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• 351. [Article] Forest Fire Effects on Radiative and Turbulent Fluxes over Snow : Implications for Snow Hydrology

  As a result of a warming climate, subsequent declining snowpack, and a century of fire suppression, forest fires are increasing across the western United States. However, we still do not fully understand ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forest Fire Effects on Radiative and Turbulent Fluxes over Snow : Implications for Snow Hydrology Author: Gleason, Kelly Erika As a result of a warming climate, subsequent declining snowpack, and a century of fire suppression, forest fires are increasing across the western United States. However, we still do not fully understand how forest fire effects snowpack energy balance, nor the volume and availability of snow melt and associated water resources. This dissertation investigated the radiative and turbulent energy fluxes over snow in a burned and unburned forest site using a suite of experimental, modeling, and remote sensing methods to determine the overall impact of forest fire disturbance to snowpack energy balance and snow hydrology. For three years following the Shadow Lake Fire, which occurred in September 2011 at the crest of the Oregon Cascades, a suite of field experiments were maintained, including snow water equivalent and snow spectral albedo measurement transects, snow surface sampling, snow depth and basic micro-meteorological monitoring and eddy covariance measurements of turbulent heat fluxes. These data were used to empirically characterize forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow, to parameterize key drivers of snowpack energy balance and to model forest fire effects to snow hydrology using a physically-based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model for both the burned and unburned forest sites. This resulted in three papers summarizing forest fire effects to snowpack energy balance and implications for snow hydrology. This dissertation documented forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow and evaluated implications for snow hydrology. These results showed a 40% reduction in snow albedo in the burned forest during the ablation period in the first year following fire, while 60% more solar radiation reached the snow surface, driving a 200% increase in net shortwave radiation. This dissertation documented that both sensible and latent heat fluxes were double the magnitude and variability in the burned forest compared to the nearby unburned forest. These results showed that the turbulent fluxes over snow can be periodically large and substantial over time. The contribution of sensible heat flux and loss of energy by the latent heat flux is responsible for a loss of snow mass of approximately 2% that measured snowmelt in the burned forest site during the clear-sky snowmelt period. Overall, the radiative fluxes dominate the overall snowpack energy balance in burned and unburned forests. An empirically-based parameterization was developed to represent the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo relative to days-since-snowfall in the burned and unburned forests, which was employed in a physically based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model. Using this variable snow albedo parameterization improved model performance in both burned and unburned forest sites, and better captured the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo and snow water equivalent than a fixed albedo parameterization. Overall this evaluation demonstrated that even though more snow may accumulate in burned areas than unburned forests, the combined effect of the increased postfire radiative forcing to snow and increased turbulent fluxes over snow accelerates snow melt, shortens the duration of snow cover, and advances the date of snow disappearance across the extent of the burned forest. Although this research focused on a relatively small burned area in the western Oregon Cascades, it has broad applications from regional to global scales particularly in forested maritime snow-dominated watersheds. Eighty percent of forest fires in the western United States occur in the seasonal snow zone, and those fires are 4.4 times larger than outside the seasonal snow zone. As forest fires increase and snowpacks decrease across forested montane headwater regions of the western US and beyond, it is critical that we incorporate forest fire disturbance effects to snow hydrology in our hydrologic modeling applications and our natural resource management decisions. Title: Forest Fire Effects on Radiative and Turbulent Fluxes over Snow : Implications for Snow Hydrology Author: Gleason, Kelly Erika As a result of a warming climate, subsequent declining snowpack, and a century of fire suppression, forest fires are increasing across the western United States. However, we still do not fully understand how forest fire effects snowpack energy balance, nor the volume and availability of snow melt and associated water resources. This dissertation investigated the radiative and turbulent energy fluxes over snow in a burned and unburned forest site using a suite of experimental, modeling, and remote sensing methods to determine the overall impact of forest fire disturbance to snowpack energy balance and snow hydrology. For three years following the Shadow Lake Fire, which occurred in September 2011 at the crest of the Oregon Cascades, a suite of field experiments were maintained, including snow water equivalent and snow spectral albedo measurement transects, snow surface sampling, snow depth and basic micro-meteorological monitoring and eddy covariance measurements of turbulent heat fluxes. These data were used to empirically characterize forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow, to parameterize key drivers of snowpack energy balance and to model forest fire effects to snow hydrology using a physically-based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model for both the burned and unburned forest sites. This resulted in three papers summarizing forest fire effects to snowpack energy balance and implications for snow hydrology. This dissertation documented forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow and evaluated implications for snow hydrology. These results showed a 40% reduction in snow albedo in the burned forest during the ablation period in the first year following fire, while 60% more solar radiation reached the snow surface, driving a 200% increase in net shortwave radiation. This dissertation documented that both sensible and latent heat fluxes were double the magnitude and variability in the burned forest compared to the nearby unburned forest. These results showed that the turbulent fluxes over snow can be periodically large and substantial over time. The contribution of sensible heat flux and loss of energy by the latent heat flux is responsible for a loss of snow mass of approximately 2% that measured snowmelt in the burned forest site during the clear-sky snowmelt period. Overall, the radiative fluxes dominate the overall snowpack energy balance in burned and unburned forests. An empirically-based parameterization was developed to represent the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo relative to days-since-snowfall in the burned and unburned forests, which was employed in a physically based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model. Using this variable snow albedo parameterization improved model performance in both burned and unburned forest sites, and better captured the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo and snow water equivalent than a fixed albedo parameterization. Overall this evaluation demonstrated that even though more snow may accumulate in burned areas than unburned forests, the combined effect of the increased postfire radiative forcing to snow and increased turbulent fluxes over snow accelerates snow melt, shortens the duration of snow cover, and advances the date of snow disappearance across the extent of the burned forest. Although this research focused on a relatively small burned area in the western Oregon Cascades, it has broad applications from regional to global scales particularly in forested maritime snow-dominated watersheds. Eighty percent of forest fires in the western United States occur in the seasonal snow zone, and those fires are 4.4 times larger than outside the seasonal snow zone. As forest fires increase and snowpacks decrease across forested montane headwater regions of the western US and beyond, it is critical that we incorporate forest fire disturbance effects to snow hydrology in our hydrologic modeling applications and our natural resource management decisions. Close

• 352. [Article] Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data

  Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data Author: Buffington, Kevin John Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, new methods are required that integrate data from the field and remote sensing platforms. Marsh elevation response models can be calibrated with site-specific data to determine the vulnerability of a marsh to sea-level rise and help guide management decisions. Elevation models are sensitive to initial elevation, the rate of accretion, and aboveground biomass. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to develop techniques to improve these important model inputs and evaluate the range of spatial and temporal variation. Light detection and ranging (lidar) is an invaluable tool for collecting elevation data, however dense vegetation prevents the accurate measurement of the tidal marsh surface. In Chapter 2, I describe the development of a technique to calibrate lidar digital elevation models with survey elevation data using readily available multispectral aerial imagery from the National Agricultural Inventory Program (NAIP). Using survey elevation data across 17 Pacific Coast tidal marshes, I demonstrated the utility of the Lidar Elevation Adjustment with NDVI (LEAN) technique to account for the positive bias in lidar due to vegetation. LEAN reduced error from an average of 23.1 cm to 7.2 cm root mean squared error and removed the positive bias caused by vegetation. This increase in accuracy will facilitate more accurate assessments of current and future vulnerability to sea-level rise. The phenology of aboveground biomass in tidal marsh plants in relation to climate variation has not been explored in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). In Chapter 3 I explain how I leveraged the Landsat archive and cloud computing capabilities to assess how Tasseled Cap Greenness (TCG, a proxy for aboveground biomass) in three PNW tidal marshes has responded to recent variation in climate to characterize sensitivity to climate change. Through analysis of over 3700 Landsat images obtained from 1984-2015, I found increased annual precipitation resulted in a higher peak TCG, while warmer May temperatures resulted in an earlier day of peak TCG. These results also demonstrate how time-series analysis of remote sensing data can be used to examine the sensitivity of tidal marsh plants to climate variability and directional change. The range of variation in tidal marsh accretion rates has not been characterized across the PNW. For Chapter 4, I collected and analyzed twenty-two soil cores from eight estuaries to estimate historic accretion rates with radioisotope dating techniques and evaluated the amount and source of variation across estuaries. I found that tidal marshes across the PNW had accretion rates greater than the current rate of sea-level rise, ranging from 2.3 – 7.3 mm yr⁻¹. Using a watershed-scale analysis, I found that long-term average annual fluvial discharge was the top predictor of tidal marsh accretion rates. Additionally, I found that calibrating the Wetland Accretion Rate Model for Ecosystem Resilience (WARMER) with accretion rate data from nearby estuaries can result in uncertainties of up to 41% (50 cm) after 100 years. Finally, in Chapter 5, I demonstrate that a range of 62 cm of error is possible in WARMER models after a 100 year simulation when both uncorrected lidar and non-local accretion rates are used, fundamentally changing the interpretation of the results. Altogether, this dissertation illustrates the importance of collecting site-specific wetland vegetation and elevation data and demonstrates how lidar and multispectral remote sensing data can be leveraged to improve our understanding of how climate variability and change impacts coastal ecosystems. Title: Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data Author: Buffington, Kevin John Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, new methods are required that integrate data from the field and remote sensing platforms. Marsh elevation response models can be calibrated with site-specific data to determine the vulnerability of a marsh to sea-level rise and help guide management decisions. Elevation models are sensitive to initial elevation, the rate of accretion, and aboveground biomass. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to develop techniques to improve these important model inputs and evaluate the range of spatial and temporal variation. Light detection and ranging (lidar) is an invaluable tool for collecting elevation data, however dense vegetation prevents the accurate measurement of the tidal marsh surface. In Chapter 2, I describe the development of a technique to calibrate lidar digital elevation models with survey elevation data using readily available multispectral aerial imagery from the National Agricultural Inventory Program (NAIP). Using survey elevation data across 17 Pacific Coast tidal marshes, I demonstrated the utility of the Lidar Elevation Adjustment with NDVI (LEAN) technique to account for the positive bias in lidar due to vegetation. LEAN reduced error from an average of 23.1 cm to 7.2 cm root mean squared error and removed the positive bias caused by vegetation. This increase in accuracy will facilitate more accurate assessments of current and future vulnerability to sea-level rise. The phenology of aboveground biomass in tidal marsh plants in relation to climate variation has not been explored in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). In Chapter 3 I explain how I leveraged the Landsat archive and cloud computing capabilities to assess how Tasseled Cap Greenness (TCG, a proxy for aboveground biomass) in three PNW tidal marshes has responded to recent variation in climate to characterize sensitivity to climate change. Through analysis of over 3700 Landsat images obtained from 1984-2015, I found increased annual precipitation resulted in a higher peak TCG, while warmer May temperatures resulted in an earlier day of peak TCG. These results also demonstrate how time-series analysis of remote sensing data can be used to examine the sensitivity of tidal marsh plants to climate variability and directional change. The range of variation in tidal marsh accretion rates has not been characterized across the PNW. For Chapter 4, I collected and analyzed twenty-two soil cores from eight estuaries to estimate historic accretion rates with radioisotope dating techniques and evaluated the amount and source of variation across estuaries. I found that tidal marshes across the PNW had accretion rates greater than the current rate of sea-level rise, ranging from 2.3 – 7.3 mm yr⁻¹. Using a watershed-scale analysis, I found that long-term average annual fluvial discharge was the top predictor of tidal marsh accretion rates. Additionally, I found that calibrating the Wetland Accretion Rate Model for Ecosystem Resilience (WARMER) with accretion rate data from nearby estuaries can result in uncertainties of up to 41% (50 cm) after 100 years. Finally, in Chapter 5, I demonstrate that a range of 62 cm of error is possible in WARMER models after a 100 year simulation when both uncorrected lidar and non-local accretion rates are used, fundamentally changing the interpretation of the results. Altogether, this dissertation illustrates the importance of collecting site-specific wetland vegetation and elevation data and demonstrates how lidar and multispectral remote sensing data can be leveraged to improve our understanding of how climate variability and change impacts coastal ecosystems. Close

• 353. [Article] An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

  Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Close

• 354. [Article] Distribution of amphibians in wadeable streams and ponds in western and southeast Oregon, Information Report 2009-02

  Abstract -- The Oregon Conservation Strategy (ODFW 2006) identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution of amphibians in wadeable streams and ponds in western and southeast Oregon, Information Report 2009-02 Abstract -- The Oregon Conservation Strategy (ODFW 2006) identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation Need (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide much information about amphibian distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian observational surveys with existing aquatic habitat surveys conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams (wadeable) in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The amphibian component was consistent with the survey protocol used by the US Geological Survey’s Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative. The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. In the summer of 2006, AIP began collecting amphibian occurrence data during physical stream habitat surveys as a pilot study to determine if our standard survey protocol could be modified to document distribution of amphibians characterized as Strategy Species under the Oregon Conservation Strategy. During the summer season, field crews observed four strategy species of amphibians and eleven amphibian species total. The potential to use these data to fill the gaps within the known current distribution of amphibians and to potentially develop a habitat based distribution models for these species led to the summer 2007 work. Amphibian data are also collected during four other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these four projects are also included in this report. The four projects are as follows: • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. • Surveys to document the distribution of Oregon chub also record amphibian data from over 1,000 pond and slough sites within the Willamette Valley floodplain since 1991. • The Native Fish Investigations Project began a study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of Redband Trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. Surveys in the summer of 2007 occurred in 8 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1)(Omernick 1994). Ecoregions are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological characteristics; flora and fauna communities and geographic conditions are typically distinct. Ecoregions provide an ecological framework for describing amphibian distribution across the state. The goals of our 2007 work were to: • Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. • Increase knowledge of distribution and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in western Oregon (location, stream size and type), and infer distribution in all coastal and lower Columbia drainages. • Describe temporal changes in stream habitat use by amphibians (seasonal, annual). • Estimate surveyor bias by comparing standard crew data with intensive resurveys. • Describe distribution of amphibians in ponds, sloughs and other off channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. • Describe distribution of amphibians in the Great Basin of eastern Oregon. Many of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and many adults remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. The aquatic habitat and redband trout surveys are appropriate opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. Likewise the Oregon chub surveys are likely to observe amphibian species and life stages in ponds and sloughs during the spring and fall. These types of surveys are an efficient and cost-effective means to collect information on amphibian species that are closely tied to aquatic habitat throughout their life cycle. Amphibian species that are more terrestrial in nature may be better surveyed through a different approach. Title: Distribution of amphibians in wadeable streams and ponds in western and southeast Oregon, Information Report 2009-02 Abstract -- The Oregon Conservation Strategy (ODFW 2006) identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation Need (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide much information about amphibian distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian observational surveys with existing aquatic habitat surveys conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams (wadeable) in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The amphibian component was consistent with the survey protocol used by the US Geological Survey’s Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative. The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. In the summer of 2006, AIP began collecting amphibian occurrence data during physical stream habitat surveys as a pilot study to determine if our standard survey protocol could be modified to document distribution of amphibians characterized as Strategy Species under the Oregon Conservation Strategy. During the summer season, field crews observed four strategy species of amphibians and eleven amphibian species total. The potential to use these data to fill the gaps within the known current distribution of amphibians and to potentially develop a habitat based distribution models for these species led to the summer 2007 work. Amphibian data are also collected during four other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these four projects are also included in this report. The four projects are as follows: • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. • Surveys to document the distribution of Oregon chub also record amphibian data from over 1,000 pond and slough sites within the Willamette Valley floodplain since 1991. • The Native Fish Investigations Project began a study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of Redband Trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. Surveys in the summer of 2007 occurred in 8 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1)(Omernick 1994). Ecoregions are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological characteristics; flora and fauna communities and geographic conditions are typically distinct. Ecoregions provide an ecological framework for describing amphibian distribution across the state. The goals of our 2007 work were to: • Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. • Increase knowledge of distribution and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in western Oregon (location, stream size and type), and infer distribution in all coastal and lower Columbia drainages. • Describe temporal changes in stream habitat use by amphibians (seasonal, annual). • Estimate surveyor bias by comparing standard crew data with intensive resurveys. • Describe distribution of amphibians in ponds, sloughs and other off channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. • Describe distribution of amphibians in the Great Basin of eastern Oregon. Many of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and many adults remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. The aquatic habitat and redband trout surveys are appropriate opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. Likewise the Oregon chub surveys are likely to observe amphibian species and life stages in ponds and sloughs during the spring and fall. These types of surveys are an efficient and cost-effective means to collect information on amphibian species that are closely tied to aquatic habitat throughout their life cycle. Amphibian species that are more terrestrial in nature may be better surveyed through a different approach. Close

• 355. [Article] 2008 Amphibian Distribution Surveys in Wadeable Streams and Ponds in Western and Southeast Oregon, Information Reports Number 2010-05

  Abstract -- The ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: 2008 Amphibian Distribution Surveys in Wadeable Streams and Ponds in Western and Southeast Oregon, Information Reports Number 2010-05 Abstract -- The ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation Need (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide important baseline information about amphibian species composition and distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. The majority of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and adults frequently remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. Ongoing aquatic habitat and fish surveys are opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian surveys with existing aquatic habitat and fish surveys such as those conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coast and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The amphibian component was consistent with the survey protocol used by the US Geological Survey’s Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (http://armi.usgs.gov/). The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. The Native Fish Investigations Project began a six year study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of redband trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. The site selection procedure is comparable to the statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design. Amphibian data are also collected during three other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these three projects are also included in this report. The three projects are as follows: • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. • Native Fish Project conducts surveys of pond and slough sites for Oregon chub in the Willamette Valley. Due to the success of the 2006 and 2007 field studies, we continued our research during the summer of 2008 to improve our knowledge of distribution and community structure of amphibians. The summer 2008 surveys took place in 9 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1) (Thorson et al. 2003). Ecoregions provide a framework for discussing amphibian distribution across the state because they are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological (flora and fauna) characteristics. The goals of our 2008 work were to: • Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. • Increase knowledge of distribution, community structure, and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in: o Western Oregon coastal and lower Columbia drainages. o Ponds, sloughs and other off-channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. o Great Basin of eastern Oregon and selected streams in central Oregon. • Combine the 2008 observations with the 2006-07 results. Title: 2008 Amphibian Distribution Surveys in Wadeable Streams and Ponds in Western and Southeast Oregon, Information Reports Number 2010-05 Abstract -- The ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation Need (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide important baseline information about amphibian species composition and distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. The majority of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and adults frequently remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. Ongoing aquatic habitat and fish surveys are opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian surveys with existing aquatic habitat and fish surveys such as those conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coast and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The amphibian component was consistent with the survey protocol used by the US Geological Survey’s Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (http://armi.usgs.gov/). The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. The Native Fish Investigations Project began a six year study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of redband trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. The site selection procedure is comparable to the statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design. Amphibian data are also collected during three other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these three projects are also included in this report. The three projects are as follows: • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. • Native Fish Project conducts surveys of pond and slough sites for Oregon chub in the Willamette Valley. Due to the success of the 2006 and 2007 field studies, we continued our research during the summer of 2008 to improve our knowledge of distribution and community structure of amphibians. The summer 2008 surveys took place in 9 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1) (Thorson et al. 2003). Ecoregions provide a framework for discussing amphibian distribution across the state because they are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological (flora and fauna) characteristics. The goals of our 2008 work were to: • Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. • Increase knowledge of distribution, community structure, and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in: o Western Oregon coastal and lower Columbia drainages. o Ponds, sloughs and other off-channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. o Great Basin of eastern Oregon and selected streams in central Oregon. • Combine the 2008 observations with the 2006-07 results. Close

• 356. [Article] Amphibian Distribution in Wadeable Streams and Ponds in Western and Southeast Oregon, 2009-2010 Progress Reports 2011

  Abstract -- The ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy Species”, or “Species of Greatest Conservation ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Amphibian Distribution in Wadeable Streams and Ponds in Western and Southeast Oregon, 2009-2010 Progress Reports 2011 Abstract -- The ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy Species”, or “Species of Greatest Conservation Need” (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide important baseline information about amphibian species composition and distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. The majority of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and adults frequently remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. Ongoing aquatic habitat and fish surveys are opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian surveys with existing aquatic habitat and fish surveys such as those conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coast and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. The Native Fish Investigations Project began a six year study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of redband trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. The site selection procedure is comparable to the statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design. Amphibian data are also collected during three other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these three projects are also included in this report. The three projects are as follows: AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. Native Fish Project conducts surveys of pond and slough sites for Oregon chub in the Willamette Valley. Due to the success of the 2007 and 2008 field studies, we continued our research during the summer of 2009 and 2010 to improve our knowledge of distribution and community structure of amphibians. The summer 2009 and 2010 surveys took place in 9 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1) (Thorson et al. 2003). Ecoregions provide a framework for discussing amphibian distribution across the state because they are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological (flora and fauna) characteristics. The goals of our 2009-2010 work were to: Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. Increase knowledge of distribution, community structure, and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in: Western Oregon coastal and lower Columbia drainages. Ponds, sloughs and other off-channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. Great Basin of eastern Oregon and selected streams in central Oregon. Combine the 2009-2010 observations with the 2007-2008 results. Title: Amphibian Distribution in Wadeable Streams and Ponds in Western and Southeast Oregon, 2009-2010 Progress Reports 2011 Abstract -- The ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy Species”, or “Species of Greatest Conservation Need” (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide important baseline information about amphibian species composition and distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. The majority of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and adults frequently remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. Ongoing aquatic habitat and fish surveys are opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian surveys with existing aquatic habitat and fish surveys such as those conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coast and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. The Native Fish Investigations Project began a six year study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of redband trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. The site selection procedure is comparable to the statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design. Amphibian data are also collected during three other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these three projects are also included in this report. The three projects are as follows: AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. Native Fish Project conducts surveys of pond and slough sites for Oregon chub in the Willamette Valley. Due to the success of the 2007 and 2008 field studies, we continued our research during the summer of 2009 and 2010 to improve our knowledge of distribution and community structure of amphibians. The summer 2009 and 2010 surveys took place in 9 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1) (Thorson et al. 2003). Ecoregions provide a framework for discussing amphibian distribution across the state because they are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological (flora and fauna) characteristics. The goals of our 2009-2010 work were to: Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. Increase knowledge of distribution, community structure, and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in: Western Oregon coastal and lower Columbia drainages. Ponds, sloughs and other off-channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. Great Basin of eastern Oregon and selected streams in central Oregon. Combine the 2009-2010 observations with the 2007-2008 results. Close

• 357. [Article] Dead wood dynamics and relationships to biophysical factors, forest history, ownership, and management practices in the Coastal Province of Oregon, USA

  Dead wood patterns and dynamics vary with biophysical factors, disturbance history, ownership, and management practices. Through field and modeling studies, I examined the current and potential future ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Dead wood dynamics and relationships to biophysical factors, forest history, ownership, and management practices in the Coastal Province of Oregon, USA Author: Kennedy, Rebecca S.H. Dead wood patterns and dynamics vary with biophysical factors, disturbance history, ownership, and management practices. Through field and modeling studies, I examined the current and potential future amounts of dead wood in two landscapes and region-wide in the Coastal Province of Oregon. The objectives of the first study were to (1) determine whether two landscapes with different recent disturbance histories differ in the amount and characteristics of dead wood; and (2) explore relationships between patterns of dead wood in each landscape to potentially related factors including topography. The objectives of the second study were to (1) describe current regional amounts of dead wood; (2) compare dead wood amounts across ownerships; (3) determine relationships between current dead wood amounts and ownership, current and past vegetation conditions, climate, topography, and soils; and (4) evaluate whether the factors related to dead wood patterns differed according to the scale of analysis. The objectives of the third study were to (1) characterize the projected future change in dead wood amounts in a multi-ownership Province; (2) determine the longevity of present-day dead wood of different types and sizes in relation to amendments from management and stand development; and (3) evaluate differences in management approaches in transitional dynamics and long-term patterns of dead wood. In the first study, I sampled logs and snags at four topographic positions (streams, lower slopes, middle slopes, upper slopes) in the Tillamook State Forest and the Siuslaw National Forest. These two landscapes experienced catastrophic fire at different points in recent history. I developed statistical models relating various attributes of dead wood abundance to biophysical variables related to climate, topography, historical vegetation, current vegetation, soils, and ecoregion. I found that the type and timing of disturbance was important to dead wood amounts and characteristics, and that potential source and sink areas for dead wood were related to topographic position. In particular, lower slopes had higher amounts of logs, and upper slopes had higher basal areas of potential source wood, in the form of snags and legacy (pre-fire) stumps. Climatic factors were of greater relative importance to overall gradients of dead wood in the landscape in which fire occurred less recently. In the second study, I analyzed dead wood data from a region-wide systematic grid of field plots according to ownership and biophysical variables at multiple scales of resolution including plots, subwatersheds. Dead wood abundance and types varied greatly among ownerships, with public lands (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, State of Oregon) typically having higher amounts of dead wood and more dead wood in the larger size classes than the private lands (forest industry, non-industrial private). I found that the relative influence of ownership, topography, current and historical vegetation, and climate varied with scale of resolution. Current vegetation was of greater relative importance at finer scales of plots and subwatersheds, whereas climate, topography, and historical vegetation were of greater relative importance at coarser scales of watersheds and subbasins. Ownership was important to overall dead wood gradients at all scales considered. In the third study, by simulating stand development and dead wood dynamics under various forest management scenarios over a 300-year period, I was able to examine the long-term effects of management on dead wood abundance in the Coastal Province. I estimated potential upper bounds for future dead wood amounts. Dead wood amounts increased over time on average across the Province, mainly because of policies on public lands, especially the federal lands under the Northwest Forest Plan. Forest industry, under the Oregon Forest Practices Act and assuming retention of all snags at harvest and thinning, maintained amounts of dead wood that were similar to present-day levels, but size classes shifted toward the smaller sizes as existing large legacy dead wood decomposed. Non-industrial private lands showed increases from very low present-day amounts of dead wood. Across the Province, legacy logs and snags remained present for over a century of the simulation period, and buffered effects of intensive management to dead wood amounts. Variation across landscapes in starting conditions meant that contrasting management approaches had differential effects on long-term dead wood dynamics depending on where they were applied. Current amounts of dead wood and live vegetation patterns in the Province resulted from historical fire and logging. Results of this simulation study indicate that recently established policies oriented toward dead wood production and retention, in the absence of fire or other large- or mid-scale disturbances, are likely to result in increases in dead wood amounts that greatly exceed present-day levels. My results suggest that dead wood patterns of abundance will continue to diverge according to land ownership and that management practices that foster dead wood creation are of increasing importance to the long-term abundance of large dead wood as legacy dead wood is lost through decomposition. Title: Dead wood dynamics and relationships to biophysical factors, forest history, ownership, and management practices in the Coastal Province of Oregon, USA Author: Kennedy, Rebecca S.H. Dead wood patterns and dynamics vary with biophysical factors, disturbance history, ownership, and management practices. Through field and modeling studies, I examined the current and potential future amounts of dead wood in two landscapes and region-wide in the Coastal Province of Oregon. The objectives of the first study were to (1) determine whether two landscapes with different recent disturbance histories differ in the amount and characteristics of dead wood; and (2) explore relationships between patterns of dead wood in each landscape to potentially related factors including topography. The objectives of the second study were to (1) describe current regional amounts of dead wood; (2) compare dead wood amounts across ownerships; (3) determine relationships between current dead wood amounts and ownership, current and past vegetation conditions, climate, topography, and soils; and (4) evaluate whether the factors related to dead wood patterns differed according to the scale of analysis. The objectives of the third study were to (1) characterize the projected future change in dead wood amounts in a multi-ownership Province; (2) determine the longevity of present-day dead wood of different types and sizes in relation to amendments from management and stand development; and (3) evaluate differences in management approaches in transitional dynamics and long-term patterns of dead wood. In the first study, I sampled logs and snags at four topographic positions (streams, lower slopes, middle slopes, upper slopes) in the Tillamook State Forest and the Siuslaw National Forest. These two landscapes experienced catastrophic fire at different points in recent history. I developed statistical models relating various attributes of dead wood abundance to biophysical variables related to climate, topography, historical vegetation, current vegetation, soils, and ecoregion. I found that the type and timing of disturbance was important to dead wood amounts and characteristics, and that potential source and sink areas for dead wood were related to topographic position. In particular, lower slopes had higher amounts of logs, and upper slopes had higher basal areas of potential source wood, in the form of snags and legacy (pre-fire) stumps. Climatic factors were of greater relative importance to overall gradients of dead wood in the landscape in which fire occurred less recently. In the second study, I analyzed dead wood data from a region-wide systematic grid of field plots according to ownership and biophysical variables at multiple scales of resolution including plots, subwatersheds. Dead wood abundance and types varied greatly among ownerships, with public lands (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, State of Oregon) typically having higher amounts of dead wood and more dead wood in the larger size classes than the private lands (forest industry, non-industrial private). I found that the relative influence of ownership, topography, current and historical vegetation, and climate varied with scale of resolution. Current vegetation was of greater relative importance at finer scales of plots and subwatersheds, whereas climate, topography, and historical vegetation were of greater relative importance at coarser scales of watersheds and subbasins. Ownership was important to overall dead wood gradients at all scales considered. In the third study, by simulating stand development and dead wood dynamics under various forest management scenarios over a 300-year period, I was able to examine the long-term effects of management on dead wood abundance in the Coastal Province. I estimated potential upper bounds for future dead wood amounts. Dead wood amounts increased over time on average across the Province, mainly because of policies on public lands, especially the federal lands under the Northwest Forest Plan. Forest industry, under the Oregon Forest Practices Act and assuming retention of all snags at harvest and thinning, maintained amounts of dead wood that were similar to present-day levels, but size classes shifted toward the smaller sizes as existing large legacy dead wood decomposed. Non-industrial private lands showed increases from very low present-day amounts of dead wood. Across the Province, legacy logs and snags remained present for over a century of the simulation period, and buffered effects of intensive management to dead wood amounts. Variation across landscapes in starting conditions meant that contrasting management approaches had differential effects on long-term dead wood dynamics depending on where they were applied. Current amounts of dead wood and live vegetation patterns in the Province resulted from historical fire and logging. Results of this simulation study indicate that recently established policies oriented toward dead wood production and retention, in the absence of fire or other large- or mid-scale disturbances, are likely to result in increases in dead wood amounts that greatly exceed present-day levels. My results suggest that dead wood patterns of abundance will continue to diverge according to land ownership and that management practices that foster dead wood creation are of increasing importance to the long-term abundance of large dead wood as legacy dead wood is lost through decomposition. Close

• 358. [Image] An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1]

  	Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nation's National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nation's BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nation's population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nation's National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nation's BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nation's population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Close

• 359. [Image] The Klamath Project at 100 : conserving our resources, preserving our heritage

