and questions of scale. Therefore, these results should be considered preliminary, but useful in suggesting a range of plausible ecological futures as we continue to refine model capabilities. Close

• 67. [Article] Geomorphic and Climatic Controls on Water Temperature and Streambed Scour, Copper River Delta, Alaska : Implications for Understanding Climate Change Impacts to the Pacific Salmon Egg Incubation Environment

  Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) face numerous challenges associated with climate change. Most research has emphasized the potential effects of elevated summer water temperatures; however, climatic changes ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geomorphic and Climatic Controls on Water Temperature and Streambed Scour, Copper River Delta, Alaska : Implications for Understanding Climate Change Impacts to the Pacific Salmon Egg Incubation Environment Author: Adelfio, Luca A. Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) face numerous challenges associated with climate change. Most research has emphasized the potential effects of elevated summer water temperatures; however, climatic changes are also projected to significantly alter incubation and rearing habitats during the late autumn, winter, and spring months ("the incubation period"). Along the southern coast of Alaska, projected climatic changes include increases in the frequency of above freezing winter temperatures and reductions in low elevation snowpack. These changes are expected to impact the hydrology of salmon streams by increasing both water temperatures and the magnitude and frequency of winter floods. Projected increases in water temperature may accelerate embryo development, impacting juvenile viability. More powerful and more frequent winter floods could reduce the survival of salmon eggs by increasing streambed scour. Here, I investigate climatic and geomorphic controls of water temperature and potential scour depth at salmon spawning and rearing sites on the Copper River Delta, a large coastal foreland in Southcentral Alaska. In chapter 2, I utilized surface water temperature data collected at 18 sites to test the abilities of regression models to project year-round water temperature metrics based on catchment characteristics (elevation, slope, area, percent lake area) and air-water temperature correlations. Considerable variability in water temperature was observed on spatial and temporal scales. Both temperature maxima and the frequency of freezing conditions were positively correlated with percent lake area and negatively correlated with catchment elevation and slope. Sites with upwelling groundwater and sites with high-relief, high elevation catchments exhibited lower thermal sensitivity and water temperatures are anticipated to be less impacted by projected climatic changes. In chapter 3, I utilized surface and streambed water temperature data collected at 8 spawning sites to compare water temperatures during incubation periods under climatological mean ("severe winter") and anomalously warm ("mild winter") conditions. I also collected stream stage and channel geometry data at a subset of 3 sites and calculated streambed scour at bankfull discharge. The magnitude and seasonality of accumulated thermal units (°C/day) (ATU) within spawning gravels varied significantly between severe and mild winters at shallow flowpath sites, but not at upwelling groundwater sites. When seasonal snow and ice was absent, increases in spring ATU at shallow flowpath sites were particularly significant. Modelled mean scour depths varied from 3 to 72 cm, suggesting the impacts of scour on egg mortality will be variable across the landscape. I conclude that the impacts of projected climatic changes are likely to vary in magnitude across the Copper River Delta, even at small spatial scales, due to heterogeneity in climatic and geomorphic controls. Title: Geomorphic and Climatic Controls on Water Temperature and Streambed Scour, Copper River Delta, Alaska : Implications for Understanding Climate Change Impacts to the Pacific Salmon Egg Incubation Environment Author: Adelfio, Luca A. Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) face numerous challenges associated with climate change. Most research has emphasized the potential effects of elevated summer water temperatures; however, climatic changes are also projected to significantly alter incubation and rearing habitats during the late autumn, winter, and spring months ("the incubation period"). Along the southern coast of Alaska, projected climatic changes include increases in the frequency of above freezing winter temperatures and reductions in low elevation snowpack. These changes are expected to impact the hydrology of salmon streams by increasing both water temperatures and the magnitude and frequency of winter floods. Projected increases in water temperature may accelerate embryo development, impacting juvenile viability. More powerful and more frequent winter floods could reduce the survival of salmon eggs by increasing streambed scour. Here, I investigate climatic and geomorphic controls of water temperature and potential scour depth at salmon spawning and rearing sites on the Copper River Delta, a large coastal foreland in Southcentral Alaska. In chapter 2, I utilized surface water temperature data collected at 18 sites to test the abilities of regression models to project year-round water temperature metrics based on catchment characteristics (elevation, slope, area, percent lake area) and air-water temperature correlations. Considerable variability in water temperature was observed on spatial and temporal scales. Both temperature maxima and the frequency of freezing conditions were positively correlated with percent lake area and negatively correlated with catchment elevation and slope. Sites with upwelling groundwater and sites with high-relief, high elevation catchments exhibited lower thermal sensitivity and water temperatures are anticipated to be less impacted by projected climatic changes. In chapter 3, I utilized surface and streambed water temperature data collected at 8 spawning sites to compare water temperatures during incubation periods under climatological mean ("severe winter") and anomalously warm ("mild winter") conditions. I also collected stream stage and channel geometry data at a subset of 3 sites and calculated streambed scour at bankfull discharge. The magnitude and seasonality of accumulated thermal units (°C/day) (ATU) within spawning gravels varied significantly between severe and mild winters at shallow flowpath sites, but not at upwelling groundwater sites. When seasonal snow and ice was absent, increases in spring ATU at shallow flowpath sites were particularly significant. Modelled mean scour depths varied from 3 to 72 cm, suggesting the impacts of scour on egg mortality will be variable across the landscape. I conclude that the impacts of projected climatic changes are likely to vary in magnitude across the Copper River Delta, even at small spatial scales, due to heterogeneity in climatic and geomorphic controls. Close

• 68. [Article] Exploring the Impacts of Climate and Management on Coastal Community Vulnerability through Alternative Future Scenarios

  Coastal communities throughout the U.S. Pacific Northwest face heightened risk due to sea level rise and increasing storminess resulting in coastal flooding and erosion hazards. Incorporating uncertainty ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Exploring the Impacts of Climate and Management on Coastal Community Vulnerability through Alternative Future Scenarios Author: Mills, Alexis K. Coastal communities throughout the U.S. Pacific Northwest face heightened risk due to sea level rise and increasing storminess resulting in coastal flooding and erosion hazards. Incorporating uncertainty with respect to both climate change and policy decisions is essential to project the evolving probability of coastal inundation and erosion, and the associated community vulnerability through time. Coupled models of coastal hazards, ecosystems, development, and socioeconomics allow decision-makers to explore the effects of policy decisions in conjunction with climate forcing, land use change, and economic disturbances and can provide a means of examining the feedbacks between climate change and adaptation under uncertain climatologic and socioeconomic futures. Envision, a spatially explicit multi‐agent modelling platform that provides a scenario-based, policy centric framework for examining interactions between human and natural systems across a landscape, is used within the two papers herebelow to explore strategies that may reduce vulnerability to coastal hazards within the context of uncertainty and climate change. Probabilistic simulations of total water levels allow for representation of variability of sea level rise, wave climate, and the El Niño Southern Oscillation both as individual climate drivers and under a range of climate change scenarios through the end of the century. Additionally, stakeholder generated policy scenarios capture variability in human response. The approaches described here provide a foundation through which to explore alternative management scenarios related to coastal hazards and can be transferred to other coastal systems to further assess how hazards may be affected by both climate change and management decisions.   Title: Exploring the Impacts of Climate and Management on Coastal Community Vulnerability through Alternative Future Scenarios Author: Mills, Alexis K. Coastal communities throughout the U.S. Pacific Northwest face heightened risk due to sea level rise and increasing storminess resulting in coastal flooding and erosion hazards. Incorporating uncertainty with respect to both climate change and policy decisions is essential to project the evolving probability of coastal inundation and erosion, and the associated community vulnerability through time. Coupled models of coastal hazards, ecosystems, development, and socioeconomics allow decision-makers to explore the effects of policy decisions in conjunction with climate forcing, land use change, and economic disturbances and can provide a means of examining the feedbacks between climate change and adaptation under uncertain climatologic and socioeconomic futures. Envision, a spatially explicit multi‐agent modelling platform that provides a scenario-based, policy centric framework for examining interactions between human and natural systems across a landscape, is used within the two papers herebelow to explore strategies that may reduce vulnerability to coastal hazards within the context of uncertainty and climate change. Probabilistic simulations of total water levels allow for representation of variability of sea level rise, wave climate, and the El Niño Southern Oscillation both as individual climate drivers and under a range of climate change scenarios through the end of the century. Additionally, stakeholder generated policy scenarios capture variability in human response. The approaches described here provide a foundation through which to explore alternative management scenarios related to coastal hazards and can be transferred to other coastal systems to further assess how hazards may be affected by both climate change and management decisions.   Close

• 69. [Article] Evaluating Coastal Protection Services Associated with Restoration Management of an Endangered Shorebird in Oregon, U.S.A.

  Coastal sand dunes and beaches offer a variety of ecosystem services such as coastal protection, sand stabilization, species conservation, and recreation. However, the management and balance of ecosystem ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluating Coastal Protection Services Associated with Restoration Management of an Endangered Shorebird in Oregon, U.S.A. Author: Carroll, Lindsay J. Coastal sand dunes and beaches offer a variety of ecosystem services such as coastal protection, sand stabilization, species conservation, and recreation. However, the management and balance of ecosystem services offered by dunes and beaches is challenging when ecosystem services interact across the landscape. Management focusing only on one ecosystem service may result in unintended consequences and trade-offs between other key services. Understanding the magnitude of the trade-offs and linkages between services provides a more holistic approach for reducing unintended consequences and maximizing function. The degradation of habitats and land use changes associated with expanding human populations has resulted in the need for species conservation. However, species conservation techniques can sometimes have unintended consequences for other services. Given the mandate of the Endangered Species Act to restore habitat structure and function essential to endangered or threatened species, it becomes critical to evaluate the implications of species conservation management initiatives to reduce negative implications to other key services. The coastal dune systems of the Pacific Northwest (PNW) are a prime example of how ecosystem services, such as species conservation and coastal protection, can interact with one another. Over the last 125 years in the Pacific Northwest (PNW), the intentional introduction of two non-native congeneric beach grasses (Ammophila arenaria and A. breviligulata) has increased coastal protection through the creation of foredunes, but also dramatically altered the dune ecosystem. Both invasive grasses build taller dunes that range from 3 - 18 m in height compared to the native grass, Elymus mollis. Increased foredune elevations generate greater coastal protection services that are increasingly important given sea level rise and extreme storm events on the PNW coast. However, the beach grasses have dramatically changed the beach/dune community, resulting in the decline of several native dune plants and animals. One species that is negatively affected by the grass invasion is the Western snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus nivosus), an endemic shorebird living on beaches and dunes in the Pacific Northwest. This shorebird was listed threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 1993 and a recovery plan was established that employed multiple recovery techniques. The most important part of the plan involves establishing habitat restoration areas (HRAs) where dunes are bulldozed, reducing dune elevations, burying the grass, and returning the dunes to an open shifting sand environment, historically preferred by the plover. Recent coastal hazards modeling revealed that the changes in beach and dune shape associated with plover restoration increases coastal exposure to flooding and erosion at certain locations along the Oregon coast, particularly under projected climate change scenarios of sea level rise and extreme storms. As part of future plover management, four critical habitat areas were proposed for Tillamook County, Oregon: Nehalem River Spit, Bayocean Spit, Netarts Spit, and Sand Lake South. Given the interest in plover habitat restoration in Tillamook County, this research project addresses the following questions: (1) What is the present day dune geomorphology and exposure to coastal hazards at four proposed critical habitat (PCH) areas in Tillamook County, Oregon; and (2) how do changes in beach geomorphology associated with different restoration scenarios alter coastal exposure today, under projected sea level rise and storm scenarios? To address the coastal geomorphological impacts of HRA installation on the four proposed areas, multiple restoration scenarios that reduce foredune elevation were evaluated under present day sea level and potential future sea level rise and extreme storminess scenarios, using coastal exposure modeling techniques. The model projections provide site-specific information on the exposure of HRAs to overtopping under different restoration conditions. We determined that exposure to flooding was dependent on proposed HRA site and restoration scenario, and was exacerbated by sea level rise and extreme storms. Empirical models projected the greatest flooding exposure would occur at Nehalem River Spit, followed by Netarts Spit, and then Bayocean Spit and Sand Lake South, which did not differ. Exposure to flooding at present day dunes was low across all sites, but with increasing exposure to flooding as foredune elevations were reduced to 6.0 m or below, as could happen with plover habitat restoration. Under present day water levels, restoring foredune elevations to 6.0 m or below would likely result in roughly 5 days of overtopping per year at Nehalem River Spit, Bayocean Spit, and Netarts Spit, and 4 days of overtopping at Sand Lake South. Flooding under various foredune restoration scenarios increased under higher sea level rise scenarios. Flooding exposure for the 6.0 m restoration scenario exceeded 10 days per year at Nehalem River Spit and 5 days per year at Bayocean Spit, Netarts Spit, and Sand Lake South. Overall exposure to flooding under the extreme storm scenarios was dependent on proposed HRA site, restoration scenario, and increased wave conditions, such as wave height, period, and water level. Similar to the empirical model, flooding exposure under extreme storm scenarios increased when foredune elevations were reduced to 6.0 m or below, across all sites. The site with the greatest overall flooding exposure during extreme storms was Bayocean Spit. Flooding distance was dependent on restoration scenario and site while flooding duration was only dependent on restoration scenario. The 5.5 m restoration scenario under higher storm water levels resulted in one hour or more of flooding exposure at least one day per year at Nehalem River Spit, Netarts Spit, and Bayocean Spit. The overall likelihood of overwash extending to 150 m or more into the dune field during extreme storms was at least 5 days when selecting to reduce foredune to restoration elevations of 7.0 m or below across all sites. The effect of higher wave heights and greater wave periods was more important to overtopping distance than restoration scenario. Learning from current plover management, combined with the coastal exposure analysis we conducted here, could enable managers to develop site-specific restoration plans that maximize plover recovery while minimizing coastal exposure. This research will give resource managers information on the coastal exposure associated with proposed HRAs and the foredune reduction scenarios they might want to employ at the different sites. It will allow them to identify the best restoration scenarios to maximum habitat restoration without compromising coastal protection, and thus balance some important services of dunes and beaches. Regardless of management objective, identifying the unintended consequences of restoration to key ecosystem services is necessary for the holistic management of our dynamic coasts, especially with projected sea level rise and the uncertainty of frequent and extreme storms. Title: Evaluating Coastal Protection Services Associated with Restoration Management of an Endangered Shorebird in Oregon, U.S.A. Author: Carroll, Lindsay J. Coastal sand dunes and beaches offer a variety of ecosystem services such as coastal protection, sand stabilization, species conservation, and recreation. However, the management and balance of ecosystem services offered by dunes and beaches is challenging when ecosystem services interact across the landscape. Management focusing only on one ecosystem service may result in unintended consequences and trade-offs between other key services. Understanding the magnitude of the trade-offs and linkages between services provides a more holistic approach for reducing unintended consequences and maximizing function. The degradation of habitats and land use changes associated with expanding human populations has resulted in the need for species conservation. However, species conservation techniques can sometimes have unintended consequences for other services. Given the mandate of the Endangered Species Act to restore habitat structure and function essential to endangered or threatened species, it becomes critical to evaluate the implications of species conservation management initiatives to reduce negative implications to other key services. The coastal dune systems of the Pacific Northwest (PNW) are a prime example of how ecosystem services, such as species conservation and coastal protection, can interact with one another. Over the last 125 years in the Pacific Northwest (PNW), the intentional introduction of two non-native congeneric beach grasses (Ammophila arenaria and A. breviligulata) has increased coastal protection through the creation of foredunes, but also dramatically altered the dune ecosystem. Both invasive grasses build taller dunes that range from 3 - 18 m in height compared to the native grass, Elymus mollis. Increased foredune elevations generate greater coastal protection services that are increasingly important given sea level rise and extreme storm events on the PNW coast. However, the beach grasses have dramatically changed the beach/dune community, resulting in the decline of several native dune plants and animals. One species that is negatively affected by the grass invasion is the Western snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus nivosus), an endemic shorebird living on beaches and dunes in the Pacific Northwest. This shorebird was listed threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 1993 and a recovery plan was established that employed multiple recovery techniques. The most important part of the plan involves establishing habitat restoration areas (HRAs) where dunes are bulldozed, reducing dune elevations, burying the grass, and returning the dunes to an open shifting sand environment, historically preferred by the plover. Recent coastal hazards modeling revealed that the changes in beach and dune shape associated with plover restoration increases coastal exposure to flooding and erosion at certain locations along the Oregon coast, particularly under projected climate change scenarios of sea level rise and extreme storms. As part of future plover management, four critical habitat areas were proposed for Tillamook County, Oregon: Nehalem River Spit, Bayocean Spit, Netarts Spit, and Sand Lake South. Given the interest in plover habitat restoration in Tillamook County, this research project addresses the following questions: (1) What is the present day dune geomorphology and exposure to coastal hazards at four proposed critical habitat (PCH) areas in Tillamook County, Oregon; and (2) how do changes in beach geomorphology associated with different restoration scenarios alter coastal exposure today, under projected sea level rise and storm scenarios? To address the coastal geomorphological impacts of HRA installation on the four proposed areas, multiple restoration scenarios that reduce foredune elevation were evaluated under present day sea level and potential future sea level rise and extreme storminess scenarios, using coastal exposure modeling techniques. The model projections provide site-specific information on the exposure of HRAs to overtopping under different restoration conditions. We determined that exposure to flooding was dependent on proposed HRA site and restoration scenario, and was exacerbated by sea level rise and extreme storms. Empirical models projected the greatest flooding exposure would occur at Nehalem River Spit, followed by Netarts Spit, and then Bayocean Spit and Sand Lake South, which did not differ. Exposure to flooding at present day dunes was low across all sites, but with increasing exposure to flooding as foredune elevations were reduced to 6.0 m or below, as could happen with plover habitat restoration. Under present day water levels, restoring foredune elevations to 6.0 m or below would likely result in roughly 5 days of overtopping per year at Nehalem River Spit, Bayocean Spit, and Netarts Spit, and 4 days of overtopping at Sand Lake South. Flooding under various foredune restoration scenarios increased under higher sea level rise scenarios. Flooding exposure for the 6.0 m restoration scenario exceeded 10 days per year at Nehalem River Spit and 5 days per year at Bayocean Spit, Netarts Spit, and Sand Lake South. Overall exposure to flooding under the extreme storm scenarios was dependent on proposed HRA site, restoration scenario, and increased wave conditions, such as wave height, period, and water level. Similar to the empirical model, flooding exposure under extreme storm scenarios increased when foredune elevations were reduced to 6.0 m or below, across all sites. The site with the greatest overall flooding exposure during extreme storms was Bayocean Spit. Flooding distance was dependent on restoration scenario and site while flooding duration was only dependent on restoration scenario. The 5.5 m restoration scenario under higher storm water levels resulted in one hour or more of flooding exposure at least one day per year at Nehalem River Spit, Netarts Spit, and Bayocean Spit. The overall likelihood of overwash extending to 150 m or more into the dune field during extreme storms was at least 5 days when selecting to reduce foredune to restoration elevations of 7.0 m or below across all sites. The effect of higher wave heights and greater wave periods was more important to overtopping distance than restoration scenario. Learning from current plover management, combined with the coastal exposure analysis we conducted here, could enable managers to develop site-specific restoration plans that maximize plover recovery while minimizing coastal exposure. This research will give resource managers information on the coastal exposure associated with proposed HRAs and the foredune reduction scenarios they might want to employ at the different sites. It will allow them to identify the best restoration scenarios to maximum habitat restoration without compromising coastal protection, and thus balance some important services of dunes and beaches. Regardless of management objective, identifying the unintended consequences of restoration to key ecosystem services is necessary for the holistic management of our dynamic coasts, especially with projected sea level rise and the uncertainty of frequent and extreme storms. Close

