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• 71. [Article] The Motivations of Exurban Commuters Within a Region

  This case study of the Portland, Oregon, region analyzes and compares the emerging commuting patterns of exurban, small town, and suburban households. The analysis is based on a mail survey of 1408 households ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Motivations of Exurban Commuters Within a Region Author: Davis, Judy Seppanen Year: 1989 This case study of the Portland, Oregon, region analyzes and compares the emerging commuting patterns of exurban, small town, and suburban households. The analysis is based on a mail survey of 1408 households who purchased homes in 1987. By examining the types of households moving to exurbia, their reasons for moving, and the impacts of their moves on journey-to-work a picture is drawn of the forces shaping exurban development and the implications of this type of development for transportation planning and policy. Title: The Motivations of Exurban Commuters Within a Region Author: Davis, Judy Seppanen Year: 1989 This case study of the Portland, Oregon, region analyzes and compares the emerging commuting patterns of exurban, small town, and suburban households. The analysis is based on a mail survey of 1408 households who purchased homes in 1987. By examining the types of households moving to exurbia, their reasons for moving, and the impacts of their moves on journey-to-work a picture is drawn of the forces shaping exurban development and the implications of this type of development for transportation planning and policy. Close

• 72. [Article] Beyond the "Stalled Revolution": Stay-at-Home Fathers, Gender Identity and the Division of Household Labor

  The purpose of this thesis is to explore how stay-at-home fathers view their role as the primary caregiver, and how they encounter opposing masculinity issues. This is explored through discussion about ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Beyond the "Stalled Revolution": Stay-at-Home Fathers, Gender Identity and the Division of Household Labor Author: Snitker, Aundrea Janae Year: 2010 The purpose of this thesis is to explore how stay-at-home fathers view their role as the primary caregiver, and how they encounter opposing masculinity issues. This is explored through discussion about daily life, the decision to stay home, and household labor, a particularly interesting reflection of gender roles and equality. The two research questions used to explore this included: How do stay-at-home fathers understand their masculinity and social role? How does talk about the negotiation of household labor in stay-at-home father/career mother families illustrate masculinity issues? Through an analysis of interviews of eight present or past stay-at-home fathers, I capture the ways that these fathers describe and discuss the stay-at-home parent role. By looking at how these men define and interpret the specific challenges they face while in this role, I help tell the stories of stay-at-home father/career mother families, and understand whether these families, too, experience Hochschild's "stalled revolution." Title: Beyond the "Stalled Revolution": Stay-at-Home Fathers, Gender Identity and the Division of Household Labor Author: Snitker, Aundrea Janae Year: 2010 The purpose of this thesis is to explore how stay-at-home fathers view their role as the primary caregiver, and how they encounter opposing masculinity issues. This is explored through discussion about daily life, the decision to stay home, and household labor, a particularly interesting reflection of gender roles and equality. The two research questions used to explore this included: How do stay-at-home fathers understand their masculinity and social role? How does talk about the negotiation of household labor in stay-at-home father/career mother families illustrate masculinity issues? Through an analysis of interviews of eight present or past stay-at-home fathers, I capture the ways that these fathers describe and discuss the stay-at-home parent role. By looking at how these men define and interpret the specific challenges they face while in this role, I help tell the stories of stay-at-home father/career mother families, and understand whether these families, too, experience Hochschild's "stalled revolution." Close

• 73. [Article] Division of Labor within the Household: The Experience of Bosnian Immigrant Women in Portland, Oregon

