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• 8611. [Image] Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Close

• 8612. [Image] The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's interim judgment in Klamath Basin

  	The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's interim judgment in Klamath Basin Author: Cooperman, Michael S. ; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2002, 2005 The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species Act. This conclusion has been based on an interim National Research Council report, quickly prepared in late fall, 2001. We have reviewed several iterations of the NRC Interim Report as well as all Biological Opinions and management documents related to Klamath Basin suckers and provide an overview. The 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report illustrate the lack of consensus typical of scientists in the early stages of exploring a complex system. Unfortunately, the decision created hardship for a small group of people and the lack of scientific consensus has politicized the debate. Politicians have assumed that the Interim Report has primacy in the scientific debate when, in fact, its speedy construction contributed to multiple errors that detract from its scientific usefulness. The NRC Interim Report has, instead, primarily served to deflect debate away from the needs of listed fishes to one about shortcomings in the Endangered Species Act. Although the process of science has been served by both the 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report, both have shortcomings, and we see no justification for either side labeling the other's decisions or conclusions as "not sound science." Title: The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's interim judgment in Klamath Basin Author: Cooperman, Michael S. ; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2002, 2005 The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species Act. This conclusion has been based on an interim National Research Council report, quickly prepared in late fall, 2001. We have reviewed several iterations of the NRC Interim Report as well as all Biological Opinions and management documents related to Klamath Basin suckers and provide an overview. The 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report illustrate the lack of consensus typical of scientists in the early stages of exploring a complex system. Unfortunately, the decision created hardship for a small group of people and the lack of scientific consensus has politicized the debate. Politicians have assumed that the Interim Report has primacy in the scientific debate when, in fact, its speedy construction contributed to multiple errors that detract from its scientific usefulness. The NRC Interim Report has, instead, primarily served to deflect debate away from the needs of listed fishes to one about shortcomings in the Endangered Species Act. Although the process of science has been served by both the 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report, both have shortcomings, and we see no justification for either side labeling the other's decisions or conclusions as "not sound science." Close

• 8613. [Image] Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: draft visitor services plan, environmental impact statement

  	"November 1997."; Includes bibliographical references (155-163) and index
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: draft visitor services plan, environmental impact statement Author: United States. National Park Service Year: 1997, 2008 "November 1997."; Includes bibliographical references (155-163) and index Title: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: draft visitor services plan, environmental impact statement Author: United States. National Park Service Year: 1997, 2008 "November 1997."; Includes bibliographical references (155-163) and index Close

• 8614. [Image] Fire-insect-disease relationships of a lodgepole pine ecosystem in south-central Oregon

  	ill.; "July 1985."; "Final report on National Science Foundation Grant DEB-8109813"-- Cover; Includes offprints of several project-related publications by the authors; Includes bibliographical referen...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Fire-insect-disease relationships of a lodgepole pine ecosystem in south-central Oregon Author: Gara, Robert I. Year: 1985, 2008 ill.; "July 1985."; "Final report on National Science Foundation Grant DEB-8109813"-- Cover; Includes offprints of several project-related publications by the authors; Includes bibliographical references Title: Fire-insect-disease relationships of a lodgepole pine ecosystem in south-central Oregon Author: Gara, Robert I. Year: 1985, 2008 ill.; "July 1985."; "Final report on National Science Foundation Grant DEB-8109813"-- Cover; Includes offprints of several project-related publications by the authors; Includes bibliographical references Close

• 8615. [Image] The Water Report - Watershed assessments: the Upper Klamath Basin process

  	Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Water Report - Watershed assessments: the Upper Klamath Basin process Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2004, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Title: The Water Report - Watershed assessments: the Upper Klamath Basin process Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2004, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Close

• 8616. [Article] Applying GPS and Accelerometers to the Study of African Savanna (Loxodonta africana) and Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare in Zoos

