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• 601. [Article] Evaluation of species composition by four methods on two perennial grass pastures (Festuca arundinacae Schreb. and Lolium perenne L.) grazed lightly and heavily in western Oregon

  The present study was undertaken to evaluate the seasonal botanical composition of two grass pastures, tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Botanical composition ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluation of species composition by four methods on two perennial grass pastures (Festuca arundinacae Schreb. and Lolium perenne L.) grazed lightly and heavily in western Oregon Author: Pessot Zorich, Rafael The present study was undertaken to evaluate the seasonal botanical composition of two grass pastures, tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Botanical composition was determined by four methods: dry-weight-rank, weight-estimate, hand separation, and the constituent differential, with cattle and sheep grazing at two intensities. The pastures were sampled eight times during the growing season (March 23-July 8), taking 50, 25, 5, and 5 observations with the dry-weight-rank, weight-estimate, hand separation, and constituent differential methods, respectively, using a 2.4-square-foot circular plot. New sets of multipliers had to be determined for the dry-weight-rank method. Three different ways of grouping the data were tested. Best results were obtained in both pastures when all the data were grouped from all grazing treatments, because no significant differences were detected among the experimental errors in the analyses of variance used to test data arrangements. Consequently, the use of only one set of multipliers was found to be more practical. The same ways of grouping the data were used to calculate the regression equations to give the most accurate correction for the weight-estimate method. Uncorrected data were also tested. It was determined that best results were obtained in the fescue pastures when all the data were grouped within each of the grazing treatments. In the ryegrass pastures, on the other hand, all data collected in each sampling period was found to be the best arrangement, provided that the number of observations is increased to compensate for greater pasture variability. An analysis of variance was run on the information obtained with each method in both pastures. It was concluded that, in the fescue sections, the methods gave similar results regardless of the kind of livestock, grazing intensity, and sampling period. Units grazed by cattle showed a lower fescue percentage, especially those heavily grazed, than those grazed by sheep; grazing intensity did not affect the trend of the fescue percentages in the mixture which declined as the season progressed. In ryegrass pastures, the ryegrass percentages obtained in each case were influenced by all four treatments: methods, kind of livestock, grazing intensity, and sampling periods. It is apparent from this study that the constituent differential method is the most promising one, and more attention should be directed to it in the future. A study is proposed to explore some of the factors influencing the use of the constituent differential method for determining production and botanical composition on mixed grass-legume pastures. Title: Evaluation of species composition by four methods on two perennial grass pastures (Festuca arundinacae Schreb. and Lolium perenne L.) grazed lightly and heavily in western Oregon Author: Pessot Zorich, Rafael The present study was undertaken to evaluate the seasonal botanical composition of two grass pastures, tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Botanical composition was determined by four methods: dry-weight-rank, weight-estimate, hand separation, and the constituent differential, with cattle and sheep grazing at two intensities. The pastures were sampled eight times during the growing season (March 23-July 8), taking 50, 25, 5, and 5 observations with the dry-weight-rank, weight-estimate, hand separation, and constituent differential methods, respectively, using a 2.4-square-foot circular plot. New sets of multipliers had to be determined for the dry-weight-rank method. Three different ways of grouping the data were tested. Best results were obtained in both pastures when all the data were grouped from all grazing treatments, because no significant differences were detected among the experimental errors in the analyses of variance used to test data arrangements. Consequently, the use of only one set of multipliers was found to be more practical. The same ways of grouping the data were used to calculate the regression equations to give the most accurate correction for the weight-estimate method. Uncorrected data were also tested. It was determined that best results were obtained in the fescue pastures when all the data were grouped within each of the grazing treatments. In the ryegrass pastures, on the other hand, all data collected in each sampling period was found to be the best arrangement, provided that the number of observations is increased to compensate for greater pasture variability. An analysis of variance was run on the information obtained with each method in both pastures. It was concluded that, in the fescue sections, the methods gave similar results regardless of the kind of livestock, grazing intensity, and sampling period. Units grazed by cattle showed a lower fescue percentage, especially those heavily grazed, than those grazed by sheep; grazing intensity did not affect the trend of the fescue percentages in the mixture which declined as the season progressed. In ryegrass pastures, the ryegrass percentages obtained in each case were influenced by all four treatments: methods, kind of livestock, grazing intensity, and sampling periods. It is apparent from this study that the constituent differential method is the most promising one, and more attention should be directed to it in the future. A study is proposed to explore some of the factors influencing the use of the constituent differential method for determining production and botanical composition on mixed grass-legume pastures. Close

• 602. [Article] Evidence of a trophic cascade among wolves, elk, and aspen in Yellowstone National Park, USA

  According to general top-down trophic theory, in the presence of carnivores, herbivore behavior and/or densities could change and result in an overall decrease in herbivory on plant communities. In this ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evidence of a trophic cascade among wolves, elk, and aspen in Yellowstone National Park, USA Author: Halofsky, Joshua S. According to general top-down trophic theory, in the presence of carnivores, herbivore behavior and/or densities could change and result in an overall decrease in herbivory on plant communities. In this dissertation, I examined the potential relationship between gray wolf (Canis lupus) presence and absence on elk (Cervus elaphus) herbivory of aspen (Populus tremuloides). Based on aspen tree cores and an age-diameter relationship, I approximated aspen origination dates both within and outside two elk exclosures to study long-term patterns of aspen recruitment in the Gallatin elk winter range of northwestern Yellowstone National Park, USA. From aspen data, I concluded that while a host of interacting biophysical factors may influence aspen recruitment and growth, the observed pattern of aspen decline is most correlated with elk herbivory, coincident with the presence and absence of wolves. Outside of the elk winter range, but still within the northwestern portion of the park, I studied growth patterns of clonal upland aspen thickets since wolf reintroduction. Growth patterns were compared in an area burned in the 1988 fires to an adjacent area that was unburned. From the results, I proposed that in addition to any wolf-mediated changes in elk densities, a recoupling of fire with increased elk predation risk in the presence of wolves may improve upland clonal aspen recruitment. To examine the potential for a trophic cascade from the perspective of elk, I measured vigilance behavior in female elk throughout the park during both winter and summer seasons. After vigilance behavior was recorded, I noted the distance to, and type of, objects that could have impeded observed female elk escape from predators. From my model selection procedure, I concluded elk foraging behavior appeared to vary with physical features in the landscape. This variation in foraging behavior with risk of predation provides a potential mechanism to explain the patchy release of preferred woody browse species within the Park. Therefore, in addition to density-mediated effects, the results are consistent with a behaviorally-mediated top-down trophic cascade between wolves, elk, and aspen. Title: Evidence of a trophic cascade among wolves, elk, and aspen in Yellowstone National Park, USA Author: Halofsky, Joshua S. According to general top-down trophic theory, in the presence of carnivores, herbivore behavior and/or densities could change and result in an overall decrease in herbivory on plant communities. In this dissertation, I examined the potential relationship between gray wolf (Canis lupus) presence and absence on elk (Cervus elaphus) herbivory of aspen (Populus tremuloides). Based on aspen tree cores and an age-diameter relationship, I approximated aspen origination dates both within and outside two elk exclosures to study long-term patterns of aspen recruitment in the Gallatin elk winter range of northwestern Yellowstone National Park, USA. From aspen data, I concluded that while a host of interacting biophysical factors may influence aspen recruitment and growth, the observed pattern of aspen decline is most correlated with elk herbivory, coincident with the presence and absence of wolves. Outside of the elk winter range, but still within the northwestern portion of the park, I studied growth patterns of clonal upland aspen thickets since wolf reintroduction. Growth patterns were compared in an area burned in the 1988 fires to an adjacent area that was unburned. From the results, I proposed that in addition to any wolf-mediated changes in elk densities, a recoupling of fire with increased elk predation risk in the presence of wolves may improve upland clonal aspen recruitment. To examine the potential for a trophic cascade from the perspective of elk, I measured vigilance behavior in female elk throughout the park during both winter and summer seasons. After vigilance behavior was recorded, I noted the distance to, and type of, objects that could have impeded observed female elk escape from predators. From my model selection procedure, I concluded elk foraging behavior appeared to vary with physical features in the landscape. This variation in foraging behavior with risk of predation provides a potential mechanism to explain the patchy release of preferred woody browse species within the Park. Therefore, in addition to density-mediated effects, the results are consistent with a behaviorally-mediated top-down trophic cascade between wolves, elk, and aspen. Close

• 603. [Article] Buffer strip dynamics in the Western Oregon Cascades

  Although buffer strips have long been used as a protection tool when logging near streams, long-term studies investigating buffer strip dynamics are rare. Steinblums et al. (1984) inventoried 40 buffer ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Buffer strip dynamics in the Western Oregon Cascades Author: Sherwood, Kim Although buffer strips have long been used as a protection tool when logging near streams, long-term studies investigating buffer strip dynamics are rare. Steinblums et al. (1984) inventoried 40 buffer strips 1 to 15 years old in the western Oregon Cascades beginning in the summer of 1975. Numerous site and stand characteristics were evaluated and regional regression equations were developed to predict survival of the buffer strips (Steinblums et al. 1984). During the summer of 1990, 20 of the original buffer strips (Steinblums et al. 1984) were selected for reinventory to assess overstory conifer changes and density of conifer regeneration. Three sites had experienced severe windthrow followed by salvage logging, and a fourth could not be matched with original field notes. The 1990 comparison utilized the 16 remaining sites. Four diameter classes (10-14 inches DBH, 15-29 inches DBH, 30-44 inches DBH, and 45 inches DBH) were used to evaluate changes in overstory conifers since the original study. Density and basal area of each class were evaluated for each of the three common coniferous species (western hemlock, western redcedar, and Douglas-fir), and combined conifers. Average combined conifer densities of these late successional buffer strips increased from 54 to 59 trees per acre since the earlier study (Steinblums et al. 1984); average combined conifer basal area decreased from 299 to 263 ft^2 per acre since the original study. Ingrowth was most common in the two smallest diameter classes, with the majority of buffer strips showing increases in density and basal area. Average combined conifer density increased from 32 to 41 trees per acre; average combined conifer basal area increased from 64 to 76 ft^2 per acre. Western hemlock was the major contributor to the increases. Western redcedar and Douglas-fir represented relatively minor components of the two smallest diameter classes in both samplings. While combined conifer basal area increases were small, density increased as much as 900%. Decreases in density and basal area were common for conifers 30-44 inches DBH, with the majority of losses evident among western hemlock. However, Douglas-fir also exhibited some declines in this class. Western redcedar was relatively unchanged since the original study. Density losses ranged from 0 to 50% of the original buffer; basal area losses ranged from 0 to 72%. Density and basal area losses typically occurred among conifers 45 inches DBH. Though trees of this size were not prevalent, basal area losses from this class ranged from 0 to 84% of the original sample value. Conifer regeneration data indicate these buffer strips are sufficiently stocked to maintain conifers over time. Average densities of saplings (<8 inches DBH and >3 feet tall) ranged from nearly 200 to 3600 trees per acre. Title: Buffer strip dynamics in the Western Oregon Cascades Author: Sherwood, Kim Although buffer strips have long been used as a protection tool when logging near streams, long-term studies investigating buffer strip dynamics are rare. Steinblums et al. (1984) inventoried 40 buffer strips 1 to 15 years old in the western Oregon Cascades beginning in the summer of 1975. Numerous site and stand characteristics were evaluated and regional regression equations were developed to predict survival of the buffer strips (Steinblums et al. 1984). During the summer of 1990, 20 of the original buffer strips (Steinblums et al. 1984) were selected for reinventory to assess overstory conifer changes and density of conifer regeneration. Three sites had experienced severe windthrow followed by salvage logging, and a fourth could not be matched with original field notes. The 1990 comparison utilized the 16 remaining sites. Four diameter classes (10-14 inches DBH, 15-29 inches DBH, 30-44 inches DBH, and 45 inches DBH) were used to evaluate changes in overstory conifers since the original study. Density and basal area of each class were evaluated for each of the three common coniferous species (western hemlock, western redcedar, and Douglas-fir), and combined conifers. Average combined conifer densities of these late successional buffer strips increased from 54 to 59 trees per acre since the earlier study (Steinblums et al. 1984); average combined conifer basal area decreased from 299 to 263 ft^2 per acre since the original study. Ingrowth was most common in the two smallest diameter classes, with the majority of buffer strips showing increases in density and basal area. Average combined conifer density increased from 32 to 41 trees per acre; average combined conifer basal area increased from 64 to 76 ft^2 per acre. Western hemlock was the major contributor to the increases. Western redcedar and Douglas-fir represented relatively minor components of the two smallest diameter classes in both samplings. While combined conifer basal area increases were small, density increased as much as 900%. Decreases in density and basal area were common for conifers 30-44 inches DBH, with the majority of losses evident among western hemlock. However, Douglas-fir also exhibited some declines in this class. Western redcedar was relatively unchanged since the original study. Density losses ranged from 0 to 50% of the original buffer; basal area losses ranged from 0 to 72%. Density and basal area losses typically occurred among conifers 45 inches DBH. Though trees of this size were not prevalent, basal area losses from this class ranged from 0 to 84% of the original sample value. Conifer regeneration data indicate these buffer strips are sufficiently stocked to maintain conifers over time. Average densities of saplings (<8 inches DBH and >3 feet tall) ranged from nearly 200 to 3600 trees per acre. Close

• 604. [Article] Fisheries Co-management: An Experiential Account from Phang Nga Bay, Thailand

  Research Paper

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Fisheries Co-management: An Experiential Account from Phang Nga Bay, Thailand Author: Tandavanitj, Sanchai, Nabhitabhata, Jaruwat, Silpachai, Damrong, Henocque, Yves, Pimoljinda, Jate Research Paper Title: Fisheries Co-management: An Experiential Account from Phang Nga Bay, Thailand Author: Tandavanitj, Sanchai, Nabhitabhata, Jaruwat, Silpachai, Damrong, Henocque, Yves, Pimoljinda, Jate Research Paper Close

• 605. [Article] Economic-based projections of future land use in the conterminous United States under alternative policy scenarios

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Ecological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.esajournals.org/toc/ecap/current. To the best of our knowledge, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Economic-based projections of future land use in the conterminous United States under alternative policy scenarios Author: Withey, J. C., Lonsdorf, E., Martinuzzi, S., Radeloff, V. C., Nelson, E., Beaudry, F., Helmers, D., White, D., Lawler, J. J., Plantinga, A. J., Butsic, V., Lewis, D. J., Polasky, S. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Ecological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.esajournals.org/toc/ecap/current. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Title: Economic-based projections of future land use in the conterminous United States under alternative policy scenarios Author: Withey, J. C., Lonsdorf, E., Martinuzzi, S., Radeloff, V. C., Nelson, E., Beaudry, F., Helmers, D., White, D., Lawler, J. J., Plantinga, A. J., Butsic, V., Lewis, D. J., Polasky, S. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Ecological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.esajournals.org/toc/ecap/current. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Close