  This research study examines the impact of international migration of household labor for Bosnian immigrant women living in Portland, Oregon. Bosnia is a society with enduring patriarchal traditions which ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Division of Labor within the Household: The Experience of Bosnian Immigrant Women in Portland, Oregon Author: Paljevic, Miro Year: 2013 This research study examines the impact of international migration of household labor for Bosnian immigrant women living in Portland, Oregon. Bosnia is a society with enduring patriarchal traditions which assume that women are in charge of doing household chores. Men are in charge of providing for the family monetarily. Many Bosnian families migrated to the U.S. in the mid 1990's in order to escape the war in Bosnia. In this study I interview 10 of these Bosnian women, concerning the division of labor in their homes in Bosnia and their homes in U.S. After migrating to the U.S. the amount of work women did within the home lessened as their husbands became more involved in helping with various chores. The changes in the division of household labor did not subvert traditional gender roles. Wives transferred and adapted their views of gender performativity after they migrated to the United States. The results are consistent with research that states that migrant women focus more on advancement of their family rather on their own emancipation. Title: Division of Labor within the Household: The Experience of Bosnian Immigrant Women in Portland, Oregon Author: Paljevic, Miro Year: 2013 This research study examines the impact of international migration of household labor for Bosnian immigrant women living in Portland, Oregon. Bosnia is a society with enduring patriarchal traditions which assume that women are in charge of doing household chores. Men are in charge of providing for the family monetarily. Many Bosnian families migrated to the U.S. in the mid 1990's in order to escape the war in Bosnia. In this study I interview 10 of these Bosnian women, concerning the division of labor in their homes in Bosnia and their homes in U.S. After migrating to the U.S. the amount of work women did within the home lessened as their husbands became more involved in helping with various chores. The changes in the division of household labor did not subvert traditional gender roles. Wives transferred and adapted their views of gender performativity after they migrated to the United States. The results are consistent with research that states that migrant women focus more on advancement of their family rather on their own emancipation. Close

• 74. [Article] How Affordable is HUD Affordable Housing?

  This paper assesses the affordability of HUD rental assistance properties from the standpoint of transportation costs. HUD housing is, by definition, affordable from the standpoint of housing costs due ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: How Affordable is HUD Affordable Housing? Author: Ewing, Reid, Hamidi, Shima Year: 2015 This paper assesses the affordability of HUD rental assistance properties from the standpoint of transportation costs. HUD housing is, by definition, affordable from the standpoint of housing costs due to limits on the amounts renters are required to pay. However, there are no such limitations on transportation costs, and common sense suggests that renters in remote locations may be forced to pay more than 15 percent of income, a nominal affordability standard, for transportation costs. Using household travel models estimated with data from 15 diverse regions around the U.S., we estimated and summed automobile capital costs, automobile operating costs, and transit fare costs for households at more than 18,000 HUD rental assistance properties. The mean percentage of income expended on transportation is 15 percent for households at the high end of the eligible income scale. However, in highly sprawling metropolitan areas, and in suburban areas of more compact metropolitan areas, much higher percentages of households exceed the 15 percent threshold. This suggests that locational characteristics of properties should be considered by HUD when establishing eligibility for rental assistance subsidies. Title: How Affordable is HUD Affordable Housing? Author: Ewing, Reid, Hamidi, Shima Year: 2015 This paper assesses the affordability of HUD rental assistance properties from the standpoint of transportation costs. HUD housing is, by definition, affordable from the standpoint of housing costs due to limits on the amounts renters are required to pay. However, there are no such limitations on transportation costs, and common sense suggests that renters in remote locations may be forced to pay more than 15 percent of income, a nominal affordability standard, for transportation costs. Using household travel models estimated with data from 15 diverse regions around the U.S., we estimated and summed automobile capital costs, automobile operating costs, and transit fare costs for households at more than 18,000 HUD rental assistance properties. The mean percentage of income expended on transportation is 15 percent for households at the high end of the eligible income scale. However, in highly sprawling metropolitan areas, and in suburban areas of more compact metropolitan areas, much higher percentages of households exceed the 15 percent threshold. This suggests that locational characteristics of properties should be considered by HUD when establishing eligibility for rental assistance subsidies. Close

• 75. [Article] Moving to Location Affordability? Housing Choice Vouchers and Residential Relocation in the Portland, Oregon, Region