• 70. [Article] Assessment of the potential for conflict between existing ocean space use and renewable energy development off the coast of Oregon

  Oregon's ocean waters are a potential source of wind, wave, and tidal energy; of interest to renewable energy entrepreneurs and to the U.S. government as it seeks to bolster energy security. In order to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Assessment of the potential for conflict between existing ocean space use and renewable energy development off the coast of Oregon Author: Sullivan, Colleen M. (Colleen Marie) Oregon's ocean waters are a potential source of wind, wave, and tidal energy; of interest to renewable energy entrepreneurs and to the U.S. government as it seeks to bolster energy security. In order to install technology to capture this energy, however, it may be necessary to mitigate conflict with existing ocean space users. The objective of this research was to construct a conflict analysis model in a GIS to answer the following research questions: (1) Within the study area off the coast of Oregon, where are stakeholders currently using ocean space and how many uses overlap? (2) To what extent might existing ocean space use present potential for conflict with renewable energy development? (3) How do various types of uncertainty affect analysis results? (4) What are the implications of these findings for ecosystem based management of the ocean? All available spatial information on ocean space usage by commercial fishing, commercial non-fishing, recreational, Native American, and scientific communities was gathered. Stakeholder outreach with these communities was used to vet the collected data and allow each to contribute knowledge not previously available through GIS data clearinghouses maintained by government or interest groups. The resulting data were used as inputs to a conflict visualization model written in Python and imported to an ArcGIS tool. Results showed extensive coverage and overlap of existing ocean space uses; specifically that 99.7% of the 1-nm² grid cells of the study area are occupied by at least 6 different categories of ocean space use. The six uses with the greatest coverage were: Fishing – Trolling, Habitat, Military, Fishing - Closure Areas, Protected, and Marine Transportation - Low Intensity. An uncertainty analysis was also completed to illustrate the margin for error and therefore the necessity of appropriate stakeholder outreach during the renewable energy siting process, as opposed to relying only on a GIS. Ranking of each category by its potential for conflict with renewable energy development demonstrated which areas of the ocean may be particularly contentious. Because rankings are subjective, a tool was created to allow users to input their own rankings. For the purpose of this report, default rankings were assigned to each as justified by the literature. Results under these assumptions showed that space use and potential for conflict were highest between the coast and approximately 30 nm at sea. This is likely because certain space use is limited by depth (e.g., recreational use); there is increased shipping density as vessels approach and depart major ports; and increased fuel costs associated with traveling further from shore. Two potential applications of model results were demonstrated. First, comparison with existing wave energy permit sites highlighted relative potential for conflict among the sites and the input data detailed the specific uses present. Second, comparison with areas determined most suitable for development by the wave energy industry illustrated that areas of high suitability often also had high rankings for potential for conflict. It appeared that the factors that determined development suitability were often the same factors that drew current ocean space users to those locations. Current support at the state, regional and federal level under the National Ocean Policy for the use of marine spatial planning as a tool to implement ecosystem based management of the oceans requires that tools such as the one developed in this research are used, to ensure that all components of the marine ecosystem are considered prior to implementation of a management plan. The addition of renewable energy to the current social landscape of the ocean will reduce the resource base for many categories of ocean space use. Model results demonstrated that mitigation of conflict between development and existing space use is not merely a best practice supported by current policy, but a necessity. Results presented a visualization of the social landscape of the ocean that could help managers determine which stakeholders to engage during the initial stage of choosing a site for development. Title: Assessment of the potential for conflict between existing ocean space use and renewable energy development off the coast of Oregon Author: Sullivan, Colleen M. (Colleen Marie) Oregon's ocean waters are a potential source of wind, wave, and tidal energy; of interest to renewable energy entrepreneurs and to the U.S. government as it seeks to bolster energy security. In order to install technology to capture this energy, however, it may be necessary to mitigate conflict with existing ocean space users. The objective of this research was to construct a conflict analysis model in a GIS to answer the following research questions: (1) Within the study area off the coast of Oregon, where are stakeholders currently using ocean space and how many uses overlap? (2) To what extent might existing ocean space use present potential for conflict with renewable energy development? (3) How do various types of uncertainty affect analysis results? (4) What are the implications of these findings for ecosystem based management of the ocean? All available spatial information on ocean space usage by commercial fishing, commercial non-fishing, recreational, Native American, and scientific communities was gathered. Stakeholder outreach with these communities was used to vet the collected data and allow each to contribute knowledge not previously available through GIS data clearinghouses maintained by government or interest groups. The resulting data were used as inputs to a conflict visualization model written in Python and imported to an ArcGIS tool. Results showed extensive coverage and overlap of existing ocean space uses; specifically that 99.7% of the 1-nm² grid cells of the study area are occupied by at least 6 different categories of ocean space use. The six uses with the greatest coverage were: Fishing – Trolling, Habitat, Military, Fishing - Closure Areas, Protected, and Marine Transportation - Low Intensity. An uncertainty analysis was also completed to illustrate the margin for error and therefore the necessity of appropriate stakeholder outreach during the renewable energy siting process, as opposed to relying only on a GIS. Ranking of each category by its potential for conflict with renewable energy development demonstrated which areas of the ocean may be particularly contentious. Because rankings are subjective, a tool was created to allow users to input their own rankings. For the purpose of this report, default rankings were assigned to each as justified by the literature. Results under these assumptions showed that space use and potential for conflict were highest between the coast and approximately 30 nm at sea. This is likely because certain space use is limited by depth (e.g., recreational use); there is increased shipping density as vessels approach and depart major ports; and increased fuel costs associated with traveling further from shore. Two potential applications of model results were demonstrated. First, comparison with existing wave energy permit sites highlighted relative potential for conflict among the sites and the input data detailed the specific uses present. Second, comparison with areas determined most suitable for development by the wave energy industry illustrated that areas of high suitability often also had high rankings for potential for conflict. It appeared that the factors that determined development suitability were often the same factors that drew current ocean space users to those locations. Current support at the state, regional and federal level under the National Ocean Policy for the use of marine spatial planning as a tool to implement ecosystem based management of the oceans requires that tools such as the one developed in this research are used, to ensure that all components of the marine ecosystem are considered prior to implementation of a management plan. The addition of renewable energy to the current social landscape of the ocean will reduce the resource base for many categories of ocean space use. Model results demonstrated that mitigation of conflict between development and existing space use is not merely a best practice supported by current policy, but a necessity. Results presented a visualization of the social landscape of the ocean that could help managers determine which stakeholders to engage during the initial stage of choosing a site for development. Close

• 71. [Article] Quaternary marine terraces on Cyprus : constraints on uplift and pedogenesis, and the geoarchaeology of Palaipafos

  Numerous flights of Quaternary marine terraces are present around the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean. These terraces are a result of the global eustatic sea-level curve and local tectonism. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Quaternary marine terraces on Cyprus : constraints on uplift and pedogenesis, and the geoarchaeology of Palaipafos Author: Zomeni, Zomenia Numerous flights of Quaternary marine terraces are present around the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean. These terraces are a result of the global eustatic sea-level curve and local tectonism. Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 through MIS 13 terraces are identified, mapped and dated. Palaeoshoreline elevation, an excellent indicator for a past sea–level, and new numerical geochronology are used to calculate an Upper Pleistocene uplift rate for various coastal sectors. Southwestern Cyprus presents the highest uplift rates of 0.35-0.65 mm/year with other sections suggesting uplift of 0.07-0.15 mm/year. This Upper Pleistocene tectonic signal is attributed to an active offshore subduction/collision system to the southwest of Cyprus, evidenced from the seismic activity offshore and the surface expression of a blind thrust fault in the Pafos region. Soil chronosequences and geology in southwestern Cyprus are studied in order to understand the Quaternary development on this uplifting landscape. Soil profile properties are used to calculate a profile development index (PDI), a method often applied to geomorphic surfaces as a relative dating method. Well-developed red and clayey soils occur in the coastal sector, on broad and low-angle surfaces, specifically on marine terraces and alluvial fans. Higher elevations of steep slopes consisting of carbonate and ophiolite lithologies host poorly developed soils. Results show variable PDI's on uplifted terraces, obscured by transported materials, active alluvial fan buildup and hillslope erosion. Calcium carbonate build-up in soil profiles in the form of nodular and laminar accumulations are used as another relative dating method. Geochronology of marine terraces is used as an age range approximation for carbonate stages. Geomorphologic mapping focuses on the southeastern part of the Pafos thrust fault, the only point on the landscape where this otherwise blind fault is exposed on the surface. This is the location of Palaipafos, an important Ancient polity, today the site of the village of Kouklia. Geoarchaeological study suggests little landscape change over the last 4000 years in the vicinity of the urban core of Palaipafos, this being attributed to bedrock and landscape resistance of its location, a plateau at 80 m amsl. Copper deposits in the Palaipafos hinterland had provided a valuable resource at one time. Soil and water resources continue to sustain agriculture.Tectonic uplift in this part of the Pafos thrust fault is estimated to be 2.1mm/year, considered, together with Late Holocene sea-level change responsible for the shifting locations and eventual abandonment of the Palaipafos harbor in the coastal lowlands. Title: Quaternary marine terraces on Cyprus : constraints on uplift and pedogenesis, and the geoarchaeology of Palaipafos Author: Zomeni, Zomenia Numerous flights of Quaternary marine terraces are present around the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean. These terraces are a result of the global eustatic sea-level curve and local tectonism. Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 through MIS 13 terraces are identified, mapped and dated. Palaeoshoreline elevation, an excellent indicator for a past sea–level, and new numerical geochronology are used to calculate an Upper Pleistocene uplift rate for various coastal sectors. Southwestern Cyprus presents the highest uplift rates of 0.35-0.65 mm/year with other sections suggesting uplift of 0.07-0.15 mm/year. This Upper Pleistocene tectonic signal is attributed to an active offshore subduction/collision system to the southwest of Cyprus, evidenced from the seismic activity offshore and the surface expression of a blind thrust fault in the Pafos region. Soil chronosequences and geology in southwestern Cyprus are studied in order to understand the Quaternary development on this uplifting landscape. Soil profile properties are used to calculate a profile development index (PDI), a method often applied to geomorphic surfaces as a relative dating method. Well-developed red and clayey soils occur in the coastal sector, on broad and low-angle surfaces, specifically on marine terraces and alluvial fans. Higher elevations of steep slopes consisting of carbonate and ophiolite lithologies host poorly developed soils. Results show variable PDI's on uplifted terraces, obscured by transported materials, active alluvial fan buildup and hillslope erosion. Calcium carbonate build-up in soil profiles in the form of nodular and laminar accumulations are used as another relative dating method. Geochronology of marine terraces is used as an age range approximation for carbonate stages. Geomorphologic mapping focuses on the southeastern part of the Pafos thrust fault, the only point on the landscape where this otherwise blind fault is exposed on the surface. This is the location of Palaipafos, an important Ancient polity, today the site of the village of Kouklia. Geoarchaeological study suggests little landscape change over the last 4000 years in the vicinity of the urban core of Palaipafos, this being attributed to bedrock and landscape resistance of its location, a plateau at 80 m amsl. Copper deposits in the Palaipafos hinterland had provided a valuable resource at one time. Soil and water resources continue to sustain agriculture.Tectonic uplift in this part of the Pafos thrust fault is estimated to be 2.1mm/year, considered, together with Late Holocene sea-level change responsible for the shifting locations and eventual abandonment of the Palaipafos harbor in the coastal lowlands. Close

• 72. [Article] Road networks, timber harvest, and the spread of Phytophthora root rot infestations of Port-Orford-­cedar in southwest Oregon