• 606. [Article] Twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Kock, in Oregon peppermint, Mentha piperita L. : sampling, population dynamics and economic injury

  A pest management program for Tetranychus urticae Koch in Oregon peppermint was developed based on studies of sampling, plant phenology, population dynamics and damage thresholds. A sample size of 45 leaves ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Kock, in Oregon peppermint, Mentha piperita L. : sampling, population dynamics and economic injury Author: Hollingsworth, Craig Stephen A pest management program for Tetranychus urticae Koch in Oregon peppermint was developed based on studies of sampling, plant phenology, population dynamics and damage thresholds. A sample size of 45 leaves provided a confidence level of 90% and a confidence interval of 50%. Estimation of the sample mean was based on the relationship between the mean density of mites (x) and the number of leaves infested with 5 or more mites (INF5) in a 45 leaf sample: Log (x + 1.0) = 0.18 + 0.59(INF5 + 1.0). The coefficient of determination for the relationship was 0.92. This equation was consistent over widely separated regions and during different growing seasons. Sampling with this method was less tedious and three times faster than direct counting techniques. Plant development in commercial mint fields in the Willamette Valley and central Oregon was assessed by weekly observations of primary nodes and leaves, lateral branches, stem length and flower bud formation. Stems.were longer and more primary leaves were present in Willamette Valley fields, but the number of nodes and lateral branches were not significantly different between regions. Flower buds were present earlier in central Oregon than in the Willamette Valley. The number of primary leaves showed significant variation between fields in central Oregon, reflecting the greater range of stress present among fields in central Oregon. Studies of T. urticae populations in commercial peppermint showed wide variation in population trends. Population dispersion were examined relative to vertical strata of the plant canopy. T. urticae populations were highly aggregated in all strata at the beginning of the season, but as the population increased, dispersion became more random. Mites on the older, middle and bottom leaves became more aggregated as populations declined, but mites on the newly formed top leaves remained randomly distributed. Eighteen species of predators were identified from peppermint samples, but none were sufficiently abundant to regulate mite populations in commercial peppermint plots. Observations of a T. urticae population regulated by Amblyseius fallacis (Acari: Phytoseiidae), showed that biocontrol of T. urticae in peppermint was feasible, but probably only in less disturbed sites. T. urticae reproduction increased on mint plants subjected to water stress but not on plants stressed by Verticillium. Mite populations were reduced by fall flaming in western Oregon, and fall plowing delayed the onset of economic levels of T. urticae in central Oregon. The yield of field-grown peppermint was not reduced by mite populations reaching 50 mites per leaf at mid-season. Mite density did not affect the total concentration of terpenes from individual leaves, but changes of concentration of some terpenes indicated increased maturation of the oil. Neomenthol was higher in leaves from mite-infested plots, and the concentration of its precursor, menthone, was lower. An action threshold for T. urticae on peppermint of 10 mites per leaf was established based on the tendency for mites to undergo exponential increase once the density reaches 10 mites/leaf. Title: Twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Kock, in Oregon peppermint, Mentha piperita L. : sampling, population dynamics and economic injury Author: Hollingsworth, Craig Stephen A pest management program for Tetranychus urticae Koch in Oregon peppermint was developed based on studies of sampling, plant phenology, population dynamics and damage thresholds. A sample size of 45 leaves provided a confidence level of 90% and a confidence interval of 50%. Estimation of the sample mean was based on the relationship between the mean density of mites (x) and the number of leaves infested with 5 or more mites (INF5) in a 45 leaf sample: Log (x + 1.0) = 0.18 + 0.59(INF5 + 1.0). The coefficient of determination for the relationship was 0.92. This equation was consistent over widely separated regions and during different growing seasons. Sampling with this method was less tedious and three times faster than direct counting techniques. Plant development in commercial mint fields in the Willamette Valley and central Oregon was assessed by weekly observations of primary nodes and leaves, lateral branches, stem length and flower bud formation. Stems.were longer and more primary leaves were present in Willamette Valley fields, but the number of nodes and lateral branches were not significantly different between regions. Flower buds were present earlier in central Oregon than in the Willamette Valley. The number of primary leaves showed significant variation between fields in central Oregon, reflecting the greater range of stress present among fields in central Oregon. Studies of T. urticae populations in commercial peppermint showed wide variation in population trends. Population dispersion were examined relative to vertical strata of the plant canopy. T. urticae populations were highly aggregated in all strata at the beginning of the season, but as the population increased, dispersion became more random. Mites on the older, middle and bottom leaves became more aggregated as populations declined, but mites on the newly formed top leaves remained randomly distributed. Eighteen species of predators were identified from peppermint samples, but none were sufficiently abundant to regulate mite populations in commercial peppermint plots. Observations of a T. urticae population regulated by Amblyseius fallacis (Acari: Phytoseiidae), showed that biocontrol of T. urticae in peppermint was feasible, but probably only in less disturbed sites. T. urticae reproduction increased on mint plants subjected to water stress but not on plants stressed by Verticillium. Mite populations were reduced by fall flaming in western Oregon, and fall plowing delayed the onset of economic levels of T. urticae in central Oregon. The yield of field-grown peppermint was not reduced by mite populations reaching 50 mites per leaf at mid-season. Mite density did not affect the total concentration of terpenes from individual leaves, but changes of concentration of some terpenes indicated increased maturation of the oil. Neomenthol was higher in leaves from mite-infested plots, and the concentration of its precursor, menthone, was lower. An action threshold for T. urticae on peppermint of 10 mites per leaf was established based on the tendency for mites to undergo exponential increase once the density reaches 10 mites/leaf. Close

• 607. [Article] Development and disease of opakapaka (Pristiopomoides filamentosus) larvae in culture

  Opakapaka (Pristipomoides filamentosus) is a snapper (family Lutjanidae) native to the waters around Hawaii. Recent population declines of this commercially important species have increased interest in ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Development and disease of opakapaka (Pristiopomoides filamentosus) larvae in culture Author: Keafer, Briana Opakapaka (Pristipomoides filamentosus) is a snapper (family Lutjanidae) native to the waters around Hawaii. Recent population declines of this commercially important species have increased interest in the culture of this fish. Survival of this fish through the larval period in culture has been consistently low, usually not exceeding 2%. The aim of this thesis was to provide an extensive diagnostic report of diseases affecting opakapaka larvae in culture. Opakapaka larvae mortality was found to be the result of a synergy of factors including larvae development stage, larvae nutrition, environmental conditions, and the presence of infectious agents. During culture, high larval mortalities occur around first feeding and around a period of rapid development. Crucial periods of development in both the digestive system and the respiratory system coincided with these catastrophic mortality events. It is therefore suspected that failure to complete the progression of development from one stage to the next is partially responsible for low larvae survival. A large proportion of opakapaka surviving to the juvenile stage had deformed jaws and/or vertebral columns. Therefore, the development of the jaw and other skeletal elements was investigated. Lower jaw deformities were found to occur as early as 2 days post hatch and larvae with some deformity represented roughly 30% of the population. Given the severity of these deformities, it is likely that this results in increased larvae mortality. Due to the identified risk of ammonia toxicity, experiments were designed to determine the concentration of ammonia lethal to opakapaka larvae. The 50% lethal dose for post-hatch opakapaka larvae was found to be 1.4 mg/L total nitrogen. Ammonia toxicity could have been a factor in opakapaka larvae mortality, because this concentration was lower than that observed in larvae rearing tanks. The evaluation of the role of infectious disease in opakapaka culture showed that current infections are primarily opportunistic. Observed infections included bacterial gill disease and external lungal infection. Although infectious disease is not currently a significant cause of mortality, continued surveillance for infectious disease introduction is recommended. The success of intensive opakapaka culture hinges on the ability to culture a large number of opakapaka to the juvenile stage. As a result of this study, major issues of concern in opakapaka culture were identified. This information could provide direction for culturists in the refinement of opakapaka culture and subsequent improvement of larvae survival. Title: Development and disease of opakapaka (Pristiopomoides filamentosus) larvae in culture Author: Keafer, Briana Opakapaka (Pristipomoides filamentosus) is a snapper (family Lutjanidae) native to the waters around Hawaii. Recent population declines of this commercially important species have increased interest in the culture of this fish. Survival of this fish through the larval period in culture has been consistently low, usually not exceeding 2%. The aim of this thesis was to provide an extensive diagnostic report of diseases affecting opakapaka larvae in culture. Opakapaka larvae mortality was found to be the result of a synergy of factors including larvae development stage, larvae nutrition, environmental conditions, and the presence of infectious agents. During culture, high larval mortalities occur around first feeding and around a period of rapid development. Crucial periods of development in both the digestive system and the respiratory system coincided with these catastrophic mortality events. It is therefore suspected that failure to complete the progression of development from one stage to the next is partially responsible for low larvae survival. A large proportion of opakapaka surviving to the juvenile stage had deformed jaws and/or vertebral columns. Therefore, the development of the jaw and other skeletal elements was investigated. Lower jaw deformities were found to occur as early as 2 days post hatch and larvae with some deformity represented roughly 30% of the population. Given the severity of these deformities, it is likely that this results in increased larvae mortality. Due to the identified risk of ammonia toxicity, experiments were designed to determine the concentration of ammonia lethal to opakapaka larvae. The 50% lethal dose for post-hatch opakapaka larvae was found to be 1.4 mg/L total nitrogen. Ammonia toxicity could have been a factor in opakapaka larvae mortality, because this concentration was lower than that observed in larvae rearing tanks. The evaluation of the role of infectious disease in opakapaka culture showed that current infections are primarily opportunistic. Observed infections included bacterial gill disease and external lungal infection. Although infectious disease is not currently a significant cause of mortality, continued surveillance for infectious disease introduction is recommended. The success of intensive opakapaka culture hinges on the ability to culture a large number of opakapaka to the juvenile stage. As a result of this study, major issues of concern in opakapaka culture were identified. This information could provide direction for culturists in the refinement of opakapaka culture and subsequent improvement of larvae survival. Close

• 608. [Article] Areal distribution, change, and restoration potential of wetlands within the lower Columbia River riparian zone, 1948-1991

  The lower Columbia River (LCR) riparian zone is rich in habitat diversity. However, the natural beauty and species diversity along the river have increasingly become affected by human activity. This study ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Areal distribution, change, and restoration potential of wetlands within the lower Columbia River riparian zone, 1948-1991 Author: Allen, Tracy Hunter The lower Columbia River (LCR) riparian zone is rich in habitat diversity. However, the natural beauty and species diversity along the river have increasingly become affected by human activity. This study quantifies the areal extent and degree of wetlands change and associated causes along the LCR over the past 44 years. This research examines the distribution of wetland types and their patterns of change, developing regional models which rank areas most conducive to potential wetland recovery or restoration efforts. The length of the study area totals 234 river kilometers, from the mouth of the Columbia River to Bonneville Dam. The width includes the active channel and an approximately three-kilometer swath on either side of the river. Aerial photography was the primary means for interpreting historical extent of wetlands, using five photo dates (1948, 1961, 1973, 1983, and 1991), based upon their time interval, coverage, and photo quality. For each photo throughout the entire study site, land uses and wetland habitats greater than one hectare were identified and classified. Each classified polygon was digitized and spatially analyzed using a Geographic Information System. This study indicates that wetland habitats which were once contiguously draped upon the linear features of the river are decreasing in size and becoming fragmented. There have been both increases and decreases in specific wetland habitat areas which vary by river reach, even though wetlands have diminished overall. The estuarine section of the LCR experienced a 25% net decrease in wetland area between 1948 and 1991, while the riverine tidal section fostered a 1% increase. The riverine lower perennial section sustained the greatest loss of wetlands, which decreased by 37%. Causes for wetland losses in the estuarine section were largely related to in-water activities, such as channelization, while the causes for declines in the riverine lower perennial section were correlated with rapid urbanization. Wetland increases in the riverine tidal section were generally influenced by significant growth in palustrine and forested wetlands associated with the establishment of wildlife refuges and the incremental increase of upstream flood storage capacity. This research provides a template for identifying degraded or displaced wetlands. Through the use of a GIS, each historical wetland was ranked in either low, moderate, or high categories for restoration potential. GIS technology permits focused, sequentially-refined queries to identify potential restoration or recovery sites. In the estuarine section, 74 historical wetland sites were ranked high for restoration potential, while in the riverine tidal and riverine lower perennial sections, there were 178 and 105, respectively. Overall, these sites represent only 25% of the area occupied by wetlands in 1948. While this study advocates restoration potential, restoration is not a surrogate for responsible ecosystem-wide stewardship of the riparian zone. Restoration will not succeed unless degrading factors are mitigated or eliminated. Title: Areal distribution, change, and restoration potential of wetlands within the lower Columbia River riparian zone, 1948-1991 Author: Allen, Tracy Hunter The lower Columbia River (LCR) riparian zone is rich in habitat diversity. However, the natural beauty and species diversity along the river have increasingly become affected by human activity. This study quantifies the areal extent and degree of wetlands change and associated causes along the LCR over the past 44 years. This research examines the distribution of wetland types and their patterns of change, developing regional models which rank areas most conducive to potential wetland recovery or restoration efforts. The length of the study area totals 234 river kilometers, from the mouth of the Columbia River to Bonneville Dam. The width includes the active channel and an approximately three-kilometer swath on either side of the river. Aerial photography was the primary means for interpreting historical extent of wetlands, using five photo dates (1948, 1961, 1973, 1983, and 1991), based upon their time interval, coverage, and photo quality. For each photo throughout the entire study site, land uses and wetland habitats greater than one hectare were identified and classified. Each classified polygon was digitized and spatially analyzed using a Geographic Information System. This study indicates that wetland habitats which were once contiguously draped upon the linear features of the river are decreasing in size and becoming fragmented. There have been both increases and decreases in specific wetland habitat areas which vary by river reach, even though wetlands have diminished overall. The estuarine section of the LCR experienced a 25% net decrease in wetland area between 1948 and 1991, while the riverine tidal section fostered a 1% increase. The riverine lower perennial section sustained the greatest loss of wetlands, which decreased by 37%. Causes for wetland losses in the estuarine section were largely related to in-water activities, such as channelization, while the causes for declines in the riverine lower perennial section were correlated with rapid urbanization. Wetland increases in the riverine tidal section were generally influenced by significant growth in palustrine and forested wetlands associated with the establishment of wildlife refuges and the incremental increase of upstream flood storage capacity. This research provides a template for identifying degraded or displaced wetlands. Through the use of a GIS, each historical wetland was ranked in either low, moderate, or high categories for restoration potential. GIS technology permits focused, sequentially-refined queries to identify potential restoration or recovery sites. In the estuarine section, 74 historical wetland sites were ranked high for restoration potential, while in the riverine tidal and riverine lower perennial sections, there were 178 and 105, respectively. Overall, these sites represent only 25% of the area occupied by wetlands in 1948. While this study advocates restoration potential, restoration is not a surrogate for responsible ecosystem-wide stewardship of the riparian zone. Restoration will not succeed unless degrading factors are mitigated or eliminated. Close