  African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are a focus of welfare research in zoos due to their high intelligence, complex social structure, and sheer size. Due ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Applying GPS and Accelerometers to the Study of African Savanna (Loxodonta africana) and Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare in Zoos Author: Holdgate, Matthew Robert Year: 2015 African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are a focus of welfare research in zoos due to their high intelligence, complex social structure, and sheer size. Due to these challenges, some argue that zoos are inherently incapable of providing appropriate care for elephants, while others believe that zoos can fulfill the needs of these species with improved husbandry. There is a general consensus from both within and outside of zoos, however, that zoos must improve their elephant programs or cease exhibiting these animals altogether. Now more than ever, applied research on zoo elephant welfare is needed to provide context for this debate. Researchers are interested in how far zoo elephants walk due to the potential health and welfare benefits of walking in these highly mobile species. Zoo researchers recently adopted GPS technology to study elephant walking, and preliminary evidence suggests that African elephants in large zoo exhibits walk distances that correspond with wild elephants under non-extreme conditions. However, data are limited from Asian elephants and from elephants in more typically-sized exhibits. In Chapter Two, I discuss important methodological considerations of utilizing GPS in a zoo environment, including an introduction to the technology, sources of error and mitigation, methods to improve GPS performance, and possible effects of GPS device attachment on animal behavior. This review shows GPS performance is adequate for tracking zoo elephant walking when proper methodological techniques are applied, and should serve as a useful reference for zoo researchers considering using GPS. In Chapter Three, I used GPS anklets to measure outdoor daily walking distance in 56 adult female African (n = 33) and Asian (n = 23) elephants housed in 30 zoos. I collected 259 days of data and found that elephants walked an average of 5.34 km/day with no significant difference between species. Multivariate regression models predicted that elephants with more dynamic feeding regimens (more diverse feeding types and frequencies; unscheduled feeding times) will walk more. Distance walked was also predicted to be higher in elephants that spend time in a greater number of different social groups. Distance walked was predicted to decline with age. Finally, I found a significant negative correlation between distance walked and nighttime space experience. The results of the analysis suggest that zoos that want to increase walking in their elephants need not rely solely on larger exhibits, but can increase walking by adding quality and complexity to exhibits. However, my results failed to establish a definitive link between walking distance and other validated measures of elephant welfare. Thus, the direct health and welfare benefits of walking in zoo elephants remain unresolved. Resting behaviors are an essential component of animal welfare, but have received little attention in zoological research. In Chapter Four, I used accelerometers in anklets to complete the first large-scale multi-species investigation of zoo elephant recumbence. I collected 344 days of data from 72 adult female African (n = 44) and Asian (n = 28) elephants at 40 zoos. I found that African elephants are recumbent an average of 2.14 hours/day, which is significantly less than Asian elephants at 3.22 hours/day. Multivariate regression models predicted that African elephant recumbence increases when they experience more space at night, and Asian elephant recumbence increases when they spend time housed alone. Both species showed a similar response to substrate, such that African elephants spending time on all-hard substrates are predicted to be recumbent less, while Asian elephants spending time on all-soft substrates are predicted to be recumbent more. The discovery that occasional non-recumbence is a common behavior in zoo elephants also introduces a new area of research that may have important animal welfare consequences. Finally, this study established that zoos should continue their efforts to replace hard substrate with soft substrate in order to provide zoo elephants with environments that facilitate recumbence. Overall, this work assessed walking and recumbence in zoo elephants, which will allow zoos to gauge the prevalence of these behaviors in their elephants as compared to the sub-population studied here. A variety of factors that are associated with these behaviors were also identified. With this information, zoos can prioritize modifications to their facilities and animal management programs to create an environment that encourages zoo elephants to express walking and recumbence behavior, should they choose to do so. This work is one component of the Elephant Welfare Project, the largest zoo animal welfare project ever undertaken, and is unprecedented in both scope and scale. The project was funded by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), an independent, U.S., federal, grant-making agency that supports libraries, museums, and zoos. At the time of this writing, the first manuscripts from this project are being submitted to academic journals. These papers will describe the prevalence and distribution of a variety of elephant behaviors and welfare indicators, serve as a benchmark for future elephant welfare studies, and aid in decision making with regard to best practices in elephant management. Title: Applying GPS and Accelerometers to the Study of African Savanna (Loxodonta africana) and Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare in Zoos Author: Holdgate, Matthew Robert Year: 2015 African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are a focus of welfare research in zoos due to their high intelligence, complex social structure, and sheer size. Due to these challenges, some argue that zoos are inherently incapable of providing appropriate care for elephants, while others believe that zoos can fulfill the needs of these species with improved husbandry. There is a general consensus from both within and outside of zoos, however, that zoos must improve their elephant programs or cease exhibiting these animals altogether. Now more than ever, applied research on zoo elephant welfare is needed to provide context for this debate. Researchers are interested in how far zoo elephants walk due to the potential health and welfare benefits of walking in these highly mobile species. Zoo researchers recently adopted GPS technology to study elephant walking, and preliminary evidence suggests that African elephants in large zoo exhibits walk distances that correspond with wild elephants under non-extreme conditions. However, data are limited from Asian elephants and from elephants in more typically-sized exhibits. In Chapter Two, I discuss important methodological considerations of utilizing GPS in a zoo environment, including an introduction to the technology, sources of error and mitigation, methods to improve GPS performance, and possible effects of GPS device attachment on animal behavior. This review shows GPS performance is adequate for tracking zoo elephant walking when proper methodological techniques are applied, and should serve as a useful reference for zoo researchers considering using GPS. In Chapter Three, I used GPS anklets to measure outdoor daily walking distance in 56 adult female African (n = 33) and Asian (n = 23) elephants housed in 30 zoos. I collected 259 days of data and found that elephants walked an average of 5.34 km/day with no significant difference between species. Multivariate regression models predicted that elephants with more dynamic feeding regimens (more diverse feeding types and frequencies; unscheduled feeding times) will walk more. Distance walked was also predicted to be higher in elephants that spend time in a greater number of different social groups. Distance walked was predicted to decline with age. Finally, I found a significant negative correlation between distance walked and nighttime space experience. The results of the analysis suggest that zoos that want to increase walking in their elephants need not rely solely on larger exhibits, but can increase walking by adding quality and complexity to exhibits. However, my results failed to establish a definitive link between walking distance and other validated measures of elephant welfare. Thus, the direct health and welfare benefits of walking in zoo elephants remain unresolved. Resting behaviors are an essential component of animal welfare, but have received little attention in zoological research. In Chapter Four, I used accelerometers in anklets to complete the first large-scale multi-species investigation of zoo elephant recumbence. I collected 344 days of data from 72 adult female African (n = 44) and Asian (n = 28) elephants at 40 zoos. I found that African elephants are recumbent an average of 2.14 hours/day, which is significantly less than Asian elephants at 3.22 hours/day. Multivariate regression models predicted that African elephant recumbence increases when they experience more space at night, and Asian elephant recumbence increases when they spend time housed alone. Both species showed a similar response to substrate, such that African elephants spending time on all-hard substrates are predicted to be recumbent less, while Asian elephants spending time on all-soft substrates are predicted to be recumbent more. The discovery that occasional non-recumbence is a common behavior in zoo elephants also introduces a new area of research that may have important animal welfare consequences. Finally, this study established that zoos should continue their efforts to replace hard substrate with soft substrate in order to provide zoo elephants with environments that facilitate recumbence. Overall, this work assessed walking and recumbence in zoo elephants, which will allow zoos to gauge the prevalence of these behaviors in their elephants as compared to the sub-population studied here. A variety of factors that are associated with these behaviors were also identified. With this information, zoos can prioritize modifications to their facilities and animal management programs to create an environment that encourages zoo elephants to express walking and recumbence behavior, should they choose to do so. This work is one component of the Elephant Welfare Project, the largest zoo animal welfare project ever undertaken, and is unprecedented in both scope and scale. The project was funded by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), an independent, U.S., federal, grant-making agency that supports libraries, museums, and zoos. At the time of this writing, the first manuscripts from this project are being submitted to academic journals. These papers will describe the prevalence and distribution of a variety of elephant behaviors and welfare indicators, serve as a benchmark for future elephant welfare studies, and aid in decision making with regard to best practices in elephant management. Close

• 8617. [Article] Population Structure of Island-Associated Pantropical Spotted Dolphins (Stenella attenuata) in Hawaiian Waters