  Location affordability measures a household’s combined cost of housing and transportation. Low-income households have the most to gain from housing with lower transportation costs. This research analyzes ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Moving to Location Affordability? Housing Choice Vouchers and Residential Relocation in the Portland, Oregon, Region Author: Tremoulet, Andrée, Dann, Ryan, Adkins, Arlie Year: 2016 Location affordability measures a household’s combined cost of housing and transportation. Low-income households have the most to gain from housing with lower transportation costs. This research analyzes whether Housing Choice Voucher Program households—participants in a program designed to provide low-income households with a greater degree of housing choice—are able to choose housing that lowers their transportation costs in a metropolitan region with a compact, vital urban core. A mixed-methods approach is used to investigate the differences in location affordability and efficiency among 2,026 voucher recipients who moved within the Portland, Oregon, region during 2012–2013. Location mattered to movers, but in some unexpected ways. Urban movers relocated to less location efficient areas, whereas suburban movers’ location efficiency remained stable. In tight housing markets, voucher holders may be edged out of location-efficient neighborhoods and thus incur increased transportation costs. Title: Moving to Location Affordability? Housing Choice Vouchers and Residential Relocation in the Portland, Oregon, Region Author: Tremoulet, Andrée, Dann, Ryan, Adkins, Arlie Year: 2016 Location affordability measures a household’s combined cost of housing and transportation. Low-income households have the most to gain from housing with lower transportation costs. This research analyzes whether Housing Choice Voucher Program households—participants in a program designed to provide low-income households with a greater degree of housing choice—are able to choose housing that lowers their transportation costs in a metropolitan region with a compact, vital urban core. A mixed-methods approach is used to investigate the differences in location affordability and efficiency among 2,026 voucher recipients who moved within the Portland, Oregon, region during 2012–2013. Location mattered to movers, but in some unexpected ways. Urban movers relocated to less location efficient areas, whereas suburban movers’ location efficiency remained stable. In tight housing markets, voucher holders may be edged out of location-efficient neighborhoods and thus incur increased transportation costs. Close

• 76. [Article] Study Design of a Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial to Evaluate a Large-scale Distribution of Cook Stoves and Water Filters in Western Province, Rwanda

  Background: In Rwanda, pneumonia and diarrhea are the first and second leading causes of death, respectively, among children under five. Household air pollution (HAP) resultant from cooking indoors with ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Study Design of a Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial to Evaluate a Large-scale Distribution of Cook Stoves and Water Filters in Western Province, Rwanda Author: Nagel, Corey L., Kirby, Miles, Zambrano, Laura D., Rosa, Ghislaine, Barstow, Christina K., Thomas, Evan A., Clasen, Thomas Year: 2016 Background: In Rwanda, pneumonia and diarrhea are the first and second leading causes of death, respectively, among children under five. Household air pollution (HAP) resultant from cooking indoors with biomass fuels on traditional stoves is a significant risk factor for pneumonia, while consumption of contaminated drinking water is a primary cause of diarrheal disease. To date, there have been no largescale effectiveness trials of programmatic efforts to provide either improved cookstoves or household water filters at scale in a low-income country. In this paper we describe the design of a clusterrandomized trial to evaluate the impact of a national-level program to distribute and promote the use of improved cookstoves and advanced water filters to the poorest quarter of households in Rwanda. Methods/Design: We randomly allocated 72 sectors (administratively defined units) in Western Province to the intervention, with the remaining 24 sectors in the province serving as controls. In the intervention sectors, roughly 100,000 households received improved cookstoves and household water filters through a government-sponsored program targeting the poorest quarter of households nationally. The primary outcome measures are the incidence of acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhea among children under five years of age. Over a one-year surveillance period, all cases of acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhea identified by health workers in the study area will be extracted from records maintained at health facilities and by community health workers (CHW). In addition, we are conducting intensive, longitudinal data collection among a random sample of households in the study area for in-depth assessment of coverage, use, environmental exposures, and additional health measures. Discussion: Although previous research has examined the impact of providing household water treatment and improved cookstoves on child health, there have been no studies of national-level programs to deliver these interventions at scale in a developing country. The results of this study, the first RCT of a large-scale programmatic cookstove or household water filter intervention, will inform global efforts to reduce childhood morbidity and mortality from diarrheal disease and pneumonia. Title: Study Design of a Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial to Evaluate a Large-scale Distribution of Cook Stoves and Water Filters in Western Province, Rwanda Author: Nagel, Corey L., Kirby, Miles, Zambrano, Laura D., Rosa, Ghislaine, Barstow, Christina K., Thomas, Evan A., Clasen, Thomas Year: 2016 Background: In Rwanda, pneumonia and diarrhea are the first and second leading causes of death, respectively, among children under five. Household air pollution (HAP) resultant from cooking indoors with biomass fuels on traditional stoves is a significant risk factor for pneumonia, while consumption of contaminated drinking water is a primary cause of diarrheal disease. To date, there have been no largescale effectiveness trials of programmatic efforts to provide either improved cookstoves or household water filters at scale in a low-income country. In this paper we describe the design of a clusterrandomized trial to evaluate the impact of a national-level program to distribute and promote the use of improved cookstoves and advanced water filters to the poorest quarter of households in Rwanda. Methods/Design: We randomly allocated 72 sectors (administratively defined units) in Western Province to the intervention, with the remaining 24 sectors in the province serving as controls. In the intervention sectors, roughly 100,000 households received improved cookstoves and household water filters through a government-sponsored program targeting the poorest quarter of households nationally. The primary outcome measures are the incidence of acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhea among children under five years of age. Over a one-year surveillance period, all cases of acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhea identified by health workers in the study area will be extracted from records maintained at health facilities and by community health workers (CHW). In addition, we are conducting intensive, longitudinal data collection among a random sample of households in the study area for in-depth assessment of coverage, use, environmental exposures, and additional health measures. Discussion: Although previous research has examined the impact of providing household water treatment and improved cookstoves on child health, there have been no studies of national-level programs to deliver these interventions at scale in a developing country. The results of this study, the first RCT of a large-scale programmatic cookstove or household water filter intervention, will inform global efforts to reduce childhood morbidity and mortality from diarrheal disease and pneumonia. Close