• 609. [Article] The effects of burning in mountain big sagebrush on key sage grouse habitat characteristics in southeastern Oregon

  Sage grouse are a species of concern because their abundance, distribution, and productivity have declined during the past century. Sage grouse productivity has been linked to specific habitat components ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effects of burning in mountain big sagebrush on key sage grouse habitat characteristics in southeastern Oregon Author: McDowell, Michelle K. D. Sage grouse are a species of concern because their abundance, distribution, and productivity have declined during the past century. Sage grouse productivity has been linked to specific habitat components including particular forbs and native bunchgrasses. Studies on the effects of fire were conducted in Southeastern Oregon in mountain big sagebrush communities to better understand the effects of fire on key sage grouse habitat components. The short-term study was conducted at South Steens Mountain during 1997 and 1998. Habitat components (medium shrub cover; perennial grass cover; hen and chick food forb cover, frequency, and availability; chick food forb nutrition; insect abundance; and sagebrush reproductive branch abundance) were compared between preburn or unburned, 1- year post-bum, and 2-years post-burn areas. The long-term effects of fire on essential sage grouse habitat components were studied during 1997 at Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge (Lake County), and during 1998 at South Steens Mountain (Harney County). Habitat components (medium height mountain big sagebrush, tall grass, hen and chick food forb, and other forb cover) were measured at burned and adjacent unburned control sites and compared with recommended cover amounts. Burned sites ranged in age from 5 to 43 years. In the short-term fire effects study, prescribed burning increased the amount of sage grouse hen and chick foods, the quality of some chick foods, and increased the amount of time of these foods were available. Sagebrush cover was essentially eliminated in burned areas. Perennial grass cover was significantly higher in a comparison of the 2-years post burn to the 1-year post burn samples. In the long-term fire effects study, all key vegetative and structural components needed for successful sage grouse reproduction became available in burned areas from 25-35 years old. Sagebrush cover was the only habitat component tested that was substantially affected by burning in the long term. Prescribed burning would be most beneficial to sage grouse habitat if used as a management tool to create a mosaic of needed habitat components. Title: The effects of burning in mountain big sagebrush on key sage grouse habitat characteristics in southeastern Oregon Author: McDowell, Michelle K. D. Sage grouse are a species of concern because their abundance, distribution, and productivity have declined during the past century. Sage grouse productivity has been linked to specific habitat components including particular forbs and native bunchgrasses. Studies on the effects of fire were conducted in Southeastern Oregon in mountain big sagebrush communities to better understand the effects of fire on key sage grouse habitat components. The short-term study was conducted at South Steens Mountain during 1997 and 1998. Habitat components (medium shrub cover; perennial grass cover; hen and chick food forb cover, frequency, and availability; chick food forb nutrition; insect abundance; and sagebrush reproductive branch abundance) were compared between preburn or unburned, 1- year post-bum, and 2-years post-burn areas. The long-term effects of fire on essential sage grouse habitat components were studied during 1997 at Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge (Lake County), and during 1998 at South Steens Mountain (Harney County). Habitat components (medium height mountain big sagebrush, tall grass, hen and chick food forb, and other forb cover) were measured at burned and adjacent unburned control sites and compared with recommended cover amounts. Burned sites ranged in age from 5 to 43 years. In the short-term fire effects study, prescribed burning increased the amount of sage grouse hen and chick foods, the quality of some chick foods, and increased the amount of time of these foods were available. Sagebrush cover was essentially eliminated in burned areas. Perennial grass cover was significantly higher in a comparison of the 2-years post burn to the 1-year post burn samples. In the long-term fire effects study, all key vegetative and structural components needed for successful sage grouse reproduction became available in burned areas from 25-35 years old. Sagebrush cover was the only habitat component tested that was substantially affected by burning in the long term. Prescribed burning would be most beneficial to sage grouse habitat if used as a management tool to create a mosaic of needed habitat components. Close

• 610. [Article] Modeling sage-grouse habitat using a state-and-transition model

  Habitat for wildlife species that depend on sagebrush ecosystems is of great management concern. Evaluating how management activities and climate change may affect the abundance of moderate and high-quality ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Modeling sage-grouse habitat using a state-and-transition model Author: Evers, Louisa Habitat for wildlife species that depend on sagebrush ecosystems is of great management concern. Evaluating how management activities and climate change may affect the abundance of moderate and high-quality habitat necessitates the development of models that examine vegetation dynamics, but modeling tools for rangeland systems are limited. I developed state-and-transition models using a combination of scientific literature and data for climate, soils, and wildfire to examine how different types of natural events, management activities, changing climate, and potential future vegetation dynamics may interact and affect the abundance of habitat for the greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). Specific periods examined include the era prior to 1850, the current era, and late in the 21st century in southeastern Oregon. A primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of climate data to define most event probabilities and, subsequently, the relative mix of ecological states, community phases, and sage-grouse habitat with an eye towards a modeling approach that was objective, repeatable, and transferrable to other locations. Contrary to expectations, model results of the conditions prior to 1850 indicated fire may not have been the most important disturbance factor influencing sage-grouse habitat abundance, merely the most visible. Other, more subtle disturbances that thinned sagebrush density, such as drought, herbivory, and weather-related mortality, may have been equally or more important in shaping sage-grouse habitat. Sage-grouse breeding habitat may have been slightly more abundant than levels currently recommended by sage-grouse biologists, brood-rearing habitat may have been as or more abundant, but wintering habitat may have been less abundant. Under the current conditions, livestock grazing during severe drought, postfire seeding success, juniper expansion probabilities, and the frequency of vegetation treatments were the most important determinants of sage-grouse habitat abundance. The current vegetation trajectory would lead to considerably less nesting, brood-rearing, and wintering habitat than sage-grouse biologists recommend. Model results suggested reducing or eliminating livestock grazing during severe drought, increasing postfire seeding success, and treating at least 10% of the so-called expansion juniper each year was necessary to maintain higher levels of sage-grouse habitat, although nesting and brood-rearing habitat remained in short supply. I examined three potential future climates based on long-term climate trends in southeastern Oregon and modeled climate and ecosystem projections for the Pacific Northwest generally. The first scenario produced warmer and drier conditions than present, the second scenario warmer and wetter conditions in winter, and the third scenario warmer and wetter conditions in summer. The implications for sage-grouse habitat abundance were very different between these three scenarios, but all would likely result in the loss or near complete loss of cooler, moister sagebrush communities important for nesting and brood-rearing. Salt desert shrub and warmer, drier sagebrush communities could expand under the first scenario but would have a high risk of displacement by cheatgrass. Juniper woodlands could increase in density and salt desert shrub may expand slightly under the second scenario. The remaining sagebrush communities would remain at high risk of displacement by cheatgrass. Pinyon-juniper woodland could largely displace sagebrush in the third scenario. Sage-grouse habitat quality likely would decline in all three scenarios and the abundance decrease significantly in the second and third scenario. Title: Modeling sage-grouse habitat using a state-and-transition model Author: Evers, Louisa Habitat for wildlife species that depend on sagebrush ecosystems is of great management concern. Evaluating how management activities and climate change may affect the abundance of moderate and high-quality habitat necessitates the development of models that examine vegetation dynamics, but modeling tools for rangeland systems are limited. I developed state-and-transition models using a combination of scientific literature and data for climate, soils, and wildfire to examine how different types of natural events, management activities, changing climate, and potential future vegetation dynamics may interact and affect the abundance of habitat for the greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). Specific periods examined include the era prior to 1850, the current era, and late in the 21st century in southeastern Oregon. A primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of climate data to define most event probabilities and, subsequently, the relative mix of ecological states, community phases, and sage-grouse habitat with an eye towards a modeling approach that was objective, repeatable, and transferrable to other locations. Contrary to expectations, model results of the conditions prior to 1850 indicated fire may not have been the most important disturbance factor influencing sage-grouse habitat abundance, merely the most visible. Other, more subtle disturbances that thinned sagebrush density, such as drought, herbivory, and weather-related mortality, may have been equally or more important in shaping sage-grouse habitat. Sage-grouse breeding habitat may have been slightly more abundant than levels currently recommended by sage-grouse biologists, brood-rearing habitat may have been as or more abundant, but wintering habitat may have been less abundant. Under the current conditions, livestock grazing during severe drought, postfire seeding success, juniper expansion probabilities, and the frequency of vegetation treatments were the most important determinants of sage-grouse habitat abundance. The current vegetation trajectory would lead to considerably less nesting, brood-rearing, and wintering habitat than sage-grouse biologists recommend. Model results suggested reducing or eliminating livestock grazing during severe drought, increasing postfire seeding success, and treating at least 10% of the so-called expansion juniper each year was necessary to maintain higher levels of sage-grouse habitat, although nesting and brood-rearing habitat remained in short supply. I examined three potential future climates based on long-term climate trends in southeastern Oregon and modeled climate and ecosystem projections for the Pacific Northwest generally. The first scenario produced warmer and drier conditions than present, the second scenario warmer and wetter conditions in winter, and the third scenario warmer and wetter conditions in summer. The implications for sage-grouse habitat abundance were very different between these three scenarios, but all would likely result in the loss or near complete loss of cooler, moister sagebrush communities important for nesting and brood-rearing. Salt desert shrub and warmer, drier sagebrush communities could expand under the first scenario but would have a high risk of displacement by cheatgrass. Juniper woodlands could increase in density and salt desert shrub may expand slightly under the second scenario. The remaining sagebrush communities would remain at high risk of displacement by cheatgrass. Pinyon-juniper woodland could largely displace sagebrush in the third scenario. Sage-grouse habitat quality likely would decline in all three scenarios and the abundance decrease significantly in the second and third scenario. Close

• 611. [Article] Behavioral ecology of marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in forest and marine ecosystems of Oregon

  Marbled Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) are threatened seabirds that are prone to disturbance both at sea and at old-growth forest nesting areas. I examined murrelet behavior and activity patterns ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Behavioral ecology of marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in forest and marine ecosystems of Oregon Author: Jodice, Patrick G. R., 1961- Marbled Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) are threatened seabirds that are prone to disturbance both at sea and at old-growth forest nesting areas. I examined murrelet behavior and activity patterns in forest and marine ecosystems of Oregon. Diving behavior was studied during the 1995 and 1996 breeding seasons and was compared to predictions from optimal breathing models, which predicted a strong relationship between dive times and preceding pause times. Diving patterns appeared to fit these predictions more in 1996 than 1995 suggesting that diving behavior was affected more by annual changes in environmental conditions than by physiological constraints on breathing and diving as predicted by optimal breathing models. Activity patterns at inland nest sites were monitored on a near-daily basis during three breeding seasons to assess the relationships between activity and both weather and date. Daily activity was highly variable within and among sites and years and I observed greater variability in activity levels than has been previously reported for this species. Activity varied greatly during all portions of the breeding season and analyses revealed that weather and date variates explained little of the variability present. It also appeared that variability in activity during the breeding season was not due entirely to breeding phenology; however, activity of nonbreeding birds attending nesting stands may contribute to daily variability. Inland activity data also were used to assess the feasibility of developing long-term monitoring strategies based on counts of daily detections. I determined how effectively various survey strategies estimated measures of daily mean and standard deviation of detection counts of murrelets within a breeding season. Results indicated that it would be difficult to obtain reliable estimates of murrelet detections with sampling efforts up to 14 days/season. However, estimates of mean and standard deviation for daily detections during a breeding season may be reliably estimated to within ± 50% with similar or less effort. The power of survey strategies to detect annual declines in detections of 25% and 50% were very low and moderate, respectively, except when variability was quite low. Title: Behavioral ecology of marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in forest and marine ecosystems of Oregon Author: Jodice, Patrick G. R., 1961- Marbled Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) are threatened seabirds that are prone to disturbance both at sea and at old-growth forest nesting areas. I examined murrelet behavior and activity patterns in forest and marine ecosystems of Oregon. Diving behavior was studied during the 1995 and 1996 breeding seasons and was compared to predictions from optimal breathing models, which predicted a strong relationship between dive times and preceding pause times. Diving patterns appeared to fit these predictions more in 1996 than 1995 suggesting that diving behavior was affected more by annual changes in environmental conditions than by physiological constraints on breathing and diving as predicted by optimal breathing models. Activity patterns at inland nest sites were monitored on a near-daily basis during three breeding seasons to assess the relationships between activity and both weather and date. Daily activity was highly variable within and among sites and years and I observed greater variability in activity levels than has been previously reported for this species. Activity varied greatly during all portions of the breeding season and analyses revealed that weather and date variates explained little of the variability present. It also appeared that variability in activity during the breeding season was not due entirely to breeding phenology; however, activity of nonbreeding birds attending nesting stands may contribute to daily variability. Inland activity data also were used to assess the feasibility of developing long-term monitoring strategies based on counts of daily detections. I determined how effectively various survey strategies estimated measures of daily mean and standard deviation of detection counts of murrelets within a breeding season. Results indicated that it would be difficult to obtain reliable estimates of murrelet detections with sampling efforts up to 14 days/season. However, estimates of mean and standard deviation for daily detections during a breeding season may be reliably estimated to within ± 50% with similar or less effort. The power of survey strategies to detect annual declines in detections of 25% and 50% were very low and moderate, respectively, except when variability was quite low. Close

• 612. [Article] Effects of the northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949) on Mitcham peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) and Scotch spearmint (Mentha cardiaca Baker)