  Phytophthora lateralis is the causal agent of cedar root rot, a fatal forest pathogen whose principal host is Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port-Orford-cedar), a predominantly riparian-restricted endemic tree ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Road networks, timber harvest, and the spread of Phytophthora root rot infestations of Port-Orford-­cedar in southwest Oregon Author: Clark, William C. Phytophthora lateralis is the causal agent of cedar root rot, a fatal forest pathogen whose principal host is Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port-Orford-cedar), a predominantly riparian-restricted endemic tree species of ecological, economical, and cultural importance to coastal Oregon and California. Local scale distribution of P. lateralis is thought to be associated with timber harvest and road-building disturbances. However, knowledge of the landscape-scale factors that contribute to successful invasions of P. lateralis is also important for effective land management of Port-Orford-cedar. P. lateralis is able to infest in wet conditions via stream networks (zoospore) and dry conditions via road networks (resting spore). This study tested the hypothesis that vehicles spread P. lateralis by relating its distribution to traffic intensive, anthropogenic disturbances (i.e. a road network, timber harvest) over a 31-yr period in a 3,910-km² portion of the Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest in the Siskiyou Mountains of Oregon. Indices of road disturbance (presence/absence, configuration, length, density, road-stream network connectivity) and timber harvest (presence/absence, area, density, frequency) were related to locations of infested cedar populations from a USFS survey dataset using a geographic information system (GIS). About 40% of 934 7th-field catchments were infested with the pathogen. Total road length of the study site was 5,070 km; maximum road density was 8.2 km/km2 and averaged 1.6 km/km² in roaded catchments (n = 766). Timber activities extracted 17,370 ha (2,338 cutting units) of forest across 509 catchments; 345 catchments were cut ≥ twice. Maximum harvest density was 0.92 km²/km² ([mean] = 0.04). Both road networks and timber harvest patchworks were significantly related to cedar root rot heterogeneity. Chi-squared contingency tables showed that infestation rates were 2.2 times higher in catchments with roads compared to roadless catchments and 1.4 times higher in catchments with road-stream intersections compared to those that were unconnected. Infestation was twice as likely in catchments with both harvest and road presence than road presence alone. Single-variable logistic regression showed that a one percent increase in harvest density increased infestation odds 25% and a one-unit (km/km²) increase in road density increased infestation odds 80%. Road and stream network configuration was also important to pathogen distribution: 1) uninfested catchments are most likely to be spatially removed from infested, roaded catchments, 2) only 11% of 287 roaded catchments downstream of infested, roaded catchments were uninfested, and 3) only 12% of 319 catchments downstream of infested catchments were uninfested. Road networks and timber harvest patchworks appear to reduce landscape heterogeneity by providing up-catchment and down-catchment access to host populations by linking pathogenic materials to the stream network. Timber harvest data suggest that while infestation risk to Port-Orford-cedar populations remains high, management policies may have curbed infestation risk in timber-harvested catchments; if this is a result of specific P. lateralis mitigation policies adopted in the late 1980's or broader, region-wide conservation policies (i.e. the Northwest Forest Plan) is yet unclear. Title: Road networks, timber harvest, and the spread of Phytophthora root rot infestations of Port-Orford-­cedar in southwest Oregon Author: Clark, William C. Phytophthora lateralis is the causal agent of cedar root rot, a fatal forest pathogen whose principal host is Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port-Orford-cedar), a predominantly riparian-restricted endemic tree species of ecological, economical, and cultural importance to coastal Oregon and California. Local scale distribution of P. lateralis is thought to be associated with timber harvest and road-building disturbances. However, knowledge of the landscape-scale factors that contribute to successful invasions of P. lateralis is also important for effective land management of Port-Orford-cedar. P. lateralis is able to infest in wet conditions via stream networks (zoospore) and dry conditions via road networks (resting spore). This study tested the hypothesis that vehicles spread P. lateralis by relating its distribution to traffic intensive, anthropogenic disturbances (i.e. a road network, timber harvest) over a 31-yr period in a 3,910-km² portion of the Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest in the Siskiyou Mountains of Oregon. Indices of road disturbance (presence/absence, configuration, length, density, road-stream network connectivity) and timber harvest (presence/absence, area, density, frequency) were related to locations of infested cedar populations from a USFS survey dataset using a geographic information system (GIS). About 40% of 934 7th-field catchments were infested with the pathogen. Total road length of the study site was 5,070 km; maximum road density was 8.2 km/km2 and averaged 1.6 km/km² in roaded catchments (n = 766). Timber activities extracted 17,370 ha (2,338 cutting units) of forest across 509 catchments; 345 catchments were cut ≥ twice. Maximum harvest density was 0.92 km²/km² ([mean] = 0.04). Both road networks and timber harvest patchworks were significantly related to cedar root rot heterogeneity. Chi-squared contingency tables showed that infestation rates were 2.2 times higher in catchments with roads compared to roadless catchments and 1.4 times higher in catchments with road-stream intersections compared to those that were unconnected. Infestation was twice as likely in catchments with both harvest and road presence than road presence alone. Single-variable logistic regression showed that a one percent increase in harvest density increased infestation odds 25% and a one-unit (km/km²) increase in road density increased infestation odds 80%. Road and stream network configuration was also important to pathogen distribution: 1) uninfested catchments are most likely to be spatially removed from infested, roaded catchments, 2) only 11% of 287 roaded catchments downstream of infested, roaded catchments were uninfested, and 3) only 12% of 319 catchments downstream of infested catchments were uninfested. Road networks and timber harvest patchworks appear to reduce landscape heterogeneity by providing up-catchment and down-catchment access to host populations by linking pathogenic materials to the stream network. Timber harvest data suggest that while infestation risk to Port-Orford-cedar populations remains high, management policies may have curbed infestation risk in timber-harvested catchments; if this is a result of specific P. lateralis mitigation policies adopted in the late 1980's or broader, region-wide conservation policies (i.e. the Northwest Forest Plan) is yet unclear. Close

• 73. [Article] The Impact of Disturbance on Carbon Stores and Dynamics in Forests of Coastal Alaska

  Changes in climate caused by increased concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the Earth’s atmosphere have led land and ocean surface temperatures to increase by 0.85°C and sea level to increase by 19 ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Impact of Disturbance on Carbon Stores and Dynamics in Forests of Coastal Alaska Author: Yatskov, Mikhail A. Changes in climate caused by increased concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the Earth’s atmosphere have led land and ocean surface temperatures to increase by 0.85°C and sea level to increase by 19 cm relative to preindustrial times. Global climate change will lead to further alterations in mean temperature and precipitation, as well as their extremes that are likely to influence disturbance regimes. Disturbance play an important role in forest dynamics and succession, by influencing forest ecosystems structure and function, reorganizing forests by reducing live and increasing dead matter, and thus affecting ecosystem carbon (C) balances. Under a changing climate disturbances are likely to cause widespread tree mortality across forested landscapes, creating vast amounts of coarse woody debris (CWD) that will emit C to the atmosphere to a degree that regional C balances and future C dynamics are likely to change. C balance of forested regions depends on inputs in form of C sequestered by live components during growth and outputs in form of C emitted from dead components through decomposition and combustion. Live trees in many forest ecosystems represent the largest aboveground C pool and the dynamics of this pool, as controlled by growth and mortality, have been extensively studied. In contrast, few have examined either the post-disturbance fate of CWD C or assessed C storage potential of salvaged biomass despite the occurrence of multiple recent large-scale disturbance events. Biomass and C stores and their uncertainty were estimated in the Temperate and the Boreal ecoregions of Coastal Alaska using the empirical data from the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program, literature data, and modeling using standard methods employed by the FIA program. The average aboveground woody live (218.9±4.6 Mg/ha) and log (28.1±1.8 Mg/ha) biomass in the Temperate ecoregion were among the lowest in the Pacific Northwest, whereas snag biomass (30.5±1.0 Mg/ha) was among the highest. In the Boreal ecoregion, CWD biomass comprised almost 50% of the regional aboveground woody store (76.7±3.8 Mg/ha) with bark beetle damaged stands containing 82% of the total CWD biomass. In contrast, in the Temperate ecoregion, CWD comprised 20% of the regional aboveground woody store (277.5 ±5.4 Mg/ha) with 76% of total CWD biomass in undisturbed stands. Total C stores estimates in Coastal Alaska ranged between 1523.6 and 1892.8 Tg with the highest contribution from soils and the largest potential reductions in uncertainty related to the tree and soils C pools. The impact of a large-scale spruce bark beetle (SBB) outbreak on aboveground dead wood C dynamics on the Kenai Peninsula was modeled utilizing data from the FIA program and CWD decomposition rate-constants from a chronosequence and decomposition-vectors analysis. Decomposition rate-constants from the chronosequence ranged between -0.015 yr⁻¹ and -0.022 yr⁻¹ for logs and -0.003 yr⁻¹ and +0.002 yr⁻¹ for snags. Decomposition rate-constants from the decomposition-vectors ranged between -0.045 yr⁻¹ and +0.003 yr⁻¹ among decomposition phases and -0.048 yr⁻¹ and +0.006 yr⁻¹ among decay classes. Relative to log generating disturbances those creating snags delayed C flux from CWD to the atmosphere, produced a smaller magnitude C flux, and had the potential to store 10% to 66% more C in a disturbed system over time. The effect of several management strategies ranging from "leave-as-is" to "salvage-and-utilization" on C stores and emissions following SBB outbreak on Kenai Peninsula, Alaska was evaluated. A forest with immediate post-disturbance regeneration reached pre-disturbance C stores faster than one with delayed regeneration. Lack of regeneration, representing a loss of tree cover on the disturbed portion of the landscape, caused a permanent decrease in wood C stores. Among the "salvage-and-utilization" scenarios considered, biomass fuel production with substitution for fossil fuels created the largest long-term C storage assuming the substitution was permanent. Given that reduction in near-term emissions may be a more robust strategy than long-term ones, the "leave-as-is" scenarios may represent the most feasible way to mitigate global climate change following disturbance. Title: The Impact of Disturbance on Carbon Stores and Dynamics in Forests of Coastal Alaska Author: Yatskov, Mikhail A. Changes in climate caused by increased concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the Earth’s atmosphere have led land and ocean surface temperatures to increase by 0.85°C and sea level to increase by 19 cm relative to preindustrial times. Global climate change will lead to further alterations in mean temperature and precipitation, as well as their extremes that are likely to influence disturbance regimes. Disturbance play an important role in forest dynamics and succession, by influencing forest ecosystems structure and function, reorganizing forests by reducing live and increasing dead matter, and thus affecting ecosystem carbon (C) balances. Under a changing climate disturbances are likely to cause widespread tree mortality across forested landscapes, creating vast amounts of coarse woody debris (CWD) that will emit C to the atmosphere to a degree that regional C balances and future C dynamics are likely to change. C balance of forested regions depends on inputs in form of C sequestered by live components during growth and outputs in form of C emitted from dead components through decomposition and combustion. Live trees in many forest ecosystems represent the largest aboveground C pool and the dynamics of this pool, as controlled by growth and mortality, have been extensively studied. In contrast, few have examined either the post-disturbance fate of CWD C or assessed C storage potential of salvaged biomass despite the occurrence of multiple recent large-scale disturbance events. Biomass and C stores and their uncertainty were estimated in the Temperate and the Boreal ecoregions of Coastal Alaska using the empirical data from the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program, literature data, and modeling using standard methods employed by the FIA program. The average aboveground woody live (218.9±4.6 Mg/ha) and log (28.1±1.8 Mg/ha) biomass in the Temperate ecoregion were among the lowest in the Pacific Northwest, whereas snag biomass (30.5±1.0 Mg/ha) was among the highest. In the Boreal ecoregion, CWD biomass comprised almost 50% of the regional aboveground woody store (76.7±3.8 Mg/ha) with bark beetle damaged stands containing 82% of the total CWD biomass. In contrast, in the Temperate ecoregion, CWD comprised 20% of the regional aboveground woody store (277.5 ±5.4 Mg/ha) with 76% of total CWD biomass in undisturbed stands. Total C stores estimates in Coastal Alaska ranged between 1523.6 and 1892.8 Tg with the highest contribution from soils and the largest potential reductions in uncertainty related to the tree and soils C pools. The impact of a large-scale spruce bark beetle (SBB) outbreak on aboveground dead wood C dynamics on the Kenai Peninsula was modeled utilizing data from the FIA program and CWD decomposition rate-constants from a chronosequence and decomposition-vectors analysis. Decomposition rate-constants from the chronosequence ranged between -0.015 yr⁻¹ and -0.022 yr⁻¹ for logs and -0.003 yr⁻¹ and +0.002 yr⁻¹ for snags. Decomposition rate-constants from the decomposition-vectors ranged between -0.045 yr⁻¹ and +0.003 yr⁻¹ among decomposition phases and -0.048 yr⁻¹ and +0.006 yr⁻¹ among decay classes. Relative to log generating disturbances those creating snags delayed C flux from CWD to the atmosphere, produced a smaller magnitude C flux, and had the potential to store 10% to 66% more C in a disturbed system over time. The effect of several management strategies ranging from "leave-as-is" to "salvage-and-utilization" on C stores and emissions following SBB outbreak on Kenai Peninsula, Alaska was evaluated. A forest with immediate post-disturbance regeneration reached pre-disturbance C stores faster than one with delayed regeneration. Lack of regeneration, representing a loss of tree cover on the disturbed portion of the landscape, caused a permanent decrease in wood C stores. Among the "salvage-and-utilization" scenarios considered, biomass fuel production with substitution for fossil fuels created the largest long-term C storage assuming the substitution was permanent. Given that reduction in near-term emissions may be a more robust strategy than long-term ones, the "leave-as-is" scenarios may represent the most feasible way to mitigate global climate change following disturbance. Close

• 74. [Article] On the estimation and application of spatial and temporal autocorrelation in headwater streams

  This collection of three manuscripts serves to improve methods for collecting, interpreting, and utilizing autocorrelated data from headwater stream networks. Each stream network is comprised of linear ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On the estimation and application of spatial and temporal autocorrelation in headwater streams Author: Som, Nicholas A. This collection of three manuscripts serves to improve methods for collecting, interpreting, and utilizing autocorrelated data from headwater stream networks. Each stream network is comprised of linear segments. These segments lie within a unique branching structure that connects the segments via flowing water, and the connectivity provided by water varies seasonally. These aspects separate stream networks from other landscapes, and provide unique challenges to the statistical analysis of stream-based phenomenon. Two chapters of this work relied on a unique and comprehensive set of data. These data constitute a complete census of habitat unit fish counts from 40 randomly selected headwater basins in western Oregon. The first objective of this work was to evaluate how different sampling designs captured spatial autocorrelation, given the samples were drawn from a population of spatially autocorrelated observations. Spatially distributed clusters of sampling locations were more apt to capture spatial autocorrelation than samples without clusters or small clusters located at tributary junctions. A similar investigation was made concerning sampling design performance in relation to estimating autocorrelation function values. All sampling designs lead generally to negatively biased estimates, and practical differences among the sampling designs were not observed. The second objective was to investigate spatial autocorrelation model range parameters as measures of patch sizes. It is common practice to use range parameters to infer the size of patches within spatially autocorrelated data, but this methodology lacks sufficient justification. The census data were used to compute range parameter values, and another proposed autocorrelative measure of patch size: the integral scale. The same data were used to compute patch sizes under several patch definitions, and the relationship of range parameters and integral scale values with patch sizes was explored. Range parameter values did not equal and were not strongly correlated with average patch sizes, though range parameter values were more correlated with maximum patch and gap sizes. Integral scale values matched the magnitude of, but were not strongly correlated with, average patch sizes. The third objective was to refine the analysis of temporally autocorrelated hydrology data from paired watershed studies. Paired watershed studies are used to evaluate forest harvesting effects on stream biota and hydrology (i.e. fish, amphibians, insects, stream flow, and sediment yield). Traditionally, treatment effects are discerned using prediction intervals. This work provided an improved method for constructing prediction intervals for use in change detection in paired watershed studies. The improved prediction intervals included variation associated with estimating linear and autocorrelation model parameters. Title: On the estimation and application of spatial and temporal autocorrelation in headwater streams Author: Som, Nicholas A. This collection of three manuscripts serves to improve methods for collecting, interpreting, and utilizing autocorrelated data from headwater stream networks. Each stream network is comprised of linear segments. These segments lie within a unique branching structure that connects the segments via flowing water, and the connectivity provided by water varies seasonally. These aspects separate stream networks from other landscapes, and provide unique challenges to the statistical analysis of stream-based phenomenon. Two chapters of this work relied on a unique and comprehensive set of data. These data constitute a complete census of habitat unit fish counts from 40 randomly selected headwater basins in western Oregon. The first objective of this work was to evaluate how different sampling designs captured spatial autocorrelation, given the samples were drawn from a population of spatially autocorrelated observations. Spatially distributed clusters of sampling locations were more apt to capture spatial autocorrelation than samples without clusters or small clusters located at tributary junctions. A similar investigation was made concerning sampling design performance in relation to estimating autocorrelation function values. All sampling designs lead generally to negatively biased estimates, and practical differences among the sampling designs were not observed. The second objective was to investigate spatial autocorrelation model range parameters as measures of patch sizes. It is common practice to use range parameters to infer the size of patches within spatially autocorrelated data, but this methodology lacks sufficient justification. The census data were used to compute range parameter values, and another proposed autocorrelative measure of patch size: the integral scale. The same data were used to compute patch sizes under several patch definitions, and the relationship of range parameters and integral scale values with patch sizes was explored. Range parameter values did not equal and were not strongly correlated with average patch sizes, though range parameter values were more correlated with maximum patch and gap sizes. Integral scale values matched the magnitude of, but were not strongly correlated with, average patch sizes. The third objective was to refine the analysis of temporally autocorrelated hydrology data from paired watershed studies. Paired watershed studies are used to evaluate forest harvesting effects on stream biota and hydrology (i.e. fish, amphibians, insects, stream flow, and sediment yield). Traditionally, treatment effects are discerned using prediction intervals. This work provided an improved method for constructing prediction intervals for use in change detection in paired watershed studies. The improved prediction intervals included variation associated with estimating linear and autocorrelation model parameters. Close