  	The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage 1905- 2005: The First Century of Water for the Klamath Project Grain Truck, Lower Klamath Lake, 2004 Prepared by Dan Keppen, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Klamath Project at 100 : conserving our resources, preserving our heritage Author: Keppen, Dan Year: 2004, 2005 The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage 1905- 2005: The First Century of Water for the Klamath Project Grain Truck, Lower Klamath Lake, 2004 Prepared by Dan Keppen, Executive Director Klamath Water Users Association December 2004 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 ) 1 1 1 I 1 I I I 003E00042195 .... rrj R13E ^ ^ T ^ I l* IILLER DIVERSION DAM MILLER CREEK AND LOST RIVER CHANNEL L. ^ ^ IMPROVEMENTS — FEATURES: Hydrography Canal Drain Dike ) ( Tunnel )—( Flume ) - - ( Siphon Pipeline Drop 9 Pumping Plant Q Irrigation District Pumping Plant H Private Utility Powerplant ik Project Headquarters Project Land Lea3 « Area MAJOR WATER DISTRICTS: Ady Dist. Improv. Co. Enterprise I. D. Horsefly I. D. Klamath Drain. Dist. Klamath I. D. Langell Valley I. D. Malin ID. Midland Dist. Improv. Co. P Canal Mutual Water Co. Pine Grove I. D. Pioneer Dist. Improv. Co. Plevna Dist. Improv. Co. Poe Valley Improv. Dist. Shasta View I. D. Sunnyside I. D. Tulelake I. D. Van Brimmer Ditch Co. Westside Improv. Dist. KLAMATH PROJECT Oregon - California N 0 12 3 4 5 Miles Background of Klamath Water Users Association The original Klamath Water Users Association was organized on March 4, 1905 under Oregon statute and capitalized in the amount of $ 2,000,000. That Association was created by local farmers, livestock producers, businessmen, bankers, attorneys, and community leaders interested in seeing the Klamath Reclamation Project constructed with the least amount of cost and for the lasting benefit of the entire Klamath community. Working in cooperation with Reclamation the stockholders of the Association contracted with the U. S. Secretary of the Interior to assume the responsibility of payment to the United States the cost of the Klamath Project irrigation works on November 3, 1905. The Association was active in bringing in lands to be served by the Project and addressing water right matters of those lands. By the 1950' s much of the construction costs of the project had been reimbursed to the United States, and irrigation districts assumed the contractual obligations for maintaining and operating the Project. The current Klamath Water Users Association ( KWUA) has its origins in the Klamath Water Users Protective Association, bylaws adopted June 22, 1953, organized to address water right and electrical power issues for Klamath Basin irrigators. The Protective Association reformed itself March 16,1993 with amended bylaws, and incorporated in 1994 as the modern Klamath Water Users Association. The KWUA represents private rural and suburban irrigation districts and ditch companies within the Klamath Project, along with private irrigation interests outside the Project in both Oregon and California in the Upper Klamath Basin. The KWUA is governed by an eleven-person board of directors elected from supporting irrigation districts, private irrigation interests, and the business community. The KWUA now represents over 5,000 water users on 1,400 family farms. Klamath Association KWUA's mission statement: To preserve, protect and defend the water and power rights of the landowners of the Klamath Basin while promoting wise management of ecosystem resources. r Table of Contents Page Executive Summary 4 Introduction 5 Overview 7 Pioneers 9 The Reclamation Act 10 The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government 10 Construction Begins 11 Homesteaders 13 The Klamath River Compact 15 The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches 18 New Demands 19 r Sucker Listings 20 Coho Salmon Listing 21 Problems on the East Side 22 2001 Curtailment 24 The Farmers Fight Back 26 Enter President Bush 27 Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In 28 The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies 29 Vindication, Part II 32 " We hate to say we told you so, but...." 33 The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment. 34 Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners 36 Sucker Recovery Planning 36 On- the- Ground Actions 36 Environmental Water Bank 38 EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin 39 Recognition at Last 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach 40 BOR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River 40 Conclusion - The Future 41 Notes 44 Photo Credits 47 " " Executive Summary r The Klamath Project in 2005 marks its 100- year anniversary. This report summarizes the original formation of the Project, describes the enthusiastic response of the local community to the federal water project, and steps through the development of the Project in ensuing decades. The story of the pioneers, early settlers, and homesteaders who helped settle the area - veterans of both world wars - provides a sense of the character possessed by local farmers and ranchers, who had to rely on similar traits to keep their community alive when irrigation supplies were curtailed in 2001. And it explains a very important dynamic of the region, especially in recent years, where local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. The immediate future remains uncertain for Klamath Project irrigators, but their marked propensity for adapting to change will keep local farmers and ranchers in business for another 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, and developing habitat for fish and wildlife. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders beginning over a century ago to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. r A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907. • - r r The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act. " 1905 Petition from Basin residents to the Secretary of the Interior " The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works." Klamath Falls Herald & News Editorial June 20, 2004 " Agriculture plays a vital role in this state } s economy. An economic issue is one thing, for the farmers who need the resource, need the water, to be able to make a living. There fs another piece to this that ys much larger for all Oregon, and that is a cultural issue. The people here are very, very important to the future of this state. " Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, At the A Canal Fish Screen, Klamath Falls, Oregon. April 17, 2003 Introduction The year 2005 marks the one hundred- year birthday of one of the oldest federal water projects in the western United States - the Klamath Irrigation Project. As was painfully made evident in 2001, when Klamath Project supplies were curtailed for the first time in 95 years, the local community and its economy are interwoven with the health of this irrigation project. One hundred years after overwhelming national policy supported its construction, the Klamath Project continues to play a critical role in the local community. " The Klamath Project started out as a good thing, and it remains a good thing", said Tulelake farmer Rob Crawford. " When the Project was created, Klamath Basin people were meeting a national call by doing what they were supposed to do - settle the West. Today, our efforts focus on preserving our heritage, while conserving our resources." r r - r r rr At the beginning of the last century, when the local community learned that the Klamath Project would be developed, an " incredible celebration" ensued, said Paul Simmons, an attorney for the Klamath Water Users Association. " The people of the Klamath Basin basically posed a proposal to the federal government," said Simmons. " They told the government,' if you will be the plumber and the banker, we can do something good for the country.'" The federal government did just that by constructing the irrigation project. Local growers repaid the construction costs in the ensuing decades. Today, thousands of people - family farmers and ranchers, their employees, and agriculture- related businesses - make their living directly from farming and ranching in the Klamath Project. In turn, their activities support the communities of Malin, Merrill, Midland, Bonanza, Tulelake, Newell, and Klamath Falls. And, equally important, their efforts yield high- quality safe food for the country and the world. The last century has been one of massive transformation, vitality, shining hope, and deep despair for the farmers and ranchers served by the Klamath Project. The core reason for the creation of the Klamath Project - to develop water supplies and storage for irrigation uses - has been diminished as new competing demands, intended to satisfy Endangered Species Act ( ESA) and tribal trust conditions, have come on line. As a result, after perceived ESA and tribal trust obligations are met, Klamath Project irrigators and national wildlife refuges essentially get the remaining water. Because very little carryover storage is provided by Klamath Project reservoirs, the farmers now find themselves becoming increasingly reliant on incoming flows to the reservoirs, rather than the stored water that was originally developed to provide them with a reliable summertime irrigation supply. In essence, because of new laws and policies developed in the recent past, the original purpose of the Klamath Project has been somewhat lost in the shuffle. This became glaringly obvious in 2001, when for the first time in 95 years, water supplies to the Klamath Project from Upper Klamath Lake were curtailed before the irrigation season had even begun, to meet conditions set by federal fishery agencies to purportedly prevent harm to three fish species. Three and one- half years after Klamath Irrigation Project ( Project) water deliveries were terminated by the federal government, local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. Project irrigators - who farm on lands straddling the California- Oregon state line - remain apprehensive about the future certainty of water n supplies. However, the strong traits shown by the original Klamath Project settlers - self-independence, creativity, a sense of community - are still apparent, one hundred years later. Without these characteristics, the tragic events of 2001 might have become nothing more than n passing headlines in the local newspaper. Instead, a galvanized community grabbed national media and political attention by forcing the rest of the country to see that things had gone too far. r r Now, Klamath Project irrigators are preparing for the next 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for his products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, developing habitat for fish and wildlife, and improving the symbiotic relationship he has with neighboring national wildlife refuges. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. Overview The irrigable lands of the Klamath Project ( Project) are in south- central Oregon ( 62 percent) and north- central California ( 38 percent). Two main sources supply water for the Project: Upper Klamath Lake and the Klamath River on the Klamath system; and Clear Lake Reservoir, Gerber Reservoir, and Lost River on the Lost River system, are in a closed basin. The total drainage area for the Klamath Project, including the Lost River and the Klamath River watershed above Keno, Oregon is approximately 5,700 square miles. Currently, approximately 225,000 acres, many previously submerged, have been transformed into productive farmland. The crops grown within the Klamath Project area consist of grain, hay, pasture, silage, mint, potatoes, onions, other vegetables, alfalfa, strawberry rootstock, and horseradish. This list of crops represents the majority of planted acreage within the Klamath Project over the last 40 to 50 years. The cropping pattern has varied from year to year, but the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. The Bureau of Reclamation operates Clear Lake Dam, Gerber Dam, and the Lost River Diversion Dam. The Link River Dam is operated by the Pacific Power and Light Company in accordance with Project needs, or more recently also as directed by federal agencies. The Tulelake Irrigation District operates the Anderson- Rose Dam, and the Langell Valley Irrigation District operates the Malone and Miller Diversion Dams. The various irrigation districts operate the canals and pumping plants. The original Klamath Project plan included construction of facilities to divert and distribute water for irrigation of basin lands, including reclamation of Tule and Lower Klamath Lakes, and control of floods in the area. The development of the stored water provided by the Klamath Project allowed for the controlled, beneficial use of water in the Upper Basin. Currently, late summer and fall flows in the Lower Klamath River are augmented with stored water that would not be there, but for the Project. Under pre- Project conditions, natural controls existed below both Upper Klamath Lake and Lake Ewauna which stabilized lake levels except during critical droughts. Those controls were natural reefs of hard earth material in the channel and other channel constrictions. Under these pre- Project conditions, the Klamath River flowed into the Lower Klamath Lake area. A 1906 map titled " Topographic and Drainage Map, Upper and Lower Klamath Project" shows the invert of the Klamath Strait approximately the same level as the Klamath River channel bottom near Keno. In addition, the Lost River terminated at Tule Lake. These flows flooded approximately 183,000 acres within Lower Klamath and Tule Lake. In general, under pre- Project conditions, Klamath River flows downstream of Keno likely occurred after a certain water level was reached in the Klamath River and Lower Klamath Lake. An engineer speaking in the early days of the Project observed that adequate Klamath Project water supplies were not a worry. Rather - something that would be inconceivable today - dealing with too much water was more of a concern at the time: " It contains an irrigation problem, an evaporation problem, a run- off problem, any one of which is difficult in itself but all of which together form a most perplexing whole," said the engineer. " In nearly all reclamation projects water has to be conserved. In this project there is more than enough and the question of disposing of it becomes an important part." 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area r • r r r Pioneers Irrigation development began in areas now served by the Klamath Project in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Various landowners and entrepreneurs utilized water of the Klamath River and its tributaries, and undertook a wide range of visionary activities. Prime farmland, exposed around the edges of old historic Tule Lake as early as 1846 stimulated early settlers' interest in irrigation. Similarly, early settlers beginning in the early 1860s relied on " naturally irrigated" greases and forage in the Lower Klamath area for pasture and hay. The first irrigation ditch was dug by George Nurse and Joseph Conger in the bottom of Linkville Canyon in 1868. In 1878, this ditch was expanded and incorporated into the Linkville Water Ditch Company. Early pioneers Steele and Ankeny pursued a canal to deliver water to land between Klamath Falls and Merrill. Ultimately, the canal system was replaced by the A Canal and its distribution system which, operated by Klamath Irrigation District, continues to serve Project land to this day. t Adams Cut, July 18,1906. Diversion for irrigation of additional agricultural lands in the area now comprising the Klamath Project was initiated in 1882 with construction of an irrigation ditch by the Van Brimmer brothers to the land from White Lake, which was fed by the Klamath River. Private interests further developed this project by constructing the Adams Canal in 1886, which was supplied also from White Lake. Frank Adams, with assistance from the Van Brimmer r rr rr r Brothers, cut a canal through tule roots using hay- knives and a derrick, in order to improve diversion from White Lake. This canal ultimately extended to a length of 22 miles. By 1903, approximately 13,000 acres were irrigated by private interests, with the canal system in progress to deliver much more. After the 1905 authorization of the Klamath Project ( see below), many water rights were acquired to facilitate, and for the benefit of, the Klamath Project enterprise, and other agreements were made with other water right- holders. The Project utilized, extended, expanded and/ or improved previously existing systems, and included construction of other facilities. The Reclamation Act In 1902 Congress enacted the Reclamation Act, which encouraged the settlement of lands in the western states and the development of agricultural economies to feed the nation. The 1902 Act provided for federal financing of irrigation works, with the construction costs to be repaid over time by project water users. In addition, public lands were made available for homesteaders who accepted the responsibility to undertake improvements and pay the water charges. Both the Oregon and California legislatures also enacted laws making state- owned land available for use in the Klamath Project. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government In 1903, the Reclamation Service conducted investigations that led in 1904 to the first withdrawal of land by the Secretary of the Interior for developing a federal irrigation project. J. B. Lippincott, a supervising engineer from Los Angeles - who also played a key role in the City of Los Angeles' securement of Owens Valley water supplies - personally toured the Klamath Basin in June of 1904. l Although private irrigation projects were moving forward by the turn of the century, and some large- scale projects were being planned, most local citizens saw great value in a federally authorized and supported project. In 1905, local residents sent numerous petitions to Washington, D. C. requesting government irrigation assistance. By this time, a private corporation had given notion of its plans to develop water for what would ultimately become virtually the entire Klamath Project. Ironically, after Owens Valley agricultural water rights were secured by the City of Los Angeles, many of the displaced farmers moved to the Klamath Basin for the " reliable" water supplies of the Klamath Project. On their way north, they passed the first Reclamation Project in the West - the Newlands Project, near Reno, Nevada. 10 r r r r r r r " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act," stated one petitioner. In November 1904, F. H. Newell, Chief Engineer of the federal Reclamation Service, told a large audience of enthusiastic farmers in Klamath Falls that, in his judgment, they had " a great irrigation project". Early in 1905, California and Oregon had ceded certain rights in the Upper and Lower Klamath Lakes and Tule Lake to the United States. On May 1, 1904, a board of engineers made a report that served as the basis for authorization of the Project. Congress authorized the use of lands and water in accordance with the State Acts of February 1905. The Secretary of the Interior authorized development of the Project on May 15, 1905, under provisions of the Reclamation Act of 1902. Construction Begins The Interior Secretary's 1905 authorization provided for project works to drain and reclaim lake bed lands of the Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes, to store waters of the Klamath and Lost Rivers, to divert irrigation supplies, and to control flooding of the reclaimed lands. The states of Oregon and California ceded then- submerged land to the federal government for the specific purpose of having the land drained and reclaimed for irrigation use by homesteaders. The Oregon Legislature also authorized the raising and lowering of Upper Klamath Lake in connection with the Project, and allowed the use of the bed of Upper Klamath Lake for storage of water for irrigation. Construction began on the Project in 1906 with the building of the main " A" Canal. Water was first made available May 22, 1907, to the lands now known as the Main Division. 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates 11 r r r r r This initial construction was followed by the completion of Clear Lake Dam in 1910, the Lost River Diversion Dam and many of the distribution structures in 1912, and the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam in 1921. ( In 1970, a public dedication at the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam officially changed the name of the structure to Anderson- Rose Dam.) Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September 1909. Large stone in self- dumping car. A contract executed February 24, 1917, between the California- Oregon Power Company ( now the Pacific Power and Light Company) and the United States authorized the company to construct Link River Dam for the benefit of the Project and for the company's use, and also extended to the water users of the Klamath Project certain preferential power rates. The dam was completed in 1921. The contract was amended and further extended for a 50- year period on April 16, 1956. The Malone Diversion Dam on the Lost River was built in 1923 to divert water to Langell Valley. The Gerber Dam on Miller Creek was completed in 1925, and the Miller Diversion Dam was built in 1924 to divert water released from Gerber Dam. In the Great Depression, continued settlement and leasing and distribution construction resulted in a significant increase, between 1930 and 1939 of the acres receiving water directly from Project facilities. The project work undertaken during this period included the enlargement of the Lost River Diversion Channel. In 1940, construction was begun on Pumping Plant D and the Tule Lake Tunnel. By 1942, these facilities, as well as the P- Canal were completed. In 1943, the Ady pumping plant was placed in operation, and in the next two years, the Straits Drain and pumps were constructed and installed and began operation. 12 r r Homesteaders The story of the homesteaders is a source of great pride in the Klamath Project. As Tule Lake receded according to plan, the lake bottom became suitable for cultivation. The land that ultimately became homesteads was under jurisdiction of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation ( Reclamation). Homesteading and developing more productive agricultural land was the goal of the reclamation project that " reclaimed" the beds of Tule Lake and Lower Klamath Lake to expose more arable land. After Tule Lake was dewatered, a large area of public land became available for agriculture. The government would lease this land to settlers, and in fact leased as much as 50,000 acres in Tule Lake in the 1920s. Over time, most of this land was homesteaded. In 1917,180 people applied for the 37 homestead parcels the Reclamation made available on the drained wetlands and lake beds. Between 1922 and 1937 there were five more homestead offerings and hundreds of homesteaders settled in on the fertile soil of the drained lake bed. Then, World War II curtailed the homesteading process. » rri.. . r i* Ul. r- Xio. 1 wi sat Mi M MM ttw DCCA rru. ilon _ ji « _ jra .... r. r tk. M r « i t » a-. . « *^ J •* 4. MM r* T RTMtNT Or THE X ,. . tie*. . ..< L. » ii tatwJ l u i » T « 11 r ( » T « rnr » ) xfc. ir « « . •" « » ^> « • inS| « Ut !•• « . • TTDHOII. ,.> , ^% laMitk r » u. « . orumtm. _ JBKS!*! « r._: iit_ » « « » i.. bwrlac n i M la t&. MttaJOMI ( 1* nat.. J « a>. aa4 tk* a. t* JKLaUMftULJatiLJlJrt.. . . . . W l t a . is a- S.- ..- M « ri « ia*. t u . ar tka ar. ra* al « » ot af i t kav* a » « . > n » M < aatrr. • M M MMtMl. MMM t . aa n » tn4 » r ua « « . o. rol - • M it. » • « i WMM .. 1927 Homesteader Affidavit In three drawings held in 1946, 1948 and 1949, a total of 216 World War II veterans were awarded homesteads on farmland in the Tule Lake Basin, as a thank you from a grateful nation. The number of applicants was far greater than the number of available homesteads. Veterans and the community gathered to watch the names drawn from a pickle jar. Farm homesteads and crop- producing land were the goals of reclamation, and the Tule Lake Basin became a showcase for reclamation work. 13 " When I arrived to see my homestead there was nothing there, just an expanse of opportunity," recalls Carman. " No roads, no houses, no trees, just bare ground. I then pitched my tent in the corner of my homestead." My wife Eleanor was expecting our second child, but could not join me until later. A tent was not acceptable living quarters for a young woman, a small child and another baby on the way." The settlers formed organizations, elected a school board, and went about creating a society. " When I began my new life as a Tulelake homesteader there were approximately 300 homesteaders, most of them with families," said Carman. " We united and began to build schools, churches and a hospital in Klamath Falls. We started a community. We were living the American dream and our dream was achieved by hard work and dedication, and I must say we could never have done this without our wives." Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By r - The Klamath River Compact The Klamath River Compact ( Compact) is a law of both Oregon and California, consented to by and Act of Congress. In the following decade, a variety of concerns and issues led to the passage of the Compact in 1957. These included: • Differing positions regarding the extent of development that could occur under Klamath Project water rights; 15 • • The related issue of priority of Klamath Project and overall Upper Klamath Basin irrigation development as against other uses, especially generation of hydro- electric power on the mainstem Klamath River; and • Concerns over potential future out- of- basin water exports. The development of the Compact was closely tied to an application for a water right filed by the California Oregon Power Company ( Copco) in 1951. This application anticipated using water at a proposed hydroelectric project on the Klamath River known as " Big Bend No. 2." In turn, this dispute folded in past dealings, agreements and opinions related to the operation of Link River Dam on Upper Klamath Lake. The agreements made between Copco and the Bureau of Reclamation at the time of construction of Link River Dam around 1920 had been controversial. Upper Klamath Basin irrigation interests had three primary concerns: 1. Power development, as an incident of the Project's reclamation purpose, should be undertaken only by the United States; 2. That the agreements threatened Klamath Project water supplies; and 3. The agreements were inconsistent with state legislation authorizing use of Upper Klamath Lake by the United States for storage or reclamation purposes. In 1951, Copco filed an application with the Oregon Hydroelectric Commission ( OHC) for a water right for the proposed Big Bend No. 2 hydroelectric facility. The OHC at that time had authority and jurisdiction over issuance of water rights for hydropower facilities. Copco at the time of filing took the position that water was available for appropriation and Copco was entitled to a right, senior in priority, to any future Upper Klamath Basin irrigation that was not then actually developed. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River. — 16 r r • A. To facilitate and promote the orderly, integrated and comprehensive development, use, conservation and control thereof for various purposes, including, among others: the use of water for domestic purposes; the development of lands by irrigation and other means; the protection and enhancement offish, wildlife, and recreational resources; the use of water for industrial purposes and hydroelectric power production; and the use and control of water for navigation and flood prevention. B. To further intergovernmental cooperation and comity with respect to these resources and programs for their use and development and to remove causes of present and future controversies by providing ( l) for equitable distribution and use of water among the two states and the Federal Government, ( 2) for preferential rights to the use of water after the effective date of this compact for the anticipated ultimate requirements for domestic and irrigation purposes in the Upper Klamath River Basin in Oregon and California, and ( 3) for prescribed relationships between beneficial uses of water as a practicable means of accomplishing such distribution and Copco's application to the OHC, and its parallel application to the Federal Power Commission ( FPC) for a license under the Federal Power Act, were contested and opposed by the Department of the Interior and various agricultural and irrigation interests. The OHC did not act on Copco's application until 1956. The States of California and Oregon appointed commissioners to negotiate an interstate Compact. At the same time, Reclamation and local water users were negotiating a new agreement with Copco for operation of Link River Dam. It appeared that such an agreement might be concluded prior to enactment by the States of a Compact. The draft Copco contract was brought before the Compact negotiating commissioners, who sought to ensure consistency with the Compact being developed. During the course of several meetings of the Compact commissioners, terms were developed which resulted in conditions in the FPC license, the water right certificate, and a new contract for Copco's operating of Link River Dam. After preparation of various drafts, negotiation of the Compact was concluded and the legislatures of Oregon, California, as well as the United States Congress, acted in 1957. The major purposes of this compact are, with respect to the water resources of the Klamath River Basin: The Compact recognized water rights for then- existing and future needs in the Klamath Project service area. It also established a system of priority for new water rights under which Upper Basin irrigation ( up to a specified number of acres) had superior rights over water for power generation, fish or wildlife, or recreation. 17 r r r r r In short, the Klamath Compact provided guidelines to lead the competing interests of the Klamath River watershed towards a more harmonious future. For the next 40 years, the intent of the Compact was essentially fulfilled, until the early 1990s, when new pressures to address endangered fish and tribal trust demands resulted in the reemergence of fractionalized conflict into the Upper Basin. Although it had been seen as a resolution for future disputes, the Compact has been interpreted not to override the Endangered Species Act or tribal trust water rights. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches r Through the 1950s, Reclamation envisioned continued development of the Project that would have doubled its current size by including Butte Valley, California and other areas. The plans were not implemented and the Project acreage has not significantly increased since the end of the 1940s. In the following decades, the delivery system has been improved, bottlenecks eliminated, and relatively small areas have both been brought under irrigation and converted to commercial or residential development. By 1960, due in part to improvements made on Tule Lake dikes, the M Canal, the Lost River Diversion Channel, and installation of new canals in the southern portion of the Tulelake Irrigation District ( TID) service area and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant, the Project provided irrigation service to nearly 216,000 acres. Tulelake, California In the 1960' s, improvements and expansion of certain facilities led to the formation of Klamath Basin Improvement District. The Stukel and Poe Valley Pumping Plants were constructed and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant enlarged. The D, F and G- Canals were also 18 r enlarged. These facilities provided more reliable service to certain lands and also added land to the area that could receive water from Project works. In the 1970' s, Shasta View Irrigation District and Reclamation entered a $ 3.2 million contract for installation of a pressure irrigation system to replace the previous gravity- fed system. The 1972 Project history reported, ".. . the Project provided irrigation and drainage service to 223,661 acres," while the total harvested acreage "... was 193,160, down 2,329 acres from 1971." Also in the 1970' s, the Straits Drain was enlarged. Because of the Klamath Project's design and the interrelated nature of water use within it, including the use of return flows by farmers and the refuge, Project efficiency is very high. A recent assessment of Klamath Project water use efficiency2 implies that a sophisticated seasonal pattern of water use has evolved in the Klamath Project. One must understand that the Klamath Project has developed into a highly effective, highly interconnected form of water management. According to the 1998 Davids study ( see footnote), effective efficiency for the overall Project is 93 percent, making the Klamath Project one of the most efficient in the country3. New Demands For eighty years, Klamath Project irrigation supplies proved sufficient to meet the needs of the area's burgeoning farming and ranching communities. Although there were years where Mother Nature and Klamath Project storage capacity proved insufficient to meet full irrigation demands, the local community managed to stretch thin supplies and make things work. That all changed in the early 1990s, when steadily more restrictive government agency decisions made to meet Endangered Species Act ( ESA) goals began to steadily chip away at the stored water supply originally developed for irrigation. Two sucker species were listed ( 1988) as endangered and coho salmon were listed ( 1997) as threatened under the ESA. Since then, biological opinions rendered by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( for the suckers) and NOAA Fisheries ( for the coho), have increasingly emphasized the reallocation of Project water as the sole means of avoiding jeopardizing these fish. Klamath Project " operations plans" based on these biological opinions also factor in tribal trust obligations, although the nature and extent of such obligations is undefined. 2 " Klamath Project Historical Water Use Analysis", Davids Engineering for U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, October 1998. 3 For example, Tulelake Irrigation District irrigates 62,000 acres of farmland. In the 1990s, the district diverted an average of 131,000 acre- feet of water. Each year, an average of 80,000 acre- feet was pumped out of the district. Consumptive use within the district is considerably less than the amount of water diverted. The reason is the difference from the return flow from other districts and the reuse of water within the Project. 19 r Sucker Listings In the past twelve years, political and regulatory demands have affected activities at the Klamath Project. In 1988, the short nose sucker and the Lost River sucker, two species that live in Upper Klamath Lake, were designated as endangered under the ESA. Biological opinions issued by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) in 1992 and 1994 concerning operation of the Klamath Project identified actions to avoid jeopardy to suckers. When the suckers were listed, there had been no mention whatsoever of reservoir elevations as a factor affecting sucker populations. These operation elevations were adopted by Reclamation. The reservoir elevations pertaining to Upper Klamath Lake generally allowed the Project to operate for its intended purposes. However, the United States District Court of Oregon found that the reservoir elevations pertaining to Clear Lake and Gerber Reservoirs to be arbitrary and capricious, and they were invalidated in a succession of decisions4. The most compelling and prominent reason why the federal government justified listing the two sucker species as " endangered" in 1988 was an apparent abrupt downturn in both populations during the mid- 1980s. To support the decision to list the suckers, the USFWS believed the only significant remaining populations were in Upper Klamath Lake. We now know that the assumptions by the USFWS were in error and the assumed sucker population crisis never materialized. In fact, shortly after listing of the species, the populations demonstrated dramatic increases5. r Just prior to the listing of the suckers in 1988, a sport snag fishery was allowed. Before 1969, the fishery was largely unregulated with no harvest limit; in 1969 a generous bag limit of 10 fish per angler was imposed. During the early to mid- 1980s, despite the belief that the numbers offish were in a state of rapid decline, the State of Oregon still allowed the sport snag fishery. Ultimately, because of increased focus on the status of the sucker populations, Oregon eliminated the fishery in 1987. Some fisheries experts believe that if the USFWS would have properly assessed the known impacts on the suckers caused by the snag fishery and the benefits from ceasing the fishery, it very likely could have affected the ultimate listing decision. " Simply stated, the largely unregulated snag fishery slaughtered the sucker populations," said Dave Vogel, with Natural Resource Scientists, Inc. " Since the fishery was eliminated in 1987, the two sucker populations dramatically rebounded. The threat was removed and the populations increased ten- fold." 4 Bennett v Spear, 520 U. S. 154 ( 1997); 5 F. Jupp. 2d 887 ( D. Or. 1998); Bennett v. Badgely, No. 93- 6075- HO ( April 13, 1999, June 11, 1999). 5 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 20 At the time of the listings in 1988, the Klamath Project was not identified as having known adverse affects on the sucker populations, yet four years after the listing, using limited or no empirical data, the USFWS turned to the Klamath Project as their singular focus. Paradoxically, since the early 1990s, despite new beneficial empirical evidence on the improving status of the species and lack of relationship with Klamath Project operations, the USFWS became ever more centered on Project operations and increased restrictions on irrigators instead of paying attention to more obvious, fundamental problems for the species. This circumstance caused tremendous expense in dollars and time by diverting resources away from other known factors affecting the species. Coho Salmon Listing r A similar circumstance occurred with NOAA Fisheries during and after the coho salmon listing in the lower basin in the late 1990s. It cited the reasons to list coho salmon, excluding Klamath Project operations as a significant factor affecting the species. There are many other documented factors that have affected salmon runs in the Klamath River6. The USFWS in the 1980s described the most important eight factors as " most frequently referred to with regard to recent population declines" of anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Those factors are: " • Over fishing • Logging • Trinity River transbasin diversion Irrigation diversions in lower Klamath tributaries • 1964 flood • 1976- 1977 drought • Sea lion predation • Brown trout predation. However, shortly following the listing, and with no supporting data, NOAA Fisheries chose to center its attention on the Klamath Project as the principal factor affecting coho salmon. In its biological opinions, NOAA Fisheries opined that much higher than historic flow levels, released from the stored water of the Klamath Project, would be needed to protect coho salmon downstream of Iron Gate Dam. Iron Gate Dam is located forty miles away and coho are generally found further downstream and in tributaries. 7 In essence, both agencies adopted a single- minded approach of focusing on Klamath Project operations to artificially create high reservoir levels and high reservoir releases. This puzzling, similar sequence of events has yet to be explained by agency officials. 6 KWUA biologists compiled a comprehensive listing of those factors in March 1997. 7 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 21 r " ~ Commercial harvests of salmon intensified with the development of canning technology. By the early 20th century, habitat destruction combined with commercial harvests had resulted in serious salmon depletion on the Klamath River. Cobb ( 1930) estimated that the peak of the Klamath River salmon runs occurred in 1912, Snyder ( 1931) observed " in 1912 three [ canneries] operated on or near the estuary and the river was heavily fished, no limit being placed on the activities of anyone". Problems on the East Side Irrigation districts on the east side of the Klamath Project felt the first impacts from increased regulatory focus on lake levels in the early 1990s. Langell Valley Irrigation District ( LVID) and Horsefly Irrigation District ( HID) receive water from Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs. Historically, stored water was released from these two reservoirs beginning about April 15 and ending about October 15 each year. These reservoirs are not large, but they provide the essential water supply to an otherwise arid area. In an average year, Clear Lake releases about 36,000 acre- feet of irrigation water, and Gerber releases about 40,000 acre- feet. Clear Lake Reservoir contains populations of both endangered sucker species, and Gerber reservoir hosts one of the species. ESA-" threatened" bald eagles are also known to inhabit the Klamath Project area. In 1991, at the request of the USFWS, Reclamation initiated ESA consultation to assess the impact of the long- term operation of the Klamath Project on the suckers and the bald eagle. In the next year, three biological opinions were rendered by USFWS that imposed minimum levels in Clear Lake to purportedly protect the sucker populations. As a result of the minimum lake levels imposed by the draft biological opinions, and the water lost to evaporation before the USFWS allowed any water releases, the Districts were not able to make their normal irrigation releases during the 1992 water year. Neither district received its first seasonal water delivery until May 15, 1992, a full four weeks later than normal. By 22 r " that date, 12,000 acre- feet of the water that had been stored in Clear Lake in March 1992 had evaporated, an amount that represents about 60% of LVID's total yearly withdrawal from Clear Lake Reservoir. As a result of the minimum lake levels and the evaporation losses, only 2,148 acres of the 16,800 irrigable acres within the LVID received any Klamath Project water at all. The lack of water reduced both acreage farmed and per- acre yields that year. As a result of reduced yields, farm properties lost up to 70% of their assessed values in 1992. The lack of water also hurt the region's cattle ranching operations, because some ranchers could not produce pasture for their cattle. Water users who could afford the extra expense purchased feed to sustain their herds. Others had to cut back substantially on their herds or sell their cattle. Wildlife also suffered as a result of the decision to impose minimum surface levels in the reservoirs. Because the Lost River obtains most of its water from releases from Clear Lake Dam and return flows from agricultural operations, the water levels in the Lost River and its tributaries were exceedingly low in 1992. As a direct result, wildlife relying on Lost River water, including deer, sandhill cranes, hawks, turtles, frogs, ducks, and more, were all noticeably scarce that year. On July 22, 1992, USFWS finally issued its final biological opinion on the long- term operations of the Klamath Project. While the 1992 opinion conceded that " little" was known about Gerber Reservoir's shortnose sucker population, the opinion reported " good numbers" of these fish and noted that the Gerber sucker population appeared to be successfully reproducing, despite the lowered lake levels of the early 1990s. Despite this undisputed evidence, the 1992 biological opinion concluded that continuing to operate the Project, including Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs, in its historic manner was likely to jeopardize the continued existence of both sucker fish species. Reclamation accepted the USFWS recommendations for continued adherence to minimum lake levels, prompting the Districts and two of the individual farmers to sue the federal agencies. Even after the federal district court entered judgment invalidating the jeopardy conclusions, USFWS defied this judgment, and the districts were forced to bring several additional motions to enforce the Court's rulings. At each stage of the legal proceedings, the districts prevailed, based largely on the fact that USFWS had no scientific evidence to justify its actions. When the United States Supreme Court considered the Districts' case against the USFWS, the Court described the purpose of the ESA's science requirement as follows: The obvious purpose of the requirement that each agency " use the best available scientific and commercial data available" is to ensure that the ESA not be implemented haphazardly, on the basis of speculation or surmise. While this no doubt serves to advance the ESA's overall goal -., of species preservation, we think it readily apparent that another objective ( if not indeed the 23 primary one) is to avoid needless economic dislocation produced by agency officials zealously but unintelligently pursuing their environmental objectives. Now, ten years later, HID and LVID enjoy positive relationships with USFWS and Reclamation. However, the problems they suffered in the early 1990s were a harbinger of things to come for other Klamath Project irrigators shortly after the turn of the new century. 2001 Curtailment The net result of increasing restrictions on other Klamath Project water users was fully realized on April 6, 2001, when Reclamation announced its water allocation for the Project after U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Fisheries officials finalized the biological opinions ( BOs) for project operations in a critically dry year. Based on those regulatory actions, Reclamation announced that - for the first time in Project's 95- year history - no water would be available from Upper Klamath Lake to supply Project irrigators. No water for most farmers April 6, 2001 Local Headlines The resulting impacts to the local community were immediate and far- reaching. Even with a later release of a small percentage of needed water over a 30- day period in July and August, thousands of acres of valuable farmland were left without water. In addition to harming those property owners, managers, and workers, also imparted an economic " ripple" effect through the broader community. The wildlife benefits provided by those farms - particularly the food provided for area waterfowl - were also lost with the water. 24 Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls - 2001 The local farming community is still reeling from the April 6, 2001 decision, and severe business losses echoed the hardship endured by farmers and farm employees. As farmers and laborers attempted to deal with the loss of jobs, a year's income, and in some cases the land itself, referrals for mental health counseling increased dramatically. The Tulelake school district lost around 50 students after farm families sold their land and moved on. Students were under stress, understandably confused as to why three species of fish were more important than their lifelong homes. Tragically, one Hispanic family had started out as field workers, and after a lifetime of piecework under the sun had saved enough to buy their own farm. They lost everything as a direct result of the irrigation cutofi . Veteran homesteaders, who fifty years ago were promised reliable water, felt betrayed by the same government, who chose to provide water to fish instead of farmers in 2001. " I want the government to honor the contract that promised me and my heirs water rights forever," said Jess Prosser, a World War II veteran and Tulelake homesteader, in 2001, after water supplies were cut. " This land is our life. Farmers and fish have survived previous drought years when the farmers voluntarily cut back on water consumption. The Klamath Project was designed to withstand drought conditions, and right now there is more than ample water for agriculture and fish. The government took 100% of the water for fish, disregarding farmers, ranchers, families and numerous other species of wildlife in the Klamath Basin. This is a man- made disaster. This will be the end of a way of life and an entire community." 1 " Calamity in Klamath", Blake Hurst. The American Enterprise magazine. October / November 2002, pp 28- 29. 25 Cemeteries Went Dry in 2001 The Farmers Fight Back The local community did not take the decision lying down. Employing the ingenuity and perseverance that allowed them to successfully create brand new communities over the past century, local farmers, ranchers, elected officials and business leaders organized a " bucket brigade" to dramatize their plight, drawing nearly 20,000 sympathizers to the streets of Klamath Falls. A web site and cell phone calling tree were set up, and farmers, who only a year before were working their fields, suddenly became knowledgeable about the media. Civil disobedience, in the form of peaceful protests at the A Canal headgates, drew television crews from throughout the Pacific Northwest. The 2001 Klamath Basin crisis became the topic of front- page coverage and sympathetic editorials in publications like Time magazine, the Los Angeles Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times. Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family, Summer 2001. In part because of the tremendous media and political attention generated by the local community, a congressional field hearing was held in the summer of 2001 at the Klamath County fairgrounds, which drew the largest audience to ever attend such a hearing in the nation's history. Much of the focus was on the decision- making and processes that led to the fishery agencies' recommendation to curtail irrigation supplies. 26 In 2001, a desperate community essentially was looked in the eye and told, " sorry, we know it may hurt, but ' the science' is compelling and requires you to go without water." This was wrong, literally, and as a matter of policy. For whatever reason, the agencies had become too close to, and too much a part of, the side- taking that had come to dominate issues surrounding the Klamath Project. For this reason alone, outside review was needed. Nearly 20,000 marchers support the Klamath Bucket Brigade, May 2001. Prayer / protest at the A Canal headgates, 2001. Elected officials - from county commissioners and supervisors, to state representatives and senators, to U. S. Senators and Representatives, continued the fight, and ultimately, later in 2001, the U. S. Secretary of the Interior, Gale Norton, directed the National Academy of Sciences to conduct an independent peer- review of the agency decision to curtail irrigation supplies. Also, in early 2002, President Bush himself took a personal interest in the plight of the Klamath Project irrigator. Enter President Bush In January 2002, just months after the federal government curtailed Klamath Project irrigation deliveries for the first time in 97 years, Sen. Gordon Smith and Rep. Greg Walden met the president in southern California, boarded Air Force One, and took a slight detour over the Basin on their way to a Portland high school where the Mr. Bush was to deliver a speech. On the flight north, the president was briefed on the 2001 Klamath water crisis. When he entered the gymnasium at Park Rose High School, he opened his speech up with a pledge to help both the farmers and the fish of the Klamath Basin. 27 Compassion: George W. Bush Meets and Greets Klamath Basin Residents in Redmond, Oregon, 2003. In the ensuing two years, President Bush has followed through with his pledge by establishing a Klamath Basin cabinet- level working group, promoting sound and independent peer-reviewed science, and making funding of Klamath River water and environmental projects a priority. Enacted and requested Bush Administration funding in the Klamath River watershed for fiscal years 2003- 2005 exceeds $ 260 million dollars, according to a federal government summary. This includes $ 105 million proposed by the administration for Klamath Basin federal funding in the Fiscal Year 2005 budget. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In The Klamath Water Users Association and others in the community in 2001 strongly advocated for an independent peer review of the 2001 fishery agency biological opinions, the underlying science, and the related overall scientific process. In early 2002, an interim report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released. This represented a critical step towards ensuring proper assessment and maintenance of healthy fish populations. The panel successfully completed an objective, unbiased initial review of the information used by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) and NOAA Fisheries to formulate the agencies' two 2001 Biological Opinions ( BOs). The interim NRC report concluded that there was insufficient scientific evidence used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in 2001 to support changing the recent historical water operations of the Klamath Project. Specifically, the NRC interim report concluded that higher or lower than recent historical lake levels or Klamath 28 rr r rrr r r r River flows were not scientifically justified based on the available information used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. Despite varying interpretations of the data used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in the BOs, it is especially noteworthy that the NRC panel achieved consensus on the Interim Report's conclusions for not just one, but both BOs. The report's conclusions were adequately supported by the available evidence and analyses used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. It was particularly evident that the NRC Committee report was fair and impartial, essential attributes that were sorely lacking in Klamath basin issues to date. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies The release of the NRC Committee's interim report in early 2002 unleashed a barrage of criticism from environmental activists and their allies in academia and government agencies. Two Oregon State University professors, supporters of the high lake level requirements that contributed to the 2001 water curtailment, submitted a formal " rebuttal" of the interim report to a fisheries journal. The " rebuttal" ( so labeled when transmitted by its authors) and other media developments caused the Klamath Project community to fear that the NRC work would be diluted. The local community simply did not have the resources or the networks of contacts to continually counter the anti- Klamath Project messages that were being sent to the public and policymakers, primarily by outside environmental activist organizations. The NRC Committee's interim report triggered what grew to be an extraordinary, and obviously coordinated, attack on the Klamath Project by these interests. Media outlets seemingly relish a good western fight, and many uncritically reprinted a good deal of information that was not fair to Klamath Basin irrigators. The scrutiny on the Klamath Project and the Bush Administration's reliance on the NRC interim report intensified further that fall, when 33,000 salmon died on the lower Klamath River. Immediately after the unfortunate die- off, vocal critics of Project operations and Bush Administration environmental policy used the event to renew attacks on irrigated agriculture in the Klamath Basin. Even though the fish die- off occurred 200 miles downstream from the Project, at a location below the confluence of the main stem Klamath River and the Trinity River, traditional advocates for higher river flows quickly assigned blame to Klamath Project farmers and ranchers. Some of these same interests and others in the environmental community even attempted to directly link the fish die- off to alleged political maneuvering orchestrated by senior policy officials in the Bush Administration. As a result, presidential hopeful Senator John Kerry called on the U. S. Interior Department's Inspector General to look into whether " political pressure from the White House is intimidating staff and influencing policy" in Klamath River management decisions. Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney's report - released in March 2004- found " no evidence of political influence affecting the decisions pertaining to the water in the Klamath Project." 29 r r r r r r Eugene Register- Guard Why the salmon died: Pattern points to Bush administration policies A Register- Guard Editorial A 2002 Editorial Headline Between 2002- 2004, the fish die- off was effectively spun by Klamath Project critics to drive a dizzying array of attacks aimed at the Bush Administration and federal agencies responsible for Klamath Project management. Well- coordinated media coverage surrounding several acts of litigation and proposed federal legislation in the two years since the fish die- off have effectively imprinted the environmentalists' message in the minds of many: • " Fish need water"; • " Klamath Project farmers were denied water in 2001 and no fish died in the Klamath River"; • " Klamath Project farmers received full supplies in 2002, and 33,000 salmon died in the river"; • " The Bush Administration sacrificed fish for the benefit of farmers." The claims discussed above are just a few of the more prominent arguments that Klamath Project critics have employed to justify a series of actions undertaken in the wake of the public release of the interim NRC Committee report, including the following: • Federal legislation that would finalize a controversial and flawed draft Klamath River flow report. • Unsuccessful federal legislation that would restrict the ability of local lease land farmers to grow row crops. • Litigation ( PCFFA v. USBR) that, if successful, would have likely shut down Klamath Project operations in 2003. • Public protests staged by tribal members and environmentalists in Klamath Falls in 2002 and in Sacramento in 2003. 30 Listing of the Klamath River as the third most endangered waterway in the country by American Rivers, a Washington, D. C. - based activist group. An unsuccessful lawsuit filed by environmental groups against NOAA Fisheries to hasten the potential ESA listing of the green sturgeon. The release of an Oregon Natural Resources Council ( ONRC) report, which contends that voluntary buyouts of willing sellers within the Project " remain the most politically responsible, socially just, and economically viable method" to address power and ecological challenges. A subsequent letter sent by ONRC to Project landowners, tempting them with the promise of a buyout that would provide them with 2 '/ z times the fair market value of their land. Numerous editorials, journal articles and magazine stories that clearly accept the arguments made by Project critics. However, others did not jump so quickly on to the " blame game bandwagon." During late summer and early fall of 2002, Dave Vogel, a fisheries biologist with 28 years of experience, conducted a field investigation to assess water temperatures in the main stem Klamath River. - Vogel noted that main stem water temperatures in the Klamath River were measured hourly just prior to and during the fall- run Chinook salmon migration season. He found that water temperatures in the upper Klarnath River downstream of Iron Gate Dam during September 2002 were unsuitable for adult salmon, a finding that was similar to that of previous studies. As expected, a normal seasonal cooling trend at the end of September and early October provided the moderating influence lowering Klamath River temperatures to tolerable levels for salmon. Vogel also found that large numbers of salmon entered the lower Klamath River earlier than usual and were exposed to two dramatic and uncharacteristic cooling and warming conditions causing disease outbreak from warm water and crowded conditions. The combination of these factors was chronically and cumulatively stressful to fish and is probably the most plausible reason for the fish die- off. " In my opinion, the best available scientific data and information indicate that the continued operation and maintenance of historical flows at Iron Gate Dam will not jeopardize coho salmon," said Vogel in March 2003. " Furthermore, in my opinion the operations of Iron Gate Dam during the summer and fall of 2002 did not cause and could not have prevented the fish die- off in the lower Klarnath River." Unfortunately, scant media coverage was afforded to Vogel's findings. Outside of the Upper Basin, the press made no mention of the fact that, despite the die- off, the numbers of fish returning to Iron Gate hatchery on the Klamath River were the third highest in 40 years. The media also largely ignored a similar finding made in October 2003 by the National Research Council Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fish in the Klamath Basin. In its final report, the Committee failed to find a linkage between the operation of the Klamath Project and the fish die- off, and questioned whether changes federal project operations at the time would have prevented it. Clearly, the hard working landowners of the Upper Klamath Basin have been on the receiving end of a cruel and long- distance war being waged by environmental activists who assert that the federal water project - representing only 2 percent of the total land base of the Klamath River watershed, and consuming only 3- 4 percent of the average annual flows to the Pacific Ocean - is somehow responsible for all of the environmental woes of the river system. These advocates are intent on portraying the Klamath Basin as a poster child to help fuel outside efforts that are focused on litigating, legislating and publicly condemning the local community for doing what it has done for 98 of the last 99 years - irrigating farm and ranch land. r r r r These interests know that federal water projects are an easy target of litigation, since federal environmental and clean water laws govern project operations. The lawsuits are often aimed at federal entities - such as the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation and fishery agencies - which, on the surface, give the appearance that the environmental plaintiffs are simply interested in correcting errors made by some non- descript governmental agency. The true intended target of these actions, however, ultimately becomes the landowners and water users who fall under the management jurisdiction of the federal agencies. It is the farmers and ranchers that pay the price of litigation through altered management practices, increased uncertainty, and escalating legal expenses to defend their interests. For the most part, the potentially damaging effects these actions could cause family farmers and ranchers have been deflected. However, local water users are concerned that permanent Klamath River policy will be influenced by misinformation in the future. Vindication, Part II After an 18- month barrage of anti- Klamath Project attacks in the media and courtrooms, the long- awaited final report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released in October 2003. The final NRC report is important to local farmers and ranchers for several key reasons: 1. The report clearly indicated that recovery of endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath Basin cannot be achieved by actions that are exclusively or primarily focused on operation of the Klamath Project. 