  Understanding gene flow, diversity, and dispersal patterns is important for predicting effects of natural events and anthropogenic activities on dolphin populations. With the very recent exceptions of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Population Structure of Island-Associated Pantropical Spotted Dolphins (Stenella attenuata) in Hawaiian Waters Author: Courbis, Sarah Shelby Year: 2011 Understanding gene flow, diversity, and dispersal patterns is important for predicting effects of natural events and anthropogenic activities on dolphin populations. With the very recent exceptions of false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris), and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), Hawaiian odontocete species are managed as single stocks within the U.S. Hawaiian Exclusive Economic Zone. These exceptions are a result of recent studies that have indicated that some species have populations that show fidelity to individual islands or groups of islands, resulting in genetic differentiation, often with management implications. The first part of my study (following the introductory chapter) focused on population structure of pantropical spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata) near the Hawaiian Islands. Because of the level of human interaction, pantropical spotted dolphin populations need to be defined accurately to be managed in a way that will avoid local population losses, especially given that the commercial and recreational troll fisheries near the islands "fish on dolphins" to catch tuna. I analyzed genetic samples for mtDNA and microsatellite loci from four island regions: Hawai'i, the 4-islands area, O'ahu, and Kaua'i/Ni'ihau. My results support genetic differentiation among the regions of Hawai'i, the 4-islands area, and O'ahu and suggest that pantropical spotted dolphins near Kaua'i/Ni'ihau are likely transient and in very low numbers. There was no strong evidence to support sex-biased dispersal or group fidelity. Possibly, differentiation is mediated by behavior adapted to differing habitat types. From a management perspective, spinner and bottlenose dolphin populations near the Hawaiian Islands have been split into separate stocks for management based on levels of genetic differentiation similar to those found for pantropical spotted dolphins. These precedents suggest that comparable action should be taken to split pantropical spotted dolphin stocks near the Hawaiian Islands. Most population studies rely heavily upon fixation indicies like FST to determine whether populations are genetically differentiated. When FST values are low but significantly different from zero, it can be difficult to interpret the biological significance of these values. As part of my study, I suggest that one way to evaluate whether small FST values indicate significant differentiation is to compare FST values with other populations considered to be separate based on factors such as extreme distance or morphological differences. I examined pantropical spotted dolphins from the coastal and offshore Eastern Tropical Pacificm (ETP), Hawaiian Islands, and China/Taiwan to examine the utility of comparing FST values across separate populations. Among Hawaiian Island regions, FST values are significantly different from zero but small. The comparison of these FST values with more distant populations in the ETP and China/Taiwan indicated that differences among Hawaiian Island regions were similar in magnitude to those found between the offshore and coastal ETP sub-species, but smaller than between the Hawaiian Island regions and the other regions examined. This suggests a level of reproductive isolation among the Hawaiian Islands regions that is comparable to that of offshore and coastal ETP populations, and supports the value of fixation index comparisons in evaluating differentiation among putative populations. My results suggest that assigning specific numerical baseline FST values may not always be biologically meaningful but that determining whether related populations with geographic or other separation show a preponderance of similar, lower, or higher fixation index values can help evaluate whether genetic differences among sympatric or parapatric groups warrants designating them as separate populations for management. Lastly, I explore whether the fast evolving mtDNA control region may be more suited to phylogenetic comparisons among the Stenella than slower evolving gene regions and whether the small number of haplotypes generally used in phylogenetic analyses is adequate for defining relationships among dolphins. Usually, slow evolving regions, such as gene regions, are used in phylogenetic analyses because species and genera have been isolated long enough for variation to have accumulated in such regions but not so long that many reversals (i.e. a mutational change in sequence that later changes back to the original sequence) have occured. The mtDNA control region is typically used for population genetic comparisons rather than phylogenetic comparisons because it is considered to be a fast evolving region. Historically, dolphin phylogeny has been examined using gene regions, which have resulted in ambiguous and unexpected relationships. However, the lack of variation in the mtDNA control region for pantropical spotted dolphin populations and the fact that recent studies have found that the mtDNA control region in cetaceans evolves at about one quarter the rate of other mammals, raises the question as to whether this region would be better suited to phylogenetic studies for the Stenella (and potentially other dolphin species). In comparing 346 haplotypes from five species of Stenella world-wide, I found that the mtDNA control region is probably not a good region to use for phylogenetic analyses, and that even faster evolving regions might perform better. The differences in the mtDNA control region were not sufficient to distinguish clear relationships among the Stenella. I also found that when subsets of haplotypes chosen at random were compared, the results differed among comparisons, suggesting that there is value in using more than the usual one or two haplotypes when making phylogentic comparisons. Given the recent increases in sequence availability (e.g. GenBank) and computing power, researchers should strongly consider using many haplotypes from a variety of populations in their phylogenetic comparisons. Title: Population Structure of Island-Associated Pantropical Spotted Dolphins (Stenella attenuata) in Hawaiian Waters Author: Courbis, Sarah Shelby Year: 2011 Understanding gene flow, diversity, and dispersal patterns is important for predicting effects of natural events and anthropogenic activities on dolphin populations. With the very recent exceptions of false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris), and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), Hawaiian odontocete species are managed as single stocks within the U.S. Hawaiian Exclusive Economic Zone. These exceptions are a result of recent studies that have indicated that some species have populations that show fidelity to individual islands or groups of islands, resulting in genetic differentiation, often with management implications. The first part of my study (following the introductory chapter) focused on population structure of pantropical spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata) near the Hawaiian Islands. Because of the level of human interaction, pantropical spotted dolphin populations need to be defined accurately to be managed in a way that will avoid local population losses, especially given that the commercial and recreational troll fisheries near the islands "fish on dolphins" to catch tuna. I analyzed genetic samples for mtDNA and microsatellite loci from four island regions: Hawai'i, the 4-islands area, O'ahu, and Kaua'i/Ni'ihau. My results support genetic differentiation among the regions of Hawai'i, the 4-islands area, and O'ahu and suggest that pantropical spotted dolphins near Kaua'i/Ni'ihau are likely transient and in very low numbers. There was no strong evidence to support sex-biased dispersal or group fidelity. Possibly, differentiation is mediated by behavior adapted to differing habitat types. From a management perspective, spinner and bottlenose dolphin populations near the Hawaiian Islands have been split into separate stocks for management based on levels of genetic differentiation similar to those found for pantropical spotted dolphins. These precedents suggest that comparable action should be taken to split pantropical spotted dolphin stocks near the Hawaiian Islands. Most population studies rely heavily upon fixation indicies like FST to determine whether populations are genetically differentiated. When FST values are low but significantly different from zero, it can be difficult to interpret the biological significance of these values. As part of my study, I suggest that one way to evaluate whether small FST values indicate significant differentiation is to compare FST values with other populations considered to be separate based on factors such as extreme distance or morphological differences. I examined pantropical spotted dolphins from the coastal and offshore Eastern Tropical Pacificm (ETP), Hawaiian Islands, and China/Taiwan to examine the utility of comparing FST values across separate populations. Among Hawaiian Island regions, FST values are significantly different from zero but small. The comparison of these FST values with more distant populations in the ETP and China/Taiwan indicated that differences among Hawaiian Island regions were similar in magnitude to those found between the offshore and coastal ETP sub-species, but smaller than between the Hawaiian Island regions and the other regions examined. This suggests a level of reproductive isolation among the Hawaiian Islands regions that is comparable to that of offshore and coastal ETP populations, and supports the value of fixation index comparisons in evaluating differentiation among putative populations. My results suggest that assigning specific numerical baseline FST values may not always be biologically meaningful but that determining whether related populations with geographic or other separation show a preponderance of similar, lower, or higher fixation index values can help evaluate whether genetic differences among sympatric or parapatric groups warrants designating them as separate populations for management. Lastly, I explore whether the fast evolving mtDNA control region may be more suited to phylogenetic comparisons among the Stenella than slower evolving gene regions and whether the small number of haplotypes generally used in phylogenetic analyses is adequate for defining relationships among dolphins. Usually, slow evolving regions, such as gene regions, are used in phylogenetic analyses because species and genera have been isolated long enough for variation to have accumulated in such regions but not so long that many reversals (i.e. a mutational change in sequence that later changes back to the original sequence) have occured. The mtDNA control region is typically used for population genetic comparisons rather than phylogenetic comparisons because it is considered to be a fast evolving region. Historically, dolphin phylogeny has been examined using gene regions, which have resulted in ambiguous and unexpected relationships. However, the lack of variation in the mtDNA control region for pantropical spotted dolphin populations and the fact that recent studies have found that the mtDNA control region in cetaceans evolves at about one quarter the rate of other mammals, raises the question as to whether this region would be better suited to phylogenetic studies for the Stenella (and potentially other dolphin species). In comparing 346 haplotypes from five species of Stenella world-wide, I found that the mtDNA control region is probably not a good region to use for phylogenetic analyses, and that even faster evolving regions might perform better. The differences in the mtDNA control region were not sufficient to distinguish clear relationships among the Stenella. I also found that when subsets of haplotypes chosen at random were compared, the results differed among comparisons, suggesting that there is value in using more than the usual one or two haplotypes when making phylogentic comparisons. Given the recent increases in sequence availability (e.g. GenBank) and computing power, researchers should strongly consider using many haplotypes from a variety of populations in their phylogenetic comparisons. Close