• 75. [Article] A SNP resource for Douglas-fir: de novo transcriptome assembly and SNP detection and validation

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by BioMed ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A SNP resource for Douglas-fir: de novo transcriptome assembly and SNP detection and validation Author: Cronn, Richard, Dean, Jeffrey F. D., Knaus, Brian, Howe, Glenn T., Lorenz, W. Walter, Yu, Jianbin, Kolpak, Scott, Dolan, Peter To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by BioMed Central Ltd. and can be found at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/. Title: A SNP resource for Douglas-fir: de novo transcriptome assembly and SNP detection and validation Author: Cronn, Richard, Dean, Jeffrey F. D., Knaus, Brian, Howe, Glenn T., Lorenz, W. Walter, Yu, Jianbin, Kolpak, Scott, Dolan, Peter To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by BioMed Central Ltd. and can be found at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/. Close

• 76. [Article] Focus on Forestry ; Winter 1999

  Magazine of the OSU College of Forestry

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Focus on Forestry ; Winter 1999 Author: Wells, Gail, Brown, George, Oregon State University. College of Forestry Magazine of the OSU College of Forestry Title: Focus on Forestry ; Winter 1999 Author: Wells, Gail, Brown, George, Oregon State University. College of Forestry Magazine of the OSU College of Forestry Close

• 77. [Article] Geographic factors as retardants to the development of Alaska's mineral industries

  The various elements of physical geography are commonly entertained as factors retarding the mineral industries of Alaska. It has been shown by numerous writers that the mineral industries of Alaska are, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geographic factors as retardants to the development of Alaska's mineral industries Author: Francis, Karl Earvil The various elements of physical geography are commonly entertained as factors retarding the mineral industries of Alaska. It has been shown by numerous writers that the mineral industries of Alaska are, indeed, in a difficult situation. Only the petroleum industry and sand and gravel for construction are of much significance to the Alaskan economy. Alaska's location makes it difficult to use domestic markets and turns the attention of all the resource-based primary industry toward the Orient. Though close to Europe, Alaskan trade across the Arctic Ocean yet awaits future transportation developments. The strategic position of Alaska has very significantly affected Alaska's primary industries by imposing stifling inflation on the state through emergency military activity little concerned with economics. Statehood and increased concern with the economy of Alaska by the Federal government promises to improve Alaska's locational problems. Alaska's size to some extent limits accessibility to the interior, but it also provides Alaska with a high mineral resource potential of great diversity and a very diverse landscape. The diversity of the land is a retardant to the extent that complexity of environment is a characteristic of Alaskan operations requiring a wide range of field experience and field equipment. Experience in all Alaskan terrain is quite rare. The topography of Alaska limits the development of new transportational routes to the interior from the south coast. It does not appreciably affect operational costs on existing roads and rails. Low terrain subject to frost action is a greater operational problem. As an underdeveloped land, Alaska is not unusually disadvantaged by topography; it does, in fact, have some advantages. A great hydroelectric potential exists in Alaska, but there is little chance that it will be of any great value to the mineral industries at this stage. Alaska has many diverse climates. South coastal Alaska has a climate similar enough to southern climates to be considered insignificant as a retardant to the mineral industries. In providing frozen coasts to western and northern Alaska, climate seriously retards development in these areas. Permafrost is a climatic resultant offering some considerable but yet largely undetermined effect on the mineral industries. The colder parts of Alaska have their biggest effect on the mineral industries in being different and, consequently, foreign and discouraging to southern people. The inherent disadvantage of cold is still largely obscured by blundering and inefficiency. Alaska has a considerable and diverse mineral resource that can, at this time, only be inferred. The unknown of Alaskan geology is its most striking feature. Exploration in all aspects is seriously discouraged by the economy and the obscuration of bed rock. Geophysical and geochemical prospecting has met with little success. It is felt that the lack of knowledge of and experience with the land is the biggest retardant to Alaska's mineral industries. The land is not inherently hostile, but rather it is different from that familiar to most of the people on it. A two-pronged attack on ignorance of the land is suggested, one to disseminate present knowledge and the other to seek out the unknown. When Alaska acquires a people familiar with and fully oriented toward the land, the effect of the geographic factors presently retarding the mineral industries will be greatly reduced. Title: Geographic factors as retardants to the development of Alaska's mineral industries Author: Francis, Karl Earvil The various elements of physical geography are commonly entertained as factors retarding the mineral industries of Alaska. It has been shown by numerous writers that the mineral industries of Alaska are, indeed, in a difficult situation. Only the petroleum industry and sand and gravel for construction are of much significance to the Alaskan economy. Alaska's location makes it difficult to use domestic markets and turns the attention of all the resource-based primary industry toward the Orient. Though close to Europe, Alaskan trade across the Arctic Ocean yet awaits future transportation developments. The strategic position of Alaska has very significantly affected Alaska's primary industries by imposing stifling inflation on the state through emergency military activity little concerned with economics. Statehood and increased concern with the economy of Alaska by the Federal government promises to improve Alaska's locational problems. Alaska's size to some extent limits accessibility to the interior, but it also provides Alaska with a high mineral resource potential of great diversity and a very diverse landscape. The diversity of the land is a retardant to the extent that complexity of environment is a characteristic of Alaskan operations requiring a wide range of field experience and field equipment. Experience in all Alaskan terrain is quite rare. The topography of Alaska limits the development of new transportational routes to the interior from the south coast. It does not appreciably affect operational costs on existing roads and rails. Low terrain subject to frost action is a greater operational problem. As an underdeveloped land, Alaska is not unusually disadvantaged by topography; it does, in fact, have some advantages. A great hydroelectric potential exists in Alaska, but there is little chance that it will be of any great value to the mineral industries at this stage. Alaska has many diverse climates. South coastal Alaska has a climate similar enough to southern climates to be considered insignificant as a retardant to the mineral industries. In providing frozen coasts to western and northern Alaska, climate seriously retards development in these areas. Permafrost is a climatic resultant offering some considerable but yet largely undetermined effect on the mineral industries. The colder parts of Alaska have their biggest effect on the mineral industries in being different and, consequently, foreign and discouraging to southern people. The inherent disadvantage of cold is still largely obscured by blundering and inefficiency. Alaska has a considerable and diverse mineral resource that can, at this time, only be inferred. The unknown of Alaskan geology is its most striking feature. Exploration in all aspects is seriously discouraged by the economy and the obscuration of bed rock. Geophysical and geochemical prospecting has met with little success. It is felt that the lack of knowledge of and experience with the land is the biggest retardant to Alaska's mineral industries. The land is not inherently hostile, but rather it is different from that familiar to most of the people on it. A two-pronged attack on ignorance of the land is suggested, one to disseminate present knowledge and the other to seek out the unknown. When Alaska acquires a people familiar with and fully oriented toward the land, the effect of the geographic factors presently retarding the mineral industries will be greatly reduced. Close

• 78. [Article] Technology and meaning in natural resource management : the story-making role of GIS in the CLAMS project

  The working hypothesis for this study is that the introduction of GIS technology into the ancient procedures of map-making has changed the map-making context sufficiently to require a revision of the way ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Technology and meaning in natural resource management : the story-making role of GIS in the CLAMS project Author: Duncan, Sally The working hypothesis for this study is that the introduction of GIS technology into the ancient procedures of map-making has changed the map-making context sufficiently to require a revision of the way we think about, learn from, and use maps, specifically in the public involvement process in natural resource management. The assumption that we jointly know what maps mean, and how to use them, has been carried unchallenged into the vastly changed arena of digital, information-dense, and highly technical map-making, courtesy of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). It has remained unchallenged even as the social context for environmental policy-making is undergoing historic upheaval. GIS fundamentally changes how information is viewed, literally, by many different groups, for its maps and databases contain varying levels of uncertainty, multiple embedded assumptions, potentially privileged knowledge, and considerable power as story-makers, along with unintended and unexplored social consequences. GIS maps/databases are used here as the central refractor of ideas about relationships between scientists and lay audiences; between the post-modern understanding of privilege and social change; and ultimately between technology and meaning, where changing expectations about the role of science in natural resource management resonate most profoundly. Key research questions are: (1) How can GIS maps contribute to mutual learning in the natural resource management arena?, and (2) Which consequences of GIS development could change approaches to natural resource management? The exploratory case study used to address these questions examines GIS maps from the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS), a landscape-scale bioregional assessment in western Oregon that draws heavily on GIS technology to illustrate ecological and socioeconomic dynamics and interactions. Findings suggest that use of GIS through time may change the realm of designing and structuring decision problems, adjusting it from a largely science-driven exercise in natural resource management to a more collaborative story-making one. While epistemological differences between scientists and lay audiences remain, they can be offset through such collaboration, with concomitant shifts in power structures that could affect a range of conditions including rates of technology diffusion, and management of a broad transition in how natural resources are perceived and utilized. Title: Technology and meaning in natural resource management : the story-making role of GIS in the CLAMS project Author: Duncan, Sally The working hypothesis for this study is that the introduction of GIS technology into the ancient procedures of map-making has changed the map-making context sufficiently to require a revision of the way we think about, learn from, and use maps, specifically in the public involvement process in natural resource management. The assumption that we jointly know what maps mean, and how to use them, has been carried unchallenged into the vastly changed arena of digital, information-dense, and highly technical map-making, courtesy of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). It has remained unchallenged even as the social context for environmental policy-making is undergoing historic upheaval. GIS fundamentally changes how information is viewed, literally, by many different groups, for its maps and databases contain varying levels of uncertainty, multiple embedded assumptions, potentially privileged knowledge, and considerable power as story-makers, along with unintended and unexplored social consequences. GIS maps/databases are used here as the central refractor of ideas about relationships between scientists and lay audiences; between the post-modern understanding of privilege and social change; and ultimately between technology and meaning, where changing expectations about the role of science in natural resource management resonate most profoundly. Key research questions are: (1) How can GIS maps contribute to mutual learning in the natural resource management arena?, and (2) Which consequences of GIS development could change approaches to natural resource management? The exploratory case study used to address these questions examines GIS maps from the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS), a landscape-scale bioregional assessment in western Oregon that draws heavily on GIS technology to illustrate ecological and socioeconomic dynamics and interactions. Findings suggest that use of GIS through time may change the realm of designing and structuring decision problems, adjusting it from a largely science-driven exercise in natural resource management to a more collaborative story-making one. While epistemological differences between scientists and lay audiences remain, they can be offset through such collaboration, with concomitant shifts in power structures that could affect a range of conditions including rates of technology diffusion, and management of a broad transition in how natural resources are perceived and utilized. Close

• 79. [Article] Combining the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess current and future recreation conditions in Oregon's coast range

  Conflict over the best way to manage Oregon's public lands makes a land planner's job extremely challenging. Multiple uses, federal mandates, and constantly evolving knowledge all contribute to the difficulty ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Combining the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess current and future recreation conditions in Oregon's coast range Author: Rogan, Lael M. (Lael Michaela), 1970- Conflict over the best way to manage Oregon's public lands makes a land planner's job extremely challenging. Multiple uses, federal mandates, and constantly evolving knowledge all contribute to the difficulty of determining how to best use the land. The Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS) was developed in 1994 to help policy makers better evaluate potential land management plans and to examine the effects and interactions of ecological, economic, and social models on a regional scale. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used in CLAMS to simulate and demonstrate the spatial effects of alternative policies. The dynamic nature of land use and planning lends itself well to GIS, a powerful computer-based tool that can expediently illustrate different management scenarios. One component of CLAMS focuses on social aspects, including recreational use of forestlands. In 1997, a prototype model for assessing the amount of recreation habitat was developed in the Coos Bay (Oregon) Bureau of Land Management (BLM) District. The study served as an inventory for recreation planners to identify the existing recreation opportunities. Geographic Information Systems and the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) were combined in order to determine acreage of different recreation habitat types, or ROS classes. My project incorporates many features of the Coos Bay study (combining GIS and ROS) but extends the geographic boundaries to include most of the Oregon coast range. It also extends the analysis by integrating the recreation model with a landscape change model7 to show how recreation opportunities would change over a 100 year simulation of landscape conditions. It will provide land planners and recreationists with information about the scope of recreational experiences that they can expect to find in this geographic area. Results illustrate that the greatest proportion of land falls into the recreation category with the most developed or modified landscapes, and th.e smallest quantity of land is at the primitive end of the spectrum. This holds true for current and future conditions. These results are not surprising, given the large degree of human modification in the CLAMS study area. Collecting and generating spatial data offer immediate and long-term benefits. They not only provide an inventory to land managers, but also help fulfill CLAMS goals by examining the effects of land change over time. Title: Combining the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess current and future recreation conditions in Oregon's coast range Author: Rogan, Lael M. (Lael Michaela), 1970- Conflict over the best way to manage Oregon's public lands makes a land planner's job extremely challenging. Multiple uses, federal mandates, and constantly evolving knowledge all contribute to the difficulty of determining how to best use the land. The Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS) was developed in 1994 to help policy makers better evaluate potential land management plans and to examine the effects and interactions of ecological, economic, and social models on a regional scale. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used in CLAMS to simulate and demonstrate the spatial effects of alternative policies. The dynamic nature of land use and planning lends itself well to GIS, a powerful computer-based tool that can expediently illustrate different management scenarios. One component of CLAMS focuses on social aspects, including recreational use of forestlands. In 1997, a prototype model for assessing the amount of recreation habitat was developed in the Coos Bay (Oregon) Bureau of Land Management (BLM) District. The study served as an inventory for recreation planners to identify the existing recreation opportunities. Geographic Information Systems and the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) were combined in order to determine acreage of different recreation habitat types, or ROS classes. My project incorporates many features of the Coos Bay study (combining GIS and ROS) but extends the geographic boundaries to include most of the Oregon coast range. It also extends the analysis by integrating the recreation model with a landscape change model7 to show how recreation opportunities would change over a 100 year simulation of landscape conditions. It will provide land planners and recreationists with information about the scope of recreational experiences that they can expect to find in this geographic area. Results illustrate that the greatest proportion of land falls into the recreation category with the most developed or modified landscapes, and th.e smallest quantity of land is at the primitive end of the spectrum. This holds true for current and future conditions. These results are not surprising, given the large degree of human modification in the CLAMS study area. Collecting and generating spatial data offer immediate and long-term benefits. They not only provide an inventory to land managers, but also help fulfill CLAMS goals by examining the effects of land change over time. Close

• 80. [Article] Cumulative effects of land use on salmon habitat in southwest Oregon coastal streams