2. The committee also reconfirmed its findings from the earlier interim report that found no evidence of a causal connection between Upper Klamath Lake water levels and sucker health, or that higher flows on the Klamath River mainstem help coho salmon. 3. The NRC committee did not accept arguments that the operation of the Klamath Project caused the 2002 fish die- off or that changes in the operation of the Project at p the time would have prevented it. 32 r ~ r r Despite the final conclusions, some environmentalists and many in the media continue to maintain the sensational but unsupported position that the Klamath Project was responsible for the 2002 fish mortality that occurred over 200 miles from the Klamath Project. The final NRC report was consistent with what Upper Basin interests have been saying for years: the Klamath Project cannot solely bear the burden for species recovery in this basin. A watershed- wide approach to species recovery - one that addresses all the stressors to fish - is essential to improving the environment and saving the local economy. Local water users shared the NRC report's vision that increased knowledge, improved management, and cohesive community action would promote recovery of the fishes. At the same time, they remained extremely concerned that the " business as usual" approach - regulation of the Klamath Project - would remain the dominant aspect of ESA biological opinions and advocacy of Project opponents. For reasons now clearly evident, the irrigators' original recommendation for an outside technical review of the ESA activities in the Klamath basin by an objective group such as the r National Academy of Sciences back in 1993 ( KWUA 1993) was an important first step. The benefits of an ESA peer review are obvious after reading the NRC's final report. " We are beginning to see signs of progress with ESA activities in the basin," said Dave Vogel, nearly one year after the release of the final NRC Committee report. " However, alarmingly, there are some individuals within the agencies that are in a state of denial over the findings and conclusions of the NRC's report. Despite the NRC's final report, the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries still have too much focus on the Klamath Project and not enough emphasis on a watershed- wide approach." Other experts agree. " We found that the prevailing scientific sentiment in the basin-' More water is better for fish'- was the wrong approach," NRC Committee member Jeffrey Mount told California Farmer magazine in December 2003, two months after the final NRC report was released. " We hate to say we told you so, but...." It is very important to note that many of the most pertinent findings, conclusions, and r recommendations of the NRC Klamath Committee were not new to the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries. Dave Vogel elaborated on this in testimony he provided to the House Resources Committee at a field hearing held in Klamath Falls in June 2004. " The NRC final report advocates a watershed approach, peer review, greater stakeholder involvement, oversight of agency actions, focus on factors other than the Klamath Project 33 r operations, reduction of resource conflicts, and incorporation of the principles of adaptive management toward species recovery," said Vogel. " Over the past decade, local water users and their allies forwarded much of the same and similar technical findings and recommendations to those two agencies, but were mainly ignored. Additionally, the NRC's major conclusion that there is insufficient scientific justification for high reservoir levels and high instream flows was always prominent in water users' technical comments on the agencies' biological opinions during the past decade." r " The NRC Klamath Committee's final report was an outstanding effort and the product must serve as a catalyst to advance balanced natural resource management in the basin," Vogel said. " If federal agencies meaningfully incorporate many of the NRC's principal findings, conclusions, and recommendations, we fully expect positive results to the species recovery and reduced resource conflicts. We should use the momentum of the NRC's final report to guide recovery efforts and watershed improvements. However, if the agencies do not take this pro- active approach, we could again return to the disaster that transpired in 2001." • Dr. Mount agrees. r " For too long, Klamath managers have relied on fixing their problems by turning only one knob- the knob of raising and lowering water levels in Upper Klamath Lake and the river," said Mount, a University of California professor. " They need to take new approaches that support multiple populations offish and healthy ecosystems throughout the watershed," he said. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment The U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's final 10- year Biological Assessment for Klamath Project 2002- 2012 operations properly incorporated the findings of the 2002 interim National Research Council's ( NRC) interim report, and generally captured the essence of the " watershed- wide" philosophy endorsed in the final 2003 NRC report. Unfortunately, the fishery agency biological opinions ( BOs) do not. Despite the so- called ecosystem approach to species recovery advocated by the USFWS and NMFS, their actions in the Klamath basin over the past decade amply demonstrates that the exact opposite took place. They focused on: 1) a single- species approach; and 2) Klamath Project operations. The USFWS opinion continues to perpetuate the questionable assumption that lake level management is the principle mechanism affecting sucker survival in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). The NOAA Fisheries jeopardy decision similarly continues to place high emphasis on downstream flows. The stored water developed for Klamath Project farmers continues to be reallocated to meet the artificial demands set by agency biologists. 34 r The combined - and apparently, unanticipated - impacts placed on the Upper Basin community from the application of the two opinions are unacceptable. On June 25th, 2003, local irrigators were told by Reclamation officials that UKL diversions to the Project would be shut down for a minimum of 5 days - in the middle of the growing season. By day's end, reason prevailed: the agencies backed off their initial request9 and instead, Reclamation notified farmers to continue their efforts to reduce diversions from the lake. This was driven by one apparent agency mission: to avoid dropping UKL one inch below a lake level requirement established by the USFWS. Rancher Gary Wright learns that the Klamath Project would be shut down in the middle of the irrigation season, June 25, 2003. Common sense prevailed, and later in the day, Reclamation rescinded its earlier decision. In addition to the continued uncertainty irrigators face, the opinions are generating new, unanticipated impacts to the community. In the past 40 to 50 years, while the cropping pattern in the Klamath Project has varied from year to year, the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. On the other hand, the 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon established the river flow schedule and an " environmental water bank" - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. The result: stored water that has flowed to farms, ranches and the refuges for nearly 100 years is now sent downstream at such high levels, that groundwater pumped from the Lost River basin is being used to supplement the resulting " coho salmon demand" in the Klamath River. 9 Improved coordination between USFWS managers and their Reclamation counterparts in Klamath Falls and Sacramento was one important reason for the positive corrective action that was taken. 35 It is not the farmers who have imposed new water demands that, in essence, have made groundwater the default supplemental supply to the Klamath Project. It is the opinions of agency fishery biologists who have fundamentally altered how this century- old water project operates, and who have apparently failed to anticipate the resulting impacts to the community. While Reclamation in 2002 sharply disagreed with the findings of both fishery agency biological opinions, it is not yet clear how consultation will be reinitiated to create a new operations plan. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners Since the early 1990s, and particularly in the new millennium, local water users - both within the Klamath Project and those who farm in upstream areas north of Upper Klamath Lake - have taken proactive steps to protect and enhance water supplies, enhance the environment, r and stabilize the agricultural economy. Farmers and ranchers in the Klamath Project have consistently supported restoration actions to improve habitat for the basin's fish and wildlife species. Sucker Recovery Planning KWUA in 1993 published the Initial Ecosystem Restoration Plan - the first ecosystem- based, scientifically valid planning document on Klamath Basin restoration. The plan placed particular emphasis on real, on- the- ground projects to recover endangered species. It was widely recognized as a meaningful assessment of necessary restoration activities. KWUA in 2001 reiterated its previous call with the release of a report entitled Protecting the Beneficial Uses of Upper Klamath Lake: A Plan to Accelerate Recovery of the Lost River and Shortnose Suckers. The 2001 report provided timelines and budgets for dozens of projects that could provide real benefits. Regrettably, until the past three years, there has been failure to effectively implement most of the on- the- ground activities proposed by KWUA. On- the- Ground Actions Local agricultural and business leaders have dedicated thousands of volunteer hours and have spent millions of dollars in the past ten years to participate in processes associated with environmental restoration, Klamath Basin water rights adjudication, dispute resolution, drought- proofing, and water supply enhancement. Most impressive, however, is the multitude of actions undertaken on- the- ground: • Local efforts to assist National Wildlife Refuges ( e. g. " Walking Wetlands") • Ecosystem Enhancement and Sucker Recovery Efforts in the Upper Basin • Fish Passage Improvement Projects • Wildlife Enhancement and Wetland Restoration Efforts • Local Efforts to Improve Water Quality 36 • Power Resource Development • Efforts to Improve Klamath Project Water Supply Reliability and Water Use Efficiency Many of these efforts were driven by an initial desire to implement meaningful restoration actions intended to provide some sort of mitigation " credit" that could be applied towards reducing the burden carried by Klamath Project irrigators to " protect" threatened and endangered fish species. For many years, that credit was not recognized. For example, Federal agencies or non- profit conservation groups have acquired over 25,000 acres of farmland in the Upper Klamath Basin for habitat purposes. Each time the agencies sought additional land, they promised that each acquisition would provide environmental benefits, reducing pressure on the Klamath Project's family farmers and ranchers. Those promises have not materialized, and Project irrigation water still remains the sole regulatory tool used to address federal ESA objectives for endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath River watershed. • TEAMWORK A broad range of partners include U. S. Fish and Wildlife, Bureau of Reclamation. CalOre Wetlands. Tulelake Growers Association, Audubon Society. Tulelake Irrigation District, California Waterfowl Association. University of California. Ducks Unlimited. Klamath Water Users Association. USDA NRCS. Leaseland Advisory Council, and numerous volunteer organizations. A page from the " Refuge" section of the tule- Iake. com website. Environmental Water Bank KWUA in early March 2003 announced it would support, and assist the Department of Interior in the implementation of, a Klamath Project Pilot Environmental Water Bank in 2003 to provide over 50,000 acre- feet of additional water for environmental purposes. Reclamation's 10- year Biological Assessment ( BA) developed in February 2002 proposed an environmental water bank through which willing buyers and sellers will provide additional water supplies for fish and wildlife purposes and to enhance tribal trust resources. The 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon firmly established the river flow schedule and the water bank - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. 37 The coho biological opinion's rigid water bank schedule, which steps up the magnitude of the bank for the first four years, regardless of actual hydrology, is difficult to justify. This type of water bank does not reflect the intent of either the proposal put forth by KWUA in 2002 ( see below), or the original USBR biological assessment, which proposed implementation of a water bank in drier years, not every year. Water users committed to pursue developing a water bank with Reclamation in January 2002. At that time, KWUA was asked by Reclamation to develop a Project- wide water bank to assist with meeting environmental water demands in drier years. KWUA's Water Bank and Supply Enhancement Committee held over 30 meetings in 2002- 03 to develop the 65- page report/ proposal for a long- term water bank, which differs substantially from the pilot water bank proposed by Reclamation this past year. Certainty of water supplies is a key principle imbedded in KWUA's long- term water bank proposal. Local water users insist that, in exchange for voluntary participation in a Project water bank - which would be used to " fund" environmental water needs - 100% of the irrigation demand for remaining Project acreage will be satisfied, season- long. Water users further believe that the water bank cannot be viewed as a stand- alone element. While Reclamation's 2003 and 2004 pilot programs did not closely resemble KWUA's vision for a long- term bank, water users are hopeful that Reclamation and Interior will look to the irrigators' document to complete its 10- year water bank proposal. EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin The federal government in 2003 released $ 7 million in conservation funding to the Klamath Basin. This sum represents a portion of the $ 50 million in funding earmarked for the Basin in the 2002 Farm Bill under the Environmental Quality Incentives Program ( EQIP). KWUA was instrumental in securing these provisions during Farm Bill negotiations. In 2004, Interior Secretary Norton included another $ 12 million for this program in the president's 2005 budget request. The funds provided cost- share payments to farmers and ranchers to employ water conservation measures. Over 800 Klamath Basin landowners have applied to participate in this program, despite the requirement that they pay 25% of the costs. This shows remarkable commitment by local irrigators to do the right thing, despite the fact that many of these landowners are still recovering from the financial impacts of the 2001 water curtailment. Recognition at Last In the past year, local irrigators have finally begun to get the recognition - if not the actual regulatory relief- they deserve for their proactive efforts. To wit: • KWUA was awarded the 2003 " Leadership in Conservation" award by the Oregon Department of Agriculture; • KWUA in 2004 was honored on the steps of the Oregon state capitol for " exemplifying the spirit" of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds; 38 Tulelake Irrigation District in January 2004 received the F. Gordon Johnston award for its innovative canal lining project completed near Newell; and U. S. Secretary of Agriculture Ann Veneman and NRCS chief Bruce Knight in 2004 recognized local rancher Mike Byrne for his leadership in conservation. NRCS Chief Bruce Knight ( left) with 2004 Excellence in Conservation Award winner Mike Byrne. It is clear that local irrigators have not been idle in the past ten years. Their efforts to improve their environment are all the more impressive when one considers that the uncertainty and difficulty associated with keeping their farming operations profitable have not diminished. Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, Congressman Greg Walden and KWUA Executive Director Dan Keppen at the new A Canal Headgates, April 2003. 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach Klamath Project water users in October 2004 enthusiastically greeted the announcement that the states of California and Oregon and the Bush Administration had signed the historic " Klamath River Watershed Coordination Agreement". The agreement - signed by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, and four of President Bush's cabinet level secretaries - underscored the commitment of these parties to solve the fisheries challenges of the Klamath River on a watershed - wide basis. The state- federal Klamath agreement reflects the philosophy embedded in both the Klamath River Basin Compact and the 2003 NRC Klamath report, which confirmed that Klamath Basin issues must be dealt with in an integrated and comprehensive way for a lasting solution of the challenges facing the basin. The NRC committee report makes clear that merely closing the spigot on the Klamath Project will not solve the problems facing Klamath Basin fisheries, and that strategy obviously was disastrous for farming and ranching communities. The coordination agreement recognizes that message and promotes a unified effort that many water users believe is much needed. An important part of this agreement is that it supports the Conservation Implementation Program ( CIP), a work in progress proposed by federal agencies to coordinate management actions in the Klamath River watershed. The CIP would meld a scientific advisory body, local communities, and resource agencies to identify, coordinate and resolve the Basin's critical water quality, water quantity and fish and wildlife restoration challenges. KWUA is working with other producer groups and local government to develop guidelines that make the CIP workable and acceptable to Klamath Basin communities. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River Reclamation in late 2004 finalized a draft study intended to provide a glimpse at how the Klamath River might have looked before the Klamath Project was built. The report shows that- especially in drier years - historic flows in the Klamath River near Keno, Oregon dwindled to a mere trickle. The report provides compelling evidence that supports claims made by local residents for decades - the stored water provided by the Klamath Project may actually provide more flows downriver than what would have flowed before the Project was built. This is primarily due to the developed storage and the fact that farmlands that were once under water now use less water than what was historically lost to consumptive and evaporative use of the former marshes. 40 Ufric; lfftid Kur , Jhm% tr Excerpt from Draft BOR Flow Study 41 Conclusion - The Future To solve the problems of the Klamath River watershed, we need a coordinated management program that spans two states in a watershed that is characterized by a strong federal presence. Competition among stakeholder groups - including four tribes, agricultural water users, and countless environmental groups - is fierce. In order to be successful, we need to better understand the real state of the watershed by developing the facts and best possible information to make the best possible decisions. Collaborations need to replace ideological advocacies; watershed wide approaches need to replace regionalism; and honest exchanges of information need to displace environmental sensationalism. A June 20, 2004 editorial published by the Klamath Falls Herald & News provides an apt glimpse of what the future might bring to the Klamath irrigation community and how the Klamath Water Users Association will address that future: Recently, the Klamath Water Users Association got an award for not using water, which is not a contradiction in terms at all. It's a matter of doing what has to be done to keep farming and ranching alive in the Klamath Basin. The award was from the state of Oregon and recognized the water users' efforts in behalf of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. It was presented to the group in a ceremony on the steps of the Capitol with leaders such as Gov. Ted Kulongoski and the Democratic and Republican leaders of the Legislature participating. The award recognizes a welter of actions in the Basin, some using federal and state dollars and some not, many aimed at making agricultural operations more efficient water users. Some have given agriculture interests heartache, such as the conversion of farmlands to wetlands - the water users cite 24,000 acres in the past decade, equal to more than a tenth of the Klamath Reclamation Project. Nevertheless, it's clear that farmers and ranchers have recognized their predicament given the pressure of the Endangered Species Act and competition for water from Indian tribes upstream and down. Agriculture is in the midst of a struggle that could take decades yet to play out, and its defenders are determined that they will survive. This is a longer- term version of the creativity they showed in 2001, when, faced with imminent ruin, they responded with skill and imagination in a political protest that brought national attention and saved Basin agriculture to fight another day. The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works. ~ 42 Whatever alternate vision exists involves blowing away towns such as Merrill Malin and Tulelake and shriveling the city ofKlamath Falls. It involves throwing lots of people off the land, and itfs not acceptable. This is not the first such award, and won't be the last. It is a signal of a widening recognition in Oregon and the nation that farmers and ranchers will do good things here to make sure that they can continue in their necessary and honorable work. The Klamath Water Users Association, with the talents and support of the community, will continue to address the resource needs of its constituency in a proactive and creative manner. The KWUA has shown itself to be steadfast and able in protecting water users while being receptive to innovative and reasonable solutions. Our irrigating communities, through the continued efforts of the KWUA, will always be persistent and adaptable representatives of our American heritage. The " future".. . bring it on, we can handle it. r Father and daughter ride to the headgates, summer 2001. 43 Notes Information sources used in the preceding report sections are further described below. Overview The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report. Pioneers The Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service 1913 report entitled " History of the Klamath Project. Oregon- California. From May 1, 1903 to December 13, 1912", written by I. S. Voorhees, contains detailed accounting of early irrigation works in the Upper Klamath Basin. Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government *— The Voorhees document, noted above, details this issue. Construction Begins The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Basin Area Office also provided factual data on the Klamath Project. Homesteaders The Journal of the Modoc County Historical Society, No. 18- 1996, focuses exclusively on twentieth century development of the Tule Lake area. Betty Lou Byrne- Shirely's " The Reclamation of Tule Lake" and the February 1947 Reclamation Era article " Gold Mine in the Sky", both included in the Modoc County historical journal, served as sources for the homesteader information. Quotes made by Dave Carman, a World War II veteran Tule Lake homesteader, were pulled from his testimony submitted at a House Resources Committee field hearing in Klamath Falls in June 2004. The Klamath River Compact The source for much of this information regarding development of the Compact comes from the affidavit and testimony of Stephen R. Wee, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project water rights and related issues on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040049, before the Office of Administrative 44 - r Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). The conclusion of this section contains the actual purposes of the Compact, as identified in Article I of that document. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. New Demands Legal documents prepared by the Klamath Water Users Association attorney - Paul Simmons, of Somach, Simmons & Dunn - provide much of the background information regarding the steadily increasing regulations faced by Project irrigators, starting in the 1990s. Specifically, the plaintiffs' memorandum of points and authorities in support of motion for preliminary injunction ( Kandra et al v. United States of America) was relied upon. Also, David Vogel's testimony before the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Resources oversight field hearing in June 2004 provides an excellent treatise on the real reasons for the decline of suckers in the Upper Klamath Basin. The Klamath Water Users Association previously developed the section that assesses stressors to coho salmon during the 1990s. Problems on the East Side This section derives from an excellent letter ( dated July 28, 2004) prepared by Best Best & Krieger on behalf of Horsefly Irrigation District and Langell Valley Irrigation District. The letter was submitted to the U. S. House of Representatives Resources Committee in connection with a congressional field hearing held in Klamath Falls in July 2004. 2001 Curtailment Of the numerous media accounts of the 2001 water cutoff, I believe Blake Hurst's piece " Calamity in Klamath", which originally was published in The American Enterprise magazine in late 2002, is the best. I have borrowed liberally from Mr. Hurst, particularly his assessment of the impacts to the community of Tulelake, California. Jess Prosser's comments were originally printed in Range Magazine in 2001. The Farmers Fight Back The comments regarding the " desperate community" were pulled from an outstanding paper presented by Paul Simmons at the American Bar Association Environmental Section Fall 2004 Meeting. 45 Enter President Bush I was in the audience when President Bush made his speech in Portland. After the president's speech, I met Congressman Greg Walden for the first time; he conveyed to me some of the details of the president's flight over the Klamath Basin earlier in the day. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In This section was derived from press statements developed by KWUA in early 2002. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies Most of this section derives from personal experience, and the latter part was pulled directly from an opinion piece I was asked to write for a Boise, Idaho newspaper at the request of Idaho water users who were also being attacked by some of the same activists engaged in Klamath issues. Vindication, Part II / " We hate to say we told you so, but...." Much of this information originates in Dave Vogel's written testimony that he submitted to the House Resources Committee in June 2004. After more than a decade of professional and sometimes, personal criticism by agency and tribal biologists, the final NRC Report perhaps vindicated Dave Vogel more than anyone else. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment This section was written based on personal experience of the author. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners We refer you to www. kwua. org and a 45- page document entitled Summary of Recent and Proposed Environmental Restoration and Water Conservation Efforts Undertaken by Klamath Water Users and Basin Landowners for further information on this topic. 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach This perspective comes from KWUA assessments and press releases. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River The USBR study is incredibly important, because, for the first time, it provides a numerical modeling assessment of the conditions that likely existed on the Upper Klamath River before Europeans settled the area. Prior to this effort, assertions that flow conditions in the river were likely lower than the present could only be backed up by anecdotal ( albeit accurate) reports and incomplete flow studies. Conclusion - The Future The June 20, 2004 Herald & News editorial on recent water user efforts provided a fitting ending to this report, which is further enhanced by language developed by Steve Kandra, 2004- 05 KWUA President. 46 Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California Photo Credits 1. Cover photo - courtesy of Jacqui Krizo. 2. Map of Klamath Project - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 3. " A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907" - courtesy of Tulelake- Butte Valley _ Fair, Museum of Local History ( TBVF Museum). 4. " 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area" - courtesy of Oregon Water Resources Department. 5. " Adams Cut, July 18, 1906" - courtesy of Tulelake - Butte Valley Fair, Museum of Local History. 6. " 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 7. " Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September, 1909" - courtesy of TBVF Museum. 8. " 1927 Homesteader Affidavit" - courtesy of Somach, Simmons and Dunn 9. " Farm Lottery Article, Life Magazine" - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 10. " The Sign Says it AH" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 11. " Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 12. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River - courtesy of PacifiCorp. 13. " Tulelake, California" - courtesy of Rob Crawford r l4. " Del Norte Salmon Cannery" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 15. " April 6, 2004 Headlines" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 16. " Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 17. " Cemeteries went Dry in 2001" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 18. " Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 19. Klamath Bucket Brigade - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 20. Prayer / Protest at Headgates - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 21. President Bush Photo courtesy of Rob Crawford _ 22. Tulelake Rancher Gary Wright, June 2003 - courtesy of Pat Ratliff 23. Walking Wetlands photo - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson. 24. Bruce Knight and Mike Byrne - courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture 25. Gov. Kulongoski, Rep. Walden, and Dan Keppen at the A Canal, 2003 - Courtesy of Pat Ratliff 26. Undepleted Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River - U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 27. " Father and Daughter Ride to the Headgates" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 28. " Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California" - courtesy of Scott Harding Photography r — 47 Title: The Klamath Project at 100 : conserving our resources, preserving our heritage Author: Keppen, Dan Year: 2004, 2005 The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage 1905- 2005: The First Century of Water for the Klamath Project Grain Truck, Lower Klamath Lake, 2004 Prepared by Dan Keppen, Executive Director Klamath Water Users Association December 2004 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 ) 1 1 1 I 1 I I I 003E00042195 .... rrj R13E ^ ^ T ^ I l* IILLER DIVERSION DAM MILLER CREEK AND LOST RIVER CHANNEL L. ^ ^ IMPROVEMENTS — FEATURES: Hydrography Canal Drain Dike ) ( Tunnel )—( Flume ) - - ( Siphon Pipeline Drop 9 Pumping Plant Q Irrigation District Pumping Plant H Private Utility Powerplant ik Project Headquarters Project Land Lea3 « Area MAJOR WATER DISTRICTS: Ady Dist. Improv. Co. Enterprise I. D. Horsefly I. D. Klamath Drain. Dist. Klamath I. D. Langell Valley I. D. Malin ID. Midland Dist. Improv. Co. P Canal Mutual Water Co. Pine Grove I. D. Pioneer Dist. Improv. Co. Plevna Dist. Improv. Co. Poe Valley Improv. Dist. Shasta View I. D. Sunnyside I. D. Tulelake I. D. Van Brimmer Ditch Co. Westside Improv. Dist. KLAMATH PROJECT Oregon - California N 0 12 3 4 5 Miles Background of Klamath Water Users Association The original Klamath Water Users Association was organized on March 4, 1905 under Oregon statute and capitalized in the amount of $ 2,000,000. That Association was created by local farmers, livestock producers, businessmen, bankers, attorneys, and community leaders interested in seeing the Klamath Reclamation Project constructed with the least amount of cost and for the lasting benefit of the entire Klamath community. Working in cooperation with Reclamation the stockholders of the Association contracted with the U. S. Secretary of the Interior to assume the responsibility of payment to the United States the cost of the Klamath Project irrigation works on November 3, 1905. The Association was active in bringing in lands to be served by the Project and addressing water right matters of those lands. By the 1950' s much of the construction costs of the project had been reimbursed to the United States, and irrigation districts assumed the contractual obligations for maintaining and operating the Project. The current Klamath Water Users Association ( KWUA) has its origins in the Klamath Water Users Protective Association, bylaws adopted June 22, 1953, organized to address water right and electrical power issues for Klamath Basin irrigators. The Protective Association reformed itself March 16,1993 with amended bylaws, and incorporated in 1994 as the modern Klamath Water Users Association. The KWUA represents private rural and suburban irrigation districts and ditch companies within the Klamath Project, along with private irrigation interests outside the Project in both Oregon and California in the Upper Klamath Basin. The KWUA is governed by an eleven-person board of directors elected from supporting irrigation districts, private irrigation interests, and the business community. The KWUA now represents over 5,000 water users on 1,400 family farms. Klamath Association KWUA's mission statement: To preserve, protect and defend the water and power rights of the landowners of the Klamath Basin while promoting wise management of ecosystem resources. r Table of Contents Page Executive Summary 4 Introduction 5 Overview 7 Pioneers 9 The Reclamation Act 10 The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government 10 Construction Begins 11 Homesteaders 13 The Klamath River Compact 15 The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches 18 New Demands 19 r Sucker Listings 20 Coho Salmon Listing 21 Problems on the East Side 22 2001 Curtailment 24 The Farmers Fight Back 26 Enter President Bush 27 Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In 28 The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies 29 Vindication, Part II 32 " We hate to say we told you so, but...." 33 The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment. 34 Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners 36 Sucker Recovery Planning 36 On- the- Ground Actions 36 Environmental Water Bank 38 EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin 39 Recognition at Last 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach 40 BOR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River 40 Conclusion - The Future 41 Notes 44 Photo Credits 47 " " Executive Summary r The Klamath Project in 2005 marks its 100- year anniversary. This report summarizes the original formation of the Project, describes the enthusiastic response of the local community to the federal water project, and steps through the development of the Project in ensuing decades. The story of the pioneers, early settlers, and homesteaders who helped settle the area - veterans of both world wars - provides a sense of the character possessed by local farmers and ranchers, who had to rely on similar traits to keep their community alive when irrigation supplies were curtailed in 2001. And it explains a very important dynamic of the region, especially in recent years, where local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. The immediate future remains uncertain for Klamath Project irrigators, but their marked propensity for adapting to change will keep local farmers and ranchers in business for another 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, and developing habitat for fish and wildlife. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders beginning over a century ago to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. r A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907. • - r r The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act. " 1905 Petition from Basin residents to the Secretary of the Interior " The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works." Klamath Falls Herald & News Editorial June 20, 2004 " Agriculture plays a vital role in this state } s economy. An economic issue is one thing, for the farmers who need the resource, need the water, to be able to make a living. There fs another piece to this that ys much larger for all Oregon, and that is a cultural issue. The people here are very, very important to the future of this state. " Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, At the A Canal Fish Screen, Klamath Falls, Oregon. April 17, 2003 Introduction The year 2005 marks the one hundred- year birthday of one of the oldest federal water projects in the western United States - the Klamath Irrigation Project. As was painfully made evident in 2001, when Klamath Project supplies were curtailed for the first time in 95 years, the local community and its economy are interwoven with the health of this irrigation project. One hundred years after overwhelming national policy supported its construction, the Klamath Project continues to play a critical role in the local community. " The Klamath Project started out as a good thing, and it remains a good thing", said Tulelake farmer Rob Crawford. " When the Project was created, Klamath Basin people were meeting a national call by doing what they were supposed to do - settle the West. Today, our efforts focus on preserving our heritage, while conserving our resources." r r - r r rr At the beginning of the last century, when the local community learned that the Klamath Project would be developed, an " incredible celebration" ensued, said Paul Simmons, an attorney for the Klamath Water Users Association. " The people of the Klamath Basin basically posed a proposal to the federal government," said Simmons. " They told the government,' if you will be the plumber and the banker, we can do something good for the country.'" The federal government did just that by constructing the irrigation project. Local growers repaid the construction costs in the ensuing decades. Today, thousands of people - family farmers and ranchers, their employees, and agriculture- related businesses - make their living directly from farming and ranching in the Klamath Project. In turn, their activities support the communities of Malin, Merrill, Midland, Bonanza, Tulelake, Newell, and Klamath Falls. And, equally important, their efforts yield high- quality safe food for the country and the world. The last century has been one of massive transformation, vitality, shining hope, and deep despair for the farmers and ranchers served by the Klamath Project. The core reason for the creation of the Klamath Project - to develop water supplies and storage for irrigation uses - has been diminished as new competing demands, intended to satisfy Endangered Species Act ( ESA) and tribal trust conditions, have come on line. As a result, after perceived ESA and tribal trust obligations are met, Klamath Project irrigators and national wildlife refuges essentially get the remaining water. Because very little carryover storage is provided by Klamath Project reservoirs, the farmers now find themselves becoming increasingly reliant on incoming flows to the reservoirs, rather than the stored water that was originally developed to provide them with a reliable summertime irrigation supply. In essence, because of new laws and policies developed in the recent past, the original purpose of the Klamath Project has been somewhat lost in the shuffle. This became glaringly obvious in 2001, when for the first time in 95 years, water supplies to the Klamath Project from Upper Klamath Lake were curtailed before the irrigation season had even begun, to meet conditions set by federal fishery agencies to purportedly prevent harm to three fish species. Three and one- half years after Klamath Irrigation Project ( Project) water deliveries were terminated by the federal government, local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. Project irrigators - who farm on lands straddling the California- Oregon state line - remain apprehensive about the future certainty of water n supplies. However, the strong traits shown by the original Klamath Project settlers - self-independence, creativity, a sense of community - are still apparent, one hundred years later. Without these characteristics, the tragic events of 2001 might have become nothing more than n passing headlines in the local newspaper. Instead, a galvanized community grabbed national media and political attention by forcing the rest of the country to see that things had gone too far. r r Now, Klamath Project irrigators are preparing for the next 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for his products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, developing habitat for fish and wildlife, and improving the symbiotic relationship he has with neighboring national wildlife refuges. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. Overview The irrigable lands of the Klamath Project ( Project) are in south- central Oregon ( 62 percent) and north- central California ( 38 percent). Two main sources supply water for the Project: Upper Klamath Lake and the Klamath River on the Klamath system; and Clear Lake Reservoir, Gerber Reservoir, and Lost River on the Lost River system, are in a closed basin. The total drainage area for the Klamath Project, including the Lost River and the Klamath River watershed above Keno, Oregon is approximately 5,700 square miles. Currently, approximately 225,000 acres, many previously submerged, have been transformed into productive farmland. The crops grown within the Klamath Project area consist of grain, hay, pasture, silage, mint, potatoes, onions, other vegetables, alfalfa, strawberry rootstock, and horseradish. This list of crops represents the majority of planted acreage within the Klamath Project over the last 40 to 50 years. The cropping pattern has varied from year to year, but the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. The Bureau of Reclamation operates Clear Lake Dam, Gerber Dam, and the Lost River Diversion Dam. The Link River Dam is operated by the Pacific Power and Light Company in accordance with Project needs, or more recently also as directed by federal agencies. The Tulelake Irrigation District operates the Anderson- Rose Dam, and the Langell Valley Irrigation District operates the Malone and Miller Diversion Dams. The various irrigation districts operate the canals and pumping plants. The original Klamath Project plan included construction of facilities to divert and distribute water for irrigation of basin lands, including reclamation of Tule and Lower Klamath Lakes, and control of floods in the area. The development of the stored water provided by the Klamath Project allowed for the controlled, beneficial use of water in the Upper Basin. Currently, late summer and fall flows in the Lower Klamath River are augmented with stored water that would not be there, but for the Project. Under pre- Project conditions, natural controls existed below both Upper Klamath Lake and Lake Ewauna which stabilized lake levels except during critical droughts. Those controls were natural reefs of hard earth material in the channel and other channel constrictions. Under these pre- Project conditions, the Klamath River flowed into the Lower Klamath Lake area. A 1906 map titled " Topographic and Drainage Map, Upper and Lower Klamath Project" shows the invert of the Klamath Strait approximately the same level as the Klamath River channel bottom near Keno. In addition, the Lost River terminated at Tule Lake. These flows flooded approximately 183,000 acres within Lower Klamath and Tule Lake. In general, under pre- Project conditions, Klamath River flows downstream of Keno likely occurred after a certain water level was reached in the Klamath River and Lower Klamath Lake. An engineer speaking in the early days of the Project observed that adequate Klamath Project water supplies were not a worry. Rather - something that would be inconceivable today - dealing with too much water was more of a concern at the time: " It contains an irrigation problem, an evaporation problem, a run- off problem, any one of which is difficult in itself but all of which together form a most perplexing whole," said the engineer. " In nearly all reclamation projects water has to be conserved. In this project there is more than enough and the question of disposing of it becomes an important part." 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area r • r r r Pioneers Irrigation development began in areas now served by the Klamath Project in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Various landowners and entrepreneurs utilized water of the Klamath River and its tributaries, and undertook a wide range of visionary activities. Prime farmland, exposed around the edges of old historic Tule Lake as early as 1846 stimulated early settlers' interest in irrigation. Similarly, early settlers beginning in the early 1860s relied on " naturally irrigated" greases and forage in the Lower Klamath area for pasture and hay. The first irrigation ditch was dug by George Nurse and Joseph Conger in the bottom of Linkville Canyon in 1868. In 1878, this ditch was expanded and incorporated into the Linkville Water Ditch Company. Early pioneers Steele and Ankeny pursued a canal to deliver water to land between Klamath Falls and Merrill. Ultimately, the canal system was replaced by the A Canal and its distribution system which, operated by Klamath Irrigation District, continues to serve Project land to this day. t Adams Cut, July 18,1906. Diversion for irrigation of additional agricultural lands in the area now comprising the Klamath Project was initiated in 1882 with construction of an irrigation ditch by the Van Brimmer brothers to the land from White Lake, which was fed by the Klamath River. Private interests further developed this project by constructing the Adams Canal in 1886, which was supplied also from White Lake. Frank Adams, with assistance from the Van Brimmer r rr rr r Brothers, cut a canal through tule roots using hay- knives and a derrick, in order to improve diversion from White Lake. This canal ultimately extended to a length of 22 miles. By 1903, approximately 13,000 acres were irrigated by private interests, with the canal system in progress to deliver much more. After the 1905 authorization of the Klamath Project ( see below), many water rights were acquired to facilitate, and for the benefit of, the Klamath Project enterprise, and other agreements were made with other water right- holders. The Project utilized, extended, expanded and/ or improved previously existing systems, and included construction of other facilities. The Reclamation Act In 1902 Congress enacted the Reclamation Act, which encouraged the settlement of lands in the western states and the development of agricultural economies to feed the nation. The 1902 Act provided for federal financing of irrigation works, with the construction costs to be repaid over time by project water users. In addition, public lands were made available for homesteaders who accepted the responsibility to undertake improvements and pay the water charges. Both the Oregon and California legislatures also enacted laws making state- owned land available for use in the Klamath Project. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government In 1903, the Reclamation Service conducted investigations that led in 1904 to the first withdrawal of land by the Secretary of the Interior for developing a federal irrigation project. J. B. Lippincott, a supervising engineer from Los Angeles - who also played a key role in the City of Los Angeles' securement of Owens Valley water supplies - personally toured the Klamath Basin in June of 1904. l Although private irrigation projects were moving forward by the turn of the century, and some large- scale projects were being planned, most local citizens saw great value in a federally authorized and supported project. In 1905, local residents sent numerous petitions to Washington, D. C. requesting government irrigation assistance. By this time, a private corporation had given notion of its plans to develop water for what would ultimately become virtually the entire Klamath Project. Ironically, after Owens Valley agricultural water rights were secured by the City of Los Angeles, many of the displaced farmers moved to the Klamath Basin for the " reliable" water supplies of the Klamath Project. On their way north, they passed the first Reclamation Project in the West - the Newlands Project, near Reno, Nevada. 10 r r r r r r r " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act," stated one petitioner. In November 1904, F. H. Newell, Chief Engineer of the federal Reclamation Service, told a large audience of enthusiastic farmers in Klamath Falls that, in his judgment, they had " a great irrigation project". Early in 1905, California and Oregon had ceded certain rights in the Upper and Lower Klamath Lakes and Tule Lake to the United States. On May 1, 1904, a board of engineers made a report that served as the basis for authorization of the Project. Congress authorized the use of lands and water in accordance with the State Acts of February 1905. The Secretary of the Interior authorized development of the Project on May 15, 1905, under provisions of the Reclamation Act of 1902. Construction Begins The Interior Secretary's 1905 authorization provided for project works to drain and reclaim lake bed lands of the Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes, to store waters of the Klamath and Lost Rivers, to divert irrigation supplies, and to control flooding of the reclaimed lands. The states of Oregon and California ceded then- submerged land to the federal government for the specific purpose of having the land drained and reclaimed for irrigation use by homesteaders. The Oregon Legislature also authorized the raising and lowering of Upper Klamath Lake in connection with the Project, and allowed the use of the bed of Upper Klamath Lake for storage of water for irrigation. Construction began on the Project in 1906 with the building of the main " A" Canal. Water was first made available May 22, 1907, to the lands now known as the Main Division. 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates 11 r r r r r This initial construction was followed by the completion of Clear Lake Dam in 1910, the Lost River Diversion Dam and many of the distribution structures in 1912, and the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam in 1921. ( In 1970, a public dedication at the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam officially changed the name of the structure to Anderson- Rose Dam.) Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September 1909. Large stone in self- dumping car. A contract executed February 24, 1917, between the California- Oregon Power Company ( now the Pacific Power and Light Company) and the United States authorized the company to construct Link River Dam for the benefit of the Project and for the company's use, and also extended to the water users of the Klamath Project certain preferential power rates. The dam was completed in 1921. The contract was amended and further extended for a 50- year period on April 16, 1956. The Malone Diversion Dam on the Lost River was built in 1923 to divert water to Langell Valley. The Gerber Dam on Miller Creek was completed in 1925, and the Miller Diversion Dam was built in 1924 to divert water released from Gerber Dam. In the Great Depression, continued settlement and leasing and distribution construction resulted in a significant increase, between 1930 and 1939 of the acres receiving water directly from Project facilities. The project work undertaken during this period included the enlargement of the Lost River Diversion Channel. In 1940, construction was begun on Pumping Plant D and the Tule Lake Tunnel. By 1942, these facilities, as well as the P- Canal were completed. In 1943, the Ady pumping plant was placed in operation, and in the next two years, the Straits Drain and pumps were constructed and installed and began operation. 12 r r Homesteaders The story of the homesteaders is a source of great pride in the Klamath Project. As Tule Lake receded according to plan, the lake bottom became suitable for cultivation. The land that ultimately became homesteads was under jurisdiction of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation ( Reclamation). Homesteading and developing more productive agricultural land was the goal of the reclamation project that " reclaimed" the beds of Tule Lake and Lower Klamath Lake to expose more arable land. After Tule Lake was dewatered, a large area of public land became available for agriculture. The government would lease this land to settlers, and in fact leased as much as 50,000 acres in Tule Lake in the 1920s. Over time, most of this land was homesteaded. In 1917,180 people applied for the 37 homestead parcels the Reclamation made available on the drained wetlands and lake beds. Between 1922 and 1937 there were five more homestead offerings and hundreds of homesteaders settled in on the fertile soil of the drained lake bed. Then, World War II curtailed the homesteading process. » rri.. . r i* Ul. r- Xio. 1 wi sat Mi M MM ttw DCCA rru. ilon _ ji « _ jra .... r. r tk. M r « i t » a-. . « *^ J •* 4. MM r* T RTMtNT Or THE X ,. . tie*. . ..< L. » ii tatwJ l u i » T « 11 r ( » T « rnr » ) xfc. ir « « . •" « » ^> « • inS| « Ut !•• « . • TTDHOII. ,.> , ^% laMitk r » u. « . orumtm. _ JBKS!*! « r._: iit_ » « « » i.. bwrlac n i M la t&. MttaJOMI ( 1* nat.. J « a>. aa4 tk* a. t* JKLaUMftULJatiLJlJrt.. . . . . W l t a . is a- S.- ..- M « ri « ia*. t u . ar tka ar. ra* al « » ot af i t kav* a » « . > n » M < aatrr. • M M MMtMl. MMM t . aa n » tn4 » r ua « « . o. rol - • M it. » • « i WMM .. 1927 Homesteader Affidavit In three drawings held in 1946, 1948 and 1949, a total of 216 World War II veterans were awarded homesteads on farmland in the Tule Lake Basin, as a thank you from a grateful nation. The number of applicants was far greater than the number of available homesteads. Veterans and the community gathered to watch the names drawn from a pickle jar. Farm homesteads and crop- producing land were the goals of reclamation, and the Tule Lake Basin became a showcase for reclamation work. 13 " When I arrived to see my homestead there was nothing there, just an expanse of opportunity," recalls Carman. " No roads, no houses, no trees, just bare ground. I then pitched my tent in the corner of my homestead." My wife Eleanor was expecting our second child, but could not join me until later. A tent was not acceptable living quarters for a young woman, a small child and another baby on the way." The settlers formed organizations, elected a school board, and went about creating a society. " When I began my new life as a Tulelake homesteader there were approximately 300 homesteaders, most of them with families," said Carman. " We united and began to build schools, churches and a hospital in Klamath Falls. We started a community. We were living the American dream and our dream was achieved by hard work and dedication, and I must say we could never have done this without our wives." Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By r - The Klamath River Compact The Klamath River Compact ( Compact) is a law of both Oregon and California, consented to by and Act of Congress. In the following decade, a variety of concerns and issues led to the passage of the Compact in 1957. These included: • Differing positions regarding the extent of development that could occur under Klamath Project water rights; 15 • • The related issue of priority of Klamath Project and overall Upper Klamath Basin irrigation development as against other uses, especially generation of hydro- electric power on the mainstem Klamath River; and • Concerns over potential future out- of- basin water exports. The development of the Compact was closely tied to an application for a water right filed by the California Oregon Power Company ( Copco) in 1951. This application anticipated using water at a proposed hydroelectric project on the Klamath River known as " Big Bend No. 2." In turn, this dispute folded in past dealings, agreements and opinions related to the operation of Link River Dam on Upper Klamath Lake. The agreements made between Copco and the Bureau of Reclamation at the time of construction of Link River Dam around 1920 had been controversial. Upper Klamath Basin irrigation interests had three primary concerns: 1. Power development, as an incident of the Project's reclamation purpose, should be undertaken only by the United States; 2. That the agreements threatened Klamath Project water supplies; and 3. The agreements were inconsistent with state legislation authorizing use of Upper Klamath Lake by the United States for storage or reclamation purposes. In 1951, Copco filed an application with the Oregon Hydroelectric Commission ( OHC) for a water right for the proposed Big Bend No. 2 hydroelectric facility. The OHC at that time had authority and jurisdiction over issuance of water rights for hydropower facilities. Copco at the time of filing took the position that water was available for appropriation and Copco was entitled to a right, senior in priority, to any future Upper Klamath Basin irrigation that was not then actually developed. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River. — 16 r r • A. To facilitate and promote the orderly, integrated and comprehensive development, use, conservation and control thereof for various purposes, including, among others: the use of water for domestic purposes; the development of lands by irrigation and other means; the protection and enhancement offish, wildlife, and recreational resources; the use of water for industrial purposes and hydroelectric power production; and the use and control of water for navigation and flood prevention. B. To further intergovernmental cooperation and comity with respect to these resources and programs for their use and development and to remove causes of present and future controversies by providing ( l) for equitable distribution and use of water among the two states and the Federal Government, ( 2) for preferential rights to the use of water after the effective date of this compact for the anticipated ultimate requirements for domestic and irrigation purposes in the Upper Klamath River Basin in Oregon and California, and ( 3) for prescribed relationships between beneficial uses of water as a practicable means of accomplishing such distribution and Copco's application to the OHC, and its parallel application to the Federal Power Commission ( FPC) for a license under the Federal Power Act, were contested and opposed by the Department of the Interior and various agricultural and irrigation interests. The OHC did not act on Copco's application until 1956. The States of California and Oregon appointed commissioners to negotiate an interstate Compact. At the same time, Reclamation and local water users were negotiating a new agreement with Copco for operation of Link River Dam. It appeared that such an agreement might be concluded prior to enactment by the States of a Compact. The draft Copco contract was brought before the Compact negotiating commissioners, who sought to ensure consistency with the Compact being developed. During the course of several meetings of the Compact commissioners, terms were developed which resulted in conditions in the FPC license, the water right certificate, and a new contract for Copco's operating of Link River Dam. After preparation of various drafts, negotiation of the Compact was concluded and the legislatures of Oregon, California, as well as the United States Congress, acted in 1957. The major purposes of this compact are, with respect to the water resources of the Klamath River Basin: The Compact recognized water rights for then- existing and future needs in the Klamath Project service area. It also established a system of priority for new water rights under which Upper Basin irrigation ( up to a specified number of acres) had superior rights over water for power generation, fish or wildlife, or recreation. 17 r r r r r In short, the Klamath Compact provided guidelines to lead the competing interests of the Klamath River watershed towards a more harmonious future. For the next 40 years, the intent of the Compact was essentially fulfilled, until the early 1990s, when new pressures to address endangered fish and tribal trust demands resulted in the reemergence of fractionalized conflict into the Upper Basin. Although it had been seen as a resolution for future disputes, the Compact has been interpreted not to override the Endangered Species Act or tribal trust water rights. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches r Through the 1950s, Reclamation envisioned continued development of the Project that would have doubled its current size by including Butte Valley, California and other areas. The plans were not implemented and the Project acreage has not significantly increased since the end of the 1940s. In the following decades, the delivery system has been improved, bottlenecks eliminated, and relatively small areas have both been brought under irrigation and converted to commercial or residential development. By 1960, due in part to improvements made on Tule Lake dikes, the M Canal, the Lost River Diversion Channel, and installation of new canals in the southern portion of the Tulelake Irrigation District ( TID) service area and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant, the Project provided irrigation service to nearly 216,000 acres. Tulelake, California In the 1960' s, improvements and expansion of certain facilities led to the formation of Klamath Basin Improvement District. The Stukel and Poe Valley Pumping Plants were constructed and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant enlarged. The D, F and G- Canals were also 18 r enlarged. These facilities provided more reliable service to certain lands and also added land to the area that could receive water from Project works. In the 1970' s, Shasta View Irrigation District and Reclamation entered a $ 3.2 million contract for installation of a pressure irrigation system to replace the previous gravity- fed system. The 1972 Project history reported, ".. . the Project provided irrigation and drainage service to 223,661 acres," while the total harvested acreage "... was 193,160, down 2,329 acres from 1971." Also in the 1970' s, the Straits Drain was enlarged. Because of the Klamath Project's design and the interrelated nature of water use within it, including the use of return flows by farmers and the refuge, Project efficiency is very high. A recent assessment of Klamath Project water use efficiency2 implies that a sophisticated seasonal pattern of water use has evolved in the Klamath Project. One must understand that the Klamath Project has developed into a highly effective, highly interconnected form of water management. According to the 1998 Davids study ( see footnote), effective efficiency for the overall Project is 93 percent, making the Klamath Project one of the most efficient in the country3. New Demands For eighty years, Klamath Project irrigation supplies proved sufficient to meet the needs of the area's burgeoning farming and ranching communities. Although there were years where Mother Nature and Klamath Project storage capacity proved insufficient to meet full irrigation demands, the local community managed to stretch thin supplies and make things work. That all changed in the early 1990s, when steadily more restrictive government agency decisions made to meet Endangered Species Act ( ESA) goals began to steadily chip away at the stored water supply originally developed for irrigation. Two sucker species were listed ( 1988) as endangered and coho salmon were listed ( 1997) as threatened under the ESA. Since then, biological opinions rendered by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( for the suckers) and NOAA Fisheries ( for the coho), have increasingly emphasized the reallocation of Project water as the sole means of avoiding jeopardizing these fish. Klamath Project " operations plans" based on these biological opinions also factor in tribal trust obligations, although the nature and extent of such obligations is undefined. 2 " Klamath Project Historical Water Use Analysis", Davids Engineering for U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, October 1998. 3 For example, Tulelake Irrigation District irrigates 62,000 acres of farmland. In the 1990s, the district diverted an average of 131,000 acre- feet of water. Each year, an average of 80,000 acre- feet was pumped out of the district. Consumptive use within the district is considerably less than the amount of water diverted. The reason is the difference from the return flow from other districts and the reuse of water within the Project. 19 r Sucker Listings In the past twelve years, political and regulatory demands have affected activities at the Klamath Project. In 1988, the short nose sucker and the Lost River sucker, two species that live in Upper Klamath Lake, were designated as endangered under the ESA. Biological opinions issued by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) in 1992 and 1994 concerning operation of the Klamath Project identified actions to avoid jeopardy to suckers. When the suckers were listed, there had been no mention whatsoever of reservoir elevations as a factor affecting sucker populations. These operation elevations were adopted by Reclamation. The reservoir elevations pertaining to Upper Klamath Lake generally allowed the Project to operate for its intended purposes. However, the United States District Court of Oregon found that the reservoir elevations pertaining to Clear Lake and Gerber Reservoirs to be arbitrary and capricious, and they were invalidated in a succession of decisions4. The most compelling and prominent reason why the federal government justified listing the two sucker species as " endangered" in 1988 was an apparent abrupt downturn in both populations during the mid- 1980s. To support the decision to list the suckers, the USFWS believed the only significant remaining populations were in Upper Klamath Lake. We now know that the assumptions by the USFWS were in error and the assumed sucker population crisis never materialized. In fact, shortly after listing of the species, the populations demonstrated dramatic increases5. r Just prior to the listing of the suckers in 1988, a sport snag fishery was allowed. Before 1969, the fishery was largely unregulated with no harvest limit; in 1969 a generous bag limit of 10 fish per angler was imposed. During the early to mid- 1980s, despite the belief that the numbers offish were in a state of rapid decline, the State of Oregon still allowed the sport snag fishery. Ultimately, because of increased focus on the status of the sucker populations, Oregon eliminated the fishery in 1987. Some fisheries experts believe that if the USFWS would have properly assessed the known impacts on the suckers caused by the snag fishery and the benefits from ceasing the fishery, it very likely could have affected the ultimate listing decision. " Simply stated, the largely unregulated snag fishery slaughtered the sucker populations," said Dave Vogel, with Natural Resource Scientists, Inc. " Since the fishery was eliminated in 1987, the two sucker populations dramatically rebounded. The threat was removed and the populations increased ten- fold." 4 Bennett v Spear, 520 U. S. 154 ( 1997); 5 F. Jupp. 2d 887 ( D. Or. 1998); Bennett v. Badgely, No. 93- 6075- HO ( April 13, 1999, June 11, 1999). 5 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 20 At the time of the listings in 1988, the Klamath Project was not identified as having known adverse affects on the sucker populations, yet four years after the listing, using limited or no empirical data, the USFWS turned to the Klamath Project as their singular focus. Paradoxically, since the early 1990s, despite new beneficial empirical evidence on the improving status of the species and lack of relationship with Klamath Project operations, the USFWS became ever more centered on Project operations and increased restrictions on irrigators instead of paying attention to more obvious, fundamental problems for the species. This circumstance caused tremendous expense in dollars and time by diverting resources away from other known factors affecting the species. Coho Salmon Listing r A similar circumstance occurred with NOAA Fisheries during and after the coho salmon listing in the lower basin in the late 1990s. It cited the reasons to list coho salmon, excluding Klamath Project operations as a significant factor affecting the species. There are many other documented factors that have affected salmon runs in the Klamath River6. The USFWS in the 1980s described the most important eight factors as " most frequently referred to with regard to recent population declines" of anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Those factors are: " • Over fishing • Logging • Trinity River transbasin diversion Irrigation diversions in lower Klamath tributaries • 1964 flood • 1976- 1977 drought • Sea lion predation • Brown trout predation. However, shortly following the listing, and with no supporting data, NOAA Fisheries chose to center its attention on the Klamath Project as the principal factor affecting coho salmon. In its biological opinions, NOAA Fisheries opined that much higher than historic flow levels, released from the stored water of the Klamath Project, would be needed to protect coho salmon downstream of Iron Gate Dam. Iron Gate Dam is located forty miles away and coho are generally found further downstream and in tributaries. 7 In essence, both agencies adopted a single- minded approach of focusing on Klamath Project operations to artificially create high reservoir levels and high reservoir releases. This puzzling, similar sequence of events has yet to be explained by agency officials. 6 KWUA biologists compiled a comprehensive listing of those factors in March 1997. 7 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 21 r " ~ Commercial harvests of salmon intensified with the development of canning technology. By the early 20th century, habitat destruction combined with commercial harvests had resulted in serious salmon depletion on the Klamath River. Cobb ( 1930) estimated that the peak of the Klamath River salmon runs occurred in 1912, Snyder ( 1931) observed " in 1912 three [ canneries] operated on or near the estuary and the river was heavily fished, no limit being placed on the activities of anyone". Problems on the East Side Irrigation districts on the east side of the Klamath Project felt the first impacts from increased regulatory focus on lake levels in the early 1990s. Langell Valley Irrigation District ( LVID) and Horsefly Irrigation District ( HID) receive water from Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs. Historically, stored water was released from these two reservoirs beginning about April 15 and ending about October 15 each year. These reservoirs are not large, but they provide the essential water supply to an otherwise arid area. In an average year, Clear Lake releases about 36,000 acre- feet of irrigation water, and Gerber releases about 40,000 acre- feet. Clear Lake Reservoir contains populations of both endangered sucker species, and Gerber reservoir hosts one of the species. ESA-" threatened" bald eagles are also known to inhabit the Klamath Project area. In 1991, at the request of the USFWS, Reclamation initiated ESA consultation to assess the impact of the long- term operation of the Klamath Project on the suckers and the bald eagle. In the next year, three biological opinions were rendered by USFWS that imposed minimum levels in Clear Lake to purportedly protect the sucker populations. As a result of the minimum lake levels imposed by the draft biological opinions, and the water lost to evaporation before the USFWS allowed any water releases, the Districts were not able to make their normal irrigation releases during the 1992 water year. Neither district received its first seasonal water delivery until May 15, 1992, a full four weeks later than normal. By 22 r " that date, 12,000 acre- feet of the water that had been stored in Clear Lake in March 1992 had evaporated, an amount that represents about 60% of LVID's total yearly withdrawal from Clear Lake Reservoir. As a result of the minimum lake levels and the evaporation losses, only 2,148 acres of the 16,800 irrigable acres within the LVID received any Klamath Project water at all. The lack of water reduced both acreage farmed and per- acre yields that year. As a result of reduced yields, farm properties lost up to 70% of their assessed values in 1992. The lack of water also hurt the region's cattle ranching operations, because some ranchers could not produce pasture for their cattle. Water users who could afford the extra expense purchased feed to sustain their herds. Others had to cut back substantially on their herds or sell their cattle. Wildlife also suffered as a result of the decision to impose minimum surface levels in the reservoirs. Because the Lost River obtains most of its water from releases from Clear Lake Dam and return flows from agricultural operations, the water levels in the Lost River and its tributaries were exceedingly low in 1992. As a direct result, wildlife relying on Lost River water, including deer, sandhill cranes, hawks, turtles, frogs, ducks, and more, were all noticeably scarce that year. On July 22, 1992, USFWS finally issued its final biological opinion on the long- term operations of the Klamath Project. While the 1992 opinion conceded that " little" was known about Gerber Reservoir's shortnose sucker population, the opinion reported " good numbers" of these fish and noted that the Gerber sucker population appeared to be successfully reproducing, despite the lowered lake levels of the early 1990s. Despite this undisputed evidence, the 1992 biological opinion concluded that continuing to operate the Project, including Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs, in its historic manner was likely to jeopardize the continued existence of both sucker fish species. Reclamation accepted the USFWS recommendations for continued adherence to minimum lake levels, prompting the Districts and two of the individual farmers to sue the federal agencies. Even after the federal district court entered judgment invalidating the jeopardy conclusions, USFWS defied this judgment, and the districts were forced to bring several additional motions to enforce the Court's rulings. At each stage of the legal proceedings, the districts prevailed, based largely on the fact that USFWS had no scientific evidence to justify its actions. When the United States Supreme Court considered the Districts' case against the USFWS, the Court described the purpose of the ESA's science requirement as follows: The obvious purpose of the requirement that each agency " use the best available scientific and commercial data available" is to ensure that the ESA not be implemented haphazardly, on the basis of speculation or surmise. While this no doubt serves to advance the ESA's overall goal -., of species preservation, we think it readily apparent that another objective ( if not indeed the 23 primary one) is to avoid needless economic dislocation produced by agency officials zealously but unintelligently pursuing their environmental objectives. Now, ten years later, HID and LVID enjoy positive relationships with USFWS and Reclamation. However, the problems they suffered in the early 1990s were a harbinger of things to come for other Klamath Project irrigators shortly after the turn of the new century. 2001 Curtailment The net result of increasing restrictions on other Klamath Project water users was fully realized on April 6, 2001, when Reclamation announced its water allocation for the Project after U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Fisheries officials finalized the biological opinions ( BOs) for project operations in a critically dry year. Based on those regulatory actions, Reclamation announced that - for the first time in Project's 95- year history - no water would be available from Upper Klamath Lake to supply Project irrigators. No water for most farmers April 6, 2001 Local Headlines The resulting impacts to the local community were immediate and far- reaching. Even with a later release of a small percentage of needed water over a 30- day period in July and August, thousands of acres of valuable farmland were left without water. In addition to harming those property owners, managers, and workers, also imparted an economic " ripple" effect through the broader community. The wildlife benefits provided by those farms - particularly the food provided for area waterfowl - were also lost with the water. 24 Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls - 2001 The local farming community is still reeling from the April 6, 2001 decision, and severe business losses echoed the hardship endured by farmers and farm employees. As farmers and laborers attempted to deal with the loss of jobs, a year's income, and in some cases the land itself, referrals for mental health counseling increased dramatically. The Tulelake school district lost around 50 students after farm families sold their land and moved on. Students were under stress, understandably confused as to why three species of fish were more important than their lifelong homes. Tragically, one Hispanic family had started out as field workers, and after a lifetime of piecework under the sun had saved enough to buy their own farm. They lost everything as a direct result of the irrigation cutofi . Veteran homesteaders, who fifty years ago were promised reliable water, felt betrayed by the same government, who chose to provide water to fish instead of farmers in 2001. " I want the government to honor the contract that promised me and my heirs water rights forever," said Jess Prosser, a World War II veteran and Tulelake homesteader, in 2001, after water supplies were cut. " This land is our life. Farmers and fish have survived previous drought years when the farmers voluntarily cut back on water consumption. The Klamath Project was designed to withstand drought conditions, and right now there is more than ample water for agriculture and fish. The government took 100% of the water for fish, disregarding farmers, ranchers, families and numerous other species of wildlife in the Klamath Basin. This is a man- made disaster. This will be the end of a way of life and an entire community." 1 " Calamity in Klamath", Blake Hurst. The American Enterprise magazine. October / November 2002, pp 28- 29. 25 Cemeteries Went Dry in 2001 The Farmers Fight Back The local community did not take the decision lying down. Employing the ingenuity and perseverance that allowed them to successfully create brand new communities over the past century, local farmers, ranchers, elected officials and business leaders organized a " bucket brigade" to dramatize their plight, drawing nearly 20,000 sympathizers to the streets of Klamath Falls. A web site and cell phone calling tree were set up, and farmers, who only a year before were working their fields, suddenly became knowledgeable about the media. Civil disobedience, in the form of peaceful protests at the A Canal headgates, drew television crews from throughout the Pacific Northwest. The 2001 Klamath Basin crisis became the topic of front- page coverage and sympathetic editorials in publications like Time magazine, the Los Angeles Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times. Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family, Summer 2001. In part because of the tremendous media and political attention generated by the local community, a congressional field hearing was held in the summer of 2001 at the Klamath County fairgrounds, which drew the largest audience to ever attend such a hearing in the nation's history. Much of the focus was on the decision- making and processes that led to the fishery agencies' recommendation to curtail irrigation supplies. 26 In 2001, a desperate community essentially was looked in the eye and told, " sorry, we know it may hurt, but ' the science' is compelling and requires you to go without water." This was wrong, literally, and as a matter of policy. For whatever reason, the agencies had become too close to, and too much a part of, the side- taking that had come to dominate issues surrounding the Klamath Project. For this reason alone, outside review was needed. Nearly 20,000 marchers support the Klamath Bucket Brigade, May 2001. Prayer / protest at the A Canal headgates, 2001. Elected officials - from county commissioners and supervisors, to state representatives and senators, to U. S. Senators and Representatives, continued the fight, and ultimately, later in 2001, the U. S. Secretary of the Interior, Gale Norton, directed the National Academy of Sciences to conduct an independent peer- review of the agency decision to curtail irrigation supplies. Also, in early 2002, President Bush himself took a personal interest in the plight of the Klamath Project irrigator. Enter President Bush In January 2002, just months after the federal government curtailed Klamath Project irrigation deliveries for the first time in 97 years, Sen. Gordon Smith and Rep. Greg Walden met the president in southern California, boarded Air Force One, and took a slight detour over the Basin on their way to a Portland high school where the Mr. Bush was to deliver a speech. On the flight north, the president was briefed on the 2001 Klamath water crisis. When he entered the gymnasium at Park Rose High School, he opened his speech up with a pledge to help both the farmers and the fish of the Klamath Basin. 27 Compassion: George W. Bush Meets and Greets Klamath Basin Residents in Redmond, Oregon, 2003. In the ensuing two years, President Bush has followed through with his pledge by establishing a Klamath Basin cabinet- level working group, promoting sound and independent peer-reviewed science, and making funding of Klamath River water and environmental projects a priority. Enacted and requested Bush Administration funding in the Klamath River watershed for fiscal years 2003- 2005 exceeds $ 260 million dollars, according to a federal government summary. This includes $ 105 million proposed by the administration for Klamath Basin federal funding in the Fiscal Year 2005 budget. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In The Klamath Water Users Association and others in the community in 2001 strongly advocated for an independent peer review of the 2001 fishery agency biological opinions, the underlying science, and the related overall scientific process. In early 2002, an interim report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released. This represented a critical step towards ensuring proper assessment and maintenance of healthy fish populations. The panel successfully completed an objective, unbiased initial review of the information used by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) and NOAA Fisheries to formulate the agencies' two 2001 Biological Opinions ( BOs). The interim NRC report concluded that there was insufficient scientific evidence used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in 2001 to support changing the recent historical water operations of the Klamath Project. Specifically, the NRC interim report concluded that higher or lower than recent historical lake levels or Klamath 28 rr r rrr r r r River flows were not scientifically justified based on the available information used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. Despite varying interpretations of the data used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in the BOs, it is especially noteworthy that the NRC panel achieved consensus on the Interim Report's conclusions for not just one, but both BOs. The report's conclusions were adequately supported by the available evidence and analyses used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. It was particularly evident that the NRC Committee report was fair and impartial, essential attributes that were sorely lacking in Klamath basin issues to date. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies The release of the NRC Committee's interim report in early 2002 unleashed a barrage of criticism from environmental activists and their allies in academia and government agencies. Two Oregon State University professors, supporters of the high lake level requirements that contributed to the 2001 water curtailment, submitted a formal " rebuttal" of the interim report to a fisheries journal. The " rebuttal" ( so labeled when transmitted by its authors) and other media developments caused the Klamath Project community to fear that the NRC work would be diluted. The local community simply did not have the resources or the networks of contacts to continually counter the anti- Klamath Project messages that were being sent to the public and policymakers, primarily by outside environmental activist organizations. The NRC Committee's interim report triggered what grew to be an extraordinary, and obviously coordinated, attack on the Klamath Project by these interests. Media outlets seemingly relish a good western fight, and many uncritically reprinted a good deal of information that was not fair to Klamath Basin irrigators. The scrutiny on the Klamath Project and the Bush Administration's reliance on the NRC interim report intensified further that fall, when 33,000 salmon died on the lower Klamath River. Immediately after the unfortunate die- off, vocal critics of Project operations and Bush Administration environmental policy used the event to renew attacks on irrigated agriculture in the Klamath Basin. Even though the fish die- off occurred 200 miles downstream from the Project, at a location below the confluence of the main stem Klamath River and the Trinity River, traditional advocates for higher river flows quickly assigned blame to Klamath Project farmers and ranchers. Some of these same interests and others in the environmental community even attempted to directly link the fish die- off to alleged political maneuvering orchestrated by senior policy officials in the Bush Administration. As a result, presidential hopeful Senator John Kerry called on the U. S. Interior Department's Inspector General to look into whether " political pressure from the White House is intimidating staff and influencing policy" in Klamath River management decisions. Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney's report - released in March 2004- found " no evidence of political influence affecting the decisions pertaining to the water in the Klamath Project." 29 r r r r r r Eugene Register- Guard Why the salmon died: Pattern points to Bush administration policies A Register- Guard Editorial A 2002 Editorial Headline Between 2002- 2004, the fish die- off was effectively spun by Klamath Project critics to drive a dizzying array of attacks aimed at the Bush Administration and federal agencies responsible for Klamath Project management. Well- coordinated media coverage surrounding several acts of litigation and proposed federal legislation in the two years since the fish die- off have effectively imprinted the environmentalists' message in the minds of many: • " Fish need water"; • " Klamath Project farmers were denied water in 2001 and no fish died in the Klamath River"; • " Klamath Project farmers received full supplies in 2002, and 33,000 salmon died in the river"; • " The Bush Administration sacrificed fish for the benefit of farmers." The claims discussed above are just a few of the more prominent arguments that Klamath Project critics have employed to justify a series of actions undertaken in the wake of the public release of the interim NRC Committee report, including the following: • Federal legislation that would finalize a controversial and flawed draft Klamath River flow report. • Unsuccessful federal legislation that would restrict the ability of local lease land farmers to grow row crops. • Litigation ( PCFFA v. USBR) that, if successful, would have likely shut down Klamath Project operations in 2003. • Public protests staged by tribal members and environmentalists in Klamath Falls in 2002 and in Sacramento in 2003. 30 Listing of the Klamath River as the third most endangered waterway in the country by American Rivers, a Washington, D. C. - based activist group. An unsuccessful lawsuit filed by environmental groups against NOAA Fisheries to hasten the potential ESA listing of the green sturgeon. The release of an Oregon Natural Resources Council ( ONRC) report, which contends that voluntary buyouts of willing sellers within the Project " remain the most politically responsible, socially just, and economically viable method" to address power and ecological challenges. A subsequent letter sent by ONRC to Project landowners, tempting them with the promise of a buyout that would provide them with 2 '/ z times the fair market value of their land. Numerous editorials, journal articles and magazine stories that clearly accept the arguments made by Project critics. However, others did not jump so quickly on to the " blame game bandwagon." During late summer and early fall of 2002, Dave Vogel, a fisheries biologist with 28 years of experience, conducted a field investigation to assess water temperatures in the main stem Klamath River. - Vogel noted that main stem water temperatures in the Klamath River were measured hourly just prior to and during the fall- run Chinook salmon migration season. He found that water temperatures in the upper Klarnath River downstream of Iron Gate Dam during September 2002 were unsuitable for adult salmon, a finding that was similar to that of previous studies. As expected, a normal seasonal cooling trend at the end of September and early October provided the moderating influence lowering Klamath River temperatures to tolerable levels for salmon. Vogel also found that large numbers of salmon entered the lower Klamath River earlier than usual and were exposed to two dramatic and uncharacteristic cooling and warming conditions causing disease outbreak from warm water and crowded conditions. The combination of these factors was chronically and cumulatively stressful to fish and is probably the most plausible reason for the fish die- off. " In my opinion, the best available scientific data and information indicate that the continued operation and maintenance of historical flows at Iron Gate Dam will not jeopardize coho salmon," said Vogel in March 2003. " Furthermore, in my opinion the operations of Iron Gate Dam during the summer and fall of 2002 did not cause and could not have prevented the fish die- off in the lower Klarnath River." Unfortunately, scant media coverage was afforded to Vogel's findings. Outside of the Upper Basin, the press made no mention of the fact that, despite the die- off, the numbers of fish returning to Iron Gate hatchery on the Klamath River were the third highest in 40 years. The media also largely ignored a similar finding made in October 2003 by the National Research Council Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fish in the Klamath Basin. In its final report, the Committee failed to find a linkage between the operation of the Klamath Project and the fish die- off, and questioned whether changes federal project operations at the time would have prevented it. Clearly, the hard working landowners of the Upper Klamath Basin have been on the receiving end of a cruel and long- distance war being waged by environmental activists who assert that the federal water project - representing only 2 percent of the total land base of the Klamath River watershed, and consuming only 3- 4 percent of the average annual flows to the Pacific Ocean - is somehow responsible for all of the environmental woes of the river system. These advocates are intent on portraying the Klamath Basin as a poster child to help fuel outside efforts that are focused on litigating, legislating and publicly condemning the local community for doing what it has done for 98 of the last 99 years - irrigating farm and ranch land. r r r r These interests know that federal water projects are an easy target of litigation, since federal environmental and clean water laws govern project operations. The lawsuits are often aimed at federal entities - such as the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation and fishery agencies - which, on the surface, give the appearance that the environmental plaintiffs are simply interested in correcting errors made by some non- descript governmental agency. The true intended target of these actions, however, ultimately becomes the landowners and water users who fall under the management jurisdiction of the federal agencies. It is the farmers and ranchers that pay the price of litigation through altered management practices, increased uncertainty, and escalating legal expenses to defend their interests. For the most part, the potentially damaging effects these actions could cause family farmers and ranchers have been deflected. However, local water users are concerned that permanent Klamath River policy will be influenced by misinformation in the future. Vindication, Part II After an 18- month barrage of anti- Klamath Project attacks in the media and courtrooms, the long- awaited final report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released in October 2003. The final NRC report is important to local farmers and ranchers for several key reasons: 1. The report clearly indicated that recovery of endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath Basin cannot be achieved by actions that are exclusively or primarily focused on operation of the Klamath Project. 2. The committee also reconfirmed its findings from the earlier interim report that found no evidence of a causal connection between Upper Klamath Lake water levels and sucker health, or that higher flows on the Klamath River mainstem help coho salmon. 3. The NRC committee did not accept arguments that the operation of the Klamath Project caused the 2002 fish die- off or that changes in the operation of the Project at p the time would have prevented it. 32 r ~ r r Despite the final conclusions, some environmentalists and many in the media continue to maintain the sensational but unsupported position that the Klamath Project was responsible for the 2002 fish mortality that occurred over 200 miles from the Klamath Project. The final NRC report was consistent with what Upper Basin interests have been saying for years: the Klamath Project cannot solely bear the burden for species recovery in this basin. A watershed- wide approach to species recovery - one that addresses all the stressors to fish - is essential to improving the environment and saving the local economy. Local water users shared the NRC report's vision that increased knowledge, improved management, and cohesive community action would promote recovery of the fishes. At the same time, they remained extremely concerned that the " business as usual" approach - regulation of the Klamath Project - would remain the dominant aspect of ESA biological opinions and advocacy of Project opponents. For reasons now clearly evident, the irrigators' original recommendation for an outside technical review of the ESA activities in the Klamath basin by an objective group such as the r National Academy of Sciences back in 1993 ( KWUA 1993) was an important first step. The benefits of an ESA peer review are obvious after reading the NRC's final report. " We are beginning to see signs of progress with ESA activities in the basin," said Dave Vogel, nearly one year after the release of the final NRC Committee report. " However, alarmingly, there are some individuals within the agencies that are in a state of denial over the findings and conclusions of the NRC's report. Despite the NRC's final report, the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries still have too much focus on the Klamath Project and not enough emphasis on a watershed- wide approach." Other experts agree. " We found that the prevailing scientific sentiment in the basin-' More water is better for fish'- was the wrong approach," NRC Committee member Jeffrey Mount told California Farmer magazine in December 2003, two months after the final NRC report was released. " We hate to say we told you so, but...." It is very important to note that many of the most pertinent findings, conclusions, and r recommendations of the NRC Klamath Committee were not new to the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries. Dave Vogel elaborated on this in testimony he provided to the House Resources Committee at a field hearing held in Klamath Falls in June 2004. " The NRC final report advocates a watershed approach, peer review, greater stakeholder involvement, oversight of agency actions, focus on factors other than the Klamath Project 33 r operations, reduction of resource conflicts, and incorporation of the principles of adaptive management toward species recovery," said Vogel. " Over the past decade, local water users and their allies forwarded much of the same and similar technical findings and recommendations to those two agencies, but were mainly ignored. Additionally, the NRC's major conclusion that there is insufficient scientific justification for high reservoir levels and high instream flows was always prominent in water users' technical comments on the agencies' biological opinions during the past decade." r " The NRC Klamath Committee's final report was an outstanding effort and the product must serve as a catalyst to advance balanced natural resource management in the basin," Vogel said. " If federal agencies meaningfully incorporate many of the NRC's principal findings, conclusions, and recommendations, we fully expect positive results to the species recovery and reduced resource conflicts. We should use the momentum of the NRC's final report to guide recovery efforts and watershed improvements. However, if the agencies do not take this pro- active approach, we could again return to the disaster that transpired in 2001." • Dr. Mount agrees. r " For too long, Klamath managers have relied on fixing their problems by turning only one knob- the knob of raising and lowering water levels in Upper Klamath Lake and the river," said Mount, a University of California professor. " They need to take new approaches that support multiple populations offish and healthy ecosystems throughout the watershed," he said. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment The U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's final 10- year Biological Assessment for Klamath Project 2002- 2012 operations properly incorporated the findings of the 2002 interim National Research Council's ( NRC) interim report, and generally captured the essence of the " watershed- wide" philosophy endorsed in the final 2003 NRC report. Unfortunately, the fishery agency biological opinions ( BOs) do not. Despite the so- called ecosystem approach to species recovery advocated by the USFWS and NMFS, their actions in the Klamath basin over the past decade amply demonstrates that the exact opposite took place. They focused on: 1) a single- species approach; and 2) Klamath Project operations. The USFWS opinion continues to perpetuate the questionable assumption that lake level management is the principle mechanism affecting sucker survival in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). The NOAA Fisheries jeopardy decision similarly continues to place high emphasis on downstream flows. The stored water developed for Klamath Project farmers continues to be reallocated to meet the artificial demands set by agency biologists. 34 r The combined - and apparently, unanticipated - impacts placed on the Upper Basin community from the application of the two opinions are unacceptable. On June 25th, 2003, local irrigators were told by Reclamation officials that UKL diversions to the Project would be shut down for a minimum of 5 days - in the middle of the growing season. By day's end, reason prevailed: the agencies backed off their initial request9 and instead, Reclamation notified farmers to continue their efforts to reduce diversions from the lake. This was driven by one apparent agency mission: to avoid dropping UKL one inch below a lake level requirement established by the USFWS. Rancher Gary Wright learns that the Klamath Project would be shut down in the middle of the irrigation season, June 25, 2003. Common sense prevailed, and later in the day, Reclamation rescinded its earlier decision. In addition to the continued uncertainty irrigators face, the opinions are generating new, unanticipated impacts to the community. In the past 40 to 50 years, while the cropping pattern in the Klamath Project has varied from year to year, the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. On the other hand, the 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon established the river flow schedule and an " environmental water bank" - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. The result: stored water that has flowed to farms, ranches and the refuges for nearly 100 years is now sent downstream at such high levels, that groundwater pumped from the Lost River basin is being used to supplement the resulting " coho salmon demand" in the Klamath River. 9 Improved coordination between USFWS managers and their Reclamation counterparts in Klamath Falls and Sacramento was one important reason for the positive corrective action that was taken. 35 It is not the farmers who have imposed new water demands that, in essence, have made groundwater the default supplemental supply to the Klamath Project. It is the opinions of agency fishery biologists who have fundamentally altered how this century- old water project operates, and who have apparently failed to anticipate the resulting impacts to the community. While Reclamation in 2002 sharply disagreed with the findings of both fishery agency biological opinions, it is not yet clear how consultation will be reinitiated to create a new operations plan. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners Since the early 1990s, and particularly in the new millennium, local water users - both within the Klamath Project and those who farm in upstream areas north of Upper Klamath Lake - have taken proactive steps to protect and enhance water supplies, enhance the environment, r and stabilize the agricultural economy. Farmers and ranchers in the Klamath Project have consistently supported restoration actions to improve habitat for the basin's fish and wildlife species. Sucker Recovery Planning KWUA in 1993 published the Initial Ecosystem Restoration Plan - the first ecosystem- based, scientifically valid planning document on Klamath Basin restoration. The plan placed particular emphasis on real, on- the- ground projects to recover endangered species. It was widely recognized as a meaningful assessment of necessary restoration activities. KWUA in 2001 reiterated its previous call with the release of a report entitled Protecting the Beneficial Uses of Upper Klamath Lake: A Plan to Accelerate Recovery of the Lost River and Shortnose Suckers. The 2001 report provided timelines and budgets for dozens of projects that could provide real benefits. Regrettably, until the past three years, there has been failure to effectively implement most of the on- the- ground activities proposed by KWUA. On- the- Ground Actions Local agricultural and business leaders have dedicated thousands of volunteer hours and have spent millions of dollars in the past ten years to participate in processes associated with environmental restoration, Klamath Basin water rights adjudication, dispute resolution, drought- proofing, and water supply enhancement. Most impressive, however, is the multitude of actions undertaken on- the- ground: • Local efforts to assist National Wildlife Refuges ( e. g. " Walking Wetlands") • Ecosystem Enhancement and Sucker Recovery Efforts in the Upper Basin • Fish Passage Improvement Projects • Wildlife Enhancement and Wetland Restoration Efforts • Local Efforts to Improve Water Quality 36 • Power Resource Development • Efforts to Improve Klamath Project Water Supply Reliability and Water Use Efficiency Many of these efforts were driven by an initial desire to implement meaningful restoration actions intended to provide some sort of mitigation " credit" that could be applied towards reducing the burden carried by Klamath Project irrigators to " protect" threatened and endangered fish species. For many years, that credit was not recognized. For example, Federal agencies or non- profit conservation groups have acquired over 25,000 acres of farmland in the Upper Klamath Basin for habitat purposes. Each time the agencies sought additional land, they promised that each acquisition would provide environmental benefits, reducing pressure on the Klamath Project's family farmers and ranchers. Those promises have not materialized, and Project irrigation water still remains the sole regulatory tool used to address federal ESA objectives for endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath River watershed. • TEAMWORK A broad range of partners include U. S. Fish and Wildlife, Bureau of Reclamation. CalOre Wetlands. Tulelake Growers Association, Audubon Society. Tulelake Irrigation District, California Waterfowl Association. University of California. Ducks Unlimited. Klamath Water Users Association. USDA NRCS. Leaseland Advisory Council, and numerous volunteer organizations. A page from the " Refuge" section of the tule- Iake. com website. Environmental Water Bank KWUA in early March 2003 announced it would support, and assist the Department of Interior in the implementation of, a Klamath Project Pilot Environmental Water Bank in 2003 to provide over 50,000 acre- feet of additional water for environmental purposes. Reclamation's 10- year Biological Assessment ( BA) developed in February 2002 proposed an environmental water bank through which willing buyers and sellers will provide additional water supplies for fish and wildlife purposes and to enhance tribal trust resources. The 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon firmly established the river flow schedule and the water bank - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. 37 The coho biological opinion's rigid water bank schedule, which steps up the magnitude of the bank for the first four years, regardless of actual hydrology, is difficult to justify. This type of water bank does not reflect the intent of either the proposal put forth by KWUA in 2002 ( see below), or the original USBR biological assessment, which proposed implementation of a water bank in drier years, not every year. Water users committed to pursue developing a water bank with Reclamation in January 2002. At that time, KWUA was asked by Reclamation to develop a Project- wide water bank to assist with meeting environmental water demands in drier years. KWUA's Water Bank and Supply Enhancement Committee held over 30 meetings in 2002- 03 to develop the 65- page report/ proposal for a long- term water bank, which differs substantially from the pilot water bank proposed by Reclamation this past year. Certainty of water supplies is a key principle imbedded in KWUA's long- term water bank proposal. Local water users insist that, in exchange for voluntary participation in a Project water bank - which would be used to " fund" environmental water needs - 100% of the irrigation demand for remaining Project acreage will be satisfied, season- long. Water users further believe that the water bank cannot be viewed as a stand- alone element. While Reclamation's 2003 and 2004 pilot programs did not closely resemble KWUA's vision for a long- term bank, water users are hopeful that Reclamation and Interior will look to the irrigators' document to complete its 10- year water bank proposal. EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin The federal government in 2003 released $ 7 million in conservation funding to the Klamath Basin. This sum represents a portion of the $ 50 million in funding earmarked for the Basin in the 2002 Farm Bill under the Environmental Quality Incentives Program ( EQIP). KWUA was instrumental in securing these provisions during Farm Bill negotiations. In 2004, Interior Secretary Norton included another $ 12 million for this program in the president's 2005 budget request. The funds provided cost- share payments to farmers and ranchers to employ water conservation measures. Over 800 Klamath Basin landowners have applied to participate in this program, despite the requirement that they pay 25% of the costs. This shows remarkable commitment by local irrigators to do the right thing, despite the fact that many of these landowners are still recovering from the financial impacts of the 2001 water curtailment. Recognition at Last In the past year, local irrigators have finally begun to get the recognition - if not the actual regulatory relief- they deserve for their proactive efforts. To wit: • KWUA was awarded the 2003 " Leadership in Conservation" award by the Oregon Department of Agriculture; • KWUA in 2004 was honored on the steps of the Oregon state capitol for " exemplifying the spirit" of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds; 38 Tulelake Irrigation District in January 2004 received the F. Gordon Johnston award for its innovative canal lining project completed near Newell; and U. S. Secretary of Agriculture Ann Veneman and NRCS chief Bruce Knight in 2004 recognized local rancher Mike Byrne for his leadership in conservation. NRCS Chief Bruce Knight ( left) with 2004 Excellence in Conservation Award winner Mike Byrne. It is clear that local irrigators have not been idle in the past ten years. Their efforts to improve their environment are all the more impressive when one considers that the uncertainty and difficulty associated with keeping their farming operations profitable have not diminished. Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, Congressman Greg Walden and KWUA Executive Director Dan Keppen at the new A Canal Headgates, April 2003. 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach Klamath Project water users in October 2004 enthusiastically greeted the announcement that the states of California and Oregon and the Bush Administration had signed the historic " Klamath River Watershed Coordination Agreement". The agreement - signed by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, and four of President Bush's cabinet level secretaries - underscored the commitment of these parties to solve the fisheries challenges of the Klamath River on a watershed - wide basis. The state- federal Klamath agreement reflects the philosophy embedded in both the Klamath River Basin Compact and the 2003 NRC Klamath report, which confirmed that Klamath Basin issues must be dealt with in an integrated and comprehensive way for a lasting solution of the challenges facing the basin. The NRC committee report makes clear that merely closing the spigot on the Klamath Project will not solve the problems facing Klamath Basin fisheries, and that strategy obviously was disastrous for farming and ranching communities. The coordination agreement recognizes that message and promotes a unified effort that many water users believe is much needed. An important part of this agreement is that it supports the Conservation Implementation Program ( CIP), a work in progress proposed by federal agencies to coordinate management actions in the Klamath River watershed. The CIP would meld a scientific advisory body, local communities, and resource agencies to identify, coordinate and resolve the Basin's critical water quality, water quantity and fish and wildlife restoration challenges. KWUA is working with other producer groups and local government to develop guidelines that make the CIP workable and acceptable to Klamath Basin communities. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River Reclamation in late 2004 finalized a draft study intended to provide a glimpse at how the Klamath River might have looked before the Klamath Project was built. The report shows that- especially in drier years - historic flows in the Klamath River near Keno, Oregon dwindled to a mere trickle. The report provides compelling evidence that supports claims made by local residents for decades - the stored water provided by the Klamath Project may actually provide more flows downriver than what would have flowed before the Project was built. This is primarily due to the developed storage and the fact that farmlands that were once under water now use less water than what was historically lost to consumptive and evaporative use of the former marshes. 40 Ufric; lfftid Kur , Jhm% tr Excerpt from Draft BOR Flow Study 41 Conclusion - The Future To solve the problems of the Klamath River watershed, we need a coordinated management program that spans two states in a watershed that is characterized by a strong federal presence. Competition among stakeholder groups - including four tribes, agricultural water users, and countless environmental groups - is fierce. In order to be successful, we need to better understand the real state of the watershed by developing the facts and best possible information to make the best possible decisions. Collaborations need to replace ideological advocacies; watershed wide approaches need to replace regionalism; and honest exchanges of information need to displace environmental sensationalism. A June 20, 2004 editorial published by the Klamath Falls Herald & News provides an apt glimpse of what the future might bring to the Klamath irrigation community and how the Klamath Water Users Association will address that future: Recently, the Klamath Water Users Association got an award for not using water, which is not a contradiction in terms at all. It's a matter of doing what has to be done to keep farming and ranching alive in the Klamath Basin. The award was from the state of Oregon and recognized the water users' efforts in behalf of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. It was presented to the group in a ceremony on the steps of the Capitol with leaders such as Gov. Ted Kulongoski and the Democratic and Republican leaders of the Legislature participating. The award recognizes a welter of actions in the Basin, some using federal and state dollars and some not, many aimed at making agricultural operations more efficient water users. Some have given agriculture interests heartache, such as the conversion of farmlands to wetlands - the water users cite 24,000 acres in the past decade, equal to more than a tenth of the Klamath Reclamation Project. Nevertheless, it's clear that farmers and ranchers have recognized their predicament given the pressure of the Endangered Species Act and competition for water from Indian tribes upstream and down. Agriculture is in the midst of a struggle that could take decades yet to play out, and its defenders are determined that they will survive. This is a longer- term version of the creativity they showed in 2001, when, faced with imminent ruin, they responded with skill and imagination in a political protest that brought national attention and saved Basin agriculture to fight another day. The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works. ~ 42 Whatever alternate vision exists involves blowing away towns such as Merrill Malin and Tulelake and shriveling the city ofKlamath Falls. It involves throwing lots of people off the land, and itfs not acceptable. This is not the first such award, and won't be the last. It is a signal of a widening recognition in Oregon and the nation that farmers and ranchers will do good things here to make sure that they can continue in their necessary and honorable work. The Klamath Water Users Association, with the talents and support of the community, will continue to address the resource needs of its constituency in a proactive and creative manner. The KWUA has shown itself to be steadfast and able in protecting water users while being receptive to innovative and reasonable solutions. Our irrigating communities, through the continued efforts of the KWUA, will always be persistent and adaptable representatives of our American heritage. The " future".. . bring it on, we can handle it. r Father and daughter ride to the headgates, summer 2001. 43 Notes Information sources used in the preceding report sections are further described below. Overview The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report. Pioneers The Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service 1913 report entitled " History of the Klamath Project. Oregon- California. From May 1, 1903 to December 13, 1912", written by I. S. Voorhees, contains detailed accounting of early irrigation works in the Upper Klamath Basin. Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government *— The Voorhees document, noted above, details this issue. Construction Begins The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Basin Area Office also provided factual data on the Klamath Project. Homesteaders The Journal of the Modoc County Historical Society, No. 18- 1996, focuses exclusively on twentieth century development of the Tule Lake area. Betty Lou Byrne- Shirely's " The Reclamation of Tule Lake" and the February 1947 Reclamation Era article " Gold Mine in the Sky", both included in the Modoc County historical journal, served as sources for the homesteader information. Quotes made by Dave Carman, a World War II veteran Tule Lake homesteader, were pulled from his testimony submitted at a House Resources Committee field hearing in Klamath Falls in June 2004. The Klamath River Compact The source for much of this information regarding development of the Compact comes from the affidavit and testimony of Stephen R. Wee, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project water rights and related issues on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040049, before the Office of Administrative 44 - r Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). The conclusion of this section contains the actual purposes of the Compact, as identified in Article I of that document. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. New Demands Legal documents prepared by the Klamath Water Users Association attorney - Paul Simmons, of Somach, Simmons & Dunn - provide much of the background information regarding the steadily increasing regulations faced by Project irrigators, starting in the 1990s. Specifically, the plaintiffs' memorandum of points and authorities in support of motion for preliminary injunction ( Kandra et al v. United States of America) was relied upon. Also, David Vogel's testimony before the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Resources oversight field hearing in June 2004 provides an excellent treatise on the real reasons for the decline of suckers in the Upper Klamath Basin. The Klamath Water Users Association previously developed the section that assesses stressors to coho salmon during the 1990s. Problems on the East Side This section derives from an excellent letter ( dated July 28, 2004) prepared by Best Best & Krieger on behalf of Horsefly Irrigation District and Langell Valley Irrigation District. The letter was submitted to the U. S. House of Representatives Resources Committee in connection with a congressional field hearing held in Klamath Falls in July 2004. 2001 Curtailment Of the numerous media accounts of the 2001 water cutoff, I believe Blake Hurst's piece " Calamity in Klamath", which originally was published in The American Enterprise magazine in late 2002, is the best. I have borrowed liberally from Mr. Hurst, particularly his assessment of the impacts to the community of Tulelake, California. Jess Prosser's comments were originally printed in Range Magazine in 2001. The Farmers Fight Back The comments regarding the " desperate community" were pulled from an outstanding paper presented by Paul Simmons at the American Bar Association Environmental Section Fall 2004 Meeting. 45 Enter President Bush I was in the audience when President Bush made his speech in Portland. After the president's speech, I met Congressman Greg Walden for the first time; he conveyed to me some of the details of the president's flight over the Klamath Basin earlier in the day. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In This section was derived from press statements developed by KWUA in early 2002. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies Most of this section derives from personal experience, and the latter part was pulled directly from an opinion piece I was asked to write for a Boise, Idaho newspaper at the request of Idaho water users who were also being attacked by some of the same activists engaged in Klamath issues. Vindication, Part II / " We hate to say we told you so, but...." Much of this information originates in Dave Vogel's written testimony that he submitted to the House Resources Committee in June 2004. After more than a decade of professional and sometimes, personal criticism by agency and tribal biologists, the final NRC Report perhaps vindicated Dave Vogel more than anyone else. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment This section was written based on personal experience of the author. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners We refer you to www. kwua. org and a 45- page document entitled Summary of Recent and Proposed Environmental Restoration and Water Conservation Efforts Undertaken by Klamath Water Users and Basin Landowners for further information on this topic. 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach This perspective comes from KWUA assessments and press releases. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River The USBR study is incredibly important, because, for the first time, it provides a numerical modeling assessment of the conditions that likely existed on the Upper Klamath River before Europeans settled the area. Prior to this effort, assertions that flow conditions in the river were likely lower than the present could only be backed up by anecdotal ( albeit accurate) reports and incomplete flow studies. Conclusion - The Future The June 20, 2004 Herald & News editorial on recent water user efforts provided a fitting ending to this report, which is further enhanced by language developed by Steve Kandra, 2004- 05 KWUA President. 46 Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California Photo Credits 1. Cover photo - courtesy of Jacqui Krizo. 2. Map of Klamath Project - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 3. " A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907" - courtesy of Tulelake- Butte Valley _ Fair, Museum of Local History ( TBVF Museum). 4. " 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area" - courtesy of Oregon Water Resources Department. 5. " Adams Cut, July 18, 1906" - courtesy of Tulelake - Butte Valley Fair, Museum of Local History. 6. " 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 7. " Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September, 1909" - courtesy of TBVF Museum. 8. " 1927 Homesteader Affidavit" - courtesy of Somach, Simmons and Dunn 9. " Farm Lottery Article, Life Magazine" - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 10. " The Sign Says it AH" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 11. " Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 12. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River - courtesy of PacifiCorp. 13. " Tulelake, California" - courtesy of Rob Crawford r l4. " Del Norte Salmon Cannery" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 15. " April 6, 2004 Headlines" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 16. " Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 17. " Cemeteries went Dry in 2001" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 18. " Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 19. Klamath Bucket Brigade - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 20. Prayer / Protest at Headgates - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 21. President Bush Photo courtesy of Rob Crawford _ 22. Tulelake Rancher Gary Wright, June 2003 - courtesy of Pat Ratliff 23. Walking Wetlands photo - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson. 24. Bruce Knight and Mike Byrne - courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture 25. Gov. Kulongoski, Rep. Walden, and Dan Keppen at the A Canal, 2003 - Courtesy of Pat Ratliff 26. Undepleted Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River - U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 27. " Father and Daughter Ride to the Headgates" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 28. " Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California" - courtesy of Scott Harding Photography r — 47 Close