• 77. [Article] Regional Water Providers Consortium Population, Housing Unit, and Household Estimates 1990 to 2013

  Water providers have an ongoing need for estimates and forecasts of the total population and the number of housing units and households within their service areas. While some of the water providers within ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Regional Water Providers Consortium Population, Housing Unit, and Household Estimates 1990 to 2013 Author: Rynerson, Charles, Rancik, Kevin Year: 2014 Water providers have an ongoing need for estimates and forecasts of the total population and the number of housing units and households within their service areas. While some of the water providers within Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties have obtained this information periodically on an individual basis, a complete and systematic set of estimates and forecasts for all members of the Regional Water Providers Consortium has not been prepared for nearly 10 years. The Portland Water Bureau (PWB), on behalf of the Regional Water Providers Consortium, requested that the Portland State University Population Research Center (PRC) update service area boundaries and prepare population, housing unit, and household estimates and forecasts for the water service areas of the municipalities and water districts in the Consortium, as well as the wholesale customers of the PWB that are not Consortium members. This report includes a brief description of the procedures and methodologies used to update the boundaries and prepare estimates for each year from 1990 to 2013. The Appendix contains these estimates in detail for each provider. A future report will include population, housing unit, and household forecasts for each year from 2014 to 2045. Title: Regional Water Providers Consortium Population, Housing Unit, and Household Estimates 1990 to 2013 Author: Rynerson, Charles, Rancik, Kevin Year: 2014 Water providers have an ongoing need for estimates and forecasts of the total population and the number of housing units and households within their service areas. While some of the water providers within Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties have obtained this information periodically on an individual basis, a complete and systematic set of estimates and forecasts for all members of the Regional Water Providers Consortium has not been prepared for nearly 10 years. The Portland Water Bureau (PWB), on behalf of the Regional Water Providers Consortium, requested that the Portland State University Population Research Center (PRC) update service area boundaries and prepare population, housing unit, and household estimates and forecasts for the water service areas of the municipalities and water districts in the Consortium, as well as the wholesale customers of the PWB that are not Consortium members. This report includes a brief description of the procedures and methodologies used to update the boundaries and prepare estimates for each year from 1990 to 2013. The Appendix contains these estimates in detail for each provider. A future report will include population, housing unit, and household forecasts for each year from 2014 to 2045. Close

• 78. [Article] Tools for Assisting Low-Income Households with Finding Location-Efficient Housing