  The northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949) is a widespread pest on many plants in temperate zones such as the Pacific Northwest (U. S. A. ) Peppermint and spearmint are two major ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of the northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949) on Mitcham peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) and Scotch spearmint (Mentha cardiaca Baker) Author: Eshtiaghi, Hassan The northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949) is a widespread pest on many plants in temperate zones such as the Pacific Northwest (U. S. A. ) Peppermint and spearmint are two major agricultural crops in Oregon and Washington with a combined annual acreage of 50, 000 to 55, 000 and an oil value of about 25 million dollars. Both plants are attacked by a number of natural enemies including some species of plant parasitic nematodes with M. hapla considered to be most destructive. A pathogenicity study which included fifteen different isolates of M. hapla, revealed that peppermint was a more susceptible host plant than spearmint. These nematode populations were collected from four major mint growing areas of the United States (Idaho, Indiana, Oregon and Washington) with most populations obtained from Oregon and Washington. Usually no symptoms appear on the above ground parts of root-knot nematode infected plants. Therefore, it is possible that farmers in these areas may overlook infected mint planting stock and introduce the pest into new lands. Spread of the nematode could cause serious problems in mint and many other agricultural crops. Inoculation of peppermint cuttings and rhizomes with different densities of nematode egg masses caused varying degrees of root gall formation in three and four month growing periods. Regression slopes indicated that the relationships between inoculum densities and root gall formation was significant at the one percent level. However, inoculated rhizomes and the longer growing period caused more infection in plants. A gradual decline in plant vigor and productivity could be attributed to root-knot nematode infection which resulted in a significant shoot length reduction and reduced plant weights. Dry matter contents and concentrations of N, P, Mn, Fe and Al decreased, but there was a slight increase in Ca. Spearmint rhizomes inoculated with fresh second stage larvae of M. hapla produced equally severe galling in four months of growth regardless of the various initial inoculum densities. However, no significant relationships between inoculum densities and reduction in plant weights or shoot lengths developed in this host. Decreases in dry matter contents of spearmint plants as well as concentrations of chemical elements were similar to those of peppermint. A deterrent interaction between the fungus Verticillium dahliae Kleb. and M. hapla was observed when peppermint and spearmint plants were inoculated with the two pathogens. Significantly (at the one percent level) less root galls were formed when V. dahliae was combined with different densities of M. hapla larvae. Also interaction between fungus and nematode caused longer incubation periods and less severe Verticillium wilt disease symptoms. Weight reductions due to such interaction were insignificant and the data indicate that peppermint was more susceptible to the pathogens than spearmint. It can be concluded that M. hapla can infect both peppermint and spearmint without showing obvious disease symptoms on aerial parts of plants. Therefore, infections can remain unnoticed particularly in spearmint which has more tolerance to the nematode Introduction of root-knot nematode infected planting stock to new planting sites or other fields spreads the parasite which will affect other agricultural crops. Also suppression of Verticillium wilt disease symptoms by the nematodes could complicate or delay early diagnosis and control of wilt disease. Title: Effects of the northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949) on Mitcham peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) and Scotch spearmint (Mentha cardiaca Baker) Author: Eshtiaghi, Hassan The northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood, 1949) is a widespread pest on many plants in temperate zones such as the Pacific Northwest (U. S. A. ) Peppermint and spearmint are two major agricultural crops in Oregon and Washington with a combined annual acreage of 50, 000 to 55, 000 and an oil value of about 25 million dollars. Both plants are attacked by a number of natural enemies including some species of plant parasitic nematodes with M. hapla considered to be most destructive. A pathogenicity study which included fifteen different isolates of M. hapla, revealed that peppermint was a more susceptible host plant than spearmint. These nematode populations were collected from four major mint growing areas of the United States (Idaho, Indiana, Oregon and Washington) with most populations obtained from Oregon and Washington. Usually no symptoms appear on the above ground parts of root-knot nematode infected plants. Therefore, it is possible that farmers in these areas may overlook infected mint planting stock and introduce the pest into new lands. Spread of the nematode could cause serious problems in mint and many other agricultural crops. Inoculation of peppermint cuttings and rhizomes with different densities of nematode egg masses caused varying degrees of root gall formation in three and four month growing periods. Regression slopes indicated that the relationships between inoculum densities and root gall formation was significant at the one percent level. However, inoculated rhizomes and the longer growing period caused more infection in plants. A gradual decline in plant vigor and productivity could be attributed to root-knot nematode infection which resulted in a significant shoot length reduction and reduced plant weights. Dry matter contents and concentrations of N, P, Mn, Fe and Al decreased, but there was a slight increase in Ca. Spearmint rhizomes inoculated with fresh second stage larvae of M. hapla produced equally severe galling in four months of growth regardless of the various initial inoculum densities. However, no significant relationships between inoculum densities and reduction in plant weights or shoot lengths developed in this host. Decreases in dry matter contents of spearmint plants as well as concentrations of chemical elements were similar to those of peppermint. A deterrent interaction between the fungus Verticillium dahliae Kleb. and M. hapla was observed when peppermint and spearmint plants were inoculated with the two pathogens. Significantly (at the one percent level) less root galls were formed when V. dahliae was combined with different densities of M. hapla larvae. Also interaction between fungus and nematode caused longer incubation periods and less severe Verticillium wilt disease symptoms. Weight reductions due to such interaction were insignificant and the data indicate that peppermint was more susceptible to the pathogens than spearmint. It can be concluded that M. hapla can infect both peppermint and spearmint without showing obvious disease symptoms on aerial parts of plants. Therefore, infections can remain unnoticed particularly in spearmint which has more tolerance to the nematode Introduction of root-knot nematode infected planting stock to new planting sites or other fields spreads the parasite which will affect other agricultural crops. Also suppression of Verticillium wilt disease symptoms by the nematodes could complicate or delay early diagnosis and control of wilt disease. Close

• 613. [Article] Factors affecting colony size, reproductive success, and foraging patterns of double-crested cormorants nesting on East Sand Island in the Columbia River Estuary

  The purpose of this study was to investigate the primary factors affecting colony size, reproductive success, and foraging patterns of Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus albociliatus) nesting ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Factors affecting colony size, reproductive success, and foraging patterns of double-crested cormorants nesting on East Sand Island in the Columbia River Estuary Author: Anderson, Cynthia D. The purpose of this study was to investigate the primary factors affecting colony size, reproductive success, and foraging patterns of Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus albociliatus) nesting at East Sand Island in the Columbia River estuary, the largest colony of this species on the Pacific Coast of North America. This colony grew dramatically over the past 13 years and appears to represent a substantial proportion (>40%) of the West Coast population. Due to increasing concern over avian predation on juvenile salmonids in the Columbia River estuary, there was a need to understand the factors limiting the size and productivity of this large and growing cormorant colony and how breeding adults exploit the available forage fish resources in the estuary. The East Sand Island colony recently fragmented into separate sub-colonies that differed in reproductive success; clutch size, hatching success, brood size at fledging, nesting success, and overall productivity were all higher at a recently-formed satellite sub-colony compared to the main colony. Depredation of cormorant nest contents by Glaucous-winged/ Western Gulls (Larus glaucescens X L. occidentalis) following disturbances caused by Bald Eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus) appeared to be the primary factor limiting reproductive success. During my study, nesting habitat and food supply did not appear to be limiting colony size or reproductive success. I predict that the colony will continue to expand unless forage fish stocks decline and/or eagle disturbances increase. I used radio-telemetry to investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of foraging male and female Double-crested Cormorants. Nesting adults tended to commute over 5 km from the colony to forage in either the estuarine-mixing zone or the freshwater zone of the estuary, where forage fishes were presumably more available than in the marine zone near the colony. The sexes exhibited striking differences in foraging distribution. Males commuted longer distances to forage in the freshwater zone compared to females, which tended to forage in the estuarine-mixing zone; however, females took longer foraging trips than males on average. Gender differences in foraging patterns may enhance the foraging efficiency of pairs nesting at a large colony such as East Sand Island. The cormorant breeding colony on East Sand Island seems to be avoiding density-dependent constraints of food supply by foraging over a wide area of the estuary on a diversity of marine forage fishes whose stocks are currently high. I predict that in years when stocks of marine forage fish within the estuary are low (e.g., due to poor ocean conditions), Double-crested Cormorants may become more reliant on the more predictable fish resources of the estuary, such as out-migrating salmonid smolts. Title: Factors affecting colony size, reproductive success, and foraging patterns of double-crested cormorants nesting on East Sand Island in the Columbia River Estuary Author: Anderson, Cynthia D. The purpose of this study was to investigate the primary factors affecting colony size, reproductive success, and foraging patterns of Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus albociliatus) nesting at East Sand Island in the Columbia River estuary, the largest colony of this species on the Pacific Coast of North America. This colony grew dramatically over the past 13 years and appears to represent a substantial proportion (>40%) of the West Coast population. Due to increasing concern over avian predation on juvenile salmonids in the Columbia River estuary, there was a need to understand the factors limiting the size and productivity of this large and growing cormorant colony and how breeding adults exploit the available forage fish resources in the estuary. The East Sand Island colony recently fragmented into separate sub-colonies that differed in reproductive success; clutch size, hatching success, brood size at fledging, nesting success, and overall productivity were all higher at a recently-formed satellite sub-colony compared to the main colony. Depredation of cormorant nest contents by Glaucous-winged/ Western Gulls (Larus glaucescens X L. occidentalis) following disturbances caused by Bald Eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus) appeared to be the primary factor limiting reproductive success. During my study, nesting habitat and food supply did not appear to be limiting colony size or reproductive success. I predict that the colony will continue to expand unless forage fish stocks decline and/or eagle disturbances increase. I used radio-telemetry to investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of foraging male and female Double-crested Cormorants. Nesting adults tended to commute over 5 km from the colony to forage in either the estuarine-mixing zone or the freshwater zone of the estuary, where forage fishes were presumably more available than in the marine zone near the colony. The sexes exhibited striking differences in foraging distribution. Males commuted longer distances to forage in the freshwater zone compared to females, which tended to forage in the estuarine-mixing zone; however, females took longer foraging trips than males on average. Gender differences in foraging patterns may enhance the foraging efficiency of pairs nesting at a large colony such as East Sand Island. The cormorant breeding colony on East Sand Island seems to be avoiding density-dependent constraints of food supply by foraging over a wide area of the estuary on a diversity of marine forage fishes whose stocks are currently high. I predict that in years when stocks of marine forage fish within the estuary are low (e.g., due to poor ocean conditions), Double-crested Cormorants may become more reliant on the more predictable fish resources of the estuary, such as out-migrating salmonid smolts. Close

• 614. [Article] Sage Grouse Initiative 2.0 Investment Strategy, FY 2015-2018

  The greater sage-grouse, an iconic ground-dwelling bird of the West, has experienced significant population declines during the past 50 years from habitat loss. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Sage Grouse Initiative 2.0 Investment Strategy, FY 2015-2018 Author: United States Department of Agriculture The greater sage-grouse, an iconic ground-dwelling bird of the West, has experienced significant population declines during the past 50 years from habitat loss. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) designated sage grouse in 2010 as a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). In September 2015, the FWS will determine whether to list the greater sage-grouse under the ESA or find that ongoing efforts to restore and protect sagebrush habitat are sufficient to ensure their long-term survival. Loss and fragmentation of sage grouse habitat is the primary threat and has a number of contributors, including human development and encroachment of conifer trees and invasive plants. NRCS is working with ranchers to address these threats on private lands through restoring and protecting key sage grouse habitat while ensuring grazing lands remain sustainable and profitable. NRCS launched the Sage Grouse Initiative (SGI) in 2010 to focus efforts that reduce threats facing sage grouse and the working lands that provide their habitat. NRCS uses a variety of Farm Bill conservation programs to restore and protect habitat, including habitat improvements through the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) and long-term conservation easements through the Agricultural Conservation Easement Program (ACEP). Since 2010, NRCS has invested more than $296.5 million to implement SGI. Conservation partners and landowners have contributed an additional $128 million, bringing the total SGI investment to $424.5 million. Sage Grouse Initiative 2.0 NRCS plans to commit approximately $211 million to SGI over the life of the 2014 Farm Bill, providing partners with certainty that conservation will continue well into the future. SGI 2.0 will invest around $93 million in habitat restoration through EQIP and $100 million in conservation easements through ACEP. NRCS will invest the remaining $18 million to support SGI staff and partners who work with ranchers and other partners to implement conservation actions on the ground and quantify resulting outcomes. This four-year commitment combined with funds leveraged by partners will bring the total SGI investment to approximately $760 million. Already underway in 2015, additional resources are enabling SGI to nearly double past achievements, putting SGI on the path to conserve about 8 million acres by 2018. NRCS also plans to add the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) as another tool for conservation, beginning with a pilot in 2015 of up to 275,000 acres. CSP, like EQIP, provides technical and financial assistance to ranchers who restore habitat. Through the new Regional Conservation Partnership Program, NRCS partners have opportunities to propose projects that benefit sage grouse habitat. Agency leaders and partners worked together at the state level to describe priorities for reducing threats to sage grouse habitat, identifying locations for projects and cost estimates. SGI 2.0 combines plans from 11 states into one cohesive, rangewide plan that will guide the agency’s conservation efforts. SGI 2.0 aligns with plans of local, state and federal partners, including plans by governors, the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service. The four-year strategy enables NRCS to better position staff for implementation and provides time for partners to leverage additional funding for identified priorities. Title: Sage Grouse Initiative 2.0 Investment Strategy, FY 2015-2018 Author: United States Department of Agriculture The greater sage-grouse, an iconic ground-dwelling bird of the West, has experienced significant population declines during the past 50 years from habitat loss. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) designated sage grouse in 2010 as a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). In September 2015, the FWS will determine whether to list the greater sage-grouse under the ESA or find that ongoing efforts to restore and protect sagebrush habitat are sufficient to ensure their long-term survival. Loss and fragmentation of sage grouse habitat is the primary threat and has a number of contributors, including human development and encroachment of conifer trees and invasive plants. NRCS is working with ranchers to address these threats on private lands through restoring and protecting key sage grouse habitat while ensuring grazing lands remain sustainable and profitable. NRCS launched the Sage Grouse Initiative (SGI) in 2010 to focus efforts that reduce threats facing sage grouse and the working lands that provide their habitat. NRCS uses a variety of Farm Bill conservation programs to restore and protect habitat, including habitat improvements through the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) and long-term conservation easements through the Agricultural Conservation Easement Program (ACEP). Since 2010, NRCS has invested more than $296.5 million to implement SGI. Conservation partners and landowners have contributed an additional $128 million, bringing the total SGI investment to $424.5 million. Sage Grouse Initiative 2.0 NRCS plans to commit approximately $211 million to SGI over the life of the 2014 Farm Bill, providing partners with certainty that conservation will continue well into the future. SGI 2.0 will invest around $93 million in habitat restoration through EQIP and $100 million in conservation easements through ACEP. NRCS will invest the remaining $18 million to support SGI staff and partners who work with ranchers and other partners to implement conservation actions on the ground and quantify resulting outcomes. This four-year commitment combined with funds leveraged by partners will bring the total SGI investment to approximately $760 million. Already underway in 2015, additional resources are enabling SGI to nearly double past achievements, putting SGI on the path to conserve about 8 million acres by 2018. NRCS also plans to add the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) as another tool for conservation, beginning with a pilot in 2015 of up to 275,000 acres. CSP, like EQIP, provides technical and financial assistance to ranchers who restore habitat. Through the new Regional Conservation Partnership Program, NRCS partners have opportunities to propose projects that benefit sage grouse habitat. Agency leaders and partners worked together at the state level to describe priorities for reducing threats to sage grouse habitat, identifying locations for projects and cost estimates. SGI 2.0 combines plans from 11 states into one cohesive, rangewide plan that will guide the agency’s conservation efforts. SGI 2.0 aligns with plans of local, state and federal partners, including plans by governors, the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service. The four-year strategy enables NRCS to better position staff for implementation and provides time for partners to leverage additional funding for identified priorities. Close