  As part of a hierarchical approach to classifying watersheds and stream habitats based on geomorphic and geologic criteria, we defined ten classes of fluvial and lacustrine habitats at the scale of valley ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Cumulative effects of land use on salmon habitat in southwest Oregon coastal streams Author: Frissell, Christopher Andrew, 1960- As part of a hierarchical approach to classifying watersheds and stream habitats based on geomorphic and geologic criteria, we defined ten classes of fluvial and lacustrine habitats at the scale of valley segments. Valley segments are landscape units which encompass surface waters and the adjacent floodplains and hillslopes with which they interact over time frames of thousands of years. They form a large-scale template that constrains the character of aquatic habitat, controls the effects of disturbances in riparian areas, and mediates responses of streams to upland and upstream events. The regional distribution of valley segment types in southwest Oregon reflects bedrock geology and tectonic history of the landscape. Fluvial segment types differ in stream adjacent landforms, slope erosion processes, floodplain and valley morphology, channel slope, riparian vegetation, streambank texture, gravel bar morphology, and pool-forming features. Studies that do not carefully account for inherent differences between valley segment types could fail to detect critical changes in stream habitat caused by human disturbance. Alluvial valley and alluviated canyon segment types, which have extensive floodplains, low channel slopes, abundant woody debris, and ample gravel beds, are of greatest direct importance for salmon and other native fishes. Virtually all alluvial valleys in the study area have been heavily disturbed by logging, agriculture, and residential development. Alluviated canyon segments located in the few drainage basins where human activity has been limited probably serve as habitat refugia for the last diverse assemblages and productive populations of salmon in the region. Alluviated canyons in extensively-fogged basins exhibit increased abundance of large woody debris, fewer cross-channel debris jams, more extensive bank erosion, reduced pool area and increased riffle area, shallower riffles, and increased surface concentration of fine sediments in pools and other habitats, compared to similar segments in lesser-disturbed basins. These changes in channel morphology and stability appear to be driven by increased sediment load, caused by logging-related landslides and other erosion sources. Field studies in Sixes River basin indicated that abundance and diversity of salmonid fishes declines as maximum stream temperature increases. Changes in summer distribution of juvenile chinook and coho salmon since 1970 are related to changes In water temperature. Although some tributaries have cooled, a decline in rearing distribution in mainstem areas could be caused by long-term loss of channel complexity and associated coolwater refugia. Analysis of fish habitat structures constructed by federal and state agencies indicated that failure rates are high. Recovery of anadromous fish runs in southwest Oregon will require protection of remaining habitat refugia and reduction of sediment yield from disturbed watersheds. Title: Cumulative effects of land use on salmon habitat in southwest Oregon coastal streams Author: Frissell, Christopher Andrew, 1960- As part of a hierarchical approach to classifying watersheds and stream habitats based on geomorphic and geologic criteria, we defined ten classes of fluvial and lacustrine habitats at the scale of valley segments. Valley segments are landscape units which encompass surface waters and the adjacent floodplains and hillslopes with which they interact over time frames of thousands of years. They form a large-scale template that constrains the character of aquatic habitat, controls the effects of disturbances in riparian areas, and mediates responses of streams to upland and upstream events. The regional distribution of valley segment types in southwest Oregon reflects bedrock geology and tectonic history of the landscape. Fluvial segment types differ in stream adjacent landforms, slope erosion processes, floodplain and valley morphology, channel slope, riparian vegetation, streambank texture, gravel bar morphology, and pool-forming features. Studies that do not carefully account for inherent differences between valley segment types could fail to detect critical changes in stream habitat caused by human disturbance. Alluvial valley and alluviated canyon segment types, which have extensive floodplains, low channel slopes, abundant woody debris, and ample gravel beds, are of greatest direct importance for salmon and other native fishes. Virtually all alluvial valleys in the study area have been heavily disturbed by logging, agriculture, and residential development. Alluviated canyon segments located in the few drainage basins where human activity has been limited probably serve as habitat refugia for the last diverse assemblages and productive populations of salmon in the region. Alluviated canyons in extensively-fogged basins exhibit increased abundance of large woody debris, fewer cross-channel debris jams, more extensive bank erosion, reduced pool area and increased riffle area, shallower riffles, and increased surface concentration of fine sediments in pools and other habitats, compared to similar segments in lesser-disturbed basins. These changes in channel morphology and stability appear to be driven by increased sediment load, caused by logging-related landslides and other erosion sources. Field studies in Sixes River basin indicated that abundance and diversity of salmonid fishes declines as maximum stream temperature increases. Changes in summer distribution of juvenile chinook and coho salmon since 1970 are related to changes In water temperature. Although some tributaries have cooled, a decline in rearing distribution in mainstem areas could be caused by long-term loss of channel complexity and associated coolwater refugia. Analysis of fish habitat structures constructed by federal and state agencies indicated that failure rates are high. Recovery of anadromous fish runs in southwest Oregon will require protection of remaining habitat refugia and reduction of sediment yield from disturbed watersheds. Close

• 81. [Article] Historical disturbance regimes as a reference for forest policy

  Using the historical range of forest conditions as a reference for managing landscapes has been proposed as a "coarse-filter" approach to biodiversity conservation. By emulating historical disturbance ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Historical disturbance regimes as a reference for forest policy Author: Thompson, Jonathan R. Using the historical range of forest conditions as a reference for managing landscapes has been proposed as a "coarse-filter" approach to biodiversity conservation. By emulating historical disturbance processes, it is thought that forest management can produce forest composition and structure similar to the conditions that once supported the native biota. Although several examples of disturbance-based management exist, only recently has this concept been incorporated into policy. This thesis explored hypotheses related to disturbance-based forest policy through a literature review, policy analyses, and simulation experiments. The primary objective of chapter 2 was to examine several examples disturbance-based forest management and evaluate their potential to transition into policy within North America. The review highlighted two Canadian provinces British Columbia and Ontario--that have codified disturbance-based management but used distinct methodologies. Nearly all of the forests in these provinces are government owned, which assisted policy development. In addition, both policy-structures focused on emulating stand-replacing fires that are characteristic in boreal forests; this minimized the costs and the degree of departure from conventional forest management. In much of the U.S., land tenure is complex and disturbance regimes vary widely; this presents difficult challenges for disturbance-based policy development. In the third chapter, disturbance-based policies were developed that attempted to address these challenges. Using datasets from the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS) and the Landscape Management and Policy Simulation model (LAMPS), the economic costs and ecological benefits of several policy structures were explored. The policies included two variants of the current policy structure and three policies reflecting various aspects of the natural disturbance regime. The study area was the 3-million hectare Oregon Coast Range. Four owner groups were recognized--forest industry, nonindustrial private, state, and federal. The management intentions of each group guided the application of policies. Disturbance-based policies were primarily addressed to clearcutting on private lands because it constituted the preponderance of harvesting in the region. Information on the Coast Range's historical fire regime was used as a reference to develop disturbance-based policies. Fire severity was emulated with green-tree retention standards; fire frequency was emulated with annual harvestable area restrictions; and fire extent was emulated with harvest-unit size regulations. LAMPS projected landscape conditions, forest dynamics, management activities (clearcutting, thinning), and harvest volumes over the next century. Simulated disturbance-based policies produced age-class distributions more similar to the historical range than those created by the current policy structure. The proportions of early seral and young forest were within the historical range within 100 yrs; within this timeframe, older forests moved closer to but were still below historical conditions. In contrast, patch size distributions were less similar to historical conditions. This was because, even after a ten-fold increase in the average harvest size, the clearcut size limit remained well below the average historical fire size. Also, this was due to the scale of the analysis, which treated multiple proximate harvest-units as individual disturbance events. Therefore, regions with a high density of clearcuts, which were ubiquitous in the current policy scenarios, more closely resembled the large historical fire size. In the near term, annual revenue produced by the disturbance-based policies was estimated to be 20 to 60 percent lower than the current policy. However, relative costs were reduced significantly through time. This reflected the degree of departure between the modem and historical disturbance regimes. This simulation experiment suggested that policies attempting to reproduce historical conditions in the Coast Range would require federal forests to provide large patches of old forest that were conmon in the historical landscape. Employing public lands for this purpose would dampen costs to private landowners who would continue harvesting and provide young and early seral forest structure, which were also historically abundant. In addition, this experiment illustrated the difficultly of meeting regional-scale conservation goals across multiple private landowners and suggested that distributing costs and benefits equitably across large landscapes could be a significant challenge. Title: Historical disturbance regimes as a reference for forest policy Author: Thompson, Jonathan R. Using the historical range of forest conditions as a reference for managing landscapes has been proposed as a "coarse-filter" approach to biodiversity conservation. By emulating historical disturbance processes, it is thought that forest management can produce forest composition and structure similar to the conditions that once supported the native biota. Although several examples of disturbance-based management exist, only recently has this concept been incorporated into policy. This thesis explored hypotheses related to disturbance-based forest policy through a literature review, policy analyses, and simulation experiments. The primary objective of chapter 2 was to examine several examples disturbance-based forest management and evaluate their potential to transition into policy within North America. The review highlighted two Canadian provinces British Columbia and Ontario--that have codified disturbance-based management but used distinct methodologies. Nearly all of the forests in these provinces are government owned, which assisted policy development. In addition, both policy-structures focused on emulating stand-replacing fires that are characteristic in boreal forests; this minimized the costs and the degree of departure from conventional forest management. In much of the U.S., land tenure is complex and disturbance regimes vary widely; this presents difficult challenges for disturbance-based policy development. In the third chapter, disturbance-based policies were developed that attempted to address these challenges. Using datasets from the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS) and the Landscape Management and Policy Simulation model (LAMPS), the economic costs and ecological benefits of several policy structures were explored. The policies included two variants of the current policy structure and three policies reflecting various aspects of the natural disturbance regime. The study area was the 3-million hectare Oregon Coast Range. Four owner groups were recognized--forest industry, nonindustrial private, state, and federal. The management intentions of each group guided the application of policies. Disturbance-based policies were primarily addressed to clearcutting on private lands because it constituted the preponderance of harvesting in the region. Information on the Coast Range's historical fire regime was used as a reference to develop disturbance-based policies. Fire severity was emulated with green-tree retention standards; fire frequency was emulated with annual harvestable area restrictions; and fire extent was emulated with harvest-unit size regulations. LAMPS projected landscape conditions, forest dynamics, management activities (clearcutting, thinning), and harvest volumes over the next century. Simulated disturbance-based policies produced age-class distributions more similar to the historical range than those created by the current policy structure. The proportions of early seral and young forest were within the historical range within 100 yrs; within this timeframe, older forests moved closer to but were still below historical conditions. In contrast, patch size distributions were less similar to historical conditions. This was because, even after a ten-fold increase in the average harvest size, the clearcut size limit remained well below the average historical fire size. Also, this was due to the scale of the analysis, which treated multiple proximate harvest-units as individual disturbance events. Therefore, regions with a high density of clearcuts, which were ubiquitous in the current policy scenarios, more closely resembled the large historical fire size. In the near term, annual revenue produced by the disturbance-based policies was estimated to be 20 to 60 percent lower than the current policy. However, relative costs were reduced significantly through time. This reflected the degree of departure between the modem and historical disturbance regimes. This simulation experiment suggested that policies attempting to reproduce historical conditions in the Coast Range would require federal forests to provide large patches of old forest that were conmon in the historical landscape. Employing public lands for this purpose would dampen costs to private landowners who would continue harvesting and provide young and early seral forest structure, which were also historically abundant. In addition, this experiment illustrated the difficultly of meeting regional-scale conservation goals across multiple private landowners and suggested that distributing costs and benefits equitably across large landscapes could be a significant challenge. Close

• 82. [Article] The role of rock resistance and rock uplift on topographic relief and river longitudinal profiles in the coastal mountains of Oregon and a landscape-scale test for steady-state conditions

  Analysis of topographic and river morphometric parameters was conducted using digital elevation models (DEMs) and field observations in order to determine the role of variable rock resistance on topographic ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The role of rock resistance and rock uplift on topographic relief and river longitudinal profiles in the coastal mountains of Oregon and a landscape-scale test for steady-state conditions Author: VanLaningham, Sam J. Analysis of topographic and river morphometric parameters was conducted using digital elevation models (DEMs) and field observations in order to determine the role of variable rock resistance on topographic relief, to examine how spatially and temporally variable rock uplift rates relate to river morphology, and to address the degree to which uplift and erosion are in steady-state in the actively uplifting region of the Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains in Oregon. Four domains were differentiated based on mapped geology and topography - the northern (~45° - 46° N), central (-44° - 45° N), south-central (-43° - 44° N) and southern regions (-42° - 43° N). Bedrock control, on the range scale, is indicated through the association of higher topography with exposures of more resistant volcanic and metamorphic rocks. Lithologic changes coincide with knickpoints on river longitudinal profiles between the latitudes of 43° - 45° N, where rock uplift appears to be low. Rock type seems to be a strong control on topographic relief in these regions. However, in the southern region and less somewhat in the north, where rock uplift rates are highest, changes in lithology along river profiles do not display significant knickpoints. Uplift likely controls river profile form in the northern and southern regions. Basin hypsometric integrals and drainage density values are relatively constant in the study area except in the central region. Rivers in this region are almost exclusively alluvial - whereas most rivers in the Coast Ranges are bedrock or mixed bedrock-alluvial types. These low values in the central region, coupled with the presence of alluvial channels, suggests that the topography is expressing signals of low to no rock uplift in this region. The correspondence seen between low uplift rates and bedrock control and high uplift rates and a transparent bedrock signal suggests that an uplift rate threshold may exist. This has implications for modeling topographic evolution in tectonically-active mountain belts. Title: The role of rock resistance and rock uplift on topographic relief and river longitudinal profiles in the coastal mountains of Oregon and a landscape-scale test for steady-state conditions Author: VanLaningham, Sam J. Analysis of topographic and river morphometric parameters was conducted using digital elevation models (DEMs) and field observations in order to determine the role of variable rock resistance on topographic relief, to examine how spatially and temporally variable rock uplift rates relate to river morphology, and to address the degree to which uplift and erosion are in steady-state in the actively uplifting region of the Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains in Oregon. Four domains were differentiated based on mapped geology and topography - the northern (~45° - 46° N), central (-44° - 45° N), south-central (-43° - 44° N) and southern regions (-42° - 43° N). Bedrock control, on the range scale, is indicated through the association of higher topography with exposures of more resistant volcanic and metamorphic rocks. Lithologic changes coincide with knickpoints on river longitudinal profiles between the latitudes of 43° - 45° N, where rock uplift appears to be low. Rock type seems to be a strong control on topographic relief in these regions. However, in the southern region and less somewhat in the north, where rock uplift rates are highest, changes in lithology along river profiles do not display significant knickpoints. Uplift likely controls river profile form in the northern and southern regions. Basin hypsometric integrals and drainage density values are relatively constant in the study area except in the central region. Rivers in this region are almost exclusively alluvial - whereas most rivers in the Coast Ranges are bedrock or mixed bedrock-alluvial types. These low values in the central region, coupled with the presence of alluvial channels, suggests that the topography is expressing signals of low to no rock uplift in this region. The correspondence seen between low uplift rates and bedrock control and high uplift rates and a transparent bedrock signal suggests that an uplift rate threshold may exist. This has implications for modeling topographic evolution in tectonically-active mountain belts. Close

• 83. [Article] THE ORIGINS AND MAINTENANCE OF GENOMIC VARIATION IN THE THREESPINE STICKLEBACK (Gasterosteus aculeatus)