  Through a previously funded research project, Encouraging Low-Income Households to Make Location-Efficient Housing Choices, our team developed a toolkit to assist households utilizing Section 8 Housing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Tools for Assisting Low-Income Households with Finding Location-Efficient Housing Author: Tremoulet, Andrée Year: 2016 Through a previously funded research project, Encouraging Low-Income Households to Make Location-Efficient Housing Choices, our team developed a toolkit to assist households utilizing Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers with finding location-efficient/affordable housing. These tools are currently in use by the region’s four public housing authorities (PHAs). This technology transfer project provided the tools to social service providers who work with voucher recipients in the Portland region and provided a presentation on research findings and policy implications to transportation researchers, professionals and students. Specific activities included: • In-person presentations to groups of social service providers in three counties (four presentations total) who provide case management and other intensive social services for households with low incomes. • A TREC-sponsored presentation/webinar as part of the TREC Friday Transportation Seminar series In addition, final edits were completed on a manuscript included in Housing Policy Debate’s special issue on location-affordable housing. Additional research was begun on a manuscript for submission to the Transportation Research Board. Title: Tools for Assisting Low-Income Households with Finding Location-Efficient Housing Author: Tremoulet, Andrée Year: 2016 Through a previously funded research project, Encouraging Low-Income Households to Make Location-Efficient Housing Choices, our team developed a toolkit to assist households utilizing Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers with finding location-efficient/affordable housing. These tools are currently in use by the region’s four public housing authorities (PHAs). This technology transfer project provided the tools to social service providers who work with voucher recipients in the Portland region and provided a presentation on research findings and policy implications to transportation researchers, professionals and students. Specific activities included: • In-person presentations to groups of social service providers in three counties (four presentations total) who provide case management and other intensive social services for households with low incomes. • A TREC-sponsored presentation/webinar as part of the TREC Friday Transportation Seminar series In addition, final edits were completed on a manuscript included in Housing Policy Debate’s special issue on location-affordable housing. Additional research was begun on a manuscript for submission to the Transportation Research Board. Close