• 360. [Image] Official annual, Medford District, Ninth Corps Area, Civilian Conservation Corps.

  	Annual; Description based on: 1938 issue; Cover title
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Official annual, Medford District, Ninth Corps Area, Civilian Conservation Corps. Author: Civilian Conservation Corps (U.S.). Medford District Year: 1938, 2008, 2006 Annual; Description based on: 1938 issue; Cover title Title: Official annual, Medford District, Ninth Corps Area, Civilian Conservation Corps. Author: Civilian Conservation Corps (U.S.). Medford District Year: 1938, 2008, 2006 Annual; Description based on: 1938 issue; Cover title Close

• 361. [Image] The Water Report. Klamath Fishery Science: Controversy in the Klamath River Basin

  	Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographic references. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Water Report. Klamath Fishery Science: Controversy in the Klamath River Basin Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographic references. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/. Title: The Water Report. Klamath Fishery Science: Controversy in the Klamath River Basin Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographic references. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/. Close

• 362. [Image] Lower Klamath River instream flow study : scoping evaluation for the Yurok Indian Reservation

  	ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lower Columbia River Fishery Resource Office was funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs to conduct an instream flow assessment for the lower Klamath River within ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lower Klamath River instream flow study : scoping evaluation for the Yurok Indian Reservation Author: Anglin, Donald R Year: 1994, 2007, 2006 ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lower Columbia River Fishery Resource Office was funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs to conduct an instream flow assessment for the lower Klamath River within the Yurok Indian Reservation in northern California using the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM). Specific study tasks consisted of developing an explicit statement of purpose, definition of the study area and target species, assembly and evaluation of hydrologic, water quality, and physical data as well as biological and fish habitat information. A reconnaissance survey of the proposed study area was also conducted. The purpose for conducting the proposed flow study was the Yurok Tribe's desire to protect the Klamath basin water supply for the production of anadromous fish. The ultimate goal was to protect, restore, and enhance the anadromous fishery resources on the Reservation and in the basin as a whole. The study area was defined as the lower Klamath River and tributaries from the confluence with the Trinity River downstream to the area of tidal influence. Although the mainstem Klamath only was proposed for flow studies, the tributaries were included in the study area as a result of their hydrologic and biological relevance. Target species were identified as chinook salmon {Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (0. kisutch), steelhead trout (0. mykiss) , green sturgeon {Acipenser medirostris) , eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) , and Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) . Assembly and evaluation of relevant information was accomplished from results of a public scoping meeting and the review of a large volume of both published and file reports as well as numerous personal communications. Hydrology of the lower Klamath River is affected by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation projects in both the upper Klamath and upper Trinity subbasins. Several hydroelectric projects in the upper Klamath subbasin affect flow patterns, and agricultural activities in the upper Klamath subbasin and tributaries and the Central Valley Project in the upper Trinity subbasin have reduced water yield from the basin. Water quality concerns were identified as elevated water temperatures and nutrient levels resulting from land use activities throughout the basin. Hydrologic and water quality impacts are partially mitigated in the lower Klamath by tributary inflow throughout the basin. The physical environment in the basin has been altered by land use practices and several major flood events. Alterations include loss of riparian vegetation and stream channel stability, loss of soil moisture storage capacity and infiltration potential, debris slides and logjams resulting in migration barriers, reduced supply of large woody debris for recruitment into the stream channel, and sedimentation of spawning and rearing habitat. Fish habitat in most lower Klamath tributaries has been surveyed and deficiencies as well as good quality habitat have been described. Significant production potential exists in most tributaries, however much restoration work needs to be completed to realize the potential. Habitat characteristics for the mainstem Klamath have not been described. Life history and production data are presented for target species and a brief review of sources for suitability criteria is presented. Harvest management and escapement for naturally spawning fall chinook salmon were reviewed from 1978 through 1993. Escapement has varied over the years but a general downward trend in naturally spawning fall chinook can be observed, particularly in recent years. Escapement goals for the Klamath basin varied from 115,000 in 1978 to an "emergency" floor of 27,000 in 1992. Actual escapement of naturally spawning adult fall chinook varied from a high of 113,000 in 1986 to a low of 11,600 in 1991. Escapement in 1978 totalled 58,500 and preliminary estimates of escapement in 1993 were 21,000 naturally spawning adults. Factors affecting production and subsequent stock size and escapement included variable ocean survival, degraded freshwater habitat conditions, the recent six-year drought, releases of large numbers of hatchery juveniles, and harvest management methodologies that have failed to adequately match harvest to predicted stock size. Differential harvest rates for Klamath and Trinity subbasin fall chinook have also complicated attempts to structure the harvest. Field reconnaisance surveys were conducted in spring and summer 1993 for the proposed mainstem Klamath study area. Two distinct river segments were identified based on macrohabitat characteristics. Microhabitat was classified within each river segment and mapped on USGS quadrangle maps. Cross section identification was postponed pending the decision to move forward with the flow study. Following the scoping tasks described above, conclusions and recommendations were developed. No information was reviewed that indicated the need for an instream flow study in the lower Klamath River. The two basic problems affecting anadromous fish production are degraded freshwater habitat and chronic underescapement. Coordination and planning for instream flow studies on a basin-wide scale was recommended. Biological data gaps were identified which need to be addressed before an instream flow study can be completed for the lower Klamath. Suitability criteria for habitat analysis also need to be identified. Habitat restoration and protection and proper management of anadromous fishery resources were identified as the highest priorities to begin restoration of anadromous stocks. Specific recommendations for habitat restoration included watershed and riparian zone restoration, barrier removal, instream habitat inventory, restoration, and monitoring, estuary studies, and description of streamflow characteristics for lower Klamath tributaries. Recommended fishery resource studies included collection of basic life history data, monitoring for adult escapement and juvenile production, description of estuary usage, effects of hatchery programs on both adult and juvenile wild fish, evaluation of the accelerated stocking program, and refinement of harvest management methodologies to achieve appropriate escapement of naturally spawning stocks into all subbasins. Title: Lower Klamath River instream flow study : scoping evaluation for the Yurok Indian Reservation Author: Anglin, Donald R Year: 1994, 2007, 2006 ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lower Columbia River Fishery Resource Office was funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs to conduct an instream flow assessment for the lower Klamath River within the Yurok Indian Reservation in northern California using the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM). Specific study tasks consisted of developing an explicit statement of purpose, definition of the study area and target species, assembly and evaluation of hydrologic, water quality, and physical data as well as biological and fish habitat information. A reconnaissance survey of the proposed study area was also conducted. The purpose for conducting the proposed flow study was the Yurok Tribe's desire to protect the Klamath basin water supply for the production of anadromous fish. The ultimate goal was to protect, restore, and enhance the anadromous fishery resources on the Reservation and in the basin as a whole. The study area was defined as the lower Klamath River and tributaries from the confluence with the Trinity River downstream to the area of tidal influence. Although the mainstem Klamath only was proposed for flow studies, the tributaries were included in the study area as a result of their hydrologic and biological relevance. Target species were identified as chinook salmon {Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (0. kisutch), steelhead trout (0. mykiss) , green sturgeon {Acipenser medirostris) , eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) , and Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) . Assembly and evaluation of relevant information was accomplished from results of a public scoping meeting and the review of a large volume of both published and file reports as well as numerous personal communications. Hydrology of the lower Klamath River is affected by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation projects in both the upper Klamath and upper Trinity subbasins. Several hydroelectric projects in the upper Klamath subbasin affect flow patterns, and agricultural activities in the upper Klamath subbasin and tributaries and the Central Valley Project in the upper Trinity subbasin have reduced water yield from the basin. Water quality concerns were identified as elevated water temperatures and nutrient levels resulting from land use activities throughout the basin. Hydrologic and water quality impacts are partially mitigated in the lower Klamath by tributary inflow throughout the basin. The physical environment in the basin has been altered by land use practices and several major flood events. Alterations include loss of riparian vegetation and stream channel stability, loss of soil moisture storage capacity and infiltration potential, debris slides and logjams resulting in migration barriers, reduced supply of large woody debris for recruitment into the stream channel, and sedimentation of spawning and rearing habitat. Fish habitat in most lower Klamath tributaries has been surveyed and deficiencies as well as good quality habitat have been described. Significant production potential exists in most tributaries, however much restoration work needs to be completed to realize the potential. Habitat characteristics for the mainstem Klamath have not been described. Life history and production data are presented for target species and a brief review of sources for suitability criteria is presented. Harvest management and escapement for naturally spawning fall chinook salmon were reviewed from 1978 through 1993. Escapement has varied over the years but a general downward trend in naturally spawning fall chinook can be observed, particularly in recent years. Escapement goals for the Klamath basin varied from 115,000 in 1978 to an "emergency" floor of 27,000 in 1992. Actual escapement of naturally spawning adult fall chinook varied from a high of 113,000 in 1986 to a low of 11,600 in 1991. Escapement in 1978 totalled 58,500 and preliminary estimates of escapement in 1993 were 21,000 naturally spawning adults. Factors affecting production and subsequent stock size and escapement included variable ocean survival, degraded freshwater habitat conditions, the recent six-year drought, releases of large numbers of hatchery juveniles, and harvest management methodologies that have failed to adequately match harvest to predicted stock size. Differential harvest rates for Klamath and Trinity subbasin fall chinook have also complicated attempts to structure the harvest. Field reconnaisance surveys were conducted in spring and summer 1993 for the proposed mainstem Klamath study area. Two distinct river segments were identified based on macrohabitat characteristics. Microhabitat was classified within each river segment and mapped on USGS quadrangle maps. Cross section identification was postponed pending the decision to move forward with the flow study. Following the scoping tasks described above, conclusions and recommendations were developed. No information was reviewed that indicated the need for an instream flow study in the lower Klamath River. The two basic problems affecting anadromous fish production are degraded freshwater habitat and chronic underescapement. Coordination and planning for instream flow studies on a basin-wide scale was recommended. Biological data gaps were identified which need to be addressed before an instream flow study can be completed for the lower Klamath. Suitability criteria for habitat analysis also need to be identified. Habitat restoration and protection and proper management of anadromous fishery resources were identified as the highest priorities to begin restoration of anadromous stocks. Specific recommendations for habitat restoration included watershed and riparian zone restoration, barrier removal, instream habitat inventory, restoration, and monitoring, estuary studies, and description of streamflow characteristics for lower Klamath tributaries. Recommended fishery resource studies included collection of basic life history data, monitoring for adult escapement and juvenile production, description of estuary usage, effects of hatchery programs on both adult and juvenile wild fish, evaluation of the accelerated stocking program, and refinement of harvest management methodologies to achieve appropriate escapement of naturally spawning stocks into all subbasins. Close

• 363. [Image] Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon

  	"Serial no. 108-104."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources. Subcommittee on Water and Power Year: 2005 "Serial no. 108-104." Title: Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources. Subcommittee on Water and Power Year: 2005 "Serial no. 108-104." Close

• 364. [Image] The Oregon conservation strategy

  	v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Close

• 365. [Image] Pinniped and seabird predation : implications for recovery of threatened stocks of salmonids in Oregon under the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds

  	"December 22, 1998."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Pinniped and seabird predation : implications for recovery of threatened stocks of salmonids in Oregon under the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 22, 1998." Title: Pinniped and seabird predation : implications for recovery of threatened stocks of salmonids in Oregon under the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 22, 1998." Close

• 366. [Image] Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan

  	"December 1990"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Close

• 367. [Image] Final biological assessment: the effects of proposed actions related to Klamath Project operation (April 1, 2002-March 31, 2012) on federally-listed threatened and endangered species

  	"Partially incorporating January 22, 2001 Biological assessment submitted to the National Marine Fisheries Service and February 13, 2001 Biological Assessment submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service" ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final biological assessment: the effects of proposed actions related to Klamath Project operation (April 1, 2002-March 31, 2012) on federally-listed threatened and endangered species Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Basin Area Office Year: 2002, 2004 "Partially incorporating January 22, 2001 Biological assessment submitted to the National Marine Fisheries Service and February 13, 2001 Biological Assessment submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service" ; Includes bibliographical references ; "February 25, 2002" Title: Final biological assessment: the effects of proposed actions related to Klamath Project operation (April 1, 2002-March 31, 2012) on federally-listed threatened and endangered species Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Basin Area Office Year: 2002, 2004 "Partially incorporating January 22, 2001 Biological assessment submitted to the National Marine Fisheries Service and February 13, 2001 Biological Assessment submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service" ; Includes bibliographical references ; "February 25, 2002" Close

• 368. [Image] Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2001, 2005 Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, Pediastrum, and cyanobacterial akinetes. These results were used to reconstruct changes in water quality in Upper Klamath Lake over the last 150 years. The results showed that there was substantial mixing of the upper 10 cm of sediment, representing the previous 20 to 30 years. However, below that, 210Pb activity declined monotonically, allowing reasonable dating for the period from about 1850 to 1970. The sediment accumulation rates (SAR) showed a substantial increase in the 20th century. The increase in SAR corresponded with increases in erosional input from the watershed as represented by the increases in sediment concentrations of Ti and Al. The upper 20 cm of sediment (representing the last 150 years) also showed increases in C, N, P, and 15N. The increases in nutrient concentrations may be affected to various degrees by diagenetic reactions within the sediments, although the changes in concentrations also were marked by changes in the N:P ratio and in a qualitative change in the source of N as reflected in increasing S15N. The diatoms showed modest changes, particularly in the upper sediments, with increases in Asterionellaformosa, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and S. parvus. Pediastrum, a green alga, was well-preserved in the sediments and exhibited a sharp decline in relative abundance in the upper sediments. Total cyanobacteria, as represented by preserved akinetes, exhibited only minor changes in the last 1000 years. However, a taxon which was formerly not present in the lake 150 years ago, Aphanizomenon, has shown major increases in recent decades. Although the mixing in the upper sediments prevents high-resolution temporal analysis of the recent history (e.g. last 30 years) of Upper Klamath Lake, the results demonstrate that major changes in water quality likely have occurred leading to a major modification of the phytoplankton assemblage. The changes in sediment composition are consistent with land use activities during this period that include substantial deforestation, drainage of wetlands, and agricultural activities associated with livestock and irrigated cropland. Title: Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2001, 2005 Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, Pediastrum, and cyanobacterial akinetes. These results were used to reconstruct changes in water quality in Upper Klamath Lake over the last 150 years. The results showed that there was substantial mixing of the upper 10 cm of sediment, representing the previous 20 to 30 years. However, below that, 210Pb activity declined monotonically, allowing reasonable dating for the period from about 1850 to 1970. The sediment accumulation rates (SAR) showed a substantial increase in the 20th century. The increase in SAR corresponded with increases in erosional input from the watershed as represented by the increases in sediment concentrations of Ti and Al. The upper 20 cm of sediment (representing the last 150 years) also showed increases in C, N, P, and 15N. The increases in nutrient concentrations may be affected to various degrees by diagenetic reactions within the sediments, although the changes in concentrations also were marked by changes in the N:P ratio and in a qualitative change in the source of N as reflected in increasing S15N. The diatoms showed modest changes, particularly in the upper sediments, with increases in Asterionellaformosa, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and S. parvus. Pediastrum, a green alga, was well-preserved in the sediments and exhibited a sharp decline in relative abundance in the upper sediments. Total cyanobacteria, as represented by preserved akinetes, exhibited only minor changes in the last 1000 years. However, a taxon which was formerly not present in the lake 150 years ago, Aphanizomenon, has shown major increases in recent decades. Although the mixing in the upper sediments prevents high-resolution temporal analysis of the recent history (e.g. last 30 years) of Upper Klamath Lake, the results demonstrate that major changes in water quality likely have occurred leading to a major modification of the phytoplankton assemblage. The changes in sediment composition are consistent with land use activities during this period that include substantial deforestation, drainage of wetlands, and agricultural activities associated with livestock and irrigated cropland. Close

• 369. [Article] Distribution and movements of Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, returning to the Yukon River basin

  Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, returning to the Yukon River basin and other large river systems in western Alaska have declined dramatically since the late 1990s. This continuing trend has ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution and movements of Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, returning to the Yukon River basin Author: Eiler, John H. Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, returning to the Yukon River basin and other large river systems in western Alaska have declined dramatically since the late 1990s. This continuing trend has raised concerns over the future status of the returns, and severely impacted commercial and subsistence fisheries within the drainage. Management is further complicated by the mixed-stock composition of the run, the presence of other temporally similar salmon species, and the need to equitably allocate harvests between the numerous fisheries and user groups scattered throughout the basin. Detailed information is needed on Chinook salmon run characteristics to better understand and manage the returns, and facilitate conservation efforts. However, this goal is exacerbated by the massive size and remote nature of the basin, the large number of highly mobile fish, and the compressed timing of the run. To address these challenges, radio telemetry was used to determine the stock composition and spawning distribution of the returns, and the migratory characteristics of the fish. The migratory patterns exhibited by returning salmon provide a number of insights into the status of the run. Since the Yukon River is essentially free-flowing (i.e., not regulated), this study also presented an opportunity to document the distribution and upriver movements of large returns of wild Chinook salmon under natural conditions. During 2002-2004, returning adult Chinook salmon were captured in the lower Yukon River (approximately 300 km upriver from the river mouth), tagged with radio transmitters, and tracked upriver using remote tracking stations located on important migratory routes and major spawning tributaries. Aerial tracking surveys were used to locate fish in spawning areas and between stations. The fish responded well to the capture and handling procedures, with most (2,790, 98%) resuming upriver movements. Although the fish initially displayed a negative tagging response, with slower migration rates observed immediately after release, the duration of this response was relatively short (several days) and less severe as the fish moved upriver. Independent measures indicated that the swimming speeds and timing of the fish upriver from the tagging area were comparable to untagged fish, suggesting that the tagging methods used were relatively benign. Fish returned to spawning areas throughout the basin, ranging from several hundred to over 3,000 km from the tagging area. Distribution patterns were similar across years, suggesting that the principal components of the run were identified. Most spawning fish were clustered in a number of key tributaries, with smaller numbers of fish located in other spatially isolated areas. The fish typically returned to clear water tributaries that were relatively entrenched, had moderate gradients, and were associated with upland areas. Fish were largely absent in lowland reaches characterized by meandering, low gradient, highly alluvial channels often associated with main river floodplains. There was suggestive evidence of mainstem spawning in reaches of the Upper Yukon. The status of fish remaining in other mainstem areas was less certain, and may represent local spawning activity or fish that died while in-transit to upriver areas. Although Chinook salmon spawned throughout the basin, the run was dominated by two regional components (Tanana and Upper Yukon), which annually comprised over 70% of the return. Substantially fewer fish returned to other areas ranging from 2-9% of the return, although the collective contribution of these stocks was appreciable. Most regional returns consisted of several principal stocks and a number of small, spatially isolated populations. Regional and stock composition estimates were similar across years even though differences in run abundance were reported, suggesting that these abundance differences were not related to regional or stock-specific differences. Run timing was relatively compressed compared to rivers in the southern portion of the range, with most stocks passing through the lower river over a 6-week period, ranging from 16 to 38 d. Run timing was generally earlier for stocks traveling farther upriver, although exceptions were noted. Lower basin stocks were primarily later run fish. Pronounced differences were observed in the migration rates (km/d) exhibited by regional stocks. Substantially slower swimming speeds were observed for fish returning to terminal tributaries in the lower basin ranging from 28-40 km/d compared to 52-62 km/d for upper basin stocks. The migratory patterns (migration rates in sequential reaches) of the fish also showed distinct regional differences. Average migration rates through the lower river were remarkably similar for the different stocks, ranging from 57-62 km/d, with most stocks exhibiting a general decline as the fish moved farther upriver. Tanana River stocks displayed a pronounced reduction in swimming speed after leaving the Yukon River main stem, with migration rates declining to 24 km/d on average as the fish approached their terminal tributaries. Conversely, upper basin stocks exhibited a relatively gradual (but variable) overall decline in migration rate even though these fish were traveling substantially greater distances upriver. Average migration rates for upper basin stocks ranged from 43-61 km/d as the fish approached their terminal tributaries. There was substantial variation in the migratory patterns exhibited by individual fish, although these patterns tended to be similar to the patterns exhibited by the regional stocks, particularly as the fish moved farther upriver from the tagging area. The dominant source of variation among fish reflected the average migration rate, with individual fish traveling slower in the lower basin exhibiting consistently slower migration rates as they moved upriver compared to their faster moving counterparts. This migratory pattern was consistent across stocks, and on average explained 74% of the within-stock variation in migration rate represented by the multivariate data. The second source of variation in migration rate reflected a shift in the relative swimming speeds of the individual fish as they progressed upriver. Although movement rates declined for nearly all of the fish during the migration, differences were observed in the pattern of the decline. Fish with faster migration rates in the lower river exhibited a pronounced decline in swimming speed as they moved upriver, whereas fish moving slower in the lower river displayed a more gradual decline in migration rate. On average, this migratory pattern explained 22% of the within-stock variation in migration rate represented by the multivariate data. Most fish (98%) exhibited continuous upriver movements and strong fidelity to the rivers they entered. However a small number of fish (n = 66) deviated from this pattern. Some of these individuals initially passed their final destination and continued upriver for varying distances before reversing direction, swimming back downstream, and entering their terminal tributary. Although most of these excursions were relatively short (< 30 km), there were several instances where fish traveled hundreds of kilometers out of their way. Thirty-four fish tracked to terminal tributaries subsequently left these rivers, and traveled to other terminal tributaries within the basin (n = 31) or were harvested in upriver fisheries (n = 3). Although most of these incidents involved nearby tributaries, major diversions were also observed, with several fish traveling over 300 km to natal rivers after leaving the initial tributary. Chinook salmon returns to the Yukon River typically consisted of a series of distinct and sizable increases in the number fish entering the river over the course of the run, commonly referred to as pulses. A large number of fish (n = 251) were radio tagged over a 4-day period during a pulse in 2003 to provide information on the progression of the pulse as it moved upriver. The time taken by the pulse to move past subsequent upriver locations increased as the fish moved farther upriver from the tagging area, with the fish passing sites located 580 and 800 km upriver over a span of 14 and 21 d, respectively. Although not surprising considering the extensive variation in migration rates observed among individual fish, this finding does suggest that these pulses do not represent cohesive aggregates of fish moving upriver. Unlike the well established methods used to estimate other life history characteristics, the development of quantitative methods for analyzing and modeling fish movements has lagged noticeably behind, due in part to the complexity associated with movement data and (prior to the advent of telemetry) the difficulty of collecting this type of information on free-ranging individuals. Two fundamentally different analytical approaches, hierarchical linear regression models and multivariate ordination, were used during this study to evaluate factors thought to influence the upriver movements of the fish. In spite of the inherent differences, both methods provided strikingly similar results, indicating that the study findings were not dependent on the approach used, and suggesting that the results were plausible based on the information available and the weight of evidence. Both analytical methods had advantages, and provided complementary information. With hierarchical linear models, it was possible to simultaneously evaluate a wide range of explanatory variables (in our case, both biological and environmental), which provided standardized comparisons and simplified the interpretation of the results. Since both fixed and random effects were incorporated in the models, it was possible to account for sources of variation when insufficient information was available to identify the underlining factors – an important consideration since few field studies provide comprehensive data. With multivariate ordination, separate analyzes were needed to examine the relationships between the migration rates and the biotic and physical variables. In addition to being cumbersome, this limitation made it more difficult to compare the relative influence of the different factors and interactions between factors. However, ordination was very useful as an exploratory tool. Although compartmentalized by stock, across fish comparisons were simple and relatively straightforward. Because the explanatory variables were evaluated separately in relation to the ordination score assigned to the fish, it was possible to examine and compare highly correlated variables. Ordination was also able to identify overall patterns within the data and assess the relative importance. While this can be accomplished within the framework of linear regression using mixture models to determine whether multiple distributions exist within the data, the process is much simpler with ordination. The migratory patterns of the fish were influenced by a wide range of factors, with evidentiary support for complex, multi-faceted relationships. Physical features of the basin demonstrated stronger explanatory power, accounting for over 70% of the observed variation in migration rate compared to 18% for the biological characteristics of the fish. Parameter estimates associated with the steepness of the migratory route and remaining distance the fish had to travel to reach their natal rivers were most strongly correlated with migration rate, with consistent relationships observed across stocks. Migration rates were also noticeably slower in extensively braided reaches of the basin. The weaker relationships between migration rate and biotic factors may reflect stabilizing selection on long-distance migrants. Smaller fish exhibited minimally faster swimming speeds on average than larger individuals. This relationship was stronger in highly braided reaches. Run timing was positively related to migration rate for most stocks. Surprisingly, upper basin stocks traveling farther upriver displayed progressively negative relationships, suggesting that late-run fish were moving slower. Ancillary information suggests that this decline may relate to deteriorating fish condition later in the season. Title: Distribution and movements of Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, returning to the Yukon River basin Author: Eiler, John H. Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, returning to the Yukon River basin and other large river systems in western Alaska have declined dramatically since the late 1990s. This continuing trend has raised concerns over the future status of the returns, and severely impacted commercial and subsistence fisheries within the drainage. Management is further complicated by the mixed-stock composition of the run, the presence of other temporally similar salmon species, and the need to equitably allocate harvests between the numerous fisheries and user groups scattered throughout the basin. Detailed information is needed on Chinook salmon run characteristics to better understand and manage the returns, and facilitate conservation efforts. However, this goal is exacerbated by the massive size and remote nature of the basin, the large number of highly mobile fish, and the compressed timing of the run. To address these challenges, radio telemetry was used to determine the stock composition and spawning distribution of the returns, and the migratory characteristics of the fish. The migratory patterns exhibited by returning salmon provide a number of insights into the status of the run. Since the Yukon River is essentially free-flowing (i.e., not regulated), this study also presented an opportunity to document the distribution and upriver movements of large returns of wild Chinook salmon under natural conditions. During 2002-2004, returning adult Chinook salmon were captured in the lower Yukon River (approximately 300 km upriver from the river mouth), tagged with radio transmitters, and tracked upriver using remote tracking stations located on important migratory routes and major spawning tributaries. Aerial tracking surveys were used to locate fish in spawning areas and between stations. The fish responded well to the capture and handling procedures, with most (2,790, 98%) resuming upriver movements. Although the fish initially displayed a negative tagging response, with slower migration rates observed immediately after release, the duration of this response was relatively short (several days) and less severe as the fish moved upriver. Independent measures indicated that the swimming speeds and timing of the fish upriver from the tagging area were comparable to untagged fish, suggesting that the tagging methods used were relatively benign. Fish returned to spawning areas throughout the basin, ranging from several hundred to over 3,000 km from the tagging area. Distribution patterns were similar across years, suggesting that the principal components of the run were identified. Most spawning fish were clustered in a number of key tributaries, with smaller numbers of fish located in other spatially isolated areas. The fish typically returned to clear water tributaries that were relatively entrenched, had moderate gradients, and were associated with upland areas. Fish were largely absent in lowland reaches characterized by meandering, low gradient, highly alluvial channels often associated with main river floodplains. There was suggestive evidence of mainstem spawning in reaches of the Upper Yukon. The status of fish remaining in other mainstem areas was less certain, and may represent local spawning activity or fish that died while in-transit to upriver areas. Although Chinook salmon spawned throughout the basin, the run was dominated by two regional components (Tanana and Upper Yukon), which annually comprised over 70% of the return. Substantially fewer fish returned to other areas ranging from 2-9% of the return, although the collective contribution of these stocks was appreciable. Most regional returns consisted of several principal stocks and a number of small, spatially isolated populations. Regional and stock composition estimates were similar across years even though differences in run abundance were reported, suggesting that these abundance differences were not related to regional or stock-specific differences. Run timing was relatively compressed compared to rivers in the southern portion of the range, with most stocks passing through the lower river over a 6-week period, ranging from 16 to 38 d. Run timing was generally earlier for stocks traveling farther upriver, although exceptions were noted. Lower basin stocks were primarily later run fish. Pronounced differences were observed in the migration rates (km/d) exhibited by regional stocks. Substantially slower swimming speeds were observed for fish returning to terminal tributaries in the lower basin ranging from 28-40 km/d compared to 52-62 km/d for upper basin stocks. The migratory patterns (migration rates in sequential reaches) of the fish also showed distinct regional differences. Average migration rates through the lower river were remarkably similar for the different stocks, ranging from 57-62 km/d, with most stocks exhibiting a general decline as the fish moved farther upriver. Tanana River stocks displayed a pronounced reduction in swimming speed after leaving the Yukon River main stem, with migration rates declining to 24 km/d on average as the fish approached their terminal tributaries. Conversely, upper basin stocks exhibited a relatively gradual (but variable) overall decline in migration rate even though these fish were traveling substantially greater distances upriver. Average migration rates for upper basin stocks ranged from 43-61 km/d as the fish approached their terminal tributaries. There was substantial variation in the migratory patterns exhibited by individual fish, although these patterns tended to be similar to the patterns exhibited by the regional stocks, particularly as the fish moved farther upriver from the tagging area. The dominant source of variation among fish reflected the average migration rate, with individual fish traveling slower in the lower basin exhibiting consistently slower migration rates as they moved upriver compared to their faster moving counterparts. This migratory pattern was consistent across stocks, and on average explained 74% of the within-stock variation in migration rate represented by the multivariate data. The second source of variation in migration rate reflected a shift in the relative swimming speeds of the individual fish as they progressed upriver. Although movement rates declined for nearly all of the fish during the migration, differences were observed in the pattern of the decline. Fish with faster migration rates in the lower river exhibited a pronounced decline in swimming speed as they moved upriver, whereas fish moving slower in the lower river displayed a more gradual decline in migration rate. On average, this migratory pattern explained 22% of the within-stock variation in migration rate represented by the multivariate data. Most fish (98%) exhibited continuous upriver movements and strong fidelity to the rivers they entered. However a small number of fish (n = 66) deviated from this pattern. Some of these individuals initially passed their final destination and continued upriver for varying distances before reversing direction, swimming back downstream, and entering their terminal tributary. Although most of these excursions were relatively short (< 30 km), there were several instances where fish traveled hundreds of kilometers out of their way. Thirty-four fish tracked to terminal tributaries subsequently left these rivers, and traveled to other terminal tributaries within the basin (n = 31) or were harvested in upriver fisheries (n = 3). Although most of these incidents involved nearby tributaries, major diversions were also observed, with several fish traveling over 300 km to natal rivers after leaving the initial tributary. Chinook salmon returns to the Yukon River typically consisted of a series of distinct and sizable increases in the number fish entering the river over the course of the run, commonly referred to as pulses. A large number of fish (n = 251) were radio tagged over a 4-day period during a pulse in 2003 to provide information on the progression of the pulse as it moved upriver. The time taken by the pulse to move past subsequent upriver locations increased as the fish moved farther upriver from the tagging area, with the fish passing sites located 580 and 800 km upriver over a span of 14 and 21 d, respectively. Although not surprising considering the extensive variation in migration rates observed among individual fish, this finding does suggest that these pulses do not represent cohesive aggregates of fish moving upriver. Unlike the well established methods used to estimate other life history characteristics, the development of quantitative methods for analyzing and modeling fish movements has lagged noticeably behind, due in part to the complexity associated with movement data and (prior to the advent of telemetry) the difficulty of collecting this type of information on free-ranging individuals. Two fundamentally different analytical approaches, hierarchical linear regression models and multivariate ordination, were used during this study to evaluate factors thought to influence the upriver movements of the fish. In spite of the inherent differences, both methods provided strikingly similar results, indicating that the study findings were not dependent on the approach used, and suggesting that the results were plausible based on the information available and the weight of evidence. Both analytical methods had advantages, and provided complementary information. With hierarchical linear models, it was possible to simultaneously evaluate a wide range of explanatory variables (in our case, both biological and environmental), which provided standardized comparisons and simplified the interpretation of the results. Since both fixed and random effects were incorporated in the models, it was possible to account for sources of variation when insufficient information was available to identify the underlining factors – an important consideration since few field studies provide comprehensive data. With multivariate ordination, separate analyzes were needed to examine the relationships between the migration rates and the biotic and physical variables. In addition to being cumbersome, this limitation made it more difficult to compare the relative influence of the different factors and interactions between factors. However, ordination was very useful as an exploratory tool. Although compartmentalized by stock, across fish comparisons were simple and relatively straightforward. Because the explanatory variables were evaluated separately in relation to the ordination score assigned to the fish, it was possible to examine and compare highly correlated variables. Ordination was also able to identify overall patterns within the data and assess the relative importance. While this can be accomplished within the framework of linear regression using mixture models to determine whether multiple distributions exist within the data, the process is much simpler with ordination. The migratory patterns of the fish were influenced by a wide range of factors, with evidentiary support for complex, multi-faceted relationships. Physical features of the basin demonstrated stronger explanatory power, accounting for over 70% of the observed variation in migration rate compared to 18% for the biological characteristics of the fish. Parameter estimates associated with the steepness of the migratory route and remaining distance the fish had to travel to reach their natal rivers were most strongly correlated with migration rate, with consistent relationships observed across stocks. Migration rates were also noticeably slower in extensively braided reaches of the basin. The weaker relationships between migration rate and biotic factors may reflect stabilizing selection on long-distance migrants. Smaller fish exhibited minimally faster swimming speeds on average than larger individuals. This relationship was stronger in highly braided reaches. Run timing was positively related to migration rate for most stocks. Surprisingly, upper basin stocks traveling farther upriver displayed progressively negative relationships, suggesting that late-run fish were moving slower. Ancillary information suggests that this decline may relate to deteriorating fish condition later in the season. Close

• 370. [Image] Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment

  	"May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment Year: 2000, 2005 "May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, 821 SE 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 and US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Tribes, PacifiCorp, Cell Tech International; Includes bibliographic references (p. 60-66) Title: Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment Year: 2000, 2005 "May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, 821 SE 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 and US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Tribes, PacifiCorp, Cell Tech International; Includes bibliographic references (p. 60-66) Close

• 371. [Image] Klamath River fish die-off, September 2002 : causative factors of mortality

  	Executive Summary This report provides information describing the biological, hydrological, meteorological, and water quality conditions associated with the die-off of an estimated 34,056 fish in the Klamath ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath River fish die-off, September 2002 : causative factors of mortality Author: Guillen, George Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Executive Summary This report provides information describing the biological, hydrological, meteorological, and water quality conditions associated with the die-off of an estimated 34,056 fish in the Klamath River, California in September 2002. The proximate cause of death was heavy infections of two fish pathogens, Ich and columnaris. However, given that these ubiquitous pathogens are normally found in the Klamath River, additional factors must have played a role for them to have become lethal. It is our conclusion based on multiple lines of evidence that the fish die-off in the lower Klamath River in 2002 was a result of a combination of factors that began with an early peak in the return of a large run of fall Chinook salmon. Low river discharges apparently did not provide suitable attraction flows for migrating adult salmon, resulting in large numbers of fish congregating in the warm waters of the lower River. The high density offish, low discharges, warm water temperatures, and possible extended residence time of salmon created optimal conditions for parasite proliferation and precipitated an epizootic of Ich and columnaris. Based on a review of available literature and historical records, this was the largest known pre-spawning adult salmonid die-off recorded for the Klamath River and possibly the Pacific coast. Title: Klamath River fish die-off, September 2002 : causative factors of mortality Author: Guillen, George Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Executive Summary This report provides information describing the biological, hydrological, meteorological, and water quality conditions associated with the die-off of an estimated 34,056 fish in the Klamath River, California in September 2002. The proximate cause of death was heavy infections of two fish pathogens, Ich and columnaris. However, given that these ubiquitous pathogens are normally found in the Klamath River, additional factors must have played a role for them to have become lethal. It is our conclusion based on multiple lines of evidence that the fish die-off in the lower Klamath River in 2002 was a result of a combination of factors that began with an early peak in the return of a large run of fall Chinook salmon. Low river discharges apparently did not provide suitable attraction flows for migrating adult salmon, resulting in large numbers of fish congregating in the warm waters of the lower River. The high density offish, low discharges, warm water temperatures, and possible extended residence time of salmon created optimal conditions for parasite proliferation and precipitated an epizootic of Ich and columnaris. Based on a review of available literature and historical records, this was the largest known pre-spawning adult salmonid die-off recorded for the Klamath River and possibly the Pacific coast. Close

• 372. [Image] Farming practices and water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin : final report to the California State Water Resources Control Board : 205j program

  	Summary The Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) is a high desert region straddling the California-Oregon border east of the Cascade Range. Irrigation and other agricultural practices in the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Farming practices and water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin : final report to the California State Water Resources Control Board : 205j program Author: Danosky, Earl; Kaffka, Stephen Year: 2002, 2007, 2006 Summary The Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) is a high desert region straddling the California-Oregon border east of the Cascade Range. Irrigation and other agricultural practices in the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project may result in impaired surface water quality, reducing its use for wildlife and fish in important national wildlife refuges that receive drainage water from farms, and in the Klamath River. By 2004, a system of total maximum daily loads (TMDL) for nutrients must be established for the Klamath River. To investigate the relationships among agricultural practices and surface water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin, a two year reconnaissance survey of surface water and agricultural tile drain locations, focusing on nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and mass transfers was conducted. Data was collected at 18 surface locations and 10 tile drain locations. Triplicate samples were taken every ten days during the growing season (April through October) and one or two times a month during the remainder of the months, depending on opportunity. No samples were taken from tile drains during the winter months because there was no irrigation and drainage during that period. Water samples were analyzed for phosphorus (total P, soluble reactive P, total filterable P, and particulate P) and nitrogen (total N, soluble N, Soluble organic N, total filterable N, particulate N, and ammonia N), temperature, pH and electrical conductivity, a measure of salinity or total dissolved solids. Analyses of data, including data quality, estimates of the transfer of nutrients in surface waters in the region, and hypotheses about the relationship between agriculture and water quality are reported. 1. The salt and nutrient content of surface waters increases nearly threefold as water moves through the watershed from the Lost River and J canal diversion to the Klamath Straits Drain. Mean ECW levels in input waters at the J canal diversion were approximately 250 \iS cm1, while water sampled at the D pump increased to 600 ^S cm"1 on average over the sample period. By the time water reenters the Klamath River, salt concentrations have increased to approximately 700 jaS cm1. 2. The ECW values observed in subsurface tile drains were higher on average than in input waters and surface waters elsewhere in the region, especially in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake Irrigation District (TID). ECW values averaged approximately 2,500 ^S cm"1 . Recycling irrigation water through soils in the TID increases the salinity of the water, especially by the time it reaches and is reused in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake National Wildlife Refuge (TLNWR). Soils in this part of the Klamath Project area are naturally high in salt. 3. Water temperatures in agricultural subsurface tile drains were significantly lower than surface water temperatures during the growing season when tile drains were active. pH values in tile drains were lower than surface water values. The temperature and pH of tile drains does not influence surface water values. 1. 4. For total phosphorus (TP) input waters at the J canal irrigation diversion for the TED averaged approximately 0.27 mg L1 for the two years reported. Water leaving the Tulelake Sumps at the D pump increases to 0.33 mg L1. Water leaving the Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (LKNWR) sampled at the start of the Klamath Straits Drain, averaged 0.33 mg L1, similar to those at the D pump. TP increased further to 0.40 mg L"1 a the end of the Klamath Straits Drain. The overall increase in P concentration in surface waters was much less than for salt, suggesting that processes other than simple enrichment are occurring, particularly those associated with the exchange of sedimentary P and aquatic plant species. TN increases from 2.3 mg L"1 to 4.0 mg L1 over the same pathway. Atomic ratios (TN:TP) of surface water samples remain constant at approximately 10:1 throughout the system, suggesting that the amount of sediment and other small particulate matter in surface waters affects the values observed. The amount of sediment is influenced in part by the agitation of surface water as it passes through pumps and over weirs. 5. The average seasonal TP value in tile drains beneath farm fields is approximately 0.34 mg L"1 . While average total P values in subsurface tile drains were not different from those found at the D pump and the LKNWR outlet, the range in values was great (0.1 to 0.8 mg L1). Similarly, high NO3 -N values were observed at times in tile drains. Very high values in tile drains lead to the inference that some fertilizer N and P is lost in drainage water, combined with nutrients derived from decaying soil organic matter. The amount estimated as lost is much less than the amount of surplus fertilizer P applied and the amount of P surmised to be mineralized from decaying soil organic matter. P from fertilizer and decaying organic matter appears to be accumulating in soils and lake sediments in the region. 6. Ammonia N concentrations are at or below the limit of detection in subsurface agricultural tile lines and one to two orders of magnitude below the values observed in surface soils. Un ionized ammonia increases with temperature. Values above 0.25 mg L1 were observed in late summer at several locations. 7. Some leaching of soluble salts and nutrients is unavoidable when crops are irrigated. P fertilizer is applied at rates higher than crop removal, while fertilizer n is applied at rates less than crop removal. Reduced fertilizer use can help bring P inputs and outputs into balance and may reduce further any avoidable losses of P. This objective should be the subject of an agronomic research program in the region. 8. Surface waters entering the TDD, the TLNWR, and the LKNWR are already enriched with N and P. It seems unlikely that reducing N and P losses from farming in the TID, if possible, would influence surface water quality sufficiently to make them significantly less eutrophic. For P, the hypothesized threshold concentration limiting algae growth in fresh waters is 5 to 25 times smaller than the values observed in waters entering the TID for irrigation use. The addition of 1. nutrients from agriculture probably does not influence significantly surface water quality in the region. Wetland sediments, large amounts of organic matter in soils, and water introduced for irrigation contain essentially unlimited amounts of nutrients for aquatic plant growth. It is not clear how this circumstance could be changed under any reasonable time frame, if ever. 9. Using a TMDL approach may not result in reduced amounts of nutrients returned to the Klamath River because wetlands and farming practices in the southern portion of the Klamath Project result in the net removal of nutrients from the waters diverted for irrigation on a yearly basis, compared to allowing the same amount of water simply to flow down the river unused. Because of large errors of estimation for the amounts of water transferred, combined with smaller errors associated with estimating nutrient concentrations in water samples, and with year to year climate variation, TMDLs may not be an effective or efficient means of reducing nutrients in return flows to the Klamath River. Rational confidence limits for TMDLs may have to be too broad to be effective. Recycling of some drainage water for irrigation would reduce the amount of nutrients returned to the river more effectively than implementing a TMDL program. Title: Farming practices and water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin : final report to the California State Water Resources Control Board : 205j program Author: Danosky, Earl; Kaffka, Stephen Year: 2002, 2007, 2006 Summary The Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) is a high desert region straddling the California-Oregon border east of the Cascade Range. Irrigation and other agricultural practices in the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project may result in impaired surface water quality, reducing its use for wildlife and fish in important national wildlife refuges that receive drainage water from farms, and in the Klamath River. By 2004, a system of total maximum daily loads (TMDL) for nutrients must be established for the Klamath River. To investigate the relationships among agricultural practices and surface water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin, a two year reconnaissance survey of surface water and agricultural tile drain locations, focusing on nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and mass transfers was conducted. Data was collected at 18 surface locations and 10 tile drain locations. Triplicate samples were taken every ten days during the growing season (April through October) and one or two times a month during the remainder of the months, depending on opportunity. No samples were taken from tile drains during the winter months because there was no irrigation and drainage during that period. Water samples were analyzed for phosphorus (total P, soluble reactive P, total filterable P, and particulate P) and nitrogen (total N, soluble N, Soluble organic N, total filterable N, particulate N, and ammonia N), temperature, pH and electrical conductivity, a measure of salinity or total dissolved solids. Analyses of data, including data quality, estimates of the transfer of nutrients in surface waters in the region, and hypotheses about the relationship between agriculture and water quality are reported. 1. The salt and nutrient content of surface waters increases nearly threefold as water moves through the watershed from the Lost River and J canal diversion to the Klamath Straits Drain. Mean ECW levels in input waters at the J canal diversion were approximately 250 \iS cm1, while water sampled at the D pump increased to 600 ^S cm"1 on average over the sample period. By the time water reenters the Klamath River, salt concentrations have increased to approximately 700 jaS cm1. 2. The ECW values observed in subsurface tile drains were higher on average than in input waters and surface waters elsewhere in the region, especially in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake Irrigation District (TID). ECW values averaged approximately 2,500 ^S cm"1 . Recycling irrigation water through soils in the TID increases the salinity of the water, especially by the time it reaches and is reused in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake National Wildlife Refuge (TLNWR). Soils in this part of the Klamath Project area are naturally high in salt. 3. Water temperatures in agricultural subsurface tile drains were significantly lower than surface water temperatures during the growing season when tile drains were active. pH values in tile drains were lower than surface water values. The temperature and pH of tile drains does not influence surface water values. 1. 4. For total phosphorus (TP) input waters at the J canal irrigation diversion for the TED averaged approximately 0.27 mg L1 for the two years reported. Water leaving the Tulelake Sumps at the D pump increases to 0.33 mg L1. Water leaving the Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (LKNWR) sampled at the start of the Klamath Straits Drain, averaged 0.33 mg L1, similar to those at the D pump. TP increased further to 0.40 mg L"1 a the end of the Klamath Straits Drain. The overall increase in P concentration in surface waters was much less than for salt, suggesting that processes other than simple enrichment are occurring, particularly those associated with the exchange of sedimentary P and aquatic plant species. TN increases from 2.3 mg L"1 to 4.0 mg L1 over the same pathway. Atomic ratios (TN:TP) of surface water samples remain constant at approximately 10:1 throughout the system, suggesting that the amount of sediment and other small particulate matter in surface waters affects the values observed. The amount of sediment is influenced in part by the agitation of surface water as it passes through pumps and over weirs. 5. The average seasonal TP value in tile drains beneath farm fields is approximately 0.34 mg L"1 . While average total P values in subsurface tile drains were not different from those found at the D pump and the LKNWR outlet, the range in values was great (0.1 to 0.8 mg L1). Similarly, high NO3 -N values were observed at times in tile drains. Very high values in tile drains lead to the inference that some fertilizer N and P is lost in drainage water, combined with nutrients derived from decaying soil organic matter. The amount estimated as lost is much less than the amount of surplus fertilizer P applied and the amount of P surmised to be mineralized from decaying soil organic matter. P from fertilizer and decaying organic matter appears to be accumulating in soils and lake sediments in the region. 6. Ammonia N concentrations are at or below the limit of detection in subsurface agricultural tile lines and one to two orders of magnitude below the values observed in surface soils. Un ionized ammonia increases with temperature. Values above 0.25 mg L1 were observed in late summer at several locations. 7. Some leaching of soluble salts and nutrients is unavoidable when crops are irrigated. P fertilizer is applied at rates higher than crop removal, while fertilizer n is applied at rates less than crop removal. Reduced fertilizer use can help bring P inputs and outputs into balance and may reduce further any avoidable losses of P. This objective should be the subject of an agronomic research program in the region. 8. Surface waters entering the TDD, the TLNWR, and the LKNWR are already enriched with N and P. It seems unlikely that reducing N and P losses from farming in the TID, if possible, would influence surface water quality sufficiently to make them significantly less eutrophic. For P, the hypothesized threshold concentration limiting algae growth in fresh waters is 5 to 25 times smaller than the values observed in waters entering the TID for irrigation use. The addition of 1. nutrients from agriculture probably does not influence significantly surface water quality in the region. Wetland sediments, large amounts of organic matter in soils, and water introduced for irrigation contain essentially unlimited amounts of nutrients for aquatic plant growth. It is not clear how this circumstance could be changed under any reasonable time frame, if ever. 9. Using a TMDL approach may not result in reduced amounts of nutrients returned to the Klamath River because wetlands and farming practices in the southern portion of the Klamath Project result in the net removal of nutrients from the waters diverted for irrigation on a yearly basis, compared to allowing the same amount of water simply to flow down the river unused. Because of large errors of estimation for the amounts of water transferred, combined with smaller errors associated with estimating nutrient concentrations in water samples, and with year to year climate variation, TMDLs may not be an effective or efficient means of reducing nutrients in return flows to the Klamath River. Rational confidence limits for TMDLs may have to be too broad to be effective. Recycling of some drainage water for irrigation would reduce the amount of nutrients returned to the river more effectively than implementing a TMDL program. Close

• 373. [Image] Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004

  	CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Close

• 374. [Image] Final progress report for fisheries investigations on Blue Creek, tributary to Klamath River, northern California, FY 1993

  	FINAL PROGRESS REPORT FOR FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS ON BLUE CREEK, TRIBUTARY TO K1AMATH RIVER, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FY 1993 (October 1992 - September 1993) ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final progress report for fisheries investigations on Blue Creek, tributary to Klamath River, northern California, FY 1993 Author: Longenbaugh, Matthew H.; Chan, Jeffrey R. Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 FINAL PROGRESS REPORT FOR FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS ON BLUE CREEK, TRIBUTARY TO K1AMATH RIVER, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FY 1993 (October 1992 - September 1993) ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Coastal California Fishery Resource Office (CCFRO) in Arcata, CA, was funded to investigate chinook salmon spawning use, juvenile salmonid emigration and characterize habitats in Blue Creek, Klamath Basin, CA. Investigations that began in October, 1988, have continued to date, with this reporting period covering Fiscal Year 1993 (FY 1993, October, 1992, through September, 1993). In addition, some information already presented in previous progress reports, FY 1989 - FY 1992, is summarized. In 1993, adult chinook spawner escapements were addressed by snorkel surveys of redds and carcasses. Spawner numbers were very low, with only 17 redds observed in fall/winter 1992-93. The peak count of adult chinook was 136 fish in early November. Emigrating juvenile s&lmonids were trapped at river kilometer (rkm) 3.35 with a screw trap and panel weir. The screw trapping period extended from April through July for a total of 91 trapping nights. Screw trap catches totaled 14,526 chinook, 912 steelhead and 69 coho. Chinook emigration was spread over the entire trapping period, with increases during mid-May, and from mid-June throughout July. A juvenile weir was operated 60 nights, and caught a total of 6,334 chinook, 992 steelhead, 49 coho salmon, and 0 juvenile cutthroat. The total index of production for emigrating chinook during the 1993 juvenile trapping period was 101,819. Chinook that were marked with coded-wire tags (n-12,299) were released, with other juvenile fish, into Blue Creek at rkm 3.3. Mean temperatures varied from 6.3 to 18.6 ?C and flows ranged from 0.91 cubic m/s (32 cubic feet/s) to 202.6 cubic m/s (7,160 cubic feet/s) during FY 1993. Extreme flows for FY 1993 were the lowest and highest observed by CCFRO since the project began in 1989, and lower than the previous low of the 13 years of record. Title: Final progress report for fisheries investigations on Blue Creek, tributary to Klamath River, northern California, FY 1993 Author: Longenbaugh, Matthew H.; Chan, Jeffrey R. Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 FINAL PROGRESS REPORT FOR FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS ON BLUE CREEK, TRIBUTARY TO K1AMATH RIVER, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FY 1993 (October 1992 - September 1993) ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Coastal California Fishery Resource Office (CCFRO) in Arcata, CA, was funded to investigate chinook salmon spawning use, juvenile salmonid emigration and characterize habitats in Blue Creek, Klamath Basin, CA. Investigations that began in October, 1988, have continued to date, with this reporting period covering Fiscal Year 1993 (FY 1993, October, 1992, through September, 1993). In addition, some information already presented in previous progress reports, FY 1989 - FY 1992, is summarized. In 1993, adult chinook spawner escapements were addressed by snorkel surveys of redds and carcasses. Spawner numbers were very low, with only 17 redds observed in fall/winter 1992-93. The peak count of adult chinook was 136 fish in early November. Emigrating juvenile s&lmonids were trapped at river kilometer (rkm) 3.35 with a screw trap and panel weir. The screw trapping period extended from April through July for a total of 91 trapping nights. Screw trap catches totaled 14,526 chinook, 912 steelhead and 69 coho. Chinook emigration was spread over the entire trapping period, with increases during mid-May, and from mid-June throughout July. A juvenile weir was operated 60 nights, and caught a total of 6,334 chinook, 992 steelhead, 49 coho salmon, and 0 juvenile cutthroat. The total index of production for emigrating chinook during the 1993 juvenile trapping period was 101,819. Chinook that were marked with coded-wire tags (n-12,299) were released, with other juvenile fish, into Blue Creek at rkm 3.3. Mean temperatures varied from 6.3 to 18.6 ?C and flows ranged from 0.91 cubic m/s (32 cubic feet/s) to 202.6 cubic m/s (7,160 cubic feet/s) during FY 1993. Extreme flows for FY 1993 were the lowest and highest observed by CCFRO since the project began in 1989, and lower than the previous low of the 13 years of record. Close

• 375. [Image] Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005

  	iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Close

• 376. [Image] Nutrients in the nation's waters : too much of a good thing?