  Genetic variation is the raw material of evolution. The sources of this variation within a population, and its maintenance within a species, have been mysterious since the birth of the field of evolutionary ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: THE ORIGINS AND MAINTENANCE OF GENOMIC VARIATION IN THE THREESPINE STICKLEBACK (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Author: Nelson, Thomas Year: 2017 Genetic variation is the raw material of evolution. The sources of this variation within a population, and its maintenance within a species, have been mysterious since the birth of the field of evolutionary genetics. In this work, I study divergently adapted freshwater and marine populations of the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) as an evolutionary model to track the origin of adaptive genetic variation and to describe the evolutionary processes maintaining variation across the genome. The stickleback is a small fish with a large geographic range encompassing the northern half of the Northern Hemisphere and composed of coastal marine habitats, freshwater lakes, and river systems. Populations of stickleback adapt rapidly to changes in habitat, and fossil evidence suggests that similar adaptive transitions have been ongoing in this lineage for at least ten million years. In this work, I develop a significant extension of restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) to generate phased haplotype information to estimate gene tree topologies and divergence times at thousands of loci simultaneously. I find anciently derived clades of variation associated with marine and freshwater habitats in genomic regions involved in recent adaptive divergence; some divergence times extend to over ten million years ago. This history of adaptive divergence has had profound effects on genetic variation elsewhere in the genome: chromosomes harboring freshwater-adaptive variants retain anciently derived variation in linked genomic regions, while marine chromosomes have much more recent ancestry. I present a conceptual model of asymmetric selective and demographic processes to explain this result, which will form a nucleus for future research in this species. Lastly, by incorporating genome-wide recombination rates estimated from multiple genetic maps, I describe a recombination landscape that is favorable to the maintenance of marine-freshwater genomic divergence. Low recombination rates in key chromosomal regions condense widespread divergence of the physical genome, encompassing many megabases, into a small number of Mendelian loci. Combined, my results demonstrate the interconnectedness of evolutionary processes taking place on ecological and geological timescales. The genetic variation available for adaptive evolution today is a product of the long-term evolutionary history of a species. Title: THE ORIGINS AND MAINTENANCE OF GENOMIC VARIATION IN THE THREESPINE STICKLEBACK (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Author: Nelson, Thomas Year: 2017 Genetic variation is the raw material of evolution. The sources of this variation within a population, and its maintenance within a species, have been mysterious since the birth of the field of evolutionary genetics. In this work, I study divergently adapted freshwater and marine populations of the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) as an evolutionary model to track the origin of adaptive genetic variation and to describe the evolutionary processes maintaining variation across the genome. The stickleback is a small fish with a large geographic range encompassing the northern half of the Northern Hemisphere and composed of coastal marine habitats, freshwater lakes, and river systems. Populations of stickleback adapt rapidly to changes in habitat, and fossil evidence suggests that similar adaptive transitions have been ongoing in this lineage for at least ten million years. In this work, I develop a significant extension of restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) to generate phased haplotype information to estimate gene tree topologies and divergence times at thousands of loci simultaneously. I find anciently derived clades of variation associated with marine and freshwater habitats in genomic regions involved in recent adaptive divergence; some divergence times extend to over ten million years ago. This history of adaptive divergence has had profound effects on genetic variation elsewhere in the genome: chromosomes harboring freshwater-adaptive variants retain anciently derived variation in linked genomic regions, while marine chromosomes have much more recent ancestry. I present a conceptual model of asymmetric selective and demographic processes to explain this result, which will form a nucleus for future research in this species. Lastly, by incorporating genome-wide recombination rates estimated from multiple genetic maps, I describe a recombination landscape that is favorable to the maintenance of marine-freshwater genomic divergence. Low recombination rates in key chromosomal regions condense widespread divergence of the physical genome, encompassing many megabases, into a small number of Mendelian loci. Combined, my results demonstrate the interconnectedness of evolutionary processes taking place on ecological and geological timescales. The genetic variation available for adaptive evolution today is a product of the long-term evolutionary history of a species. Close

• 84. [Article] Recombination Rate Heterogeneity Compartmentalizes Genomic Variation and Facilitates Adaptive Evolution in the Threespine Stickleback

  72 pages. A thesis presented to the Department of Biology and the Clark Honors College of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Bachelor of Science, Spring 2...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recombination Rate Heterogeneity Compartmentalizes Genomic Variation and Facilitates Adaptive Evolution in the Threespine Stickleback Author: Crandall, Johnathan Gage Williams Year: 2017 72 pages. A thesis presented to the Department of Biology and the Clark Honors College of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Bachelor of Science, Spring 2017 Title: Recombination Rate Heterogeneity Compartmentalizes Genomic Variation and Facilitates Adaptive Evolution in the Threespine Stickleback Author: Crandall, Johnathan Gage Williams Year: 2017 72 pages. A thesis presented to the Department of Biology and the Clark Honors College of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Bachelor of Science, Spring 2017 Close

• 85. [Article] Evaluating the Influence of Policy and Technology in Driving Aquaculture Land Use Patterns in Thailand, 1990-2013

  Since the 1980's shrimp aquaculture has been one of Thailand's largest industries and has created cultivation ponds as a dominant feature on the landscape. While shrimp farming has been economically successful, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluating the Influence of Policy and Technology in Driving Aquaculture Land Use Patterns in Thailand, 1990-2013 Author: Mosurinjohn, Nathan Year: 2014 Since the 1980's shrimp aquaculture has been one of Thailand's largest industries and has created cultivation ponds as a dominant feature on the landscape. While shrimp farming has been economically successful, it has received criticism for being environmentally harmful, most notably because of farms replacing mangrove forests. Legislation regulating aquaculture development and technological responses to disease outbreak have had a large influence on the land use of the Thai coast. The objective of this research is to provide a systematic examination of how regulation and technology development have influenced land use in this region. To accomplish this, Landsat derived data were analyzed at the national and provincial scale to determine how Thai coastal land use systems change over time. I found that interrelated changes in technology and legislation have had complex influences on the landscape, which encourage both the restriction and expansion of aquaculture growth depending on time and location. Title: Evaluating the Influence of Policy and Technology in Driving Aquaculture Land Use Patterns in Thailand, 1990-2013 Author: Mosurinjohn, Nathan Year: 2014 Since the 1980's shrimp aquaculture has been one of Thailand's largest industries and has created cultivation ponds as a dominant feature on the landscape. While shrimp farming has been economically successful, it has received criticism for being environmentally harmful, most notably because of farms replacing mangrove forests. Legislation regulating aquaculture development and technological responses to disease outbreak have had a large influence on the land use of the Thai coast. The objective of this research is to provide a systematic examination of how regulation and technology development have influenced land use in this region. To accomplish this, Landsat derived data were analyzed at the national and provincial scale to determine how Thai coastal land use systems change over time. I found that interrelated changes in technology and legislation have had complex influences on the landscape, which encourage both the restriction and expansion of aquaculture growth depending on time and location. Close

• 86. [Article] Woven Into the Community: Resilience and Tsunami Evacuation Route Configuration in Neskowin, Oregon

  89 pages. Examining committee chair: Chris Enright

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Woven Into the Community: Resilience and Tsunami Evacuation Route Configuration in Neskowin, Oregon Author: Davis, Bryn Year: 2017 89 pages. Examining committee chair: Chris Enright Title: Woven Into the Community: Resilience and Tsunami Evacuation Route Configuration in Neskowin, Oregon Author: Davis, Bryn Year: 2017 89 pages. Examining committee chair: Chris Enright Close

• 87. [Article] Influences of island characteristics on community structure and species incidence of desert bats in a near-shore archipelago, Baja California, Mexico

  Island biogeography has strongly influenced the study of biodiversity because archipelagos provide natural model systems for investigating patterns of diversity and the processes that shape ecological ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Influences of island characteristics on community structure and species incidence of desert bats in a near-shore archipelago, Baja California, Mexico Author: Frick, Winifred F. Island biogeography has strongly influenced the study of biodiversity because archipelagos provide natural model systems for investigating patterns of diversity and the processes that shape ecological communities. I investigated the influence of area and isolation of islands (n = 32) in the Gulf of California, Mexico on patterns of richness, nestedness, and incidence of desert bats to determine factors important in shaping community structure and patterns of occurrence of bats in a naturally insular landscape. Species richness of bats was positively influenced by island size and declined with isolation from the Baja peninsula in two distinct subarchipelagos. Southern islands, which are associated with greater density of vegetation from summer rainfall, supported more species than dry, barren islands in the northern subarchipelago, suggesting that both area and habitat characteristics contribute to species richness of bats. Community composition of bats was nested by area and isolation, such that species found on smaller and more isolated islands were subsets of communities found on large, less isolated islands that harbored higher richness. The influences of area and isolation on community nestedness suggest species differ in immigration and persistence rates on islands. Bat communities were also nested at 27 sites in coastal habitat on the Baja peninsula, indicating that nestedness may occur in contiguous habitats that lack immigration and extinction filters. Probability of species occurrence on islands was influenced by area for five species of insectivorous bat (Pipistrellus hesperus, Myotis californicus, Macrotus californicus, Antrozous pallidus, and Mormoops megalophylla), suggesting occupancy of islands by these species is limited by resource requirements. The threshold of island size for occupancy of most species was ca. 100 ha, which is similar to area thresholds of incidence for many landbirds in the same archipelago. Isolation also influenced incidence of insectivorous bat species. My research shows that area and isolation influence both community structure and occupancy of bat species in a near-shore archipelago. My results raise important questions about connectivity and persistence of populations of bats in isolated habitats, especially when patch size is small. Title: Influences of island characteristics on community structure and species incidence of desert bats in a near-shore archipelago, Baja California, Mexico Author: Frick, Winifred F. Island biogeography has strongly influenced the study of biodiversity because archipelagos provide natural model systems for investigating patterns of diversity and the processes that shape ecological communities. I investigated the influence of area and isolation of islands (n = 32) in the Gulf of California, Mexico on patterns of richness, nestedness, and incidence of desert bats to determine factors important in shaping community structure and patterns of occurrence of bats in a naturally insular landscape. Species richness of bats was positively influenced by island size and declined with isolation from the Baja peninsula in two distinct subarchipelagos. Southern islands, which are associated with greater density of vegetation from summer rainfall, supported more species than dry, barren islands in the northern subarchipelago, suggesting that both area and habitat characteristics contribute to species richness of bats. Community composition of bats was nested by area and isolation, such that species found on smaller and more isolated islands were subsets of communities found on large, less isolated islands that harbored higher richness. The influences of area and isolation on community nestedness suggest species differ in immigration and persistence rates on islands. Bat communities were also nested at 27 sites in coastal habitat on the Baja peninsula, indicating that nestedness may occur in contiguous habitats that lack immigration and extinction filters. Probability of species occurrence on islands was influenced by area for five species of insectivorous bat (Pipistrellus hesperus, Myotis californicus, Macrotus californicus, Antrozous pallidus, and Mormoops megalophylla), suggesting occupancy of islands by these species is limited by resource requirements. The threshold of island size for occupancy of most species was ca. 100 ha, which is similar to area thresholds of incidence for many landbirds in the same archipelago. Isolation also influenced incidence of insectivorous bat species. My research shows that area and isolation influence both community structure and occupancy of bat species in a near-shore archipelago. My results raise important questions about connectivity and persistence of populations of bats in isolated habitats, especially when patch size is small. Close

• 88. [Article] Mapping the Political Landscape of Wave Energy Development Off the Oregon Coast

  Since 2006 Oregon has promoted the development of wave energy off its coast. While the state may be well suited for the technology because of an abundant wave resource and supporting coastal infrastructure ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Mapping the Political Landscape of Wave Energy Development Off the Oregon Coast Author: Stevenson, John Since 2006 Oregon has promoted the development of wave energy off its coast. While the state may be well suited for the technology because of an abundant wave resource and supporting coastal infrastructure there remain potential barriers to implementing this policy, including uncertainties about the technology and concerns for impacts to the local environment and existing ocean users. Among many studies commissioned to address these uncertainties, this study conducts a stakeholder analysis using an Advocacy Coalition Framework to map the political landscape and identify areas of census and potential barriers among key policy actors. Key findings in this study indicate general support for testing wave energy, but that inflexibility in project location and efforts to develop commercial scale wave parks are areas of division among policy actors. Title: Mapping the Political Landscape of Wave Energy Development Off the Oregon Coast Author: Stevenson, John Since 2006 Oregon has promoted the development of wave energy off its coast. While the state may be well suited for the technology because of an abundant wave resource and supporting coastal infrastructure there remain potential barriers to implementing this policy, including uncertainties about the technology and concerns for impacts to the local environment and existing ocean users. Among many studies commissioned to address these uncertainties, this study conducts a stakeholder analysis using an Advocacy Coalition Framework to map the political landscape and identify areas of census and potential barriers among key policy actors. Key findings in this study indicate general support for testing wave energy, but that inflexibility in project location and efforts to develop commercial scale wave parks are areas of division among policy actors. Close

• 89. [Article] Contributions to the plant ecology of the Oregon coastal sand dunes

  Sand dunes are found along the coasts of most of the large land masses of the world. Because of their proximity to man and his activities, the maritime sand dunes of Europe, particularly Germany, France, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Contributions to the plant ecology of the Oregon coastal sand dunes Author: Wiedemann, Alfred M. Sand dunes are found along the coasts of most of the large land masses of the world. Because of their proximity to man and his activities, the maritime sand dunes of Europe, particularly Germany, France, Holland and Scandinavia, have the longest history of stabilization activities and botanical investigation. There are coastal dune areas, some of great extent, in Africa, tropical Asia, Australia, and South America. In general, little published information is available concerning these areas. Ecological studies of coastal dune vegetation and environment have been most extensive in Great Britain, and to a lesser extent, in North America. Of the North American coastal dunes, those of the east coast have received considerable attention while those of the west coast have been largely neglected. Along the Oregon coast are found some of the most extensive and best developed coastal sand dune areas in North America. Occurring on some 225 km. of the state's 500 km. of ocean facing coastline, these areas are made up of a great variety of dune landscape features and present unique conditions for the development and maintenance of vegetation. There are many places in this dune area where the strong, constant winds have eroded the sand surface to or near the water table resulting in a stabilized surface - the deflation plain - which provides an excellent starting point for the development of vegetation. After preliminary ground and air reconnaissance, 11 deflation plains were selected for detailed study, ranging in location from Sand Lake on the north to Tahkenitch Creek on the south. These deflation plains and their location are described in detail. Vegetation data (species and cover) were taken on a total of 134 sampling stands, each consisting of five meter-square quadrats for herbaceous vegetation, and one 6 x 6 meter quadrat for shrub and forest vegetation. The species and stand data we arranged on comparative charts so as to bring together stands with mutually occurring species. This resulted in the delineation of seven communities with definite successional relationships. Primary succession begins with one of four herbaceous communities: dry meadow, meadow, rush meadow or marsh. Succession then proceeds to low shrub, tall shrub and finally forest. The dry meadow is dominated by three species: Lupinus littoralis, Ammophila arenaria and Poa macrantha. The site is dry with no standing water at any time. Sand deposition and deflation occur in varying degrees. The important species of the meadow are Festuca rubra, Aira praecox, Hypochaeris radicata and Fragaria chiloensis. The surface is dry except for short periods of standing water during the winter months. There is no sand deposition. The rush meadow is characterized by its dense growth of Trifolium willdenovii and Juncus phaeocephalus. The site is low and moist, with water standing on the surface during the winter months. The marsh is found on areas which are quite damp-water stands on the surface for around six months of the year, and is just below the surface for the remainder of the time. It is made up of dense stands of Carex obnupta and Potentilla anserina. The low shrub community is an open stand of Salix hookeriana, Gaultheria shallon, Vaccinium ovatum and Myrica californica. This develops into a tall shrub stage which is frequently an impenetrable thicket with increasing dominance of seedlings of Pinus contorta and Picea sitchensis. Development of a forest of Pinus and Picea is very rapid. If the area is free from disturbance long enough, the shorter lived Pinus dies out, leaving a forest of Picea. The deflation plains represent only part of the many aspects of the total dune landscape still awaiting investigation. The increasing importance of the Oregon coastal dunes to industry and recreation make imperative the initiation of long term ecological studies. Title: Contributions to the plant ecology of the Oregon coastal sand dunes Author: Wiedemann, Alfred M. Sand dunes are found along the coasts of most of the large land masses of the world. Because of their proximity to man and his activities, the maritime sand dunes of Europe, particularly Germany, France, Holland and Scandinavia, have the longest history of stabilization activities and botanical investigation. There are coastal dune areas, some of great extent, in Africa, tropical Asia, Australia, and South America. In general, little published information is available concerning these areas. Ecological studies of coastal dune vegetation and environment have been most extensive in Great Britain, and to a lesser extent, in North America. Of the North American coastal dunes, those of the east coast have received considerable attention while those of the west coast have been largely neglected. Along the Oregon coast are found some of the most extensive and best developed coastal sand dune areas in North America. Occurring on some 225 km. of the state's 500 km. of ocean facing coastline, these areas are made up of a great variety of dune landscape features and present unique conditions for the development and maintenance of vegetation. There are many places in this dune area where the strong, constant winds have eroded the sand surface to or near the water table resulting in a stabilized surface - the deflation plain - which provides an excellent starting point for the development of vegetation. After preliminary ground and air reconnaissance, 11 deflation plains were selected for detailed study, ranging in location from Sand Lake on the north to Tahkenitch Creek on the south. These deflation plains and their location are described in detail. Vegetation data (species and cover) were taken on a total of 134 sampling stands, each consisting of five meter-square quadrats for herbaceous vegetation, and one 6 x 6 meter quadrat for shrub and forest vegetation. The species and stand data we arranged on comparative charts so as to bring together stands with mutually occurring species. This resulted in the delineation of seven communities with definite successional relationships. Primary succession begins with one of four herbaceous communities: dry meadow, meadow, rush meadow or marsh. Succession then proceeds to low shrub, tall shrub and finally forest. The dry meadow is dominated by three species: Lupinus littoralis, Ammophila arenaria and Poa macrantha. The site is dry with no standing water at any time. Sand deposition and deflation occur in varying degrees. The important species of the meadow are Festuca rubra, Aira praecox, Hypochaeris radicata and Fragaria chiloensis. The surface is dry except for short periods of standing water during the winter months. There is no sand deposition. The rush meadow is characterized by its dense growth of Trifolium willdenovii and Juncus phaeocephalus. The site is low and moist, with water standing on the surface during the winter months. The marsh is found on areas which are quite damp-water stands on the surface for around six months of the year, and is just below the surface for the remainder of the time. It is made up of dense stands of Carex obnupta and Potentilla anserina. The low shrub community is an open stand of Salix hookeriana, Gaultheria shallon, Vaccinium ovatum and Myrica californica. This develops into a tall shrub stage which is frequently an impenetrable thicket with increasing dominance of seedlings of Pinus contorta and Picea sitchensis. Development of a forest of Pinus and Picea is very rapid. If the area is free from disturbance long enough, the shorter lived Pinus dies out, leaving a forest of Picea. The deflation plains represent only part of the many aspects of the total dune landscape still awaiting investigation. The increasing importance of the Oregon coastal dunes to industry and recreation make imperative the initiation of long term ecological studies. Close