• 615. [Article] Striped bass studies on Coos Bay, Oregon in 1949 and 1950

  1. There is no evidence of a decline in the striped bass population of Coos Bay. 2. The striped bass, a species introduced to the West Coast of North America, has been important as a recreational and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Striped bass studies on Coos Bay, Oregon in 1949 and 1950 Author: Oregon. State Game Commission, Oregon. Fish Commission, Morgan, Alfred R., Gerlach, Arthur R. 1. There is no evidence of a decline in the striped bass population of Coos Bay. 2. The striped bass, a species introduced to the West Coast of North America, has been important as a recreational and commercial fish in Coos Bay since the late 1920s. The catch has ranged from 18,000 pounds in 1931 to 263,000 pounds in 1945. 3.A total of 4,979 angler-days and 23,851 hours were fished in 1950 and 2,563 fish were caught. The fish weighed an estimated 14,931 pounds with an average of 5.8 pounds per fish. In 1949, more than 7,170 bass were taken in the sport fishery, weighing over 61,000 pounds. 4. Two-hundred anglers were interviewed to determine their expenditures during a yearly period. It was found that they spent an average of $54.05 a year. Using this figure it was determined that the total expenditure for striped bass fishing in Coos Bay during 1950 amounted to $65,722. 5. The commercial fishery lands approximately 90,500 pounds annually; the fish average slightly over ten pounds each. In 1950, the catch was 35,400 pounds, or 3,400 fish. At a retail price of 40 to 45 cents per pound, the average annual value of the commercial catch is $38,000. The 1950 catch was valued at $15,000. 6. It was calculated that the commercial fishery in 1950 removed a maximum of 19 percent of the bass population in the fishing area at that time and within the size range selected by the gear. The total population of available fish in the bay during the fishing season was estimated to number 18,000 bass of which the commercial fishery took 3,400; this is not the total population of bass inhabiting Coos Bay. 7. Fish taken by sport fishermen ranged in size from 6 to 45 inches; fish taken in commercial gear ranged in size from 12 to 48 inches. Fish in the second, third, fourth, seventh, and eight year classes were abundant in the catches of the sport and commercial fisheries, Few fish younger than the third year class were taken by commercial gear while the second year class contributed the largest number of fish to the sport fishery in 1950. 8. Food studies indicate that fish such as herring, anchovies, viviparous perch, sand lance, and smelt are the major items in the striped bass diet. Bottom forms such as sculpins, crabs, and shrimp are found in considerable numbers throughout the year. Salmon and trout form an important part of the diet in April, May, and June when the schools of bass migrate into the Coos River spawning areas and meet the young salmon and trout migrating downstream to the sea. 9. Sex ratio studies in 1950 indicate that male bass predominate in the commercial catch. Almost three percent of all bass sampled were hermaphroditic. 10. Preliminary work on fecundity of striped bass showed the number of eggs per female to range from 900,000 in an 8.8 pound individual to 4,775,000 in a 50 pound fish. Title: Striped bass studies on Coos Bay, Oregon in 1949 and 1950 Author: Oregon. State Game Commission, Oregon. Fish Commission, Morgan, Alfred R., Gerlach, Arthur R. 1. There is no evidence of a decline in the striped bass population of Coos Bay. 2. The striped bass, a species introduced to the West Coast of North America, has been important as a recreational and commercial fish in Coos Bay since the late 1920s. The catch has ranged from 18,000 pounds in 1931 to 263,000 pounds in 1945. 3.A total of 4,979 angler-days and 23,851 hours were fished in 1950 and 2,563 fish were caught. The fish weighed an estimated 14,931 pounds with an average of 5.8 pounds per fish. In 1949, more than 7,170 bass were taken in the sport fishery, weighing over 61,000 pounds. 4. Two-hundred anglers were interviewed to determine their expenditures during a yearly period. It was found that they spent an average of $54.05 a year. Using this figure it was determined that the total expenditure for striped bass fishing in Coos Bay during 1950 amounted to $65,722. 5. The commercial fishery lands approximately 90,500 pounds annually; the fish average slightly over ten pounds each. In 1950, the catch was 35,400 pounds, or 3,400 fish. At a retail price of 40 to 45 cents per pound, the average annual value of the commercial catch is $38,000. The 1950 catch was valued at $15,000. 6. It was calculated that the commercial fishery in 1950 removed a maximum of 19 percent of the bass population in the fishing area at that time and within the size range selected by the gear. The total population of available fish in the bay during the fishing season was estimated to number 18,000 bass of which the commercial fishery took 3,400; this is not the total population of bass inhabiting Coos Bay. 7. Fish taken by sport fishermen ranged in size from 6 to 45 inches; fish taken in commercial gear ranged in size from 12 to 48 inches. Fish in the second, third, fourth, seventh, and eight year classes were abundant in the catches of the sport and commercial fisheries, Few fish younger than the third year class were taken by commercial gear while the second year class contributed the largest number of fish to the sport fishery in 1950. 8. Food studies indicate that fish such as herring, anchovies, viviparous perch, sand lance, and smelt are the major items in the striped bass diet. Bottom forms such as sculpins, crabs, and shrimp are found in considerable numbers throughout the year. Salmon and trout form an important part of the diet in April, May, and June when the schools of bass migrate into the Coos River spawning areas and meet the young salmon and trout migrating downstream to the sea. 9. Sex ratio studies in 1950 indicate that male bass predominate in the commercial catch. Almost three percent of all bass sampled were hermaphroditic. 10. Preliminary work on fecundity of striped bass showed the number of eggs per female to range from 900,000 in an 8.8 pound individual to 4,775,000 in a 50 pound fish. Close

• 616. [Article] Evolutionary Insights into Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis from Natural Variation in Aiptasia Sea Anemones

  Mutualistic associations between corals and symbiotic microalgae of the genus Symbiodium power tropical reef ecosystems, hotspots of marine biodiversity that buffer coastlines, support tourism- and fisheries-based ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evolutionary Insights into Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis from Natural Variation in Aiptasia Sea Anemones Author: Bellis, Emily S Mutualistic associations between corals and symbiotic microalgae of the genus Symbiodium power tropical reef ecosystems, hotspots of marine biodiversity that buffer coastlines, support tourism- and fisheries-based economies, and offer untapped potential for discovery of novel pharmaceutical compounds. However, reef ecosystems are declining at an alarming rate, in large part due to severe episodes of coral bleaching, or breakdown of the coral-Symbiodinium symbiosis. The sea anemone Aiptasia has emerged as a laboratory model system for understanding coral-Symbiodinium interactions at multiple biological levels. To further develop Aiptasia as an evolutionary model system, the goal of my dissertation work was to characterize natural variation in Aiptasia-Symbiodinium symbioses by (1) examining genome-wide polymorphism among global anemone lineages, (2) experimentally evaluating natural variation in bleaching response, and (3) investigating patterns of genetic variation in natural populations across diverse abiotic environments. In Chapter 2, I use low-coverage genome skimming to investigate polymorphism in well-studied laboratory strains hosting diverse Symbiodinium, revealing that higher genetic diversity exists in Aiptasia from the Western Atlantic compared to a more globally distributed lineage. I further compare polymorphisms in sliding windows across the genome to identify candidate genes under balancing and positive selection based on patterns of heterozygosity, nucleotide diversity, and Tajima’s D. In Chapter 3, I characterize bleaching of Aiptasia lab strains to different stressors and discover significant variation in responses to acute heat stress but not to cold-shock. In Chapter 4, I examine potential relationships between abiotic environmental variation and genetic variation of anemone-Symbiodinium assemblages in the wild, at four locations in Caribbean Panama where long-term environmental datasets are available. High-throughput genotyping of anemone populations revealed the presence of a closely related cryptic species, Exaiptasia brasiliensis, and striking differences in anemone abundance, distribution, and patterns of symbiont association across environments. An Aiptasia sub-population specific to the Bocas del Toro Archipelago is described, with strong differentiation compared to the global population at several loci predicted to be important for mediating interactions with Symbiodinium. Analyses further suggest that the spatial extent of clonal reproduction in natural populations could be somewhat limited. Overall, Chapters 2-4 support a widespread global Aiptasia population distributed throughout tropical and subtropical latitudes with one or more diverged lineages, diversity of both host lineages and holobiont assemblages centered in the tropical Western Atlantic, and holobiont distribution patterns that may be strongly influenced by abiotic environment. Future studies leveraging natural variation in the Aiptasia model system described here hold great promise for advancing our fundamental knowledge of the evolution of symbiotic interactions in the sea. Title: Evolutionary Insights into Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis from Natural Variation in Aiptasia Sea Anemones Author: Bellis, Emily S Mutualistic associations between corals and symbiotic microalgae of the genus Symbiodium power tropical reef ecosystems, hotspots of marine biodiversity that buffer coastlines, support tourism- and fisheries-based economies, and offer untapped potential for discovery of novel pharmaceutical compounds. However, reef ecosystems are declining at an alarming rate, in large part due to severe episodes of coral bleaching, or breakdown of the coral-Symbiodinium symbiosis. The sea anemone Aiptasia has emerged as a laboratory model system for understanding coral-Symbiodinium interactions at multiple biological levels. To further develop Aiptasia as an evolutionary model system, the goal of my dissertation work was to characterize natural variation in Aiptasia-Symbiodinium symbioses by (1) examining genome-wide polymorphism among global anemone lineages, (2) experimentally evaluating natural variation in bleaching response, and (3) investigating patterns of genetic variation in natural populations across diverse abiotic environments. In Chapter 2, I use low-coverage genome skimming to investigate polymorphism in well-studied laboratory strains hosting diverse Symbiodinium, revealing that higher genetic diversity exists in Aiptasia from the Western Atlantic compared to a more globally distributed lineage. I further compare polymorphisms in sliding windows across the genome to identify candidate genes under balancing and positive selection based on patterns of heterozygosity, nucleotide diversity, and Tajima’s D. In Chapter 3, I characterize bleaching of Aiptasia lab strains to different stressors and discover significant variation in responses to acute heat stress but not to cold-shock. In Chapter 4, I examine potential relationships between abiotic environmental variation and genetic variation of anemone-Symbiodinium assemblages in the wild, at four locations in Caribbean Panama where long-term environmental datasets are available. High-throughput genotyping of anemone populations revealed the presence of a closely related cryptic species, Exaiptasia brasiliensis, and striking differences in anemone abundance, distribution, and patterns of symbiont association across environments. An Aiptasia sub-population specific to the Bocas del Toro Archipelago is described, with strong differentiation compared to the global population at several loci predicted to be important for mediating interactions with Symbiodinium. Analyses further suggest that the spatial extent of clonal reproduction in natural populations could be somewhat limited. Overall, Chapters 2-4 support a widespread global Aiptasia population distributed throughout tropical and subtropical latitudes with one or more diverged lineages, diversity of both host lineages and holobiont assemblages centered in the tropical Western Atlantic, and holobiont distribution patterns that may be strongly influenced by abiotic environment. Future studies leveraging natural variation in the Aiptasia model system described here hold great promise for advancing our fundamental knowledge of the evolution of symbiotic interactions in the sea. Close

• 617. [Article] Development and application of a resource selection model for pygmy rabbits

  Pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) in Oregon and Washington are a sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.) obligate species of concern because of declining populations and extirpation from much of their ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Development and application of a resource selection model for pygmy rabbits Author: Meisel, Jennifer K. Pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) in Oregon and Washington are a sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.) obligate species of concern because of declining populations and extirpation from much of their range. Efforts are underway to establish a captive bred population of the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit in Washington state for reintroduction into the wild. We developed a resource selection model based on soil and vegetation characteristics of occupied pygmy rabbit habitat at Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge in Oregon. Data collected in Oregon were used to quantify relationships of pygmy rabbits with their habitat. Using logistic regression and Akaike’s Information Criterion (AICc) to identify the best model, we determined that big sagebrush height and soil percent sand content were the two habitat characteristics most predictive of occupied pygmy rabbit burrow locations. The model indicated that the odds ratio of an occupied pygmy rabbit burrow occurrence increased with an increase in percent sand content of soils and big sagebrush height. We then applied the resource selection model using a two-step approach. We first used a Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine broad scale areas of suitable habitat for the potential reintroduction of pygmy rabbits at Hanford Reach National Monument in Washington, and then collected data on the ground to determine the best suitable habitat. Using GIS procedures, we found approximately 8500 ha of potential habitat at Hanford Reach National Monument. Field data collected within the potential habitat were used to further define 3035 ha as the most suitable habitat for pygmy rabbits. Lands that currently support pygmy rabbits, or areas identified as potential habitat in Washington, can be used to prioritize management or restoration efforts for pygmy rabbits and their habitats. Title: Development and application of a resource selection model for pygmy rabbits Author: Meisel, Jennifer K. Pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) in Oregon and Washington are a sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.) obligate species of concern because of declining populations and extirpation from much of their range. Efforts are underway to establish a captive bred population of the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit in Washington state for reintroduction into the wild. We developed a resource selection model based on soil and vegetation characteristics of occupied pygmy rabbit habitat at Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge in Oregon. Data collected in Oregon were used to quantify relationships of pygmy rabbits with their habitat. Using logistic regression and Akaike’s Information Criterion (AICc) to identify the best model, we determined that big sagebrush height and soil percent sand content were the two habitat characteristics most predictive of occupied pygmy rabbit burrow locations. The model indicated that the odds ratio of an occupied pygmy rabbit burrow occurrence increased with an increase in percent sand content of soils and big sagebrush height. We then applied the resource selection model using a two-step approach. We first used a Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine broad scale areas of suitable habitat for the potential reintroduction of pygmy rabbits at Hanford Reach National Monument in Washington, and then collected data on the ground to determine the best suitable habitat. Using GIS procedures, we found approximately 8500 ha of potential habitat at Hanford Reach National Monument. Field data collected within the potential habitat were used to further define 3035 ha as the most suitable habitat for pygmy rabbits. Lands that currently support pygmy rabbits, or areas identified as potential habitat in Washington, can be used to prioritize management or restoration efforts for pygmy rabbits and their habitats. Close