• 8618. [Article] Direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing intensity on processes regulating grassland bird populations

  In grasslands, grazing by large ungulates can influence vegetation structure, composition, primary productivity, and ultimately, ecosystem functioning. While grazing represents a complex disturbance, grazing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing intensity on processes regulating grassland bird populations Author: Johnson, Tracey N. In grasslands, grazing by large ungulates can influence vegetation structure, composition, primary productivity, and ultimately, ecosystem functioning. While grazing represents a complex disturbance, grazing intensity largely determines the effects of grazing on vegetation. Structural and compositional changes in the plant community caused by grazing could have bottom-up effects on species and interactions at higher trophic levels. Thus, particular management strategies for domestic livestock in rangeland systems could exert a strong affect on grassland wildlife. Grassland-dependent songbirds may be particularly susceptible to the effects of domestic grazers because they depend on grassland vegetation for foraging and nesting. Domestic livestock may influence grassland-breeding bird populations by affecting settlement decisions, resource availability, or reproductive success. We investigated the effects of grazing intensity on grassland vegetation structure and songbird demography in a northwestern bunchgrass prairie using paddocks with experimentally-manipulated cattle stocking rates. We compared effects of four stocking rates (0, 14.4, 28.8, and 43.2 animal unit months) on songbirds using a randomized complete block design with four replicates of each stocking rate to address hypotheses regarding demography of grassland songbirds. Overall paddock-level vegetation structure decreased and structural heterogeneity of vegetation increased with higher stocking rates, and those effects carried over one-year post-grazing. However, most bird species were able to locate nesting sites with similar vegetation structure regardless of paddock-level effects of stocking rate. The exceptions were western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows; nests of these species in paddocks with higher stocking rates had less vegetative cover. Apparent nest density for grasshopper sparrows was negatively affected by higher stocking rates. Grazing treatment effects on songbird population density were restricted to negative effects of higher stocking rates on savannah sparrows, but this relationship was not observed until the post-treatment year. Songbird community composition differed between control and heavily-grazed paddocks, but diversity was not affected by stocking rate. Nest fates were evaluated to determine whether stocking rate influenced nest survival or cause-specific nest failure. Other variables such as vegetation structure and predator community, date, year, and nest age were included to help clarify which mechanisms might be responsible for differences in nest survival or failure rates among treatments. For our analysis, we introduce the use of a novel software package, McNestimate, to estimate the daily probability of nest survival and failure from specific causes. McNestimate estimates the probability of nest failure from competing causes when the exact dates of failure are unknown using a Markov Chain framework, and incorporates a model selection approach which allows the use of covariates to help identify variables important in explaining variation in the daily probability of nest failure. Nest predation rates increased with the age of the nest and throughout the breeding season, but were not affected by stocking rate. The probability of nest failure from adverse weather declined throughout the season, but the rate of decline depended on year. Nest failure rates due to trampling were higher in paddocks with higher stocking rates, but also depended on the number of days cattle were present during the nesting period. Patterns of overall probability of nest success were driven by predation patterns in the first year, but in the second year were strongly influenced by the chances of weather-related nest failure. Although starvation was not identified as a significant source of nest failure, grazing-induced changes to vegetation structure and composition could influence food availability for breeding songbirds, ultimately affecting the composition of nestling diets and nestling condition. To better understand the relationship between grazing intensity, nestling diet composition, and subsequent effects on nestling condition, we examined the invertebrate composition of nestling fecal samples. All species showed strong preferences for Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) larvae, and partial preferences for Coleoptera (beetles) and Araneae (spiders). The proportion of preferred prey items was not affected by stocking rate. There were effects of bird species on the proportion of Araneae and Coleoptera and the proportion of Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers) in the diet of western meadowlark nestlings decreased with high stocking rates. Growth rates for western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows were negatively affected by higher stocking rates. These results suggest that stocking rates can have variable effects on grassland songbird population and nest density depending on each species' habitat requirements. However, negative effects of high stocking rates on nest survival and nestling condition could have consequences for juvenile survival and recruitment. Overall, low-to-moderate stocking rates are likely compatible with many grassland bird species in northwest bunchgrass prairie, and although heavier livestock grazing may help create suitable vegetation structure for some songbird species, high stocking rates may influence grassland songbird diet quality, or have negative effects on nestling condition. We hypothesized that grazing intensity could influence the grassland songbird community through "bottom-up" effects on vegetation, but effects of grazing at different intensities did not translate directly through the food web to influence songbird populations as strongly as lower trophic levels. Processes responsible for changes in community composition such as immigration or emigration may not have had time to ensue during our short-term experiment; alternatively, sufficient spatial or temporal heterogeneity remained in the system, even at the highest grazing intensity, such that grazing-induced changes in lower trophic levels were irrelevant for most songbird species. Our results contribute to understanding grassland songbird demographic