• 90. [Article] Searching for early archaeological sites along the central Oregon coast : a case study from Neptune State Park (35LA3), Lane County, Oregon

  Locating archaeological sites that predate the arrival of modern sea level has been difficult along the Oregon coast. This is in part believed to be the result of geologic processes that have influenced ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Searching for early archaeological sites along the central Oregon coast : a case study from Neptune State Park (35LA3), Lane County, Oregon Author: Jenevein, Steve Locating archaeological sites that predate the arrival of modern sea level has been difficult along the Oregon coast. This is in part believed to be the result of geologic processes that have influenced the preservation, distribution, and visibility of sites within the Oregon coastal landscape. Because of these changes, researchers have a poor understanding of where sites that predate modern sea level are located within the modern landscape. Geoarchaeological techniques and concepts are well suited to address these types of questions and can help place the fragments of a once much larger paleocoastal landscape into a modern context. In this thesis I use a Geographic Information System (GIS) and geoarchaeological field and laboratory techniques and concepts to conceptualize, locate, and evaluate landforms located within both the paleo and modern central Oregon coastal landscapes. Geoarchaeological investigations conducted as part of this project at the Neptune Site (35LA3) identified mid to late Holocene aged archaeological materials in addition to an erosional contact located between late Pleistocene and Holocene-aged deposits representing the loss of up to 11,400 years of stratigraphic time. To account for this loss of time, a model of landscape change that is occurring at 35LA3 is presented. Depositional sequences such as truncated late Pleistocene aged deposits that underlie mid to late Holocene sediment that are observed at the Neptune Site are similar to, and have been associated with other early sites along the Oregon coast. The identification of these types of deposits and their associated erosional features may serve as key target horizons for future coastal researchers looking for landforms and archaeological deposits and date to the late Pleistocene to mid Holocene. Title: Searching for early archaeological sites along the central Oregon coast : a case study from Neptune State Park (35LA3), Lane County, Oregon Author: Jenevein, Steve Locating archaeological sites that predate the arrival of modern sea level has been difficult along the Oregon coast. This is in part believed to be the result of geologic processes that have influenced the preservation, distribution, and visibility of sites within the Oregon coastal landscape. Because of these changes, researchers have a poor understanding of where sites that predate modern sea level are located within the modern landscape. Geoarchaeological techniques and concepts are well suited to address these types of questions and can help place the fragments of a once much larger paleocoastal landscape into a modern context. In this thesis I use a Geographic Information System (GIS) and geoarchaeological field and laboratory techniques and concepts to conceptualize, locate, and evaluate landforms located within both the paleo and modern central Oregon coastal landscapes. Geoarchaeological investigations conducted as part of this project at the Neptune Site (35LA3) identified mid to late Holocene aged archaeological materials in addition to an erosional contact located between late Pleistocene and Holocene-aged deposits representing the loss of up to 11,400 years of stratigraphic time. To account for this loss of time, a model of landscape change that is occurring at 35LA3 is presented. Depositional sequences such as truncated late Pleistocene aged deposits that underlie mid to late Holocene sediment that are observed at the Neptune Site are similar to, and have been associated with other early sites along the Oregon coast. The identification of these types of deposits and their associated erosional features may serve as key target horizons for future coastal researchers looking for landforms and archaeological deposits and date to the late Pleistocene to mid Holocene. Close

• 91. [Article] Patterns in coastal marsh vegetation of the Juneau area, Alaska

  A vegetation study was made of four coastal marshes near Juneau, Alaska. Results confirmed earlier studies' findings in southeast Alaska that communities or assemblages of species can be identified but ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Patterns in coastal marsh vegetation of the Juneau area, Alaska Author: Stone, Catherine S. A vegetation study was made of four coastal marshes near Juneau, Alaska. Results confirmed earlier studies' findings in southeast Alaska that communities or assemblages of species can be identified but from marsh to marsh these assemblages appear to have no consistent relationship to each other or to environmental "factors" such as elevation and salinity. Further, marshes of the Juneau area vary in assemblage composition and assemblages vary in species composition within and among marshes. This variability apparently results from individualistic behavior of plant species. An individualistic interpretation of these results may explain plant populations behaviors but not the behavior of vegetation as a collective unit. Also, it makes comparison of marshes impossible because the comparison must be based on inconsistent species composition and inconsistent spatial arrangement of species and vegetation units. The explanation of the behavior of coastal marsh vegetation in the Juneau area lies in the integration of behaviors of physiography, species, and assemblages of species. Physiography is the integration of "site factors," species are the integration of populations, and vegetation is the integration of species' interactions. Site physiography thus defines the habitat, and the integration of plants and habitat at a site is the habitat-vegetation complex. The collection of complexes in a landscape forms a pattern of patches in which the complexes serve as species and materials pools for each other and for the surrounding patterns. The composition and structure (spatial arrangement) of the present complexes are its realized capacity, the result of site history and species-and-vegetation history. The nature of future habitat-vegetation complexes will be the outcome of site processes and species-and-vegetation processes. This future incorporates all possible outcomes of all possible combinations of processes and represents the potential capacities of the habitat-vegetation complex. This scheme makes possible the explanation of the history and future of vegetation and comparison of coastal marsh sites and vegetation in terms of history and process without requiring specification of species composition or endpoint of vegetation development. Title: Patterns in coastal marsh vegetation of the Juneau area, Alaska Author: Stone, Catherine S. A vegetation study was made of four coastal marshes near Juneau, Alaska. Results confirmed earlier studies' findings in southeast Alaska that communities or assemblages of species can be identified but from marsh to marsh these assemblages appear to have no consistent relationship to each other or to environmental "factors" such as elevation and salinity. Further, marshes of the Juneau area vary in assemblage composition and assemblages vary in species composition within and among marshes. This variability apparently results from individualistic behavior of plant species. An individualistic interpretation of these results may explain plant populations behaviors but not the behavior of vegetation as a collective unit. Also, it makes comparison of marshes impossible because the comparison must be based on inconsistent species composition and inconsistent spatial arrangement of species and vegetation units. The explanation of the behavior of coastal marsh vegetation in the Juneau area lies in the integration of behaviors of physiography, species, and assemblages of species. Physiography is the integration of "site factors," species are the integration of populations, and vegetation is the integration of species' interactions. Site physiography thus defines the habitat, and the integration of plants and habitat at a site is the habitat-vegetation complex. The collection of complexes in a landscape forms a pattern of patches in which the complexes serve as species and materials pools for each other and for the surrounding patterns. The composition and structure (spatial arrangement) of the present complexes are its realized capacity, the result of site history and species-and-vegetation history. The nature of future habitat-vegetation complexes will be the outcome of site processes and species-and-vegetation processes. This future incorporates all possible outcomes of all possible combinations of processes and represents the potential capacities of the habitat-vegetation complex. This scheme makes possible the explanation of the history and future of vegetation and comparison of coastal marsh sites and vegetation in terms of history and process without requiring specification of species composition or endpoint of vegetation development. Close

• 92. [Article] New insights on an old topic : understanding the effects of forest harvest on trout in the context of climate

  Studies of the effects of forest harvest on streams and fish have a long history in the Pacific Northwest. Results of this work have prompted development of new forest harvest practices that are more protective ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: New insights on an old topic : understanding the effects of forest harvest on trout in the context of climate Author: Penaluna, Brooke E. Studies of the effects of forest harvest on streams and fish have a long history in the Pacific Northwest. Results of this work have prompted development of new forest harvest practices that are more protective of these resources, but the effectiveness of these new practices has not been fully evaluated. Furthermore, the effects of contemporary forest harvest in the context of climate change are poorly understood. To address these issues, my overall research goal was to understand how water quality, water quantity, and instream habitat influence individuals and corresponding population dynamics of coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii). My work was designed to complement field results from a new generation of watershed studies currently underway in western Oregon. I combined semi-natural experiments with modeling based on field observations to understand fundamental causes and processes influencing trout. This multifaceted approach provided a novel process-based perspective on issues related to forest harvest and climate. In Chapter 2, I evaluated individual- and population-level responses of coastal cutthroat trout to instream cover. Although the influences of forest harvest on stream flow, temperature, and turbidity are often the focus, instream cover may be strongly influenced by forest harvest. In addition, restoration of instream cover is now a common practice, but the importance of cover itself to stream-living fishes is still a major question. To address this issue, I conducted large-scale manipulative experiments in outdoor semi-natural stream units to approximate conditions experienced by trout in headwater streams in western Oregon. I determined that infrequent cover use by trout leads to emigration. Next, I built upon key ideas within stream ecology related to the importance of location within a landscape to aquatic biota, which have been explored and debated extensively. The variability in population responses across similar locations within a landscape is less understood. My objective in Chapter 3 was to understand the variability in population biomass of coastal cutthroat trout across headwater streams by understanding of the relative roles of two general classes of variables that occur in headwater streams: dynamic environmental regimes and relatively fixed habitat structure. I provided evidence that environmental regimes contribute to biomass variability while also being constrained by the habitat structure, given the range of conditions that I was able to simulate. Although the effects of contemporary forest harvest and climate change occur simultaneously, they are not typically considered together, as they are in Chapter 4. Here, I tracked population responses of trout, including biomass, survival, growth, and timing of emergence during six decades across four modeled headwater streams using the same individual-based trout model as in Chapter 3. I modeled four scenarios: 1) baseline conditions (simulation of existing conditions); 2) effects of contemporary forest harvest; 3) effects of climate change; and 4) the combined effects of forest harvest and climate change. Differences among scenarios were tied to changes in flow and temperature regimes. Here, I found that there was a high degree of local variability in the responses that I simulated. Whereas localized responses to forest harvest have been observed, my findings contrast with the vast majority of work on species responses to climate change, most of which reports relatively synchronous or uniform responses. I highlighted the role of individual variability of trout and local variability of streams, which ultimately suggest that some individuals and populations of trout may be more vulnerable than others to the effects of forest harvest, climate change, or both processes together. Title: New insights on an old topic : understanding the effects of forest harvest on trout in the context of climate Author: Penaluna, Brooke E. Studies of the effects of forest harvest on streams and fish have a long history in the Pacific Northwest. Results of this work have prompted development of new forest harvest practices that are more protective of these resources, but the effectiveness of these new practices has not been fully evaluated. Furthermore, the effects of contemporary forest harvest in the context of climate change are poorly understood. To address these issues, my overall research goal was to understand how water quality, water quantity, and instream habitat influence individuals and corresponding population dynamics of coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii). My work was designed to complement field results from a new generation of watershed studies currently underway in western Oregon. I combined semi-natural experiments with modeling based on field observations to understand fundamental causes and processes influencing trout. This multifaceted approach provided a novel process-based perspective on issues related to forest harvest and climate. In Chapter 2, I evaluated individual- and population-level responses of coastal cutthroat trout to instream cover. Although the influences of forest harvest on stream flow, temperature, and turbidity are often the focus, instream cover may be strongly influenced by forest harvest. In addition, restoration of instream cover is now a common practice, but the importance of cover itself to stream-living fishes is still a major question. To address this issue, I conducted large-scale manipulative experiments in outdoor semi-natural stream units to approximate conditions experienced by trout in headwater streams in western Oregon. I determined that infrequent cover use by trout leads to emigration. Next, I built upon key ideas within stream ecology related to the importance of location within a landscape to aquatic biota, which have been explored and debated extensively. The variability in population responses across similar locations within a landscape is less understood. My objective in Chapter 3 was to understand the variability in population biomass of coastal cutthroat trout across headwater streams by understanding of the relative roles of two general classes of variables that occur in headwater streams: dynamic environmental regimes and relatively fixed habitat structure. I provided evidence that environmental regimes contribute to biomass variability while also being constrained by the habitat structure, given the range of conditions that I was able to simulate. Although the effects of contemporary forest harvest and climate change occur simultaneously, they are not typically considered together, as they are in Chapter 4. Here, I tracked population responses of trout, including biomass, survival, growth, and timing of emergence during six decades across four modeled headwater streams using the same individual-based trout model as in Chapter 3. I modeled four scenarios: 1) baseline conditions (simulation of existing conditions); 2) effects of contemporary forest harvest; 3) effects of climate change; and 4) the combined effects of forest harvest and climate change. Differences among scenarios were tied to changes in flow and temperature regimes. Here, I found that there was a high degree of local variability in the responses that I simulated. Whereas localized responses to forest harvest have been observed, my findings contrast with the vast majority of work on species responses to climate change, most of which reports relatively synchronous or uniform responses. I highlighted the role of individual variability of trout and local variability of streams, which ultimately suggest that some individuals and populations of trout may be more vulnerable than others to the effects of forest harvest, climate change, or both processes together. Close

• 93. [Article] The Role of Plant-soil Feedback in the Invasion of Brachypodium sylvaticum in Douglas-fir Forests