• 618. [Article] Underlying Mechanisms of the Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Quercetin in Human Aortic Endothelial Cells : Implications for Vascular Inflammation and Atherosclerosis

  Atherosclerosis is the underlying cause of ischemic heart disease and stroke and is the leading cause of death worldwide, especially in developed countries. As an inflammatory disease of arteries in a ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Underlying Mechanisms of the Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Quercetin in Human Aortic Endothelial Cells : Implications for Vascular Inflammation and Atherosclerosis Author: Li, Chuan Atherosclerosis is the underlying cause of ischemic heart disease and stroke and is the leading cause of death worldwide, especially in developed countries. As an inflammatory disease of arteries in a hyperlipidemic milieu, expression of adhesion molecules, such as endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 (E-selectin) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), on endothelial cell surfaces is critical for the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. Expression of cellular adhesion molecules has been reported to be inhibited by quercetin, a dietary flavonoid, but the underlying mechanisms of quercetin’s effects are still not completely understood. In this study, we found that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mRNA and protein expression of E-selectin and ICAM-1 were inhibited by quercetin in a dose-dependent manner in human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC). Levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HAEC were also significantly reduced by quercetin treatment. Further study revealed that quercetin treatment time- and dose-dependently induced nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation, increased mRNA and protein levels of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL) catalytic (GCLC) and regulatory (GCLM) subunits. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38) inhibitor, SB203580, significantly attenuated quercetin-induced activation of Nrf2 and expression of antioxidant enzymes. However, quercetin had no effect on Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) protein levels. In addition to increasing expression of GCL, the rate-limiting enzyme in glutathione synthesis, quercetin treatment also elevated glutathione reductase (GR) protein level and enzymatic activity and substantially altered glutathione status in HAEC. A moderate reduction followed by a complete recovery of reduced glutathione (GSH) was observed after quercetin treatment, as well as an up to 50% decline in oxidized glutathione (GSSG), resulting in an up to 70% increase in the GSH/GSSG ratio. Quercetin also induced the expression of multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1) and formation of quercetin-glutathione conjugates. Formation and cellular export of these quercetin-glutathione conjugates, together with induction of GCL and GR, likely account for the quercetin-induced alterations of glutathione status in HAEC. Together, my results suggest that quercetin induces activation of Nrf2 and, subsequently, induction of HO-1, NQO1, GCL, GR and MRP-1, in part, via activation of p38. Induction of antioxidant enzymes and alterations in intracellular glutathione status readily explain the antioxidant effects of quercetin against basal and LPS-induced oxidant formation in HAEC, whereas the anti-inflammatory effects of quercetin on LPS-induced adhesion molecule expression are likely due to increased expression of HO-1 and may occur through antioxidant-independent mechanisms, such as HO-1 mediated inhibition of the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1). Title: Underlying Mechanisms of the Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Quercetin in Human Aortic Endothelial Cells : Implications for Vascular Inflammation and Atherosclerosis Author: Li, Chuan Atherosclerosis is the underlying cause of ischemic heart disease and stroke and is the leading cause of death worldwide, especially in developed countries. As an inflammatory disease of arteries in a hyperlipidemic milieu, expression of adhesion molecules, such as endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 (E-selectin) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), on endothelial cell surfaces is critical for the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. Expression of cellular adhesion molecules has been reported to be inhibited by quercetin, a dietary flavonoid, but the underlying mechanisms of quercetin’s effects are still not completely understood. In this study, we found that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mRNA and protein expression of E-selectin and ICAM-1 were inhibited by quercetin in a dose-dependent manner in human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC). Levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HAEC were also significantly reduced by quercetin treatment. Further study revealed that quercetin treatment time- and dose-dependently induced nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation, increased mRNA and protein levels of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL) catalytic (GCLC) and regulatory (GCLM) subunits. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38) inhibitor, SB203580, significantly attenuated quercetin-induced activation of Nrf2 and expression of antioxidant enzymes. However, quercetin had no effect on Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) protein levels. In addition to increasing expression of GCL, the rate-limiting enzyme in glutathione synthesis, quercetin treatment also elevated glutathione reductase (GR) protein level and enzymatic activity and substantially altered glutathione status in HAEC. A moderate reduction followed by a complete recovery of reduced glutathione (GSH) was observed after quercetin treatment, as well as an up to 50% decline in oxidized glutathione (GSSG), resulting in an up to 70% increase in the GSH/GSSG ratio. Quercetin also induced the expression of multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1) and formation of quercetin-glutathione conjugates. Formation and cellular export of these quercetin-glutathione conjugates, together with induction of GCL and GR, likely account for the quercetin-induced alterations of glutathione status in HAEC. Together, my results suggest that quercetin induces activation of Nrf2 and, subsequently, induction of HO-1, NQO1, GCL, GR and MRP-1, in part, via activation of p38. Induction of antioxidant enzymes and alterations in intracellular glutathione status readily explain the antioxidant effects of quercetin against basal and LPS-induced oxidant formation in HAEC, whereas the anti-inflammatory effects of quercetin on LPS-induced adhesion molecule expression are likely due to increased expression of HO-1 and may occur through antioxidant-independent mechanisms, such as HO-1 mediated inhibition of the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1). Close

• 619. [Image] Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission

  	"February 2004."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "February 2004." Title: Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "February 2004." Close

• 620. [Image] The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference

  	Cover title; "March 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference Year: 1999, 2004 Cover title; "March 1999." Title: The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference Year: 1999, 2004 Cover title; "March 1999." Close

• 621. [Image] A report on Crater Lake water quality: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, 1988-1989

  	1982-2002; ill, maps; Report title; CA 9000-3-0003 Subagreement 8; Includes appendices: Crater Lake Liminological Studies 1988 and 1989; "Submitted by Robert E. Benton, Superintendent Crater Lake National ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A report on Crater Lake water quality: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, 1988-1989 Author: National Park Service, Crater Lake National Park Year: 1988, 2009 1982-2002; ill, maps; Report title; CA 9000-3-0003 Subagreement 8; Includes appendices: Crater Lake Liminological Studies 1988 and 1989; "Submitted by Robert E. Benton, Superintendent Crater Lake National Park." - T.p.; Includes bibliographical references; Issues lack volume numbering Title: A report on Crater Lake water quality: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, 1988-1989 Author: National Park Service, Crater Lake National Park Year: 1988, 2009 1982-2002; ill, maps; Report title; CA 9000-3-0003 Subagreement 8; Includes appendices: Crater Lake Liminological Studies 1988 and 1989; "Submitted by Robert E. Benton, Superintendent Crater Lake National Park." - T.p.; Includes bibliographical references; Issues lack volume numbering Close

• 622. [Image] The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's interim judgment in Klamath Basin

  	The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's interim judgment in Klamath Basin Author: Cooperman, Michael S. ; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2002, 2005 The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species Act. This conclusion has been based on an interim National Research Council report, quickly prepared in late fall, 2001. We have reviewed several iterations of the NRC Interim Report as well as all Biological Opinions and management documents related to Klamath Basin suckers and provide an overview. The 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report illustrate the lack of consensus typical of scientists in the early stages of exploring a complex system. Unfortunately, the decision created hardship for a small group of people and the lack of scientific consensus has politicized the debate. Politicians have assumed that the Interim Report has primacy in the scientific debate when, in fact, its speedy construction contributed to multiple errors that detract from its scientific usefulness. The NRC Interim Report has, instead, primarily served to deflect debate away from the needs of listed fishes to one about shortcomings in the Endangered Species Act. Although the process of science has been served by both the 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report, both have shortcomings, and we see no justification for either side labeling the other's decisions or conclusions as "not sound science." Title: The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's interim judgment in Klamath Basin Author: Cooperman, Michael S. ; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2002, 2005 The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species Act. This conclusion has been based on an interim National Research Council report, quickly prepared in late fall, 2001. We have reviewed several iterations of the NRC Interim Report as well as all Biological Opinions and management documents related to Klamath Basin suckers and provide an overview. The 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report illustrate the lack of consensus typical of scientists in the early stages of exploring a complex system. Unfortunately, the decision created hardship for a small group of people and the lack of scientific consensus has politicized the debate. Politicians have assumed that the Interim Report has primacy in the scientific debate when, in fact, its speedy construction contributed to multiple errors that detract from its scientific usefulness. The NRC Interim Report has, instead, primarily served to deflect debate away from the needs of listed fishes to one about shortcomings in the Endangered Species Act. Although the process of science has been served by both the 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report, both have shortcomings, and we see no justification for either side labeling the other's decisions or conclusions as "not sound science." Close

• 623. [Article] Cruise ship disturbance to Kittlitz's murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostris) in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska

  The Kittlitz's murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris), a small pursuit-diving seabird in the family Alcidae, occurs across much of coastal Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East. Glacier Bay National ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Cruise ship disturbance to Kittlitz's murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostris) in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska Author: Marcella, Timothy K. The Kittlitz's murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris), a small pursuit-diving seabird in the family Alcidae, occurs across much of coastal Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East. Glacier Bay National Park, located in Southeast Alaska, is believed to support approximately 37% of the worldwide breeding population of Kittlitz's murrelets during the summer months. Recent concern over apparent population declines in Alaska, coupled with the Park's dual mandate of resource preservation and visitation, led to this study. Cruise ships, although not the most numerous vessel type operating in Glacier Bay, have previously been identified as the vessel type eliciting the greatest disturbance response from Kittlitz's murrelets. During the murrelet breeding seasons in 2011 and 2012, my field assistants and I collected focal observations of 4,251 Brachyramphus murrelets from the bow of cruise ships traveling through Glacier Bay. Identification of murrelets to species was hampered by both the distance at which murrelets responded to the approaching ship and the type of response to the ship (diving vs. flushing). For roughly 40% of focal observations of murrelets from cruise ships, the species of murrelet (Kittlitz's murrelet or marbled murrelet [B. marmoratus]) could not be identified. Apparent habitat partitioning by the two murrelet species in Glacier Bay resulted in 79% of identified murrelets in the upper section of the Bay (Upper Bay) being Kittlitz's murrelets, while 83% of identified murrelets in the lower section of the Bay (Lower Bay) were marbled murrelets. In the Upper Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 61% of all murrelets within 850 m on either side of the cruise ship's course (i.e., elicited a flushing or diving response), whereas in the Lower Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 72% of murrelets within 850 m of the ship's course. Using Cox multistate models, I demonstrated that murrelets in the Upper Bay (predominantly Kittlitz's murrelets) were more likely to dive than flush in response to approaching cruise ships, whereas murrelets in the Lower Bay (predominantly marbled murrelets) were more likely to flush than dive. Also, murrelets in the Upper Bay responded to cruise ships by flushing or diving at shorter distances from the ship compared to murrelets in the Lower Bay. Murrelets in both areas of Glacier Bay generally reacted to cruise ships at greater distances when the ship approached indirectly, presumably because of the larger profile presented by a passing ship as opposed to a directly advancing ship. Absolute distance of the cruise ship from a focal murrelet was a strong predictor of murrelet disturbance response; no other management-relevant covariates that were measured during this study (e.g., ship velocity, distance to shore, whether a cruise ship had entered the Bay earlier that day) explained a significant proportion of the variation in murrelet response. Inferences based on data collected on-board cruise ships were limited to murrelet disturbance responses that occurred within 1 km of the ship. This was because of limits to the distance from the ship at which behavioral responses could be observed and the a priori assumption that disturbance to murrelets by cruise ships was unlikely at distances greater than 1 km. Results from shipboard observations indicated that some proportion of murrelets encountered at the farthest distance we could make inferences were on occasion disturbed (point estimate at 850 m perpendicular distance from ship's course = 15-30% probability of flushing or diving). This suggests that disturbance of murrelets by cruise ships in Glacier Bay exceeded expected distance thresholds. In order to investigate the effects of cruise ships on murrelet behavior at distances greater than 1 km, my assistants and I collected a total of 643 focal observations of Kittlitz's murrelets during 181 hours of observation from land-based observation sites in the Upper Bay during the 2012 field season. By combining these data with AIS and GPS ship tracks, I was able to append distance to the nearest cruise ship to each focal murrelet observation and search for patterns in murrelet behavior. By collecting data in this manner, I was able to avoid biasing the study based on pre-conceived notions of what constituted a threshold distance for cruise ships to disturb Kittlitz's murrelets. Using a segmented regression model within a logistic regression framework, I found that Kittlitz's murrelets exhibited a disturbance threshold (defined as an increased incidence of flushing from the water) by cruise ships at distances of at least 1.6 km, and perhaps as great as 6.0 km, with a best estimate of threshold disturbance distance at 3.8 km from a cruise ship. When cruise ships were greater than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the baseline probability of murrelets flushing during a focal observation period was 12.5%. When cruise ships were less than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the probability of flushing increased logistically with decreasing distance to an estimated 48% for the closest approach distances. The unexpectedly long distances at which murrelet behavior was affected by cruise ships in Glacier Bay is most likely attributable to social facilitation by other disturbed murrelets, because similar numbers of murrelets flushed when cruise ships were approaching (n = 30) as when they were receding (n = 27). Once a Kittlitz's murrelet flushed from the water, the subsequent duration of flight did not vary with distance to the nearest cruise ship. Instead, the duration of Kittlitz's murrelet flight was associated with time of day. The strong association between the proximity of cruise ships and the probability of a murrelet flushing, even at distances of several kilometers, demonstrates that Kittlitz's murrelets in Glacier Bay are susceptible to disturbance from cruise ships at distances greater than has previously been published for any seabird. Title: Cruise ship disturbance to Kittlitz's murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostris) in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska Author: Marcella, Timothy K. The Kittlitz's murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris), a small pursuit-diving seabird in the family Alcidae, occurs across much of coastal Alaska and parts of the Russian Far East. Glacier Bay National Park, located in Southeast Alaska, is believed to support approximately 37% of the worldwide breeding population of Kittlitz's murrelets during the summer months. Recent concern over apparent population declines in Alaska, coupled with the Park's dual mandate of resource preservation and visitation, led to this study. Cruise ships, although not the most numerous vessel type operating in Glacier Bay, have previously been identified as the vessel type eliciting the greatest disturbance response from Kittlitz's murrelets. During the murrelet breeding seasons in 2011 and 2012, my field assistants and I collected focal observations of 4,251 Brachyramphus murrelets from the bow of cruise ships traveling through Glacier Bay. Identification of murrelets to species was hampered by both the distance at which murrelets responded to the approaching ship and the type of response to the ship (diving vs. flushing). For roughly 40% of focal observations of murrelets from cruise ships, the species of murrelet (Kittlitz's murrelet or marbled murrelet [B. marmoratus]) could not be identified. Apparent habitat partitioning by the two murrelet species in Glacier Bay resulted in 79% of identified murrelets in the upper section of the Bay (Upper Bay) being Kittlitz's murrelets, while 83% of identified murrelets in the lower section of the Bay (Lower Bay) were marbled murrelets. In the Upper Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 61% of all murrelets within 850 m on either side of the cruise ship's course (i.e., elicited a flushing or diving response), whereas in the Lower Bay, cruise ships are predicted to disturb 72% of murrelets within 850 m of the ship's course. Using Cox multistate models, I demonstrated that murrelets in the Upper Bay (predominantly Kittlitz's murrelets) were more likely to dive than flush in response to approaching cruise ships, whereas murrelets in the Lower Bay (predominantly marbled murrelets) were more likely to flush than dive. Also, murrelets in the Upper Bay responded to cruise ships by flushing or diving at shorter distances from the ship compared to murrelets in the Lower Bay. Murrelets in both areas of Glacier Bay generally reacted to cruise ships at greater distances when the ship approached indirectly, presumably because of the larger profile presented by a passing ship as opposed to a directly advancing ship. Absolute distance of the cruise ship from a focal murrelet was a strong predictor of murrelet disturbance response; no other management-relevant covariates that were measured during this study (e.g., ship velocity, distance to shore, whether a cruise ship had entered the Bay earlier that day) explained a significant proportion of the variation in murrelet response. Inferences based on data collected on-board cruise ships were limited to murrelet disturbance responses that occurred within 1 km of the ship. This was because of limits to the distance from the ship at which behavioral responses could be observed and the a priori assumption that disturbance to murrelets by cruise ships was unlikely at distances greater than 1 km. Results from shipboard observations indicated that some proportion of murrelets encountered at the farthest distance we could make inferences were on occasion disturbed (point estimate at 850 m perpendicular distance from ship's course = 15-30% probability of flushing or diving). This suggests that disturbance of murrelets by cruise ships in Glacier Bay exceeded expected distance thresholds. In order to investigate the effects of cruise ships on murrelet behavior at distances greater than 1 km, my assistants and I collected a total of 643 focal observations of Kittlitz's murrelets during 181 hours of observation from land-based observation sites in the Upper Bay during the 2012 field season. By combining these data with AIS and GPS ship tracks, I was able to append distance to the nearest cruise ship to each focal murrelet observation and search for patterns in murrelet behavior. By collecting data in this manner, I was able to avoid biasing the study based on pre-conceived notions of what constituted a threshold distance for cruise ships to disturb Kittlitz's murrelets. Using a segmented regression model within a logistic regression framework, I found that Kittlitz's murrelets exhibited a disturbance threshold (defined as an increased incidence of flushing from the water) by cruise ships at distances of at least 1.6 km, and perhaps as great as 6.0 km, with a best estimate of threshold disturbance distance at 3.8 km from a cruise ship. When cruise ships were greater than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the baseline probability of murrelets flushing during a focal observation period was 12.5%. When cruise ships were less than 3.8 km from focal Kittlitz's murrelets, the probability of flushing increased logistically with decreasing distance to an estimated 48% for the closest approach distances. The unexpectedly long distances at which murrelet behavior was affected by cruise ships in Glacier Bay is most likely attributable to social facilitation by other disturbed murrelets, because similar numbers of murrelets flushed when cruise ships were approaching (n = 30) as when they were receding (n = 27). Once a Kittlitz's murrelet flushed from the water, the subsequent duration of flight did not vary with distance to the nearest cruise ship. Instead, the duration of Kittlitz's murrelet flight was associated with time of day. The strong association between the proximity of cruise ships and the probability of a murrelet flushing, even at distances of several kilometers, demonstrates that Kittlitz's murrelets in Glacier Bay are susceptible to disturbance from cruise ships at distances greater than has previously been published for any seabird. Close