responses to different grazing intensities and identify specific mechanisms by which conservation measures for declining grassland bird populations can be improved. Title: Direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing intensity on processes regulating grassland bird populations Author: Johnson, Tracey N. In grasslands, grazing by large ungulates can influence vegetation structure, composition, primary productivity, and ultimately, ecosystem functioning. While grazing represents a complex disturbance, grazing intensity largely determines the effects of grazing on vegetation. Structural and compositional changes in the plant community caused by grazing could have bottom-up effects on species and interactions at higher trophic levels. Thus, particular management strategies for domestic livestock in rangeland systems could exert a strong affect on grassland wildlife. Grassland-dependent songbirds may be particularly susceptible to the effects of domestic grazers because they depend on grassland vegetation for foraging and nesting. Domestic livestock may influence grassland-breeding bird populations by affecting settlement decisions, resource availability, or reproductive success. We investigated the effects of grazing intensity on grassland vegetation structure and songbird demography in a northwestern bunchgrass prairie using paddocks with experimentally-manipulated cattle stocking rates. We compared effects of four stocking rates (0, 14.4, 28.8, and 43.2 animal unit months) on songbirds using a randomized complete block design with four replicates of each stocking rate to address hypotheses regarding demography of grassland songbirds. Overall paddock-level vegetation structure decreased and structural heterogeneity of vegetation increased with higher stocking rates, and those effects carried over one-year post-grazing. However, most bird species were able to locate nesting sites with similar vegetation structure regardless of paddock-level effects of stocking rate. The exceptions were western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows; nests of these species in paddocks with higher stocking rates had less vegetative cover. Apparent nest density for grasshopper sparrows was negatively affected by higher stocking rates. Grazing treatment effects on songbird population density were restricted to negative effects of higher stocking rates on savannah sparrows, but this relationship was not observed until the post-treatment year. Songbird community composition differed between control and heavily-grazed paddocks, but diversity was not affected by stocking rate. Nest fates were evaluated to determine whether stocking rate influenced nest survival or cause-specific nest failure. Other variables such as vegetation structure and predator community, date, year, and nest age were included to help clarify which mechanisms might be responsible for differences in nest survival or failure rates among treatments. For our analysis, we introduce the use of a novel software package, McNestimate, to estimate the daily probability of nest survival and failure from specific causes. McNestimate estimates the probability of nest failure from competing causes when the exact dates of failure are unknown using a Markov Chain framework, and incorporates a model selection approach which allows the use of covariates to help identify variables important in explaining variation in the daily probability of nest failure. Nest predation rates increased with the age of the nest and throughout the breeding season, but were not affected by stocking rate. The probability of nest failure from adverse weather declined throughout the season, but the rate of decline depended on year. Nest failure rates due to trampling were higher in paddocks with higher stocking rates, but also depended on the number of days cattle were present during the nesting period. Patterns of overall probability of nest success were driven by predation patterns in the first year, but in the second year were strongly influenced by the chances of weather-related nest failure. Although starvation was not identified as a significant source of nest failure, grazing-induced changes to vegetation structure and composition could influence food availability for breeding songbirds, ultimately affecting the composition of nestling diets and nestling condition. To better understand the relationship between grazing intensity, nestling diet composition, and subsequent effects on nestling condition, we examined the invertebrate composition of nestling fecal samples. All species showed strong preferences for Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) larvae, and partial preferences for Coleoptera (beetles) and Araneae (spiders). The proportion of preferred prey items was not affected by stocking rate. There were effects of bird species on the proportion of Araneae and Coleoptera and the proportion of Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers) in the diet of western meadowlark nestlings decreased with high stocking rates. Growth rates for western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows were negatively affected by higher stocking rates. These results suggest that stocking rates can have variable effects on grassland songbird population and nest density depending on each species' habitat requirements. However, negative effects of high stocking rates on nest survival and nestling condition could have consequences for juvenile survival and recruitment. Overall, low-to-moderate stocking rates are likely compatible with many grassland bird species in northwest bunchgrass prairie, and although heavier livestock grazing may help create suitable vegetation structure for some songbird species, high stocking rates may influence grassland songbird diet quality, or have negative effects on nestling condition. We hypothesized that grazing intensity could influence the grassland songbird community through "bottom-up" effects on vegetation, but effects of grazing at different intensities did not translate directly through the food web to influence songbird populations as strongly as lower trophic levels. Processes responsible for changes in community composition such as immigration or emigration may not have had time to ensue during our short-term experiment; alternatively, sufficient spatial or temporal heterogeneity remained in the system, even at the highest grazing intensity, such that grazing-induced changes in lower trophic levels were irrelevant for most songbird species. Our results contribute to understanding grassland songbird demographic responses to different grazing intensities and identify specific mechanisms by which conservation measures for declining grassland bird populations can be improved. Close