• 79. [Article] Essays on determinants of human capital accumulation

  This dissertation is composed of two self-contained essays, which examine two different factors that could affect human capital accumulation in a developing country. Both essays utilize cross-sectional ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Essays on determinants of human capital accumulation Author: Sherpa, Maya This dissertation is composed of two self-contained essays, which examine two different factors that could affect human capital accumulation in a developing country. Both essays utilize cross-sectional data from the second round (2003/04) of national level household survey from Nepal. In the first essay, I estimate the impact of remittances on school attendance of children in Nepal. Over the last decade Nepal has experienced an increase in both domestic and international migration and consequently, Nepal has also seen a large surge in remittances from expatriates, growing from less than 3 percent of the GDP in 1995 to about 17 percent in 2004, to 22 percent in 2008, becoming one of the top ten recipients in terms of the share of remittance to GDP. In developing countries, investment in human capital is often viewed as significantly constrained by household resources. The premise of this essay is that remittances, by relaxing household resource constraints, can promote investment in education of the children living in remittance-receiving household. I use the proportion of households receiving remittances and the migrant’s age as instrumental variables to identify remittance-receiving households and level of remittance flow. I find that remittances increase the probability of school attendance for young girls (ages 6-10) and for older boys (ages 11-18). But the positive effect does not extend to younger boys (ages 6-10) and older girls (ages 11-18). In the second essay, I estimate the causal effect of child's number hours worked on school attendance and school attainment. Here, number of hours worked is defined broadly to include hours worked in market and non-market activities within and outside the household as well as hours worked on domestic chores within the household. The central identification problem in estimating the causal effect of child labor on schooling is that these two decisions are simultaneously driven by different confounding factors such as household income, family preferences, child characteristics, availability and quality of school, etc. All of these are likely to induce a negative (or a positive) relationship between schooling and child labor. To abstract from these confounding factors, I use community level average daily agricultural wage for children and the distance to water source to provide variation in the demand for child labor. The results show that the effect of hours worked on schooling outcomes differ by demographic subgroups. For girls, the number of hours worked adversely affects both school attendance and grade attainment. For boys, the results are significantly different. The results of this study suggest that working up to 12.7 and 14.5 hours per week have no adverse effect on school attendance of boys of ages 5-9 and ages 10-16, respectively. Whereas, working less than 15 hours a week has no detrimental effect on grade attainment of older boys. I find no effect of the number of hours worked on grade attainment of younger boys aged 5-9. Title: Essays on determinants of human capital accumulation Author: Sherpa, Maya This dissertation is composed of two self-contained essays, which examine two different factors that could affect human capital accumulation in a developing country. Both essays utilize cross-sectional data from the second round (2003/04) of national level household survey from Nepal. In the first essay, I estimate the impact of remittances on school attendance of children in Nepal. Over the last decade Nepal has experienced an increase in both domestic and international migration and consequently, Nepal has also seen a large surge in remittances from expatriates, growing from less than 3 percent of the GDP in 1995 to about 17 percent in 2004, to 22 percent in 2008, becoming one of the top ten recipients in terms of the share of remittance to GDP. In developing countries, investment in human capital is often viewed as significantly constrained by household resources. The premise of this essay is that remittances, by relaxing household resource constraints, can promote investment in education of the children living in remittance-receiving household. I use the proportion of households receiving remittances and the migrant’s age as instrumental variables to identify remittance-receiving households and level of remittance flow. I find that remittances increase the probability of school attendance for young girls (ages 6-10) and for older boys (ages 11-18). But the positive effect does not extend to younger boys (ages 6-10) and older girls (ages 11-18). In the second essay, I estimate the causal effect of child's number hours worked on school attendance and school attainment. Here, number of hours worked is defined broadly to include hours worked in market and non-market activities within and outside the household as well as hours worked on domestic chores within the household. The central identification problem in estimating the causal effect of child labor on schooling is that these two decisions are simultaneously driven by different confounding factors such as household income, family preferences, child characteristics, availability and quality of school, etc. All of these are likely to induce a negative (or a positive) relationship between schooling and child labor. To abstract from these confounding factors, I use community level average daily agricultural wage for children and the distance to water source to provide variation in the demand for child labor. The results show that the effect of hours worked on schooling outcomes differ by demographic subgroups. For girls, the number of hours worked adversely affects both school attendance and grade attainment. For boys, the results are significantly different. The results of this study suggest that working up to 12.7 and 14.5 hours per week have no adverse effect on school attendance of boys of ages 5-9 and ages 10-16, respectively. Whereas, working less than 15 hours a week has no detrimental effect on grade attainment of older boys. I find no effect of the number of hours worked on grade attainment of younger boys aged 5-9. Close

• 80. [Article] Economic Analysis of A Road Usage Charge

  This study evaluates the distributional impacts of an alternative public roads finance method, a road usage charge (RUC) fee, on lower income households and rural households in Oregon. While previous research ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Economic Analysis of A Road Usage Charge Author: Ke, Yue This study evaluates the distributional impacts of an alternative public roads finance method, a road usage charge (RUC) fee, on lower income households and rural households in Oregon. While previous research has relied on the 2001 and 2009 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS), this research will uses the 2011-2013 Oregon Household Activity Survey (OHAS) data. The OHAS dataset is used to assess the impact of changing from a 30 cents per gallon fuel tax to the 1.5 cents per mile RUC as proposed in SB 801, and to examine regional differences in driving behaviors that may be relevant in further assessing the impacts of a change in policy. Results show that overall the RUC will be slightly more regressive than the fuel tax, but that impacts may vary due to regional differences in the determinants of vehicle miles traveled (VMT). Title: Economic Analysis of A Road Usage Charge Author: Ke, Yue This study evaluates the distributional impacts of an alternative public roads finance method, a road usage charge (RUC) fee, on lower income households and rural households in Oregon. While previous research has relied on the 2001 and 2009 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS), this research will uses the 2011-2013 Oregon Household Activity Survey (OHAS) data. The OHAS dataset is used to assess the impact of changing from a 30 cents per gallon fuel tax to the 1.5 cents per mile RUC as proposed in SB 801, and to examine regional differences in driving behaviors that may be relevant in further assessing the impacts of a change in policy. Results show that overall the RUC will be slightly more regressive than the fuel tax, but that impacts may vary due to regional differences in the determinants of vehicle miles traveled (VMT). Close