• 624. [Article] Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1989

  Evaluations of previously established field trials indicate that chioropicrin, and Vorlex continue to provide protection to Douglas-fir poles, although the degree of protection is diminishing. Reapplication ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1989 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) Evaluations of previously established field trials indicate that chioropicrin, and Vorlex continue to provide protection to Douglas-fir poles, although the degree of protection is diminishing. Reapplication of Vapam 18 years after the initial application eliminated fungi which had recolonized the poles. Methylisothiocyanate (MITC) continues to protect Douglas-fir poles 12 years after application. Gelatin encapsulation of MITC or chioropicrin appears to have no negative influence on fungitoxicity of these chemicals. Application of water to decompose the gelatin accelerated initial chemical release, but had no longterm effects on performance. A series of laboratory trials have been established to evaluate the performance of sodium n-methyldithiocarbamate (NaMDC), the active ingredient of Vapam. This chemical decomposes more slowly than the liquid formulations and a number of additives are being evaluated to accelerated decomposition. Along with the solid NaMDC, a pelletized formulation of Vapam was evaluated which contained 15 or 40 % NaMDC. These evaluations indicated that the addition of water accelerates release, but the fungal survival in these tests was more variable. The results suggest that a dosage 2 times greater than the liquid formulation is required for effective fungal control; however, further tests are planned to confirm these results. The evaluations of MITC-FUME in Douglas-fir and southern pine poles indicated that MITC has moved to a greater extent in Douglas-fir. Both closed tube bioassays and gas chromatographic analyses of ethyl acetate extracts of wood samples indicated that MITC was present at higher levels in Douglas-fir poles. Southern pine is far more permeable than Douglas-fir and MITC movement should be more rapid in this species. Further tests are planned to identify the nature of this delayed movement. 11 Evaluations of Dazomet, a crystalline solid which decomposes tO produce MITC in wood, indicate that detectable levels of this chemical are present in virtually all of the treatment groups. The decomposition rate of this chemical is normally too slow for effective fungal control and these trials are examining the ability of various additives to accelerate decomposition. Further evaluations of pole sections treated with Dazomet and selected additives are underway. A study to evaluate the effect of voids on fumigant effectivness suggests that voids do not adversely affect MITC movement through Douglas-fir pole sections. These results indicate that treatment of voids should be costeffective if the chemical is not applied directly to the void and if the pole retains a sufficient degree of strength. We continue to develop and refine a model for simulating the movement of MITC through Douglas-fir under varying temperature and moisture conditions. The model has been improved to permit three dimensional evaluations, but the times required for computation are still somewhat long. Further evaluations using a variety of environmental conditions are planned. Evaluations of potential replacements for pentachiorophenol for treatment of western redcedar sapwood and field drilled bolt holes have identified several promising alternatives. These chemicals are now under study in several modified field and laboratory tests. Field trials of several potential treatments for field drilled bolt holes indicate that Boracol 40, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and ammonium bifluoride provided excellent protection over an 8 year period. These formulations all are relatively safe and can be easily applied in the field. 111 A laboratory trial to evaluate the effects of selected basidiomycetes on strength of Douglas-fir sapwood and heartwood has concluded. Fungal density, measured as the average number of fungi colonies per beam, gradually increased in all of the beams while longitudinal compression strength (LCS), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elesticity (MOE) slowly declined. Of the measurements, LCS appeared to be most useful, probably owing to the increased number of sampling sites per beam. The results indicate that the degree of colonization was not a good indicator of wood strength effects. The value of kerfing for decreasing post-treatment checking and improving the service life of Douglas-fir poles was evaluated using a series of inspection reports from a local utility. Kerfed transmission poles had substantially lower rates of internal decay and rejection, but there appeared to be little difference in the rate of decay between kerfed and non-kerfed distribution poles. The evaluation of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate for preventing colonization of air-seasoning Douglas-fir pole sections has been completed. Spraying with a 10 % boric acid equivalent solution (BAE) at 6 month intervals provided the greatest degree of protection, although dipping in a 20 % BAE solution at the start of air-seasoning produced a similar degree of protection. As expected, fungal colonization was far lower at the dryer Oroville site and borate treatment had little influence on the degree of fungal colonization at this site. The results indicate that borate treatment at the start of airseasoning is a viable method for limiting fungal colonization in moist airseasoning sites west of the Cascade Mountains. Evaluations of the tolerance of Stereum sanguinolentum and Peniophora spp. to elevated temperature exposures indicated that both of these fungi were extremely sensitive to elevated temperatures. The lack of long-term survival structures in these fungi probably accounts for this susceptibility to heat. iv A series of trials which measured internal temperatures in Douglas-fir pole sections during treatment with ammoniacal copper arsenate were used to develop a model for predicting internal heating during steaming. The results indicated that previous heating curves were overly optimistic in their prediction of heating. A series of heating curves for various pole diameters and starting conditions are presented. A number of externally applied groundline treatments are under evaluation in a field trial at Peavy Arboretum and a second trial will be established in the San Francisco Bay area. Seven formulations (including standards) are included. The Peavy site will be sampled in the next few months. The performance of copper naphthenate in western wood species is being evaluated in a series of small western redcedar sapwood stakelets which have been treated to a range of retentions and exposed in the fungus cellar. The results will be used to help confirm the performance of copper naphthenate in this species. Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1989 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) Evaluations of previously established field trials indicate that chioropicrin, and Vorlex continue to provide protection to Douglas-fir poles, although the degree of protection is diminishing. Reapplication of Vapam 18 years after the initial application eliminated fungi which had recolonized the poles. Methylisothiocyanate (MITC) continues to protect Douglas-fir poles 12 years after application. Gelatin encapsulation of MITC or chioropicrin appears to have no negative influence on fungitoxicity of these chemicals. Application of water to decompose the gelatin accelerated initial chemical release, but had no longterm effects on performance. A series of laboratory trials have been established to evaluate the performance of sodium n-methyldithiocarbamate (NaMDC), the active ingredient of Vapam. This chemical decomposes more slowly than the liquid formulations and a number of additives are being evaluated to accelerated decomposition. Along with the solid NaMDC, a pelletized formulation of Vapam was evaluated which contained 15 or 40 % NaMDC. These evaluations indicated that the addition of water accelerates release, but the fungal survival in these tests was more variable. The results suggest that a dosage 2 times greater than the liquid formulation is required for effective fungal control; however, further tests are planned to confirm these results. The evaluations of MITC-FUME in Douglas-fir and southern pine poles indicated that MITC has moved to a greater extent in Douglas-fir. Both closed tube bioassays and gas chromatographic analyses of ethyl acetate extracts of wood samples indicated that MITC was present at higher levels in Douglas-fir poles. Southern pine is far more permeable than Douglas-fir and MITC movement should be more rapid in this species. Further tests are planned to identify the nature of this delayed movement. 11 Evaluations of Dazomet, a crystalline solid which decomposes tO produce MITC in wood, indicate that detectable levels of this chemical are present in virtually all of the treatment groups. The decomposition rate of this chemical is normally too slow for effective fungal control and these trials are examining the ability of various additives to accelerate decomposition. Further evaluations of pole sections treated with Dazomet and selected additives are underway. A study to evaluate the effect of voids on fumigant effectivness suggests that voids do not adversely affect MITC movement through Douglas-fir pole sections. These results indicate that treatment of voids should be costeffective if the chemical is not applied directly to the void and if the pole retains a sufficient degree of strength. We continue to develop and refine a model for simulating the movement of MITC through Douglas-fir under varying temperature and moisture conditions. The model has been improved to permit three dimensional evaluations, but the times required for computation are still somewhat long. Further evaluations using a variety of environmental conditions are planned. Evaluations of potential replacements for pentachiorophenol for treatment of western redcedar sapwood and field drilled bolt holes have identified several promising alternatives. These chemicals are now under study in several modified field and laboratory tests. Field trials of several potential treatments for field drilled bolt holes indicate that Boracol 40, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and ammonium bifluoride provided excellent protection over an 8 year period. These formulations all are relatively safe and can be easily applied in the field. 111 A laboratory trial to evaluate the effects of selected basidiomycetes on strength of Douglas-fir sapwood and heartwood has concluded. Fungal density, measured as the average number of fungi colonies per beam, gradually increased in all of the beams while longitudinal compression strength (LCS), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elesticity (MOE) slowly declined. Of the measurements, LCS appeared to be most useful, probably owing to the increased number of sampling sites per beam. The results indicate that the degree of colonization was not a good indicator of wood strength effects. The value of kerfing for decreasing post-treatment checking and improving the service life of Douglas-fir poles was evaluated using a series of inspection reports from a local utility. Kerfed transmission poles had substantially lower rates of internal decay and rejection, but there appeared to be little difference in the rate of decay between kerfed and non-kerfed distribution poles. The evaluation of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate for preventing colonization of air-seasoning Douglas-fir pole sections has been completed. Spraying with a 10 % boric acid equivalent solution (BAE) at 6 month intervals provided the greatest degree of protection, although dipping in a 20 % BAE solution at the start of air-seasoning produced a similar degree of protection. As expected, fungal colonization was far lower at the dryer Oroville site and borate treatment had little influence on the degree of fungal colonization at this site. The results indicate that borate treatment at the start of airseasoning is a viable method for limiting fungal colonization in moist airseasoning sites west of the Cascade Mountains. Evaluations of the tolerance of Stereum sanguinolentum and Peniophora spp. to elevated temperature exposures indicated that both of these fungi were extremely sensitive to elevated temperatures. The lack of long-term survival structures in these fungi probably accounts for this susceptibility to heat. iv A series of trials which measured internal temperatures in Douglas-fir pole sections during treatment with ammoniacal copper arsenate were used to develop a model for predicting internal heating during steaming. The results indicated that previous heating curves were overly optimistic in their prediction of heating. A series of heating curves for various pole diameters and starting conditions are presented. A number of externally applied groundline treatments are under evaluation in a field trial at Peavy Arboretum and a second trial will be established in the San Francisco Bay area. Seven formulations (including standards) are included. The Peavy site will be sampled in the next few months. The performance of copper naphthenate in western wood species is being evaluated in a series of small western redcedar sapwood stakelets which have been treated to a range of retentions and exposed in the fungus cellar. The results will be used to help confirm the performance of copper naphthenate in this species. Close