• 8619. [Article] The physiology ecology and run diversity of adult Pacific lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus, during the freshwater spawning migration

  Pacific lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus, have shown recent and rapid declines in abundance. These anadromous fish return to streams where they mature, spawn and die. It has been inferred that Pacific ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The physiology ecology and run diversity of adult Pacific lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus, during the freshwater spawning migration Author: Clemens, Benjamin Jacob, 1976- Pacific lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus, have shown recent and rapid declines in abundance. These anadromous fish return to streams where they mature, spawn and die. It has been inferred that Pacific lamprey enter freshwater and reside for ~ 1 year before spawning. This long exposure to the freshwater environment may affect the plasticity of the maturation process and the migration timing of Pacific lamprey. Diversity in run times and body size has been observed for Pacific lamprey, yet it is unknown if this diversity is induced by the freshwater environment or if it is genetic. My first goal was to describe the maturation and migration characteristics of adult Pacific lamprey during their freshwater migration. My second goal was to use these data to make an estimation of the run diversity in Pacific lamprey. I conducted three complementary studies, in the laboratory and the field, to achieve these goals. I held immature adult lamprey (non-ripe fish that had ceased parasitic feeding in the ocean and had returned to freshwater) in the laboratory at temperatures that mimicked what these fish would experience in the wild, during the summer (mean: 21.8 °C), and another group of lamprey at cooler temperature (mean: 13.6 °C) to compare maturation timing and characteristics. The warm water group of lamprey showed significantly greater proportional decreases in body mass following temperature exposure than fish in the cooler water. All fish exposed to the warm water matured the following spring (8-10 months later) whereas only about half of the fish from the cool water exposure matured. To understand the migration distances and timing of adult Pacific lamprey, I tracked radio-tagged fish throughout the Willamette Basin above Willamette Falls, Oregon, by airplane and recorded their location. Fish migrated primarily during the spring to early summer period before stopping during the remainder of summer, when peak river temperatures (≥ 20°C) occurred. These fish tended to remain stationary through the fall and winter. However, at least a few fish continued to migrate upstream after September. I monitored maturation characteristics of adult Pacific lamprey, over time at Willamette Falls, Oregon and compared these fish with recent migrants collected from the Pacific Ocean as they entered freshwater. The results suggest a unimodal spawn timing between April and June, at water temperatures < 20 °C. Between July and mid-September, as water temperatures peaked at ~ 25 °C, relatively immature fish for both sexes prevailed. Warm summer temperatures coincided with an increase and prevalence of testicular atrophy in males, and I also observed a large die-off of lamprey during this time. The immature fish had maturation stages and phenotypic characteristics similar to recent migrants collected at the mouth of the Klamath River, suggesting that the immature fish at Willamette Falls would spawn the following year, and spawners in any given year may have been recent migrants during the previous year. However there is a temporal overlap in the spring of immature and mature fish, and I found evidence from gonad histology of maturing fish as they entered the river from the ocean, suggesting that a cohort is comprised of recent migrants that spawn within several weeks of entering freshwater, and another cohort is comprised of recent migrants that mature and spawn at least 1 year later. I hypothesize that the recent migrants that would likely spawn shortly after entering freshwater are akin to a winter or "ocean maturing" steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss, that optimizes feeding and growth in the open ocean for a few years before entering freshwater to spawn low in the river system shortly afterwards. Alternatively, these lamprey may be similar to coastal cutthroat trout, O. clarki clarki, that feed and grow in the coastal areas of the ocean for a few months before entering freshwater to spawn. There could be other less apparent explanations as well. I also hypothesize that the lamprey that would likely spawn within ~ 1 year of entering freshwater are akin to a "stream maturing" steelhead that foregoes feeding and growth opportunities, enters freshwater during the summer – fall, and accesses spawning grounds to spawn at temperatures that promote evolutionary fitness via successful spawning the following spring. Based on the results of my research, I hypothesize that warm summer temperatures (> 20 °C) can act as a strong selection factor against stream maturing Pacific lamprey in two ways. First, these temperatures may expedite their maturation, while at the same time slowing their migration. If these hypotheses are true, then I predict an uncoupling of spawn timing with optimal habitat characteristics, that would promote fitness, in the upper watershed. Second, summer temperatures may cause gonad atrophy and death prior to spawning. This scenario may select for ocean maturing Pacific lamprey. Title: The physiology ecology and run diversity of adult Pacific lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus, during the freshwater spawning migration Author: Clemens, Benjamin Jacob, 1976- Pacific lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus, have shown recent and rapid declines in abundance. These anadromous fish return to streams where they mature, spawn and die. It has been inferred that Pacific lamprey enter freshwater and reside for ~ 1 year before spawning. This long exposure to the freshwater environment may affect the plasticity of the maturation process and the migration timing of Pacific lamprey. Diversity in run times and body size has been observed for Pacific lamprey, yet it is unknown if this diversity is induced by the freshwater environment or if it is genetic. My first goal was to describe the maturation and migration characteristics of adult Pacific lamprey during their freshwater migration. My second goal was to use these data to make an estimation of the run diversity in Pacific lamprey. I conducted three complementary studies, in the laboratory and the field, to achieve these goals. I held immature adult lamprey (non-ripe fish that had ceased parasitic feeding in the ocean and had returned to freshwater) in the laboratory at temperatures that mimicked what these fish would experience in the wild, during the summer (mean: 21.8 °C), and another group of lamprey at cooler temperature (mean: 13.6 °C) to compare maturation timing and characteristics. The warm water group of lamprey showed significantly greater proportional decreases in body mass following temperature exposure than fish in the cooler water. All fish exposed to the warm water matured the following spring (8-10 months later) whereas only about half of the fish from the cool water exposure matured. To understand the migration distances and timing of adult Pacific lamprey, I tracked radio-tagged fish throughout the Willamette Basin above Willamette Falls, Oregon, by airplane and recorded their location. Fish migrated primarily during the spring to early summer period before stopping during the remainder of summer, when peak river temperatures (≥ 20°C) occurred. These fish tended to remain stationary through the fall and winter. However, at least a few fish continued to migrate upstream after September. I monitored maturation characteristics of adult Pacific lamprey, over time at Willamette Falls, Oregon and compared these fish with recent migrants collected from the Pacific Ocean as they entered freshwater. The results suggest a unimodal spawn timing between April and June, at water temperatures < 20 °C. Between July and mid-September, as water temperatures peaked at ~ 25 °C, relatively immature fish for both sexes prevailed. Warm summer temperatures coincided with an increase and prevalence of testicular atrophy in males, and I also observed a large die-off of lamprey during this time. The immature fish had maturation stages and phenotypic characteristics similar to recent migrants collected at the mouth of the Klamath River, suggesting that the immature fish at Willamette Falls would spawn the following year, and spawners in any given year may have been recent migrants during the previous year. However there is a temporal overlap in the spring of immature and mature fish, and I found evidence from gonad histology of maturing fish as they entered the river from the ocean, suggesting that a cohort is comprised of recent migrants that spawn within several weeks of entering freshwater, and another cohort is comprised of recent migrants that mature and spawn at least 1 year later. I hypothesize that the recent migrants that would likely spawn shortly after entering freshwater are akin to a winter or "ocean maturing" steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss, that optimizes feeding and growth in the open ocean for a few years before entering freshwater to spawn low in the river system shortly afterwards. Alternatively, these lamprey may be similar to coastal cutthroat trout, O. clarki clarki, that feed and grow in the coastal areas of the ocean for a few months before entering freshwater to spawn. There could be other less apparent explanations as well. I also hypothesize that the lamprey that would likely spawn within ~ 1 year of entering freshwater are akin to a "stream maturing" steelhead that foregoes feeding and growth opportunities, enters freshwater during the summer – fall, and accesses spawning grounds to spawn at temperatures that promote evolutionary fitness via successful spawning the following spring. Based on the results of my research, I hypothesize that warm summer temperatures (> 20 °C) can act as a strong selection factor against stream maturing Pacific lamprey in two ways. First, these temperatures may expedite their maturation, while at the same time slowing their migration. If these hypotheses are true, then I predict an uncoupling of spawn timing with optimal habitat characteristics, that would promote fitness, in the upper watershed. Second, summer temperatures may cause gonad atrophy and death prior to spawning. This scenario may select for ocean maturing Pacific lamprey. Close