  Invasive plants have the capacity to transform landscapes and alter ecosystem function, causing significant economic and ecological damage. These effects include displacement and reduction of native flora ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Role of Plant-soil Feedback in the Invasion of Brachypodium sylvaticum in Douglas-fir Forests Author: Esterson, Andrew Invasive plants have the capacity to transform landscapes and alter ecosystem function, causing significant economic and ecological damage. These effects include displacement and reduction of native flora and fauna, altered fire regimes, modification of biotic and abiotic soil properties, as well as local, regional, and global economic impacts. With such large impacts it is important that we better understand invasion dynamics to help with prevention, control and mitigation of invasive species. One process that has been associated with plant invasion is plant-soil feedback (PSF). A PSF occurs when plants alter biotic and abiotic soil properties through a variety of root exudates and litter decomposition such that subsequent plant growth is either positively or negatively affected. Positive conspecific and negative heterospecific responses have been theorized to be invasive species traits that promote invasion. Once an invasive species is removed from a system, there is a chance that PSFs generated by that species will persist in the soil, which is often referred to as 'plant legacies' or 'legacy effects' and may negatively influence restoration efforts. In the U.S. Pacific Northwest (PNW), Brachypodium sylvaticum (slender false brome), a perennial bunch grass native to Eurasia, is listed as a quarantined invasive species in California, Oregon, and Washington. Currently, B. sylvaticum is in the midst of rapid population growth and range expansion with populations in New York, Virginia, and Ontario, Canada. With a quickly expanding range research is critical for successful efforts to reduce the spread of B. sylvaticum. We developed two experiments to determine if PSF is a contributing factor to B. sylvaticum invasion in PNW forests. We hypothesized that 1) B. sylvaticum has positive conspecific and negative heterospecific PSF, 2) native species PSF has no effect on B. sylvaticum, and 3) PSF generated by B. sylvaticum will persist in the soil once removed, but over time, response of native species, soil nutrients and bacterial community composition will change from the invaded conditioned. To test our first two hypotheses, B. sylvaticum and five common native plants from the Oregon Coastal range, including the economically important tree, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), were grown in a greenhouse on wild forest soils that had either been sterilized or kept live to condition the soil biotic community to the invader and the native species. Brachypodium sylvaticum was then grown on soil conditioned by itself and soil conditioned by natives; each of the five native species was grown on soil conditioned by B. sylvaticum and on their own conditioned soils. Plant biomass along with species specific measurements (number of leaves, stems, tillers, stem diameter and height) were recorded and a relative response (RR) index was used to determine the direction of PSF for the invader and native species. To test our third hypothesis, in March, 2015, ten plots were established in the McDonald-Dunn Research Forest located in Corvallis, OR where B. sylvaticum had at least 75% cover. Herbicide was applied to half of each plot to make two soil treatments: soil with B. sylvaticum and soil without B. sylvaticum. Over a nine-month period three soil collections took place where soil was collected from all plots and treatments. Plant response was evaluated by growing four native species and B. sylvaticum on both soil treatments and evaluating total biomass with a RR index; plant response (via growth), soil nutrients and bacterial communities were measured for each collection period. Bacterial communities were measured with phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis and high throughput 16s rRNA amplicon sequencing. Contrary to our hypotheses, the RR to PSF generated by B. sylvaticum was negative for the invader and P. menziesii and neutral for all other natives. Soils conditioned by Bromus vulgaris inhibited B. sylvaticum growth whereas soils conditioned by Prunella vulgaris and P. menziesii promoted B. sylvaticum growth. When testing for legacy effects, the RR of P. menziesii was negative when grown on soils where B. sylvaticum had been removed for six-months (six-month soils) but when grown on soils where B. sylvaticum had been removed for nine-months (nine-month soil) the RR of P. menziesii was neutral. The RR of P. vulgaris to six-month soils was positive while its RR to nine-month soils was negative. Nutrient and bacterial communities did not change in response to B. sylvaticum removal suggesting that the biotic and abiotic legacy requires longer than nine-months to be observed or B. sylvaticum does not affect the response variables measured. Overall, our data suggest that PSF generated by B. sylvaticum does not facilitate the invasion process but does differentially affect native species growth over time. PSF generated by native grasses may be a useful restoration tool to help prevent B. sylvaticum invasion and we suggest planting native species at least nine-months after B. sylvaticum removal. Title: The Role of Plant-soil Feedback in the Invasion of Brachypodium sylvaticum in Douglas-fir Forests Author: Esterson, Andrew Invasive plants have the capacity to transform landscapes and alter ecosystem function, causing significant economic and ecological damage. These effects include displacement and reduction of native flora and fauna, altered fire regimes, modification of biotic and abiotic soil properties, as well as local, regional, and global economic impacts. With such large impacts it is important that we better understand invasion dynamics to help with prevention, control and mitigation of invasive species. One process that has been associated with plant invasion is plant-soil feedback (PSF). A PSF occurs when plants alter biotic and abiotic soil properties through a variety of root exudates and litter decomposition such that subsequent plant growth is either positively or negatively affected. Positive conspecific and negative heterospecific responses have been theorized to be invasive species traits that promote invasion. Once an invasive species is removed from a system, there is a chance that PSFs generated by that species will persist in the soil, which is often referred to as 'plant legacies' or 'legacy effects' and may negatively influence restoration efforts. In the U.S. Pacific Northwest (PNW), Brachypodium sylvaticum (slender false brome), a perennial bunch grass native to Eurasia, is listed as a quarantined invasive species in California, Oregon, and Washington. Currently, B. sylvaticum is in the midst of rapid population growth and range expansion with populations in New York, Virginia, and Ontario, Canada. With a quickly expanding range research is critical for successful efforts to reduce the spread of B. sylvaticum. We developed two experiments to determine if PSF is a contributing factor to B. sylvaticum invasion in PNW forests. We hypothesized that 1) B. sylvaticum has positive conspecific and negative heterospecific PSF, 2) native species PSF has no effect on B. sylvaticum, and 3) PSF generated by B. sylvaticum will persist in the soil once removed, but over time, response of native species, soil nutrients and bacterial community composition will change from the invaded conditioned. To test our first two hypotheses, B. sylvaticum and five common native plants from the Oregon Coastal range, including the economically important tree, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), were grown in a greenhouse on wild forest soils that had either been sterilized or kept live to condition the soil biotic community to the invader and the native species. Brachypodium sylvaticum was then grown on soil conditioned by itself and soil conditioned by natives; each of the five native species was grown on soil conditioned by B. sylvaticum and on their own conditioned soils. Plant biomass along with species specific measurements (number of leaves, stems, tillers, stem diameter and height) were recorded and a relative response (RR) index was used to determine the direction of PSF for the invader and native species. To test our third hypothesis, in March, 2015, ten plots were established in the McDonald-Dunn Research Forest located in Corvallis, OR where B. sylvaticum had at least 75% cover. Herbicide was applied to half of each plot to make two soil treatments: soil with B. sylvaticum and soil without B. sylvaticum. Over a nine-month period three soil collections took place where soil was collected from all plots and treatments. Plant response was evaluated by growing four native species and B. sylvaticum on both soil treatments and evaluating total biomass with a RR index; plant response (via growth), soil nutrients and bacterial communities were measured for each collection period. Bacterial communities were measured with phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis and high throughput 16s rRNA amplicon sequencing. Contrary to our hypotheses, the RR to PSF generated by B. sylvaticum was negative for the invader and P. menziesii and neutral for all other natives. Soils conditioned by Bromus vulgaris inhibited B. sylvaticum growth whereas soils conditioned by Prunella vulgaris and P. menziesii promoted B. sylvaticum growth. When testing for legacy effects, the RR of P. menziesii was negative when grown on soils where B. sylvaticum had been removed for six-months (six-month soils) but when grown on soils where B. sylvaticum had been removed for nine-months (nine-month soil) the RR of P. menziesii was neutral. The RR of P. vulgaris to six-month soils was positive while its RR to nine-month soils was negative. Nutrient and bacterial communities did not change in response to B. sylvaticum removal suggesting that the biotic and abiotic legacy requires longer than nine-months to be observed or B. sylvaticum does not affect the response variables measured. Overall, our data suggest that PSF generated by B. sylvaticum does not facilitate the invasion process but does differentially affect native species growth over time. PSF generated by native grasses may be a useful restoration tool to help prevent B. sylvaticum invasion and we suggest planting native species at least nine-months after B. sylvaticum removal. Close

• 94. [Article] Where's the ground surface? Elevation bias in LIDAR-derived digital elevation models due to dense vegetation in Oregon tidal marshes

  Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a powerful resource for coastal and wetland managers and its use is increasing. Vegetation density and other land cover characteristics influence the accuracy of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Where's the ground surface? Elevation bias in LIDAR-derived digital elevation models due to dense vegetation in Oregon tidal marshes Author: Ewald, Michael J. Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a powerful resource for coastal and wetland managers and its use is increasing. Vegetation density and other land cover characteristics influence the accuracy of LIDAR-derived ground surface digital elevation models; however, the degree to which wetland land cover biases LIDAR estimates of the ground surface is largely unknown. The minimum-bin LIDAR gridding technique has been proposed as a way to mitigate dense vegetation interference to generate LIDAR-derived digital elevation models (DEM). Past research has focused on the ability to resolve the marsh plain elevation and only limited research has investigated the overall DEM accuracy across the landscape using a wide range of cell sizes and land cover classes. I compared LIDAR-derived DEM accuracy across a 174 ha tidal wetland restoration site with a mix of native wetland and non-native agricultural pasture species. I found an optimum cell size of 1.4 m (1.96 m²) with a mean positive bias of 4.5 cm and a mean absolute error of 24.3 cm. At cell sizes smaller than the optimum, vegetation interferes with the LIDAR sensor and positively biases DEM models. At cell sizes larger than 1.4 m, the DEM captures and favors low features within the landscape, such as channels and ditches, which thereby degrade overall DEM performance. In addition, I investigated LIDAR interference by twelve common tidal wetland vegetation associations across six Oregon estuaries, using survey-grade Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of the wetland surface and quantitative vegetation data (percent cover by species) for each measurement location. The fundamental vertical accuracy (FVA) of the LIDAR datasets was 4.5 cm root mean square error (RMSE) and had no consistent positive or negative bias in open landcover. Within wetland vegetation communities, my results suggest that LIDAR estimates of the ground surface in tidal wetlands are typically 10 cm to 30 cm above GPS measurements. Plant associations dominated by Carex obnupta and Carex lyngbyei exhibited the largest discrepancy between LIDAR and GPS measurements (mean discrepancies 36.6 cm and 48.8 cm respectively). The smallest errors observed in the study were about 10 cm to 11 cm and occurred in several different plant associations, including two low tidal marsh associations dominated by a mixture of Deschampsia cespitosa, Distichlis spicata, Sarcocornia perennis and Jaumea carnosa. These results suggest that the minimum-bin gridding technique for LIDAR may mitigate vegetation interference by densely vegetated land covers within LIDAR-derived DEM. However, care should be taken to select an appropriate cell size and validate the results before relying on the DEM for analysis. My research yields new information for coastal LIDAR users and increases our understanding of uncertainty in LIDAR-derived datasets to improve the ability to accurately evaluate and manage coastal environments. Title: Where's the ground surface? Elevation bias in LIDAR-derived digital elevation models due to dense vegetation in Oregon tidal marshes Author: Ewald, Michael J. Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a powerful resource for coastal and wetland managers and its use is increasing. Vegetation density and other land cover characteristics influence the accuracy of LIDAR-derived ground surface digital elevation models; however, the degree to which wetland land cover biases LIDAR estimates of the ground surface is largely unknown. The minimum-bin LIDAR gridding technique has been proposed as a way to mitigate dense vegetation interference to generate LIDAR-derived digital elevation models (DEM). Past research has focused on the ability to resolve the marsh plain elevation and only limited research has investigated the overall DEM accuracy across the landscape using a wide range of cell sizes and land cover classes. I compared LIDAR-derived DEM accuracy across a 174 ha tidal wetland restoration site with a mix of native wetland and non-native agricultural pasture species. I found an optimum cell size of 1.4 m (1.96 m²) with a mean positive bias of 4.5 cm and a mean absolute error of 24.3 cm. At cell sizes smaller than the optimum, vegetation interferes with the LIDAR sensor and positively biases DEM models. At cell sizes larger than 1.4 m, the DEM captures and favors low features within the landscape, such as channels and ditches, which thereby degrade overall DEM performance. In addition, I investigated LIDAR interference by twelve common tidal wetland vegetation associations across six Oregon estuaries, using survey-grade Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of the wetland surface and quantitative vegetation data (percent cover by species) for each measurement location. The fundamental vertical accuracy (FVA) of the LIDAR datasets was 4.5 cm root mean square error (RMSE) and had no consistent positive or negative bias in open landcover. Within wetland vegetation communities, my results suggest that LIDAR estimates of the ground surface in tidal wetlands are typically 10 cm to 30 cm above GPS measurements. Plant associations dominated by Carex obnupta and Carex lyngbyei exhibited the largest discrepancy between LIDAR and GPS measurements (mean discrepancies 36.6 cm and 48.8 cm respectively). The smallest errors observed in the study were about 10 cm to 11 cm and occurred in several different plant associations, including two low tidal marsh associations dominated by a mixture of Deschampsia cespitosa, Distichlis spicata, Sarcocornia perennis and Jaumea carnosa. These results suggest that the minimum-bin gridding technique for LIDAR may mitigate vegetation interference by densely vegetated land covers within LIDAR-derived DEM. However, care should be taken to select an appropriate cell size and validate the results before relying on the DEM for analysis. My research yields new information for coastal LIDAR users and increases our understanding of uncertainty in LIDAR-derived datasets to improve the ability to accurately evaluate and manage coastal environments. Close

• 95. [Article] Interrelationships of spodosols, andepts, and ultisols on coastal terraces in Curry County, Oregon

  Distribution and characteristics of soils were determined across a series of six coastal terraces in Curry Co., Oregon. Classification of soils and interrelationships of properties were determined. Soil-landscape ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Interrelationships of spodosols, andepts, and ultisols on coastal terraces in Curry County, Oregon Author: Hoppe, Diane A. S. Distribution and characteristics of soils were determined across a series of six coastal terraces in Curry Co., Oregon. Classification of soils and interrelationships of properties were determined. Soil-landscape relationships were examined and soil profile development related to relative ages of terraces. Ten pedons were sampled from five terraces of Pleistocene age. All profiles were analyzed for particle size distribution; bulk density; water retention, -1.5 MPa; aluminum and iron extracted with oxalate, citrate-dithionite and sodium pyrophosphate; pH; phosphate retention; exchangeable aluminum; organic carbon; and cation exchange capacity. Andeptic Humitropepts occur on intermediate terraces, in close proximity to the coast. Andeptic Haplohumults occur on the better drained areas of the intermediate terrace, but further inland. Soils in less well drained areas of the intermediate and higher terraces classify as Spodosols, based on morphological features. Ultisols occur on the highest terraces. Profile morphology, particle size and iron extracts are compared between terraces to derive age relationships. Title: Interrelationships of spodosols, andepts, and ultisols on coastal terraces in Curry County, Oregon Author: Hoppe, Diane A. S. Distribution and characteristics of soils were determined across a series of six coastal terraces in Curry Co., Oregon. Classification of soils and interrelationships of properties were determined. Soil-landscape relationships were examined and soil profile development related to relative ages of terraces. Ten pedons were sampled from five terraces of Pleistocene age. All profiles were analyzed for particle size distribution; bulk density; water retention, -1.5 MPa; aluminum and iron extracted with oxalate, citrate-dithionite and sodium pyrophosphate; pH; phosphate retention; exchangeable aluminum; organic carbon; and cation exchange capacity. Andeptic Humitropepts occur on intermediate terraces, in close proximity to the coast. Andeptic Haplohumults occur on the better drained areas of the intermediate terrace, but further inland. Soils in less well drained areas of the intermediate and higher terraces classify as Spodosols, based on morphological features. Ultisols occur on the highest terraces. Profile morphology, particle size and iron extracts are compared between terraces to derive age relationships. Close

• 96. [Image] Untitled (Douglas)

  	A black and white photographic documentation of water meeting land.; 1984
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Untitled (Douglas) Author: Frank, Douglas A black and white photographic documentation of water meeting land.; 1984 Title: Untitled (Douglas) Author: Frank, Douglas A black and white photographic documentation of water meeting land.; 1984 Close

• 97. [Image] Untitled (Douglas)

  	A black and white photographic documentation of an oddly triangular-shaped rock along the coastline.; 1984
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Untitled (Douglas) Author: Frank, Douglas A black and white photographic documentation of an oddly triangular-shaped rock along the coastline.; 1984 Title: Untitled (Douglas) Author: Frank, Douglas A black and white photographic documentation of an oddly triangular-shaped rock along the coastline.; 1984 Close

• 98. [Image] The Promise of Evening

  	A scene depicting a coastal horizon at sunset is surrounded by blocks of neutral tones.; 1999
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Promise of Evening Author: Caprario, Kathleen A scene depicting a coastal horizon at sunset is surrounded by blocks of neutral tones.; 1999 Title: The Promise of Evening Author: Caprario, Kathleen A scene depicting a coastal horizon at sunset is surrounded by blocks of neutral tones.; 1999 Close

• 99. [Image] Fog Bank

  	This painting depicts a coastal landscape scene in exaggerated tones of blue, turquoise, and ochre. Gentle waves moving toward the shore are outlined with white and thin lines of red.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Fog Bank Author: Gunn, John Paul Year: 1975 This painting depicts a coastal landscape scene in exaggerated tones of blue, turquoise, and ochre. Gentle waves moving toward the shore are outlined with white and thin lines of red. Title: Fog Bank Author: Gunn, John Paul Year: 1975 This painting depicts a coastal landscape scene in exaggerated tones of blue, turquoise, and ochre. Gentle waves moving toward the shore are outlined with white and thin lines of red. Close

• 100. [Article] Biophysical feedback mediates effects of invasive grasses on coastal dune shape

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Ecological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.esajournals.org/loi/ecol.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biophysical feedback mediates effects of invasive grasses on coastal dune shape Author: Zarnetske, Phoebe L., Seabloom, Eric W., Hacker, Sally D., Killian, Jason R., Maddux, Timothy B., Cox, Daniel, Ruggiero, Peter This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Ecological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.esajournals.org/loi/ecol. Title: Biophysical feedback mediates effects of invasive grasses on coastal dune shape Author: Zarnetske, Phoebe L., Seabloom, Eric W., Hacker, Sally D., Killian, Jason R., Maddux, Timothy B., Cox, Daniel, Ruggiero, Peter This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Ecological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.esajournals.org/loi/ecol. Close