  	Includes bibliographical references (p. 22)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Nutrients in the nation's waters : too much of a good thing? Author: Mueller, David K. Year: 1996, 2004 Includes bibliographical references (p. 22) Title: Nutrients in the nation's waters : too much of a good thing? Author: Mueller, David K. Year: 1996, 2004 Includes bibliographical references (p. 22) Close

• 377. [Image] Endangered species : Fish and Wildlife Service generally focuses recovery funding on high priority species, but needs to periodically assess its funding decisions : report to the Chairman, Committee on Resources, House of Representatives

  	"GAO-05-211"; "April 2005"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Endangered species : Fish and Wildlife Service generally focuses recovery funding on high priority species, but needs to periodically assess its funding decisions : report to the Chairman, Committee on Resources, House of Representatives Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Year: 2005 "GAO-05-211"; "April 2005" Title: Endangered species : Fish and Wildlife Service generally focuses recovery funding on high priority species, but needs to periodically assess its funding decisions : report to the Chairman, Committee on Resources, House of Representatives Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Year: 2005 "GAO-05-211"; "April 2005" Close

• 378. [Image] Preparation plan for the Klamath River management plan and environmental impact statement

  	"October 2001"; "This planning effort is being undertaken because the current recreation plan is outdated, almost 20 years old . . . At the conclusion of this planning effort there will be one [Environmental ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Preparation plan for the Klamath River management plan and environmental impact statement Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2001, 2005 "October 2001"; "This planning effort is being undertaken because the current recreation plan is outdated, almost 20 years old . . . At the conclusion of this planning effort there will be one [Environmental Impact Statement] and management plan that will guide and coordinate all land management activities along the river. This EIS could amend both the BLM Redding (Califonia) and the Klamath Falls (Oregon) Resource Management Plans."- Introduction.; This document appears to be a planning document to organize the process of completing later documents, including the Draft Upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments (2003) which can be found at http://klamathwaterlib.oit.edu/cgi-bin/viewer.exe?CISOROOT=/WaterLibContent&CISOPTR=110 Title: Preparation plan for the Klamath River management plan and environmental impact statement Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2001, 2005 "October 2001"; "This planning effort is being undertaken because the current recreation plan is outdated, almost 20 years old . . . At the conclusion of this planning effort there will be one [Environmental Impact Statement] and management plan that will guide and coordinate all land management activities along the river. This EIS could amend both the BLM Redding (Califonia) and the Klamath Falls (Oregon) Resource Management Plans."- Introduction.; This document appears to be a planning document to organize the process of completing later documents, including the Draft Upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments (2003) which can be found at http://klamathwaterlib.oit.edu/cgi-bin/viewer.exe?CISOROOT=/WaterLibContent&CISOPTR=110 Close

• 379. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout

  	We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). For the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout, the critical habitat designation includes approximately 1,748 miles (mi) (2,813 kilometers (km)) of streams and 61,235 acres (ac) (24,781 hectares (ha)) of lakes and marshes. We solicited data and comments from the public on all aspects of the proposed rule, including data on economic and other impacts of the designation Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). For the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout, the critical habitat designation includes approximately 1,748 miles (mi) (2,813 kilometers (km)) of streams and 61,235 acres (ac) (24,781 hectares (ha)) of lakes and marshes. We solicited data and comments from the public on all aspects of the proposed rule, including data on economic and other impacts of the designation Close

• 380. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 90-Day Finding on a Petition to Delist the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker

  	Only portions of issues of the Federal Register are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographical reference; 50 CFR Part 17; Action: Notice of 90-day petition finding; “FR Doc. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 90-Day Finding on a Petition to Delist the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Only portions of issues of the Federal Register are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographical reference; 50 CFR Part 17; Action: Notice of 90-day petition finding; “FR Doc. 02-12123 Filed 5-13-02: 8:45 a.m.;” See the Federal Register at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/advanced.html Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 90-Day Finding on a Petition to Delist the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Only portions of issues of the Federal Register are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographical reference; 50 CFR Part 17; Action: Notice of 90-day petition finding; “FR Doc. 02-12123 Filed 5-13-02: 8:45 a.m.;” See the Federal Register at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/advanced.html Close

• 381. [Image] Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999

  	"December 10, 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Close

• 382. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Public Hearing and Extension of Comment Period on Proposed Determination of Critical abitat for Lost River and Shortnose Sucker

  	The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) provides notice that a public hearing will be held on the proposed determination of critical habitat for Lost River sucker (Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Public Hearing and Extension of Comment Period on Proposed Determination of Critical abitat for Lost River and Shortnose Sucker Year: 1995, 2008, 2005 The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) provides notice that a public hearing will be held on the proposed determination of critical habitat for Lost River sucker (Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker (Chasmistes brevirostris). In addition, the Service has extended the comment period. All parties are invited to submit comments on this proposal Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Public Hearing and Extension of Comment Period on Proposed Determination of Critical abitat for Lost River and Shortnose Sucker Year: 1995, 2008, 2005 The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) provides notice that a public hearing will be held on the proposed determination of critical habitat for Lost River sucker (Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker (Chasmistes brevirostris). In addition, the Service has extended the comment period. All parties are invited to submit comments on this proposal Close

• 383. [Image] EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Klamath Consulting Service, Inc Year: 1983, 2006, 2005 SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed. Title: EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Klamath Consulting Service, Inc Year: 1983, 2006, 2005 SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed. Close

• 384. [Image] IMST review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 biological opinions on management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and related reports: a report of the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds

  	This report is a review of scientific research done by various organizations involved in the Klamath Reclamation Project to assess the "status and management of coho salmon in the Klamath River and . . ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: IMST review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 biological opinions on management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and related reports: a report of the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2003, 2004 This report is a review of scientific research done by various organizations involved in the Klamath Reclamation Project to assess the "status and management of coho salmon in the Klamath River and . . . management of Upper Klamath Lake and its watershed"; "April 16, 2003"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 104-112) Title: IMST review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 biological opinions on management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and related reports: a report of the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2003, 2004 This report is a review of scientific research done by various organizations involved in the Klamath Reclamation Project to assess the "status and management of coho salmon in the Klamath River and . . . management of Upper Klamath Lake and its watershed"; "April 16, 2003"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 104-112) Close

• 385. [Image] Evaluation of site specific restoration projects for the entire Klamath River basin

  	DOCS I 49.107: 89 ( 1.1) 89( 1.1) EVALUATION OF SITE SPECIFIC RESTORATION PROJECTS FOR THE ENTIRE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN. 1989 Klamath Field Review Comments The following comments are based primarily upon ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluation of site specific restoration projects for the entire Klamath River basin Year: 1989, 2005 DOCS I 49.107: 89 ( 1.1) 89( 1.1) EVALUATION OF SITE SPECIFIC RESTORATION PROJECTS FOR THE ENTIRE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN. 1989 Klamath Field Review Comments The following comments are based primarily upon field observations made by Scott Downie and Andy Kier during the summer and autumn of 1989, Some of the review was made accompanied by personnel responsible for the projects and their comments are incorporated as well. In many streams individual project sites are linked and/ or similar in nature. This review generalizes these in its comments and ratings, but notes exceptions where required. Grades A- F were assigned, but like all grades lacking set criteria and good base- line information, they are somewhat subjective. Evaluations were based upon the observed or perceived physical response mf. de by the stream to the project, whether or not the project satisfied the objectives of the proposal, and whether or not the project appeared to have durable structure and function without maintenance or modification. Biological evaluation was impossible except to note observed fish at the time of the review. Cost effectiveness is again somewhat subjective without more front- end information, but based upon personal experience an attempt to measure product for cost entered into grade assignment. GENERAL: 1000, 1001, 1003: The racks on Bogus Crk, Scott R. & Shasta R were all operational Summer 1989. 1002: The Salmon R. weir operations were modified during our review period in response to public input: 1. The trap and weir will be staffed 24 hrs/ day. 2. Weir and trap operations will cease at 73 F. 3. Fishing will not be allowed below weir. 4. An alternate site will be developed ASAP. LOWER KLAMATH SUBBASIN: Ah Pah Creek ( 11006, 07, 08, 09, 10, 18-$ 123,928): A CCC, DFG, & Simpson Timber Co. project to provide improved access for adults into upper Ah Pah Crk., and to control sedimentation from failing banks in the treatment area. In Oct. 1989, the Hewitt Ramp structures were successfully passing coho and steelhead adults and juveni'es through a previous adult barrier section. Large wood and boulder cover elements had been placed in the associated pools. Treated banks were armored with rock filled gabions and planted with alder, willow and conifers. No evidence of sediment production to the stream from these treated slopes was observed. The workmanship and construction are sturdyand of high quality. Grade A. { Since we visited Ah Pah Crk. the day after the RNP bypass failure, the stream was loaded with suspended sediments) 1990 - Review Comments- Bluff Creek ( 11022, 23, 24, 31, 32-$ 212,000): Access provided through lower Bluff Crk's former barrier section is still passing adults and juveniles following the Feb. 1986 flood event. The boulder weirs and boulder clusters near the yearling rearing facility are providing limited spawning improvement, but they do contain pockets of gravel utilized by spawners. Both the weirs and clusters have provided some good quality summer rearing habitats, and also refuge areas during winter flows. Two cluster groups are now buried under large streambank failures. These events could have been exacerbated by the placement of the boulders too close to the now failed right bank. No large wood or brush cover elements were utilized in the structures, although some were available. Personnel explained that the extreme velocities and power at high discharges prevented incorporating these organic components into their instream structures on Bluff Crk, Grade C. Camp Creek ( 11029, 30-$ 125,000): Six boulder weirs were constructed by USFS to trap spawning gravels. Two of the six weirs are now scattered boulder clusters, having been rearranged by the stream. The surviving weirs have provided gravels and are being used by fish. The boulder groups, both designed and incidental, are providing some good quality rearing habitats and some pockets of gravel used for spawning salmonids. 3rade C. Cappell Creek ( 11027-$ 125,000): BIA artificial propagation project. Project has operated for one year. It has released 17,035 CWT Chinook. Typical of the lower river hatchery programs, securing desired numbers of late running chinook broodstocks is very difficult. A lot of money in terms of fry produced, but the facility start- up costs are now over and the annual cost will be much less than the initial investment. Grade C. Hunter Creek ( 11001, 11002, 11013-$ 19,328): A CCC, DFG, and Simpson project to improve Hunter Creek on a basin scale. CCC now have a thorough instream assessment and instream structure plan prepared by Clearwater Biostudies, inc. under contract to them. Instream structure work is now underway by CCC crews. The construction is of excellent quality and design. All upper stream barrier work is now completed. The dry lower reaches of the stream pose a dewatered, complete barrier to all adults running before early November in most years ( T. Payne, 1989). Some concern over future land management's effect on the stream in the event of a major flood occurrence. Grade B. McGarvey Creek ( 11025, 11014, 11003-$ 24,264): Status of the hatch box project is not known. The barrier work is all done and passing fish. Grade C. - Review Comments- Pecwan Creek ( 11021, 11036, 11028-$ 50,000): A total of 21,626 yearling chinook were released from 1982- 84 from this facility* They were from Iron Gate stocks and deemed not suitable for the restocking goals of the project area. Since 1985, the facility's production is not well documented, but 27,000 for the period 1985- 88 is estimated. None of the releases from this site have been CWT. The Pecwan site has been used as a broodstock source for Cappell Creek as well. Grade D. Red Cap Creek ( 11033, 34, 35-$ 70,000): USFS project has produced some impressive results. Failing banks have been armored and vegetated. A series of over thirty boulder weirs and clusters have provided some high quality spawning and rearing habitats. Large wood cover elements have been used somewhat in the project. The project reach is in a stream section of former generally poor habitats and low utilization by salmonids; they were abundant during our visits. There is a yearling pond adjacent to the treatment section. Grade A. Richardson Creek ( 11026-$ 25,200): This project removed a barrier to salmonids and is functional. Seemed expensive. Grade C. Salt Creek ( 11000, 11012-$ 18,944): CCC successfully stabilized failing banks. All barrier work is completed and functional. One of the few upslope erosion control projects in the review has controlled the sediment output from the roadway. There is a lot of product here for the money. Grade A. Surpur Creek ( 11005-$ 3,456): CCC removed barriers at a bargain price. Still functional. Grade A. Tarup Creek ( 11004, 11011, 11015, 16, 17-$ 77,024): CCC has a plan for the creek and instream treatments done under contract by Inter- Fluv Inc. The work outlined in the plan is now completed, and is of very high quality and design for the most part. The work involved barrier modification, instream structures, revegetation upslope as well in the riparian zone, and some upslope erosion control ( one site upslope was quite major, in fact). Tarup, regardless of all these improvements, has a low flow access problem in its delta. Grade B. Pine Creek ( 10019, 20-$- 0-): Not reviewed. Various streams ( 11019- 20-$ 550,000): This is the CCC operation fund for the Lower Klamath program. This ongoing general fund was not deemed suitable for field review or rating. However, our general observation of the CCC/ DFG Lower Klamath program has certainly produced a positive impression of their work and approach. - Review Comments- MIDDLE KLAMATH SUBBASIN: Beaver Creek ( 6000- 05, 6035, 6053, 6065, 6066-$ 124,400): The boulder cluster groups and weirs constructed on Beaver Creek are not well utilized at this time. Silts and sediments nave impacted the quality of the gravel associated with the structures to the extent that some cementing has occurred. Therefore, it is believed that utilization by spawners has also been effected. The structures designed for the provision of rearing habitats have done better, and some of course do both, some neither. Grade C, The rearing facility ( 6035) was closed in 1985, but there is now talk of re- opening it. 1980- 84 releases averaged 29,423 yearling chinook of Iron Gate origin. Grade C. The gravel seeding occurred in 1985 ( 6052) and no evaluation was considered possible in 1989, nor was any proffered by staff. The two screens ( 6065- 66) are functional, but require regular upkeep and periodic thorough maintenance. Grade B. Bluff Creek ( 6036-$- 0-): This is one of the Klamath system's highest production cooperative rearing facilities. It has averaged 66,462 chinook yearlings for the past three years. These fish are of Iron Gate origin. Although adult runs are up in Bluff Creek, there is little baseline data, and until the current brood no CWT's were done on the ponded fish. Grade B. Bogus Creek ( 6046- 47, 6053- 54, 6061-$ 94,750): Bogus Creek is heavily utilized by naturally spawning chinook of Iron Gate Hatchery origin as well as by stocks of its own. The projects designed to provide more and/ or better gravels for these fish have met with apparent success, since in almost all cases the projects are used by the spawners, but so is everything else. What that means in real incremental gains that can be credited to particular habitat treatments is therefore difficult to assess. CWT and DSM evaluation programs are ongoing. Grade C. Camp Creek ( 6037-$- 0-): This rearing facility switched from Iron Gate chinook stocks to natal stocks in 1987. Yearling releases dropped from an average of 27,533 to 14,573 after the change. This can be attributed to the difficulty in trapping adults in an open, high discharge system. Still, the fact that they are now utilizing later running stocks that are adapted to Camp Creek's flow regime and conditions counts for a great deal. The natal brood have been marked with alternating maxillary clips ( right one year, left the next) prior to release and some have been recovered as adults. Grade B+. China Creek ( 6008- 09-$ 9,300): Not reviewed. Report is that the access is good throughout the stream now. No report on the status of the structures. - Review Comments- Clear Creek ( 6010, 6068- 69-$ 66,400): Fish and Game's barrier removal is providing access successfully. Report is that access is good throughout Clear Creek at this time. Grade B. Coon Creek ( 6056-$ 30,000): This ladder passes steelhead, but DFG is not certain about coho. It also requires some light upkeep. Grade B. Cottonwood Creek ( 6049-$ 22,966): Gravel placed on these weirs needs to be re- seeded periodically at the cost of $ 2,000 each time. Grade D. ( 6057-$ 6,000): Not reviewed. ( 6055-$ 5,000): Ladder is on line and working well. Grade B. ( 6058- 60-$ 29,500): These screens are all on line and operational, but require light periodic maintenance which is conducted by the Yreka Screen Shop on a rotating basis. Grade B. ( 6070-$ 1,200): The potholes blasted to trap gravel have trapped sand instead, so the goal of creating spawning habitat was not met. However, fry usage and survival seem to be good in the resultant pools. Not a high cost project. Grade C. ( Total Cottonwood Creek budget: $ 64,666) Di1lon Creek ( 6071-$ 5,000): This functional project opened five miles of good habitat now utilized by steelhead and Chinook. Grade A. Doolittle Creek ( 6011-$ 2,300) : The treated log jam has not reformed and access is still good for steelhead. Grade C. Elk Creek ( 6012- 14-$ 41,000): The boulder weirs and clusters are now all installed and need flows for evaluation of performance. ( 6034, 6045-$ 10,000) : The washout pond has averaged 31,205 released Iron Gate chinook yearlings since 1984. Grade B. ( Total Elk Creek budget: $ 51,000) Grider Creek ( 6015- 16, 6038-$ 18,500): The falls are now passing fish successfully. Grade A. The boulder weirs have been successful in trapping spawning gravel and are being used by chinook. Grade A. The ponds have grown an average of 34,426 Iron Gate chinook yearlings since 1987. Grade B. Horse Creek ( 6062- 64, 6074-$ 35,000): The three screens are installed and operational, but require light maintenance. Yreka Screen Shop provides this on an alternating basis. Grade B. The log jam is no longer an access problem. Grade A. ( Extant diversion dam is a major problem on this creek) Humbug Creek ( 6017- 18-$ 5,300): The boulder weirs are not successful and are physically failing. Grade F. The log weirs have worked well and are providing spawning and rearing habitat. Grade A. In any event, ten miles of good quality habitat are blocked to salmonids by dredge tailings in lower Humbug Creek. - Review Comments- Independence Creek ( 6019-$ 5,000): The stream's mouth is still open and fish access it. Grade B. Indian Creek ( 6006, 6020- 28, 6039- 40, 6067, 6072~$ 200,600): AH modified former barriers are now passing fish. Grade A. The recent instream structures all appear to be performing to design; biological evaluation is underway now. Grade B. The spawning channel is used extensively by steelhead, and to a lesser extent by coho, but not by chinook. It is also a maintenance item ( ie. supplemental gravel). Grade D. The rearing ponds have averaged 74,134 Iron Gate yearlings since 1985. Grade B. Irving Creek ( 6029-$ 9,300): The use of small boulders to construct inadequately sized structures resulted in no net gain from this project. Grade F. Iron Gate Hatchery ( 6033-$-?-): The hatchery is modifying its operations to better cope with problems associated with temperatures, density, and release timing according to the hatchery manager. Grade C. Badger Flat and Tree of Heaven ( 6050- 51-$ 136,000): These spawning channels have both been unsuccessful due to design flaws. They require constant maintenance which is not possible during usage. Gravel seeding is an ongoing project. Grade F. Little Bogus Creek ( 6048-$ 20,000): These seeded weirs were not reviewed, but they are reported to be intensely utilized by spawners. However, some maintenance is also required. Pearch Creek ( 6041-$- 0-): These ponds are operated by the Orleans Rod and Gun Club and have good public involvement and educational value. About 9,000 steelhead of Salmon River origin are reared here. A lot of enthusiasm and local stocks. Grade A. Red Cap Creek ( 6042-$- 0-): This rearing pond has averaged 37,862 Iron Gate chinook yearlings since 1985 and is operated in a system that has also had significant habitat improvement projects recently completed. A CWT program would help evaluate both of these aspects of the Red Cap Creek endeavor. Grade B. Seiad Creek ( 6030- 31, 6073-$ 5,100): The barrier project has been successful. Grade A. The weir projects were not found and therefore not reviewed. Thompson Creek ( 6032, 6043-$ 5,000): The rearing ponds were closed in 1985. The instream structures were not reviewed. West Branch Creek ( 6007-$ 5,500): The weirs are used by steelhead for spawning, according to local observers; they seem functional. Grade C. - Review Comments- Wilson Creek ( 6007-$- 0-): This private rearing facility was not reviewed. According to locals, it is not in use at this time. SALMON RIVER: Black Bear Creek ( 5000-$ 11,000): This USFS project successfully provided access for steelhead into the creek, and it is currently being utilized. Grade A. Kelly Gulch ( 5002- 03-$ 9,500): This project was not reviewed, but USFS staff reported that the barrier was still not passing all fish attempting to access the system. Their evaluation is underway now. Knownothing Creek ( 5004- 06, 5021-$ 153,114): The removal of the diversion dams and other barriers resulted, in doubling the chinook and coho runs into the creek. Grade A. The weirs ( 5006*) were not completed at the time of the review. Delays were incurred because the rock was overshot resulting in boulders too small for the structures. Grade F. Nordheimer Creek ( 5007, 5008-$ 90,000): The log weirs ( 5007) failed. Grade F. The fishway ( 5008) is successful and passing fish. Grade A. Salmon River ( 5023, 5024-$ 8,000): This selective barrier was modified at a very reasonable cost and has improved access for al1 fish. Grade A. East Fork Salmon River ( 5013-$ 60,000): This project was not reviewed; USFS is evaluating now. South Fork Salmon River ( 5009- 12, 5014- 15, 5022, 5001-$ 176,200): ( 5009) This natal stock bioenhancement facility was located at a site with poor water temperature conditions for intense fish culture. Broodstock acquisition was also very difficult. The facility is now closed ( equipment will be relocated in the watershed, if possible). The project released 36,667 natal chinook smolts in the period from 1985 to 1987. Grade D. The boulder group projects were undergoing evaluation during the review period for biological response. The initial physical evaluation was not conclusive because many of the projects had not been subject to higher flows. Grade C. ( 5022) The " rough passage" area currently allows fish to pass without undue struggle. Grade B. ( 5001) The Blind Horse Creek weirs have not all been successful in providing spawning habitat. Many are trapping silt rather than spawning gravel. Rearing habitats are being provided by most of them, however. Grade D. - Review Comments- Specimen Creek ( 5016-$ 500): Steelhead now pass the treated log jam barrier. Another jam has formed above this site and requires monitoring and possible modification. Grade B. St. Claire Creek ( 5017- 20-$ 15,000): Steelhead now pass the modified barrier. The log weirs are holding gravel and in use by spawners. Juvenile cover is good associated with the weirs as well as the cover elements used in the project. The boulder weirs and clusters are also in place and in use. Grade A. SCOTT RIVER: Scott River and tribs. ( 4031- 4334 [ not inclusive]-$ 2, "* 15,810) : These Soil Conservation District projects primarily involved placing rip- rap armor at 304 different sites in the upper Scott system. Not all were reviewed, and although the rock is stable and in place, many were found to lack streamside vegetation that would provide important shade and cover for the stream and aquatic life. Some others were buried in decomposed granite, sand or silt and therefore had little benefit for fish by way of providing complex micro- habitats. The value of these projects would be much greater if some of these items were addressed. Grade C. French Creek ( 4001, 4016- 18-$ 32,100): The sediment check dam initially filled in one storm event. It was excavated but refilled during the next runoff event. A high maintenance approach that treats the symptoms of the watershed's chronic erosion problem. Grade F. The screens are all in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic light upkeep provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Kelsey Creek ( 4002- 04-$ 147,500): The weirs work well and are used by all species for spawning and rearing. Grade A. The USFS spawning channel has not performed as hoped. Problems have occurred relating to channel liner failure. The average number of pairs using the channel during the period 1985- 88 were: nine chinook, three coho, and twelve steelhead. In 1989 no usage was observed. It is also a very costly installation. Grade D-. Kidder Creek ( 4020- 21-$ 26,000): Both screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Patterson Creek ( 4019-$ 9,000): This screen is in place and functional, but is dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. - Review Comments- Scott River ( 4005- 06, 4012- 15-$ 94,800): Although the gravels were ' cleaned' the sedimentation problem returned the next year, This treatment does not address the problem, but rather the symptoms and would require constant maintenance. Grade F. The boulder groups were not installed after gauging the rapid sedimentation rate. The four screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. East Fork Scott River ( 4010- 11-$ 20,000): These two screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Shakleford Creek ( 4009, 4022- 4030 incl., 4323, 4329-$ 343,720): ( 4009) The bank armor was not surveyed, but is reported to be stabilizing the soft banks. The fishery benefits are not known, ( 4022- 30) These nine screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by tne Yreka Screen Shop, Grade B. ( 4323, 4329) The rip- rap bank armor is in place, but needs vegetation and cover elements added to increase fishery values. Grade C. Thomkins Creek ( 4007- 08-$ 6,500): The weirs are installed but are not highly utilized because of the recruited fine sediments now accumulated on them. Grade D. The fishway has provided access and is currently functional. Grade B. SHASTA RIVER: Parks Creek ( 3018-$ 42,000): These four screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Shasta River ( 3000- 04, 3005- 08, 3009- 17-$ 519,000): ( 3000- 04) These weirs have deteriorated over the past few years due to the use of undersized boulders in construction. Only about 10% of the effective structures remain. In 1989 only 32 redds were observed on the weirs. Very expensive ($ 363,000) spawning gravel. Grade D. The four fishways ( 3005- 08-$ 17,000) are all currently passing fish. Grade B. The nine screens ( 3009- 17-$ 139,000) are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. 12 0140402500 UPPER KLAMATH RIVER: Fal1 Creek ( 2000-$- 0-): The Fall Creek hatchery facility is on line and ready to augment Iron Gate's production. The site has very good water quality and can be instrumental in relieving crowding problems at Iron Gate. Title: Evaluation of site specific restoration projects for the entire Klamath River basin Year: 1989, 2005 DOCS I 49.107: 89 ( 1.1) 89( 1.1) EVALUATION OF SITE SPECIFIC RESTORATION PROJECTS FOR THE ENTIRE KLAMATH RIVER BASIN. 1989 Klamath Field Review Comments The following comments are based primarily upon field observations made by Scott Downie and Andy Kier during the summer and autumn of 1989, Some of the review was made accompanied by personnel responsible for the projects and their comments are incorporated as well. In many streams individual project sites are linked and/ or similar in nature. This review generalizes these in its comments and ratings, but notes exceptions where required. Grades A- F were assigned, but like all grades lacking set criteria and good base- line information, they are somewhat subjective. Evaluations were based upon the observed or perceived physical response mf. de by the stream to the project, whether or not the project satisfied the objectives of the proposal, and whether or not the project appeared to have durable structure and function without maintenance or modification. Biological evaluation was impossible except to note observed fish at the time of the review. Cost effectiveness is again somewhat subjective without more front- end information, but based upon personal experience an attempt to measure product for cost entered into grade assignment. GENERAL: 1000, 1001, 1003: The racks on Bogus Crk, Scott R. & Shasta R were all operational Summer 1989. 1002: The Salmon R. weir operations were modified during our review period in response to public input: 1. The trap and weir will be staffed 24 hrs/ day. 2. Weir and trap operations will cease at 73 F. 3. Fishing will not be allowed below weir. 4. An alternate site will be developed ASAP. LOWER KLAMATH SUBBASIN: Ah Pah Creek ( 11006, 07, 08, 09, 10, 18-$ 123,928): A CCC, DFG, & Simpson Timber Co. project to provide improved access for adults into upper Ah Pah Crk., and to control sedimentation from failing banks in the treatment area. In Oct. 1989, the Hewitt Ramp structures were successfully passing coho and steelhead adults and juveni'es through a previous adult barrier section. Large wood and boulder cover elements had been placed in the associated pools. Treated banks were armored with rock filled gabions and planted with alder, willow and conifers. No evidence of sediment production to the stream from these treated slopes was observed. The workmanship and construction are sturdyand of high quality. Grade A. { Since we visited Ah Pah Crk. the day after the RNP bypass failure, the stream was loaded with suspended sediments) 1990 - Review Comments- Bluff Creek ( 11022, 23, 24, 31, 32-$ 212,000): Access provided through lower Bluff Crk's former barrier section is still passing adults and juveniles following the Feb. 1986 flood event. The boulder weirs and boulder clusters near the yearling rearing facility are providing limited spawning improvement, but they do contain pockets of gravel utilized by spawners. Both the weirs and clusters have provided some good quality summer rearing habitats, and also refuge areas during winter flows. Two cluster groups are now buried under large streambank failures. These events could have been exacerbated by the placement of the boulders too close to the now failed right bank. No large wood or brush cover elements were utilized in the structures, although some were available. Personnel explained that the extreme velocities and power at high discharges prevented incorporating these organic components into their instream structures on Bluff Crk, Grade C. Camp Creek ( 11029, 30-$ 125,000): Six boulder weirs were constructed by USFS to trap spawning gravels. Two of the six weirs are now scattered boulder clusters, having been rearranged by the stream. The surviving weirs have provided gravels and are being used by fish. The boulder groups, both designed and incidental, are providing some good quality rearing habitats and some pockets of gravel used for spawning salmonids. 3rade C. Cappell Creek ( 11027-$ 125,000): BIA artificial propagation project. Project has operated for one year. It has released 17,035 CWT Chinook. Typical of the lower river hatchery programs, securing desired numbers of late running chinook broodstocks is very difficult. A lot of money in terms of fry produced, but the facility start- up costs are now over and the annual cost will be much less than the initial investment. Grade C. Hunter Creek ( 11001, 11002, 11013-$ 19,328): A CCC, DFG, and Simpson project to improve Hunter Creek on a basin scale. CCC now have a thorough instream assessment and instream structure plan prepared by Clearwater Biostudies, inc. under contract to them. Instream structure work is now underway by CCC crews. The construction is of excellent quality and design. All upper stream barrier work is now completed. The dry lower reaches of the stream pose a dewatered, complete barrier to all adults running before early November in most years ( T. Payne, 1989). Some concern over future land management's effect on the stream in the event of a major flood occurrence. Grade B. McGarvey Creek ( 11025, 11014, 11003-$ 24,264): Status of the hatch box project is not known. The barrier work is all done and passing fish. Grade C. - Review Comments- Pecwan Creek ( 11021, 11036, 11028-$ 50,000): A total of 21,626 yearling chinook were released from 1982- 84 from this facility* They were from Iron Gate stocks and deemed not suitable for the restocking goals of the project area. Since 1985, the facility's production is not well documented, but 27,000 for the period 1985- 88 is estimated. None of the releases from this site have been CWT. The Pecwan site has been used as a broodstock source for Cappell Creek as well. Grade D. Red Cap Creek ( 11033, 34, 35-$ 70,000): USFS project has produced some impressive results. Failing banks have been armored and vegetated. A series of over thirty boulder weirs and clusters have provided some high quality spawning and rearing habitats. Large wood cover elements have been used somewhat in the project. The project reach is in a stream section of former generally poor habitats and low utilization by salmonids; they were abundant during our visits. There is a yearling pond adjacent to the treatment section. Grade A. Richardson Creek ( 11026-$ 25,200): This project removed a barrier to salmonids and is functional. Seemed expensive. Grade C. Salt Creek ( 11000, 11012-$ 18,944): CCC successfully stabilized failing banks. All barrier work is completed and functional. One of the few upslope erosion control projects in the review has controlled the sediment output from the roadway. There is a lot of product here for the money. Grade A. Surpur Creek ( 11005-$ 3,456): CCC removed barriers at a bargain price. Still functional. Grade A. Tarup Creek ( 11004, 11011, 11015, 16, 17-$ 77,024): CCC has a plan for the creek and instream treatments done under contract by Inter- Fluv Inc. The work outlined in the plan is now completed, and is of very high quality and design for the most part. The work involved barrier modification, instream structures, revegetation upslope as well in the riparian zone, and some upslope erosion control ( one site upslope was quite major, in fact). Tarup, regardless of all these improvements, has a low flow access problem in its delta. Grade B. Pine Creek ( 10019, 20-$- 0-): Not reviewed. Various streams ( 11019- 20-$ 550,000): This is the CCC operation fund for the Lower Klamath program. This ongoing general fund was not deemed suitable for field review or rating. However, our general observation of the CCC/ DFG Lower Klamath program has certainly produced a positive impression of their work and approach. - Review Comments- MIDDLE KLAMATH SUBBASIN: Beaver Creek ( 6000- 05, 6035, 6053, 6065, 6066-$ 124,400): The boulder cluster groups and weirs constructed on Beaver Creek are not well utilized at this time. Silts and sediments nave impacted the quality of the gravel associated with the structures to the extent that some cementing has occurred. Therefore, it is believed that utilization by spawners has also been effected. The structures designed for the provision of rearing habitats have done better, and some of course do both, some neither. Grade C, The rearing facility ( 6035) was closed in 1985, but there is now talk of re- opening it. 1980- 84 releases averaged 29,423 yearling chinook of Iron Gate origin. Grade C. The gravel seeding occurred in 1985 ( 6052) and no evaluation was considered possible in 1989, nor was any proffered by staff. The two screens ( 6065- 66) are functional, but require regular upkeep and periodic thorough maintenance. Grade B. Bluff Creek ( 6036-$- 0-): This is one of the Klamath system's highest production cooperative rearing facilities. It has averaged 66,462 chinook yearlings for the past three years. These fish are of Iron Gate origin. Although adult runs are up in Bluff Creek, there is little baseline data, and until the current brood no CWT's were done on the ponded fish. Grade B. Bogus Creek ( 6046- 47, 6053- 54, 6061-$ 94,750): Bogus Creek is heavily utilized by naturally spawning chinook of Iron Gate Hatchery origin as well as by stocks of its own. The projects designed to provide more and/ or better gravels for these fish have met with apparent success, since in almost all cases the projects are used by the spawners, but so is everything else. What that means in real incremental gains that can be credited to particular habitat treatments is therefore difficult to assess. CWT and DSM evaluation programs are ongoing. Grade C. Camp Creek ( 6037-$- 0-): This rearing facility switched from Iron Gate chinook stocks to natal stocks in 1987. Yearling releases dropped from an average of 27,533 to 14,573 after the change. This can be attributed to the difficulty in trapping adults in an open, high discharge system. Still, the fact that they are now utilizing later running stocks that are adapted to Camp Creek's flow regime and conditions counts for a great deal. The natal brood have been marked with alternating maxillary clips ( right one year, left the next) prior to release and some have been recovered as adults. Grade B+. China Creek ( 6008- 09-$ 9,300): Not reviewed. Report is that the access is good throughout the stream now. No report on the status of the structures. - Review Comments- Clear Creek ( 6010, 6068- 69-$ 66,400): Fish and Game's barrier removal is providing access successfully. Report is that access is good throughout Clear Creek at this time. Grade B. Coon Creek ( 6056-$ 30,000): This ladder passes steelhead, but DFG is not certain about coho. It also requires some light upkeep. Grade B. Cottonwood Creek ( 6049-$ 22,966): Gravel placed on these weirs needs to be re- seeded periodically at the cost of $ 2,000 each time. Grade D. ( 6057-$ 6,000): Not reviewed. ( 6055-$ 5,000): Ladder is on line and working well. Grade B. ( 6058- 60-$ 29,500): These screens are all on line and operational, but require light periodic maintenance which is conducted by the Yreka Screen Shop on a rotating basis. Grade B. ( 6070-$ 1,200): The potholes blasted to trap gravel have trapped sand instead, so the goal of creating spawning habitat was not met. However, fry usage and survival seem to be good in the resultant pools. Not a high cost project. Grade C. ( Total Cottonwood Creek budget: $ 64,666) Di1lon Creek ( 6071-$ 5,000): This functional project opened five miles of good habitat now utilized by steelhead and Chinook. Grade A. Doolittle Creek ( 6011-$ 2,300) : The treated log jam has not reformed and access is still good for steelhead. Grade C. Elk Creek ( 6012- 14-$ 41,000): The boulder weirs and clusters are now all installed and need flows for evaluation of performance. ( 6034, 6045-$ 10,000) : The washout pond has averaged 31,205 released Iron Gate chinook yearlings since 1984. Grade B. ( Total Elk Creek budget: $ 51,000) Grider Creek ( 6015- 16, 6038-$ 18,500): The falls are now passing fish successfully. Grade A. The boulder weirs have been successful in trapping spawning gravel and are being used by chinook. Grade A. The ponds have grown an average of 34,426 Iron Gate chinook yearlings since 1987. Grade B. Horse Creek ( 6062- 64, 6074-$ 35,000): The three screens are installed and operational, but require light maintenance. Yreka Screen Shop provides this on an alternating basis. Grade B. The log jam is no longer an access problem. Grade A. ( Extant diversion dam is a major problem on this creek) Humbug Creek ( 6017- 18-$ 5,300): The boulder weirs are not successful and are physically failing. Grade F. The log weirs have worked well and are providing spawning and rearing habitat. Grade A. In any event, ten miles of good quality habitat are blocked to salmonids by dredge tailings in lower Humbug Creek. - Review Comments- Independence Creek ( 6019-$ 5,000): The stream's mouth is still open and fish access it. Grade B. Indian Creek ( 6006, 6020- 28, 6039- 40, 6067, 6072~$ 200,600): AH modified former barriers are now passing fish. Grade A. The recent instream structures all appear to be performing to design; biological evaluation is underway now. Grade B. The spawning channel is used extensively by steelhead, and to a lesser extent by coho, but not by chinook. It is also a maintenance item ( ie. supplemental gravel). Grade D. The rearing ponds have averaged 74,134 Iron Gate yearlings since 1985. Grade B. Irving Creek ( 6029-$ 9,300): The use of small boulders to construct inadequately sized structures resulted in no net gain from this project. Grade F. Iron Gate Hatchery ( 6033-$-?-): The hatchery is modifying its operations to better cope with problems associated with temperatures, density, and release timing according to the hatchery manager. Grade C. Badger Flat and Tree of Heaven ( 6050- 51-$ 136,000): These spawning channels have both been unsuccessful due to design flaws. They require constant maintenance which is not possible during usage. Gravel seeding is an ongoing project. Grade F. Little Bogus Creek ( 6048-$ 20,000): These seeded weirs were not reviewed, but they are reported to be intensely utilized by spawners. However, some maintenance is also required. Pearch Creek ( 6041-$- 0-): These ponds are operated by the Orleans Rod and Gun Club and have good public involvement and educational value. About 9,000 steelhead of Salmon River origin are reared here. A lot of enthusiasm and local stocks. Grade A. Red Cap Creek ( 6042-$- 0-): This rearing pond has averaged 37,862 Iron Gate chinook yearlings since 1985 and is operated in a system that has also had significant habitat improvement projects recently completed. A CWT program would help evaluate both of these aspects of the Red Cap Creek endeavor. Grade B. Seiad Creek ( 6030- 31, 6073-$ 5,100): The barrier project has been successful. Grade A. The weir projects were not found and therefore not reviewed. Thompson Creek ( 6032, 6043-$ 5,000): The rearing ponds were closed in 1985. The instream structures were not reviewed. West Branch Creek ( 6007-$ 5,500): The weirs are used by steelhead for spawning, according to local observers; they seem functional. Grade C. - Review Comments- Wilson Creek ( 6007-$- 0-): This private rearing facility was not reviewed. According to locals, it is not in use at this time. SALMON RIVER: Black Bear Creek ( 5000-$ 11,000): This USFS project successfully provided access for steelhead into the creek, and it is currently being utilized. Grade A. Kelly Gulch ( 5002- 03-$ 9,500): This project was not reviewed, but USFS staff reported that the barrier was still not passing all fish attempting to access the system. Their evaluation is underway now. Knownothing Creek ( 5004- 06, 5021-$ 153,114): The removal of the diversion dams and other barriers resulted, in doubling the chinook and coho runs into the creek. Grade A. The weirs ( 5006*) were not completed at the time of the review. Delays were incurred because the rock was overshot resulting in boulders too small for the structures. Grade F. Nordheimer Creek ( 5007, 5008-$ 90,000): The log weirs ( 5007) failed. Grade F. The fishway ( 5008) is successful and passing fish. Grade A. Salmon River ( 5023, 5024-$ 8,000): This selective barrier was modified at a very reasonable cost and has improved access for al1 fish. Grade A. East Fork Salmon River ( 5013-$ 60,000): This project was not reviewed; USFS is evaluating now. South Fork Salmon River ( 5009- 12, 5014- 15, 5022, 5001-$ 176,200): ( 5009) This natal stock bioenhancement facility was located at a site with poor water temperature conditions for intense fish culture. Broodstock acquisition was also very difficult. The facility is now closed ( equipment will be relocated in the watershed, if possible). The project released 36,667 natal chinook smolts in the period from 1985 to 1987. Grade D. The boulder group projects were undergoing evaluation during the review period for biological response. The initial physical evaluation was not conclusive because many of the projects had not been subject to higher flows. Grade C. ( 5022) The " rough passage" area currently allows fish to pass without undue struggle. Grade B. ( 5001) The Blind Horse Creek weirs have not all been successful in providing spawning habitat. Many are trapping silt rather than spawning gravel. Rearing habitats are being provided by most of them, however. Grade D. - Review Comments- Specimen Creek ( 5016-$ 500): Steelhead now pass the treated log jam barrier. Another jam has formed above this site and requires monitoring and possible modification. Grade B. St. Claire Creek ( 5017- 20-$ 15,000): Steelhead now pass the modified barrier. The log weirs are holding gravel and in use by spawners. Juvenile cover is good associated with the weirs as well as the cover elements used in the project. The boulder weirs and clusters are also in place and in use. Grade A. SCOTT RIVER: Scott River and tribs. ( 4031- 4334 [ not inclusive]-$ 2, "* 15,810) : These Soil Conservation District projects primarily involved placing rip- rap armor at 304 different sites in the upper Scott system. Not all were reviewed, and although the rock is stable and in place, many were found to lack streamside vegetation that would provide important shade and cover for the stream and aquatic life. Some others were buried in decomposed granite, sand or silt and therefore had little benefit for fish by way of providing complex micro- habitats. The value of these projects would be much greater if some of these items were addressed. Grade C. French Creek ( 4001, 4016- 18-$ 32,100): The sediment check dam initially filled in one storm event. It was excavated but refilled during the next runoff event. A high maintenance approach that treats the symptoms of the watershed's chronic erosion problem. Grade F. The screens are all in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic light upkeep provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Kelsey Creek ( 4002- 04-$ 147,500): The weirs work well and are used by all species for spawning and rearing. Grade A. The USFS spawning channel has not performed as hoped. Problems have occurred relating to channel liner failure. The average number of pairs using the channel during the period 1985- 88 were: nine chinook, three coho, and twelve steelhead. In 1989 no usage was observed. It is also a very costly installation. Grade D-. Kidder Creek ( 4020- 21-$ 26,000): Both screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Patterson Creek ( 4019-$ 9,000): This screen is in place and functional, but is dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. - Review Comments- Scott River ( 4005- 06, 4012- 15-$ 94,800): Although the gravels were ' cleaned' the sedimentation problem returned the next year, This treatment does not address the problem, but rather the symptoms and would require constant maintenance. Grade F. The boulder groups were not installed after gauging the rapid sedimentation rate. The four screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. East Fork Scott River ( 4010- 11-$ 20,000): These two screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Shakleford Creek ( 4009, 4022- 4030 incl., 4323, 4329-$ 343,720): ( 4009) The bank armor was not surveyed, but is reported to be stabilizing the soft banks. The fishery benefits are not known, ( 4022- 30) These nine screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by tne Yreka Screen Shop, Grade B. ( 4323, 4329) The rip- rap bank armor is in place, but needs vegetation and cover elements added to increase fishery values. Grade C. Thomkins Creek ( 4007- 08-$ 6,500): The weirs are installed but are not highly utilized because of the recruited fine sediments now accumulated on them. Grade D. The fishway has provided access and is currently functional. Grade B. SHASTA RIVER: Parks Creek ( 3018-$ 42,000): These four screens are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. Shasta River ( 3000- 04, 3005- 08, 3009- 17-$ 519,000): ( 3000- 04) These weirs have deteriorated over the past few years due to the use of undersized boulders in construction. Only about 10% of the effective structures remain. In 1989 only 32 redds were observed on the weirs. Very expensive ($ 363,000) spawning gravel. Grade D. The four fishways ( 3005- 08-$ 17,000) are all currently passing fish. Grade B. The nine screens ( 3009- 17-$ 139,000) are in place and functional, but are dependent upon periodic maintenance provided by the Yreka Screen Shop. Grade B. 12 0140402500 UPPER KLAMATH RIVER: Fal1 Creek ( 2000-$- 0-): The Fall Creek hatchery facility is on line and ready to augment Iron Gate's production. The site has very good water quality and can be instrumental in relieving crowding problems at Iron Gate. Close