• 8620. [Article] Cruise ship disturbance to Kittlitz's murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostris) in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska

  The Kittlitz's murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris), a small pursuit-diving seabird in the family Alcidae, occurs across much of coastal Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East. Glacier Bay National ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Cruise ship disturbance to Kittlitz's murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostris) in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska Author: Marcella, Timothy K. The Kittlitz's murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris), a small pursuit-diving seabird in the family Alcidae, occurs across much of coastal Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East. Glacier Bay National Park, located in Southeast Alaska, is believed to support approximately 37% of the worldwide breeding population of Kittlitz's murrelets during the summer months. Recent concern over apparent population declines in Alaska, coupled with the Park's dual mandate of resource preservation and visitation, led to this study. Cruise ships, although not the most numerous vessel type operating in Glacier Bay, have previously been identified as the vessel type eliciting the greatest disturbance response from Kittlitz's murrelets. During the murrelet breeding seasons in 2011 and 2012, my field assistants and I collected focal observations of 4,251 Brachyramphus murrelets from the bow of cruise ships traveling through Glacier Bay. Identification of murrelets to species was hampered by both the distance at which murrelets responded to the approaching ship and the type of response to the ship (diving vs. flushing). For roughly 40% of focal observations of murrelets from cruise ships, the species of murrelet (Kittlitz's murrelet or marbled murrelet [B. marmoratus]) could not be identified. Apparent habitat partitioning by the two murrelet species in Glacier Bay resulted in 79% of identified murrelets in the upper section of the Bay (Upper Bay) being Kittlitz's murrelets, while 83% of identified murrelets in the lower section of the Bay (Lower Bay) were marbled murrelets. In the Upper Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 61% of all murrelets within 850 m on either side of the cruise ship's course (i.e., elicited a flushing or diving response), whereas in the Lower Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 72% of murrelets within 850 m of the ship's course. Using Cox multistate models, I demonstrated that murrelets in the Upper Bay (predominantly Kittlitz's murrelets) were more likely to dive than flush in response to approaching cruise ships, whereas murrelets in the Lower Bay (predominantly marbled murrelets) were more likely to flush than dive. Also, murrelets in the Upper Bay responded to cruise ships by flushing or diving at shorter distances from the ship compared to murrelets in the Lower Bay. Murrelets in both areas of Glacier Bay generally reacted to cruise ships at greater distances when the ship approached indirectly, presumably because of the larger profile presented by a passing ship as opposed to a directly advancing ship. Absolute distance of the cruise ship from a focal murrelet was a strong predictor of murrelet disturbance response; no other management-relevant covariates that were measured during this study (e.g., ship velocity, distance to shore, whether a cruise ship had entered the Bay earlier that day) explained a significant proportion of the variation in murrelet response. Inferences based on data collected on-board cruise ships were limited to murrelet disturbance responses that occurred within 1 km of the ship. This was because of limits to the distance from the ship at which behavioral responses could be observed and the a priori assumption that disturbance to murrelets by cruise ships was unlikely at distances greater than 1 km. Results from shipboard observations indicated that some proportion of murrelets encountered at the farthest distance we could make inferences were on occasion disturbed (point estimate at 850 m perpendicular distance from ship's course = 15-30% probability of flushing or diving). This suggests that disturbance of murrelets by cruise ships in Glacier Bay exceeded expected distance thresholds. In order to investigate the effects of cruise ships on murrelet behavior at distances greater than 1 km, my assistants and I collected a total of 643 focal observations of Kittlitz's murrelets during 181 hours of observation from land-based observation sites in the Upper Bay during the 2012 field season. By combining these data with AIS and GPS ship tracks, I was able to append distance to the nearest cruise ship to each focal murrelet observation and search for patterns in murrelet behavior. By collecting data in this manner, I was able to avoid biasing the study based on pre-conceived notions of what constituted a threshold distance for cruise ships to disturb Kittlitz's murrelets. Using a segmented regression model within a logistic regression framework, I found that Kittlitz's murrelets exhibited a disturbance threshold (defined as an increased incidence of flushing from the water) by cruise ships at distances of at least 1.6 km, and perhaps as great as 6.0 km, with a best estimate of threshold disturbance distance at 3.8 km from a cruise ship. When cruise ships were greater than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the baseline probability of murrelets flushing during a focal observation period was 12.5%. When cruise ships were less than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the probability of flushing increased logistically with decreasing distance to an estimated 48% for the closest approach distances. The unexpectedly long distances at which murrelet behavior was affected by cruise ships in Glacier Bay is most likely attributable to social facilitation by other disturbed murrelets, because similar numbers of murrelets flushed when cruise ships were approaching (n = 30) as when they were receding (n = 27). Once a Kittlitz's murrelet flushed from the water, the subsequent duration of flight did not vary with distance to the nearest cruise ship. Instead, the duration of Kittlitz's murrelet flight was associated with time of day. The strong association between the proximity of cruise ships and the probability of a murrelet flushing, even at distances of several kilometers, demonstrates that Kittlitz's murrelets in Glacier Bay are susceptible to disturbance from cruise ships at distances greater than has previously been published for any seabird. Title: Cruise ship disturbance to Kittlitz's murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostris) in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska Author: Marcella, Timothy K. The Kittlitz's murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris), a small pursuit-diving seabird in the family Alcidae, occurs across much of coastal Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East. Glacier Bay National Park, located in Southeast Alaska, is believed to support approximately 37% of the worldwide breeding population of Kittlitz's murrelets during the summer months. Recent concern over apparent population declines in Alaska, coupled with the Park's dual mandate of resource preservation and visitation, led to this study. Cruise ships, although not the most numerous vessel type operating in Glacier Bay, have previously been identified as the vessel type eliciting the greatest disturbance response from Kittlitz's murrelets. During the murrelet breeding seasons in 2011 and 2012, my field assistants and I collected focal observations of 4,251 Brachyramphus murrelets from the bow of cruise ships traveling through Glacier Bay. Identification of murrelets to species was hampered by both the distance at which murrelets responded to the approaching ship and the type of response to the ship (diving vs. flushing). For roughly 40% of focal observations of murrelets from cruise ships, the species of murrelet (Kittlitz's murrelet or marbled murrelet [B. marmoratus]) could not be identified. Apparent habitat partitioning by the two murrelet species in Glacier Bay resulted in 79% of identified murrelets in the upper section of the Bay (Upper Bay) being Kittlitz's murrelets, while 83% of identified murrelets in the lower section of the Bay (Lower Bay) were marbled murrelets. In the Upper Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 61% of all murrelets within 850 m on either side of the cruise ship's course (i.e., elicited a flushing or diving response), whereas in the Lower Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 72% of murrelets within 850 m of the ship's course. Using Cox multistate models, I demonstrated that murrelets in the Upper Bay (predominantly Kittlitz's murrelets) were more likely to dive than flush in response to approaching cruise ships, whereas murrelets in the Lower Bay (predominantly marbled murrelets) were more likely to flush than dive. Also, murrelets in the Upper Bay responded to cruise ships by flushing or diving at shorter distances from the ship compared to murrelets in the Lower Bay. Murrelets in both areas of Glacier Bay generally reacted to cruise ships at greater distances when the ship approached indirectly, presumably because of the larger profile presented by a passing ship as opposed to a directly advancing ship. Absolute distance of the cruise ship from a focal murrelet was a strong predictor of murrelet disturbance response; no other management-relevant covariates that were measured during this study (e.g., ship velocity, distance to shore, whether a cruise ship had entered the Bay earlier that day) explained a significant proportion of the variation in murrelet response. Inferences based on data collected on-board cruise ships were limited to murrelet disturbance responses that occurred within 1 km of the ship. This was because of limits to the distance from the ship at which behavioral responses could be observed and the a priori assumption that disturbance to murrelets by cruise ships was unlikely at distances greater than 1 km. Results from shipboard observations indicated that some proportion of murrelets encountered at the farthest distance we could make inferences were on occasion disturbed (point estimate at 850 m perpendicular distance from ship's course = 15-30% probability of flushing or diving). This suggests that disturbance of murrelets by cruise ships in Glacier Bay exceeded expected distance thresholds. In order to investigate the effects of cruise ships on murrelet behavior at distances greater than 1 km, my assistants and I collected a total of 643 focal observations of Kittlitz's murrelets during 181 hours of observation from land-based observation sites in the Upper Bay during the 2012 field season. By combining these data with AIS and GPS ship tracks, I was able to append distance to the nearest cruise ship to each focal murrelet observation and search for patterns in murrelet behavior. By collecting data in this manner, I was able to avoid biasing the study based on pre-conceived notions of what constituted a threshold distance for cruise ships to disturb Kittlitz's murrelets. Using a segmented regression model within a logistic regression framework, I found that Kittlitz's murrelets exhibited a disturbance threshold (defined as an increased incidence of flushing from the water) by cruise ships at distances of at least 1.6 km, and perhaps as great as 6.0 km, with a best estimate of threshold disturbance distance at 3.8 km from a cruise ship. When cruise ships were greater than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the baseline probability of murrelets flushing during a focal observation period was 12.5%. When cruise ships were less than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the probability of flushing increased logistically with decreasing distance to an estimated 48% for the closest approach distances. The unexpectedly long distances at which murrelet behavior was affected by cruise ships in Glacier Bay is most likely attributable to social facilitation by other disturbed murrelets, because similar numbers of murrelets flushed when cruise ships were approaching (n = 30) as when they were receding (n = 27). Once a Kittlitz's murrelet flushed from the water, the subsequent duration of flight did not vary with distance to the nearest cruise ship. Instead, the duration of Kittlitz's murrelet flight was associated with time of day. The strong association between the proximity of cruise ships and the probability of a murrelet flushing, even at distances of several kilometers, demonstrates that Kittlitz's murrelets in Glacier Bay are susceptible to disturbance from cruise ships at distances greater than has previously been published for any seabird. Close