• 386. [Image] The doctrine of prior appropriation : effects upon water rights in the Upper Klamath Basin

  	Undergraduate student project, Geomatics 466, Boundary Law II
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The doctrine of prior appropriation : effects upon water rights in the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Hellebust, Kane Year: 2004, 2005 Undergraduate student project, Geomatics 466, Boundary Law II Title: The doctrine of prior appropriation : effects upon water rights in the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Hellebust, Kane Year: 2004, 2005 Undergraduate student project, Geomatics 466, Boundary Law II Close

• 387. [Image] Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 1]

  	4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 1] Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Lakeview Resource Area Office. Lakeview District Year: 2002, 2006, 2005 4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover Title: Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 1] Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Lakeview Resource Area Office. Lakeview District Year: 2002, 2006, 2005 4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover Close

• 388. [Image] Nutrient loading of surface waters in the Upper Klamath Basin : agricultural and natural sources

  	Abstract Implementation of the Federal Clean Water Act and Oregon Senate Bill 1010 is proceeding under two simultaneous processes in Oregon. The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality is responsible ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Nutrient loading of surface waters in the Upper Klamath Basin : agricultural and natural sources Author: Rykbost, K. A. Year: 2001, 2004 Abstract Implementation of the Federal Clean Water Act and Oregon Senate Bill 1010 is proceeding under two simultaneous processes in Oregon. The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality is responsible for developing Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) allocations for water-quality limited water bodies. The Oregon Department of Agriculture is striving to develop Management Area Plans to provide guidance for management of private agricultural lands to meet Clean Water Act objectives. Both processes seek input from local advisory committees comprised of landowners and other stakeholders, and technical review committees. Klamath Lake and Klamath River have been designated water quality impaired for several parameters including nutrients. Researchers have attempted to determine the extent of agriculture's contributions to nutrient enrichment of surface waters in the Upper Klamath Basin. Two United States Geological Survey (USGS) studies focused attention on drainage of agricultural lands adjacent to Klamath Lake as a significant source of nutrient loading in the lake. A preliminary draft report by the Klamath River TMDL committee identified the outlet for drainage waters from the Klamath Irrigation Project to the Klamath River at the Straits Drain as a point source for nutrient loading. Preparation of a final TMDL for this sub-watershed was tabled pending development of a TMDL for Klamath Lake and its tributaries. Insufficient data are available to determine the relative contributions of agricultural activities, natural background sources, and other potential sources of nutrient enrichment to establish numerical limits for nutrient loading from agricultural lands. From 1998 through 2000, the Klamath Experiment Station has investigated nutrient loading from drainage of agricultural lands adjacent to Klamath Lake, natural background sources including major springs and several artesian wells, and loading to the Klamath Irrigation Project from diversions out of Klamath Lake and Klamath River. Findings indicate contributions from agricultural lands adjacent to Klamath Lake have been overestimated, and the Klamath Irrigation Project is probably a net sink for nutrients diverted out of Klamath Lake and Klamath River. Data to support these assertions are presented. Introduction Most of the surface waters in the Klamath Basin are included in the Oregon department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) 303D list as water-quality limited. While the only criterion for listing of many streams is temperature, based on a preliminary standard of 64°F, Klamath Lake and Klamath River are listed for chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, un-ionized ammonia, and pH. The DEQ is working toward development of TMDL allocations for Klamath River and Title: Nutrient loading of surface waters in the Upper Klamath Basin : agricultural and natural sources Author: Rykbost, K. A. Year: 2001, 2004 Abstract Implementation of the Federal Clean Water Act and Oregon Senate Bill 1010 is proceeding under two simultaneous processes in Oregon. The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality is responsible for developing Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) allocations for water-quality limited water bodies. The Oregon Department of Agriculture is striving to develop Management Area Plans to provide guidance for management of private agricultural lands to meet Clean Water Act objectives. Both processes seek input from local advisory committees comprised of landowners and other stakeholders, and technical review committees. Klamath Lake and Klamath River have been designated water quality impaired for several parameters including nutrients. Researchers have attempted to determine the extent of agriculture's contributions to nutrient enrichment of surface waters in the Upper Klamath Basin. Two United States Geological Survey (USGS) studies focused attention on drainage of agricultural lands adjacent to Klamath Lake as a significant source of nutrient loading in the lake. A preliminary draft report by the Klamath River TMDL committee identified the outlet for drainage waters from the Klamath Irrigation Project to the Klamath River at the Straits Drain as a point source for nutrient loading. Preparation of a final TMDL for this sub-watershed was tabled pending development of a TMDL for Klamath Lake and its tributaries. Insufficient data are available to determine the relative contributions of agricultural activities, natural background sources, and other potential sources of nutrient enrichment to establish numerical limits for nutrient loading from agricultural lands. From 1998 through 2000, the Klamath Experiment Station has investigated nutrient loading from drainage of agricultural lands adjacent to Klamath Lake, natural background sources including major springs and several artesian wells, and loading to the Klamath Irrigation Project from diversions out of Klamath Lake and Klamath River. Findings indicate contributions from agricultural lands adjacent to Klamath Lake have been overestimated, and the Klamath Irrigation Project is probably a net sink for nutrients diverted out of Klamath Lake and Klamath River. Data to support these assertions are presented. Introduction Most of the surface waters in the Klamath Basin are included in the Oregon department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) 303D list as water-quality limited. While the only criterion for listing of many streams is temperature, based on a preliminary standard of 64°F, Klamath Lake and Klamath River are listed for chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, un-ionized ammonia, and pH. The DEQ is working toward development of TMDL allocations for Klamath River and Close

• 389. [Image] Energy pricing and irrigated agriculture in the Upper Klamath Basin

  	Title from Web page (viewed on October 12, 2004).; "July 2004." ; Includes bibliographical references.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Energy pricing and irrigated agriculture in the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Jaeger, William K. (William Kenneth) Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 Title from Web page (viewed on October 12, 2004).; "July 2004." ; Includes bibliographical references. Title: Energy pricing and irrigated agriculture in the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Jaeger, William K. (William Kenneth) Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 Title from Web page (viewed on October 12, 2004).; "July 2004." ; Includes bibliographical references. Close

• 390. [Image] Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 3]

  	4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 3] Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Lakeview Resource Area Office. Lakeview District Year: 2002, 2008, 2006 4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover Title: Lakeview proposed resource management plan and final environmental impact statement [volume 3] Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Lakeview Resource Area Office. Lakeview District Year: 2002, 2008, 2006 4 v.; maps (some col.); "August 2002"; "January 2003" -- cover Close

• 391. [Image] Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin

  	"Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Braunworth, William S. Year: 2003, 2004 "Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html Title: Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Braunworth, William S. Year: 2003, 2004 "Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html Close

• 392. [Image] Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the Reclamation service, with accompanying papers.

  	Conference was held at El Paso, Tex., November 14 to 18, 1904, and adjourned to Washington, D.C., where it was continued from January 9 to 14, 1905;
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the Reclamation service, with accompanying papers. Author: Newell, Frederick Haynes, 1862-1932 Year: 1905, 2008, 2005 Conference was held at El Paso, Tex., November 14 to 18, 1904, and adjourned to Washington, D.C., where it was continued from January 9 to 14, 1905; Title: Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the Reclamation service, with accompanying papers. Author: Newell, Frederick Haynes, 1862-1932 Year: 1905, 2008, 2005 Conference was held at El Paso, Tex., November 14 to 18, 1904, and adjourned to Washington, D.C., where it was continued from January 9 to 14, 1905; Close

• 393. [Image] Klamath Project : historic operation

  	"November 2000."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Project : historic operation Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Basin Area Office Year: 2000, 2005 "November 2000." Title: Klamath Project : historic operation Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Basin Area Office Year: 2000, 2005 "November 2000." Close

• 394. [Image] Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview

  	Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Close

• 395. [Image] Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003

  	The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and Reports
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003 Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 2003, 2005 The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and Reports Title: Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003 Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 2003, 2005 The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and Reports Close

• 396. [Image] Evaluation of interim instream flow needs in the Klamath River : Phase I, final report

  	"August 5, 1999"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluation of interim instream flow needs in the Klamath River : Phase I, final report Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 1999, 2005 "August 5, 1999" Title: Evaluation of interim instream flow needs in the Klamath River : Phase I, final report Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 1999, 2005 "August 5, 1999" Close

• 397. [Image] Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010

  	Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010 Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office. Year: 2000, 2005, 2004 Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem. Title: Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010 Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office. Year: 2000, 2005, 2004 Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem. Close

• 398. [Image] Evaluation of Interim Instream Flow Needs in the Klamath River Phase II Final Report

  	1 Acknowledgements 2 3 The completion of this work in large part can be attributed to the efforts of the 4 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arcata Field Office staff and in particular to Mr. 5 Thomas Shaw ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluation of Interim Instream Flow Needs in the Klamath River Phase II Final Report Author: Hardy, Thomas B; Addley. R. Craig Year: 2001, 2008, 2005 1 Acknowledgements 2 3 The completion of this work in large part can be attributed to the efforts of the 4 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arcata Field Office staff and in particular to Mr. 5 Thomas Shaw for providing much of the supporting site-specific field data, 6 habitat mapping, and fisheries data used in the analyses. The efforts of the 7 various Tribal fisheries personnel were critical in supplying additional fisheries 8 collection data, and intensive site substrate and cover mapping. In particular, the 9 efforts of Tim Hayden, Charlie Chamberlain and Mike Belchik. USGS personnel 10 from the Midcontinent Ecological Science Center also provided valuable 11 assistance and field data used in the cross section based hydraulic and habitat 12 modeling. Mr. Gary Smith and Mike Rode of the California Department of Fish 13 and Game also provided critical information on site-specific habitat suitability 14 criteria and conceptual foundations for the escape cover analysis used in the 15 habitat simulations. Much of this work was also supported by work of Tim 16 Harden (Harden and Associates). The Bureau of Reclamation also provided 17 valuable input during the Phase II study process on Klamath Project operations. 18 A special thanks is also given to Mr. Mike Deas (U.C. Davis) for providing water 19 temperature simulations below Iron Gate Dam. The Technical Team also 20 provided critical input and review of all technical elements of this work as well as 21 providing reviews of the report. Finally, the completion of this work would not 22 have been possible without the tireless efforts of Jennifer Ludlow, Mark 23 Winkelaar, James Shoemaker, Shannon Clemens, Jerilyn Brunson, William 24 Bradford, Sarah Blake, Brandy Blank, Matt Combes, Leon Basdekas, and Aaron 25 Hardy at the Institute for Natural Systems Engineering, Utah State University. 26 27 Executive Summary 28 29 Previous instream flow recommendations developed as part of Phase I (Hardy, 30 1999) recommended interim instream flows in the main stem Klamath River 31 based on analyses of hydrology data. At that time, site-specific data suitable for 32 analysis and evaluation using habitat based modeling were not available. This 33 report details the analytical approach and modeling results from site-specific 34 studies conducted within the main stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam 35 downstream to the estuary. Study results are utilized to make revised interim 36 instream flow recommendations necessary to protect the aquatic resources 37 within the main stem Klamath River between Iron Gate and the estuary. This 38 report also makes specific recommendations for future research needs as part of 39 the on-going strategic instream flow studies being undertaken by the U.S. Fish 40 and Wildlife Service and collaborating private, local, state, federal, and tribal 41 entities. 42 43 This report was developed for the Department of the Interior (DOI) who provided 44 access to a technical review team composed of representatives of the U.S. Fish 45 and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. 46 Geological Survey, and the National Marine Fisheries Service. The technical Draft - Subject to Change 1 review team also included participation by the Yurok, Hoopa Valley, and Karuk 2 Tribes given the Departments trust responsibilities and the California Department 3 of Fish and Game as the state level resource management agency. The 4 technical review team provided invaluable assistance in the review of methods 5 and results used in the analysis, provided comments on draft sections of the 6 report, and provided data and supporting material for use in completion of the 7 Phase II report. In addition, several agencies and private individuals provided 8 written comments on the Preliminary Draft Report, which have been addressed in 9 this report where appropriate. 10 11 This report is organized to follow the general process used to implement the 12 technical studies. It first provides important background information on the 13 historical and current conditions of the anadromous species, highlights factors 14 that have contributed to their decline, provides an overview of the Phase I study 15 process and its principal findings. The report then continues with a description of 16 the Phase II technical study process. Key sections address methods and 17 findings for each technical component such as study design, study site selection, 18 field methods, analytical approaches, summary results, and recommended 19 instream flows. 20 21 The Phase II study relied on state-of-the-art field data collection methodologies 22 and modeling of physical habitat for target species and life stages of anadromous 23 fish. The field methods were directed toward achieving a three-dimensional 24 representation of each study site that incorporated between 0.6 to over one mile 25 of river depending on the specific study site. At each study site, a spatially 26 explicit substrate and vegetation map was developed and then integrated with 27 the three-dimensional channel topography in GIS. Fieldwork also involved 28 collection of hydraulic calibration data and fish observation data. The later 29 information was used in the development of habitat suitability criteria, conceptual 30 habitat model development and implementation, and habitat model validation 31 efforts. 32 33 Hydrology in the main stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam was estimated 34 differently for different purposes in Phase II. For example, we used simulated 35 unimpaired inflows (i.e., no depletions) to Upper Klamath Lake routed to Iron 36 Gate Dam with no Klamath Project imposed water demands. This simulated 37 scenario represents the best available estimates of the unimpaired flows below 38 Iron Gate Dam for the purposes of this study. The remaining flow scenarios 39 included the use of Upper Klamath Lake net inflows, historical Klamath Project 40 water demands, and the USFWS Biological Opinion (2000) target Upper Klamath 41 Lake water elevations. These scenarios represent different potential operational 42 flow scenarios as points of reference to the instream flow recommendations 43 developed as part of Phase II. Differences between these simulated flow 44 scenarios required the use of different models and/or modeling assumptions. 45 The assumptions and modeling tools are described in the appropriate technical 46 sections of the report. The estimated hydrology at each study site was used in Draft - Subject to Change 1 both the physical habitat modeling and temperature simulations using the USGS 2 Systems Impact Assessment Model (SIAM) or its components. 3 4 Physical habitat modeling at each study site relied on two-dimensional hydraulic 5 simulations that were coupled to three-dimensional habitat models. The 6 analytical form of the habitat models varied for spawning, fry, and 'juveniles' (i.e., 7 pre-smolts). These modeling results were compared to available 1-dimensional 8 cross section based hydraulic and habitat modeling at study sites that overlapped 9 between existing USFWS/USGS and Phase II studies. 10 11 Habitat suitability criteria for target species and life stages of anadromous fish 12 were developed from site-specific data for Chinook spawning, Chinook fry, and 13 steelhead 1+. These curves were validated both by field observations using the 14 habitat modeling results as well as by comparison to results from an individual 15 based bioenergetics model for drift feeding salmonids developed at USU. A 16 separate procedure was developed to obtain habitat suitability curves for Chinook 17 juvenile (i.e., pre-smolts), steelhead fry, and coho fry based on available 18 literature data. This approach used a systematic process to construct an 19 'envelope' habitat suitability curve that encompassed the available literature 20 curves. The overall process included a validation component that compared the 21 habitat versus discharge relationships between envelope curves to the site- 22 specific curves for Chinook spawning, Chinook fry, and steelhead 1+. The results 23 validated the use of the envelope curves for use as interim criteria pending 24 further research and development of site-specific curves for these species and 25 life stages within the Klamath River. 26 27 Habitat modeling involved the integration of substrate and cover mapping with 28 the three-dimensional topography and hydraulic properties at each study site with 29 the habitat suitability curves. Habitat modeling was undertaken for Chinook 30 spawning, fry, and juveniles, coho fry and juveniles, and steelhead fry and 31 steelhead 1+. Different habitat models were developed for spawning, fry, and 32 juveniles. The study generated a salmonid fry habitat model that incorporated a 33 distance to escape cover that also required sufficient depth within the escape 34 cover in order for it to be utilized at a given flow rate. This model also 35 incorporated quantitative differences in the type of escape cover. 36 37 The habitat modeling results for each species and life stage were validated 38 against the spatial distribution of each species and life stage surveyed at study 39 sites at different flow rates. These results generally demonstrated that the 40 integrated habitat modeling was validated for the study in terms of spawning and 41 fry life stages. Our assessment of the pre-smolt or juvenile life stage results is 42 that they are consistent for the existing habitat model assumptions. However, we 43 discuss what we perceive to be inherent biases in these results (juveniles) based 44 on the existing habitat model structure and make specific recommendations of 45 what additional work would likely improve the results for this particular life stage. 46 Draft - Subject to Change jjj 1 Temperature simulations based on the unimpaired flow regime below Iron Gate 2 Dam were conducted with HEC5Q as part of the SIAM applications. These 3 results supported the findings in Phase I that flows lower than ~ 1000 cfs during 4 the late summer would likely increase the environmental risk to anadromous 5 species due to almost continual exposure to chronic temperature thresholds. We 6 believe that these simulation results show that there is very little flexibility for 7 reservoir operations at Iron Gate Dam to mitigate deleterious flow dependent 8 temperature effects. This finding has previously been reported by the USGS 9 (Bartholow 1995) and Deas (1999). 10 11 The integration of the habitat modeling with the unimpaired hydrology was used 12 to develop habitat reference values for target species and life stages at each 13 study reach on a monthly basis for flow exceedence ranges between 10 and 90 14 percent. The reference habitat value was computed as the percent of maximum 15 habitat associated with the unimpaired flow values for each species and life 16 stage on a monthly basis. This reference habitat value was used as one 'target' 17 condition to guide the selection of monthly flow recommendations at a given 18 exceedence flow level. 19 20 The flow recommendation process also employed a prioritization of species and 21 life stages to be considered within the year and/or within a specific month. The 22 prioritization of life stages was taken from the life history sequence of 23 anadromous species (i.e., spawning, fry, and then juveniles). The initial priority 24 order for species was defined as Chinook, then coho, and finally steelhead. It is 25 stressed that this initial prioritization was used to conceptually simplify the flow 26 recommendation process only, and that all species and life stages were 27 examined as part of the overall analysis. The process then relied on an iterative 28 procedure to select target flows for each month at a given exceedence level. 29 This procedure attempted to pick a target flow that would simultaneously 30 preserve the underlying characteristics of the seasonal unimpaired hydrograph at 31 that exceedence flow, the underlying relationship of the unimpaired hydrograph 32 between all exceedence flow levels, while striving to maximize habitat for the 33 priority species and life stages relative to the unimpaired habitat reference 34 conditions. The corresponding monthly flow rates at each exceedence level 35 were then used to compute the percent of maximum habitat for all other species 36 and life stages in a given month. These values were then compared to their 37 respective unimpaired habitat values to ensure that adequate protection of 38 habitat for non-priority species and life stages remained reasonable. 39 40 The flow recommendations developed in the Iron Gate to Shasta River Reach 41 were 'propagated' downstream to each successive reach by addition of the reach 42 gains as presently defined by the USGS in their MODSIM module of SIAM. It is 43 recognized that these reach gains reflect existing depletions in tributary systems 44 (e.g., Shasta and Scott Rivers) but are the only estimates presently available for 45 use in the simulation models for the system. The flow recommendations for each 46 river reach were then used to compute the percent of maximum habitat on a Draft - Subject to Change 1 monthly basis for each species and life stage. The recommended flow based 2 calculation of percent of maximum habitat for each species and life stage was 3 then compared against the associated unimpaired flow based habitat values. 4 5 Although flow recommendations were developed for the 10 to 90 percent 6 exceedence range (i.e., nine water year types), five water year types were 7 identified representing Critically Dry, Dry, Average, Wet, and Extremely Wet 8 inflow conditions for Upper Klamath Lake. These water year classifications 9 parallel those developed for the Trinity River and were used as operational 10 definitions in the Phase I report. Furthermore, the USBR KPSIM model was 11 modified to use this five-water year type format for simulating operations under 12 different instream flow requirements below Iron Gate Dam. The 90, 70, 50, 30, 13 and 10 percent exceedence flow levels were assigned to each of these water 14 year types, respectively (i.e., critically dry to extremely wet). This assignment 15 was used to demonstrate several key points regarding the use of 16 recommendations at this level of resolution (i.e., five water year types) and how 17 the existing operational models for the Klamath Project simulate flow scenarios. 18 19 These five water year type dependent recommendations were utilized in the U.S. 20 Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project Simulation Module (KPSIM) to simulate 21 project operations over the 1961 to 1997 period of record. This analysis 22 confirmed that the project could be operated to achieve these recommendations 23 in all but 19 of the 468 simulated months in this period of record. These results 24 also highlighted that an alternative water year 'classification' strategy for 25 specifying instream flows should be considered in lieu of a five water year type 26 scheme. We provide a specific recommendation of how this could be 27 approached based on the instream flow recommendations developed in Phase II. 28 29 30 Draft - Subject to Change Title: Evaluation of Interim Instream Flow Needs in the Klamath River Phase II Final Report Author: Hardy, Thomas B; Addley. R. Craig Year: 2001, 2008, 2005 1 Acknowledgements 2 3 The completion of this work in large part can be attributed to the efforts of the 4 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arcata Field Office staff and in particular to Mr. 5 Thomas Shaw for providing much of the supporting site-specific field data, 6 habitat mapping, and fisheries data used in the analyses. The efforts of the 7 various Tribal fisheries personnel were critical in supplying additional fisheries 8 collection data, and intensive site substrate and cover mapping. In particular, the 9 efforts of Tim Hayden, Charlie Chamberlain and Mike Belchik. USGS personnel 10 from the Midcontinent Ecological Science Center also provided valuable 11 assistance and field data used in the cross section based hydraulic and habitat 12 modeling. Mr. Gary Smith and Mike Rode of the California Department of Fish 13 and Game also provided critical information on site-specific habitat suitability 14 criteria and conceptual foundations for the escape cover analysis used in the 15 habitat simulations. Much of this work was also supported by work of Tim 16 Harden (Harden and Associates). The Bureau of Reclamation also provided 17 valuable input during the Phase II study process on Klamath Project operations. 18 A special thanks is also given to Mr. Mike Deas (U.C. Davis) for providing water 19 temperature simulations below Iron Gate Dam. The Technical Team also 20 provided critical input and review of all technical elements of this work as well as 21 providing reviews of the report. Finally, the completion of this work would not 22 have been possible without the tireless efforts of Jennifer Ludlow, Mark 23 Winkelaar, James Shoemaker, Shannon Clemens, Jerilyn Brunson, William 24 Bradford, Sarah Blake, Brandy Blank, Matt Combes, Leon Basdekas, and Aaron 25 Hardy at the Institute for Natural Systems Engineering, Utah State University. 26 27 Executive Summary 28 29 Previous instream flow recommendations developed as part of Phase I (Hardy, 30 1999) recommended interim instream flows in the main stem Klamath River 31 based on analyses of hydrology data. At that time, site-specific data suitable for 32 analysis and evaluation using habitat based modeling were not available. This 33 report details the analytical approach and modeling results from site-specific 34 studies conducted within the main stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam 35 downstream to the estuary. Study results are utilized to make revised interim 36 instream flow recommendations necessary to protect the aquatic resources 37 within the main stem Klamath River between Iron Gate and the estuary. This 38 report also makes specific recommendations for future research needs as part of 39 the on-going strategic instream flow studies being undertaken by the U.S. Fish 40 and Wildlife Service and collaborating private, local, state, federal, and tribal 41 entities. 42 43 This report was developed for the Department of the Interior (DOI) who provided 44 access to a technical review team composed of representatives of the U.S. Fish 45 and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. 46 Geological Survey, and the National Marine Fisheries Service. The technical Draft - Subject to Change 1 review team also included participation by the Yurok, Hoopa Valley, and Karuk 2 Tribes given the Departments trust responsibilities and the California Department 3 of Fish and Game as the state level resource management agency. The 4 technical review team provided invaluable assistance in the review of methods 5 and results used in the analysis, provided comments on draft sections of the 6 report, and provided data and supporting material for use in completion of the 7 Phase II report. In addition, several agencies and private individuals provided 8 written comments on the Preliminary Draft Report, which have been addressed in 9 this report where appropriate. 10 11 This report is organized to follow the general process used to implement the 12 technical studies. It first provides important background information on the 13 historical and current conditions of the anadromous species, highlights factors 14 that have contributed to their decline, provides an overview of the Phase I study 15 process and its principal findings. The report then continues with a description of 16 the Phase II technical study process. Key sections address methods and 17 findings for each technical component such as study design, study site selection, 18 field methods, analytical approaches, summary results, and recommended 19 instream flows. 20 21 The Phase II study relied on state-of-the-art field data collection methodologies 22 and modeling of physical habitat for target species and life stages of anadromous 23 fish. The field methods were directed toward achieving a three-dimensional 24 representation of each study site that incorporated between 0.6 to over one mile 25 of river depending on the specific study site. At each study site, a spatially 26 explicit substrate and vegetation map was developed and then integrated with 27 the three-dimensional channel topography in GIS. Fieldwork also involved 28 collection of hydraulic calibration data and fish observation data. The later 29 information was used in the development of habitat suitability criteria, conceptual 30 habitat model development and implementation, and habitat model validation 31 efforts. 32 33 Hydrology in the main stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam was estimated 34 differently for different purposes in Phase II. For example, we used simulated 35 unimpaired inflows (i.e., no depletions) to Upper Klamath Lake routed to Iron 36 Gate Dam with no Klamath Project imposed water demands. This simulated 37 scenario represents the best available estimates of the unimpaired flows below 38 Iron Gate Dam for the purposes of this study. The remaining flow scenarios 39 included the use of Upper Klamath Lake net inflows, historical Klamath Project 40 water demands, and the USFWS Biological Opinion (2000) target Upper Klamath 41 Lake water elevations. These scenarios represent different potential operational 42 flow scenarios as points of reference to the instream flow recommendations 43 developed as part of Phase II. Differences between these simulated flow 44 scenarios required the use of different models and/or modeling assumptions. 45 The assumptions and modeling tools are described in the appropriate technical 46 sections of the report. The estimated hydrology at each study site was used in Draft - Subject to Change 1 both the physical habitat modeling and temperature simulations using the USGS 2 Systems Impact Assessment Model (SIAM) or its components. 3 4 Physical habitat modeling at each study site relied on two-dimensional hydraulic 5 simulations that were coupled to three-dimensional habitat models. The 6 analytical form of the habitat models varied for spawning, fry, and 'juveniles' (i.e., 7 pre-smolts). These modeling results were compared to available 1-dimensional 8 cross section based hydraulic and habitat modeling at study sites that overlapped 9 between existing USFWS/USGS and Phase II studies. 10 11 Habitat suitability criteria for target species and life stages of anadromous fish 12 were developed from site-specific data for Chinook spawning, Chinook fry, and 13 steelhead 1+. These curves were validated both by field observations using the 14 habitat modeling results as well as by comparison to results from an individual 15 based bioenergetics model for drift feeding salmonids developed at USU. A 16 separate procedure was developed to obtain habitat suitability curves for Chinook 17 juvenile (i.e., pre-smolts), steelhead fry, and coho fry based on available 18 literature data. This approach used a systematic process to construct an 19 'envelope' habitat suitability curve that encompassed the available literature 20 curves. The overall process included a validation component that compared the 21 habitat versus discharge relationships between envelope curves to the site- 22 specific curves for Chinook spawning, Chinook fry, and steelhead 1+. The results 23 validated the use of the envelope curves for use as interim criteria pending 24 further research and development of site-specific curves for these species and 25 life stages within the Klamath River. 26 27 Habitat modeling involved the integration of substrate and cover mapping with 28 the three-dimensional topography and hydraulic properties at each study site with 29 the habitat suitability curves. Habitat modeling was undertaken for Chinook 30 spawning, fry, and juveniles, coho fry and juveniles, and steelhead fry and 31 steelhead 1+. Different habitat models were developed for spawning, fry, and 32 juveniles. The study generated a salmonid fry habitat model that incorporated a 33 distance to escape cover that also required sufficient depth within the escape 34 cover in order for it to be utilized at a given flow rate. This model also 35 incorporated quantitative differences in the type of escape cover. 36 37 The habitat modeling results for each species and life stage were validated 38 against the spatial distribution of each species and life stage surveyed at study 39 sites at different flow rates. These results generally demonstrated that the 40 integrated habitat modeling was validated for the study in terms of spawning and 41 fry life stages. Our assessment of the pre-smolt or juvenile life stage results is 42 that they are consistent for the existing habitat model assumptions. However, we 43 discuss what we perceive to be inherent biases in these results (juveniles) based 44 on the existing habitat model structure and make specific recommendations of 45 what additional work would likely improve the results for this particular life stage. 46 Draft - Subject to Change jjj 1 Temperature simulations based on the unimpaired flow regime below Iron Gate 2 Dam were conducted with HEC5Q as part of the SIAM applications. These 3 results supported the findings in Phase I that flows lower than ~ 1000 cfs during 4 the late summer would likely increase the environmental risk to anadromous 5 species due to almost continual exposure to chronic temperature thresholds. We 6 believe that these simulation results show that there is very little flexibility for 7 reservoir operations at Iron Gate Dam to mitigate deleterious flow dependent 8 temperature effects. This finding has previously been reported by the USGS 9 (Bartholow 1995) and Deas (1999). 10 11 The integration of the habitat modeling with the unimpaired hydrology was used 12 to develop habitat reference values for target species and life stages at each 13 study reach on a monthly basis for flow exceedence ranges between 10 and 90 14 percent. The reference habitat value was computed as the percent of maximum 15 habitat associated with the unimpaired flow values for each species and life 16 stage on a monthly basis. This reference habitat value was used as one 'target' 17 condition to guide the selection of monthly flow recommendations at a given 18 exceedence flow level. 19 20 The flow recommendation process also employed a prioritization of species and 21 life stages to be considered within the year and/or within a specific month. The 22 prioritization of life stages was taken from the life history sequence of 23 anadromous species (i.e., spawning, fry, and then juveniles). The initial priority 24 order for species was defined as Chinook, then coho, and finally steelhead. It is 25 stressed that this initial prioritization was used to conceptually simplify the flow 26 recommendation process only, and that all species and life stages were 27 examined as part of the overall analysis. The process then relied on an iterative 28 procedure to select target flows for each month at a given exceedence level. 29 This procedure attempted to pick a target flow that would simultaneously 30 preserve the underlying characteristics of the seasonal unimpaired hydrograph at 31 that exceedence flow, the underlying relationship of the unimpaired hydrograph 32 between all exceedence flow levels, while striving to maximize habitat for the 33 priority species and life stages relative to the unimpaired habitat reference 34 conditions. The corresponding monthly flow rates at each exceedence level 35 were then used to compute the percent of maximum habitat for all other species 36 and life stages in a given month. These values were then compared to their 37 respective unimpaired habitat values to ensure that adequate protection of 38 habitat for non-priority species and life stages remained reasonable. 39 40 The flow recommendations developed in the Iron Gate to Shasta River Reach 41 were 'propagated' downstream to each successive reach by addition of the reach 42 gains as presently defined by the USGS in their MODSIM module of SIAM. It is 43 recognized that these reach gains reflect existing depletions in tributary systems 44 (e.g., Shasta and Scott Rivers) but are the only estimates presently available for 45 use in the simulation models for the system. The flow recommendations for each 46 river reach were then used to compute the percent of maximum habitat on a Draft - Subject to Change 1 monthly basis for each species and life stage. The recommended flow based 2 calculation of percent of maximum habitat for each species and life stage was 3 then compared against the associated unimpaired flow based habitat values. 4 5 Although flow recommendations were developed for the 10 to 90 percent 6 exceedence range (i.e., nine water year types), five water year types were 7 identified representing Critically Dry, Dry, Average, Wet, and Extremely Wet 8 inflow conditions for Upper Klamath Lake. These water year classifications 9 parallel those developed for the Trinity River and were used as operational 10 definitions in the Phase I report. Furthermore, the USBR KPSIM model was 11 modified to use this five-water year type format for simulating operations under 12 different instream flow requirements below Iron Gate Dam. The 90, 70, 50, 30, 13 and 10 percent exceedence flow levels were assigned to each of these water 14 year types, respectively (i.e., critically dry to extremely wet). This assignment 15 was used to demonstrate several key points regarding the use of 16 recommendations at this level of resolution (i.e., five water year types) and how 17 the existing operational models for the Klamath Project simulate flow scenarios. 18 19 These five water year type dependent recommendations were utilized in the U.S. 20 Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project Simulation Module (KPSIM) to simulate 21 project operations over the 1961 to 1997 period of record. This analysis 22 confirmed that the project could be operated to achieve these recommendations 23 in all but 19 of the 468 simulated months in this period of record. These results 24 also highlighted that an alternative water year 'classification' strategy for 25 specifying instream flows should be considered in lieu of a five water year type 26 scheme. We provide a specific recommendation of how this could be 27 approached based on the instream flow recommendations developed in Phase II. 28 29 30 Draft - Subject to Change Close

• 399. [Image] Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 2; Technical guide and appendixes

  	Title from cover; "May 1991"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 2; Technical guide and appendixes Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991" Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 2; Technical guide and appendixes Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991" Close

• 400. [Image] Salmon of the Klamath river, California : 1. The salmon and the fishery of Klamath river. 2. A report on the 1930 catch of king salmon in Klamath river

  	CONTENTS PAGE I. THE SALMON AND THE FISHERY OF KLAMATH RIVER 2695 Introduction 2697 General Characteristics of Klamath River Salmon 2699 Species Other Than King Salmon 26916 The Spring Migration (Immigration) ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Salmon of the Klamath river, California : 1. The salmon and the fishery of Klamath river. 2. A report on the 1930 catch of king salmon in Klamath river Author: Snyder, John Otterbein Year: 1931, 2005 CONTENTS PAGE I. THE SALMON AND THE FISHERY OF KLAMATH RIVER 2695 Introduction 2697 General Characteristics of Klamath River Salmon 2699 Species Other Than King Salmon 26916 The Spring Migration (Immigration) 26918 The Summer Migration (Immigration) 26923 Sex Representation in the Migration 26933 Fish Increase in Average Weight and Size as the Season Advances 26939 Angling for Salmon 26943 Seaward Migration (Emigration) 26944 Obstructions in the River 26950 The Age at Maturity of Klamath King Salmon 26952 Marking Experiments 26967 Experiment in 1916 26968 Experiment in 1918 26968 Experiment in 1919 26968 Experiment in 1920 26968 Experiment in 1922 (Sacramento River) 26971 Experiment in 1922 (Klamath River) 26972 Experiment in 1923-1924 269 143 Ocean Tagging 26980 Depletion 26981 Notes Relating to the Salmon Catch of Klamath River 26988 The Ocean Catch 26992 Age Characteristics of the Ocean Catch 269108 Artificial Propagation in Klamath River 269111 Summary 18 269119 II. A REPORT ON THE 1930 CATCH OF KING SALMON IN KLAMATH RIVER 1823 Title: Salmon of the Klamath river, California : 1. The salmon and the fishery of Klamath river. 2. A report on the 1930 catch of king salmon in Klamath river Author: Snyder, John Otterbein Year: 1931, 2005 CONTENTS PAGE I. THE SALMON AND THE FISHERY OF KLAMATH RIVER 2695 Introduction 2697 General Characteristics of Klamath River Salmon 2699 Species Other Than King Salmon 26916 The Spring Migration (Immigration) 26918 The Summer Migration (Immigration) 26923 Sex Representation in the Migration 26933 Fish Increase in Average Weight and Size as the Season Advances 26939 Angling for Salmon 26943 Seaward Migration (Emigration) 26944 Obstructions in the River 26950 The Age at Maturity of Klamath King Salmon 26952 Marking Experiments 26967 Experiment in 1916 26968 Experiment in 1918 26968 Experiment in 1919 26968 Experiment in 1920 26968 Experiment in 1922 (Sacramento River) 26971 Experiment in 1922 (Klamath River) 26972 Experiment in 1923-1924 269 143 Ocean Tagging 26980 Depletion 26981 Notes Relating to the Salmon Catch of Klamath River 26988 The Ocean Catch 26992 Age Characteristics of the Ocean Catch 269108 Artificial Propagation in Klamath River 269111 Summary 18 269119 II. A REPORT ON THE 1930 CATCH OF KING SALMON IN KLAMATH RIVER 1823 Close