• 625. [Article] Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1990

  Evaluations of previously established field trials indicate that chioropicrin, and Vorlex continue to provide protection to Douglas-fir poles, although the degree of protection is diminishing. Reapplication ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1990 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) Evaluations of previously established field trials indicate that chioropicrin, and Vorlex continue to provide protection to Douglas-fir poles, although the degree of protection is diminishing. Reapplication of Vapam 18 years after the initial application eliminated fungi which had recolonized the poles. Methylisothiocyanate (MITC) continues to protect Douglas-fir poles 12 years after application. Gelatin encapsulation of MITC or chioropicrin appears to have no negative influence on fungitoxicity of these chemicals. Application of water to decompose the gelatin accelerated initial chemical release, but had no longterm effects on performance. A series of laboratory trials have been established to evaluate the performance of sodium n-methyldithiocarbamate (NaMDC), the active ingredient of Vapam. This chemical decomposes more slowly than the liquid formulations and a number of additives are being evaluated to accelerated decomposition. Along with the solid NaMDC, a pelletized formulation of Vapam was evaluated which contained 15 or 40 % NaMDC. These evaluations indicated that the addition of water accelerates release, but the fungal survival in these tests was more variable. The results suggest that a dosage 2 times greater than the liquid formulation is required for effective fungal control; however, further tests are planned to confirm these results. The evaluations of MITC-FUME in Douglas-fir and southern pine poles indicated that MITC has moved to a greater extent in Douglas-fir. Both closed tube bioassays and gas chromatographic analyses of ethyl acetate extracts of wood samples indicated that MITC was present at higher levels in Douglas-fir poles. Southern pine is far more permeable than Douglas-fir and MITC movement should be more rapid in this species. Further tests are planned to identify the nature of this delayed movement. 11 Evaluations of Dazomet, a crystalline solid which decomposes tO produce MITC in wood, indicate that detectable levels of this chemical are present in virtually all of the treatment groups. The decomposition rate of this chemical is normally too slow for effective fungal control and these trials are examining the ability of various additives to accelerate decomposition. Further evaluations of pole sections treated with Dazomet and selected additives are underway. A study to evaluate the effect of voids on fumigant effectivness suggests that voids do not adversely affect MITC movement through Douglas-fir pole sections. These results indicate that treatment of voids should be costeffective if the chemical is not applied directly to the void and if the pole retains a sufficient degree of strength. We continue to develop and refine a model for simulating the movement of MITC through Douglas-fir under varying temperature and moisture conditions. The model has been improved to permit three dimensional evaluations, but the times required for computation are still somewhat long. Further evaluations using a variety of environmental conditions are planned. Evaluations of potential replacements for pentachiorophenol for treatment of western redcedar sapwood and field drilled bolt holes have identified several promising alternatives. These chemicals are now under study in several modified field and laboratory tests. Field trials of several potential treatments for field drilled bolt holes indicate that Boracol 40, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and ammonium bifluoride provided excellent protection over an 8 year period. These formulations all are relatively safe and can be easily applied in the field. 111 A laboratory trial to evaluate the effects of selected basidiomycetes on strength of Douglas-fir sapwood and heartwood has concluded. Fungal density, measured as the average number of fungi colonies per beam, gradually increased in all of the beams while longitudinal compression strength (LCS), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elesticity (MOE) slowly declined. Of the measurements, LCS appeared to be most useful, probably owing to the increased number of sampling sites per beam. The results indicate that the degree of colonization was not a good indicator of wood strength effects. The value of kerfing for decreasing post-treatment checking and improving the service life of Douglas-fir poles was evaluated using a series of inspection reports from a local utility. Kerfed transmission poles had substantially lower rates of internal decay and rejection, but there appeared to be little difference in the rate of decay between kerfed and non-kerfed distribution poles. The evaluation of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate for preventing colonization of air-seasoning Douglas-fir pole sections has been completed. Spraying with a 10 % boric acid equivalent solution (BAE) at 6 month intervals provided the greatest degree of protection, although dipping in a 20 % BAE solution at the start of air-seasoning produced a similar degree of protection. As expected, fungal colonization was far lower at the dryer Oroville site and borate treatment had little influence on the degree of fungal colonization at this site. The results indicate that borate treatment at the start of airseasoning is a viable method for limiting fungal colonization in moist airseasoning sites west of the Cascade Mountains. Evaluations of the tolerance of Stereum sanguinolentum and Peniophora spp. to elevated temperature exposures indicated that both of these fungi were extremely sensitive to elevated temperatures. The lack of long-term survival structures in these fungi probably accounts for this susceptibility to heat. iv A series of trials which measured internal temperatures in Douglas-fir pole sections during treatment with ammoniacal copper arsenate were used to develop a model for predicting internal heating during steaming. The results indicated that previous heating curves were overly optimistic in their prediction of heating. A series of heating curves for various pole diameters and starting conditions are presented. A number of externally applied groundline treatments are under evaluation in a field trial at Peavy Arboretum and a second trial will be established in the San Francisco Bay area. Seven formulations (including standards) are included. The Peavy site will be sampled in the next few months. The performance of copper naphthenate in western wood species is being evaluated in a series of small western redcedar sapwood stakelets which have been treated to a range of retentions and exposed in the fungus cellar. The results will be used to help confirm the performance of copper naphthenate in this species. Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1990 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) Evaluations of previously established field trials indicate that chioropicrin, and Vorlex continue to provide protection to Douglas-fir poles, although the degree of protection is diminishing. Reapplication of Vapam 18 years after the initial application eliminated fungi which had recolonized the poles. Methylisothiocyanate (MITC) continues to protect Douglas-fir poles 12 years after application. Gelatin encapsulation of MITC or chioropicrin appears to have no negative influence on fungitoxicity of these chemicals. Application of water to decompose the gelatin accelerated initial chemical release, but had no longterm effects on performance. A series of laboratory trials have been established to evaluate the performance of sodium n-methyldithiocarbamate (NaMDC), the active ingredient of Vapam. This chemical decomposes more slowly than the liquid formulations and a number of additives are being evaluated to accelerated decomposition. Along with the solid NaMDC, a pelletized formulation of Vapam was evaluated which contained 15 or 40 % NaMDC. These evaluations indicated that the addition of water accelerates release, but the fungal survival in these tests was more variable. The results suggest that a dosage 2 times greater than the liquid formulation is required for effective fungal control; however, further tests are planned to confirm these results. The evaluations of MITC-FUME in Douglas-fir and southern pine poles indicated that MITC has moved to a greater extent in Douglas-fir. Both closed tube bioassays and gas chromatographic analyses of ethyl acetate extracts of wood samples indicated that MITC was present at higher levels in Douglas-fir poles. Southern pine is far more permeable than Douglas-fir and MITC movement should be more rapid in this species. Further tests are planned to identify the nature of this delayed movement. 11 Evaluations of Dazomet, a crystalline solid which decomposes tO produce MITC in wood, indicate that detectable levels of this chemical are present in virtually all of the treatment groups. The decomposition rate of this chemical is normally too slow for effective fungal control and these trials are examining the ability of various additives to accelerate decomposition. Further evaluations of pole sections treated with Dazomet and selected additives are underway. A study to evaluate the effect of voids on fumigant effectivness suggests that voids do not adversely affect MITC movement through Douglas-fir pole sections. These results indicate that treatment of voids should be costeffective if the chemical is not applied directly to the void and if the pole retains a sufficient degree of strength. We continue to develop and refine a model for simulating the movement of MITC through Douglas-fir under varying temperature and moisture conditions. The model has been improved to permit three dimensional evaluations, but the times required for computation are still somewhat long. Further evaluations using a variety of environmental conditions are planned. Evaluations of potential replacements for pentachiorophenol for treatment of western redcedar sapwood and field drilled bolt holes have identified several promising alternatives. These chemicals are now under study in several modified field and laboratory tests. Field trials of several potential treatments for field drilled bolt holes indicate that Boracol 40, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate and ammonium bifluoride provided excellent protection over an 8 year period. These formulations all are relatively safe and can be easily applied in the field. 111 A laboratory trial to evaluate the effects of selected basidiomycetes on strength of Douglas-fir sapwood and heartwood has concluded. Fungal density, measured as the average number of fungi colonies per beam, gradually increased in all of the beams while longitudinal compression strength (LCS), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elesticity (MOE) slowly declined. Of the measurements, LCS appeared to be most useful, probably owing to the increased number of sampling sites per beam. The results indicate that the degree of colonization was not a good indicator of wood strength effects. The value of kerfing for decreasing post-treatment checking and improving the service life of Douglas-fir poles was evaluated using a series of inspection reports from a local utility. Kerfed transmission poles had substantially lower rates of internal decay and rejection, but there appeared to be little difference in the rate of decay between kerfed and non-kerfed distribution poles. The evaluation of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate for preventing colonization of air-seasoning Douglas-fir pole sections has been completed. Spraying with a 10 % boric acid equivalent solution (BAE) at 6 month intervals provided the greatest degree of protection, although dipping in a 20 % BAE solution at the start of air-seasoning produced a similar degree of protection. As expected, fungal colonization was far lower at the dryer Oroville site and borate treatment had little influence on the degree of fungal colonization at this site. The results indicate that borate treatment at the start of airseasoning is a viable method for limiting fungal colonization in moist airseasoning sites west of the Cascade Mountains. Evaluations of the tolerance of Stereum sanguinolentum and Peniophora spp. to elevated temperature exposures indicated that both of these fungi were extremely sensitive to elevated temperatures. The lack of long-term survival structures in these fungi probably accounts for this susceptibility to heat. iv A series of trials which measured internal temperatures in Douglas-fir pole sections during treatment with ammoniacal copper arsenate were used to develop a model for predicting internal heating during steaming. The results indicated that previous heating curves were overly optimistic in their prediction of heating. A series of heating curves for various pole diameters and starting conditions are presented. A number of externally applied groundline treatments are under evaluation in a field trial at Peavy Arboretum and a second trial will be established in the San Francisco Bay area. Seven formulations (including standards) are included. The Peavy site will be sampled in the next few months. The performance of copper naphthenate in western wood species is being evaluated in a series of small western redcedar sapwood stakelets which have been treated to a range of retentions and exposed in the fungus cellar. The results will be used to help confirm the performance of copper naphthenate in this species. Close

• 626. [Article] Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Basin : An Examination of their Distribution, Recovery from Disturbance and Restoration

  We are at risk of losing the sagebrush steppe in the floristic Great Basin to the invasion of Bromus tectorum L., cheatgrass. The floristic Great Basin includes the Central Basin and Range, the Northern ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Basin : An Examination of their Distribution, Recovery from Disturbance and Restoration Author: Condon, Lea A. We are at risk of losing the sagebrush steppe in the floristic Great Basin to the invasion of Bromus tectorum L., cheatgrass. The floristic Great Basin includes the Central Basin and Range, the Northern Basin and Range, and the Snake River Plain. The Great Basin receives most of its precipitation as winter snow and experiences hot and dry summers. Early accounts of invasion by cheatgrass associated it with farming and grazing practices. The non-farmed areas in the region are still actively grazed and referred to as rangelands. On invaded sites, cheatgrass changes the flammability of fuels on invaded landscapes, across the Great Basin, from coarser fuels that are widely spaced to fine fuels that are continuous, filling interspaces between perennial plants. The fuel load created by cheatgrass regenerates annually. This has resulted in a change in the fire regime of the Great Basin from infrequent, small fires to more frequent large fires. In arid lands globally, soil interspaces between perennial plants are typically filled by biological soil crusts (biocrusts). This is also true for ecoregions in and surrounding the Great Basin. Biocrusts are known to influence many ecosystem processes that cheatgrass influences, specifically nutrient cycling and availability of soil moisture. However, little work has been done on biocrusts of the Great Basin and to my knowledge, no one had restored biocrusts within the Great Basin. I attempt to fill some of this knowledge "interspace" by relating biocrust presence to disturbances and cheatgrass invasion and to demonstrate the potential for biocrust restoration within this region. Previous work in eastern Oregon demonstrated relationships between declines in biocrusts and increases in cheatgrass with increasing grazing intensity, soil temperature, and decreasing soil moisture. Grazing intensity influences the cover of biocrusts as well as the abundance and composition of native bunchgrasses. Native bunchgrasses influence the interspace gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation which is directly associated with the cover of cheatgrass. In a region where grazing records may be incomplete and may exist in various forms of data, having a simple indicator of grazing impacts would be useful. It is also crucial that we have an understanding of what leads to loss of site resistance to cheatgrass. This previous work suggested that cover of biocrusts, in addition to bunchgrass composition, were associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass. In Chapter 2, I used current grazing records from a range of suspected grazing intensities, to examine the ability of both biocrusts and perennial vegetation to maintain site resistance to cheatgrass after fire. I examined the ability of mosses and lichens to maintain site resistance separately given that these are two very different kinds of organisms. Mosses are non-vascular plants and early colonizers of sites in primary succession. Lichens have a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthesizing partner, a cyanobacteria, an algae or both. Using structural equation models, I corroborated that perennial vegetation and lichens are associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass and that mosses are associated with and may facilitate both lichens and perennial herbaceous vegetation. Also in Chapter 2, I identified that burned sites were associated with increased grazing pressure by livestock as shown by increases in cow dung density and increases in gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation. The Great Basin is managed for cover of perennial vegetation but it could also be managed for morphogroups of biocrusts. Considering morphogroups of biocrusts, which were shown in the Chapter 2 to be important for site resilience and resistance, I wanted to determine if there were site characteristics associated with biocrust distribution and recovery from disturbance, across the Great Basin. Outside of the Great Basin on the Columbia Plateau, others had found that mosses were still present on disturbed sites whereas lichens were often lost. In addition, biocrust species were more associated with soil properties than with grazing by livestock. Given that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region, I wanted to know if the same relationships between biocrusts, soil properties and disturbance were true in the Great Basin. I found that cover of the lichen component of biocrusts was higher on sites that were both ungrazed and unburned. Factors related to disturbance characteristics were correlated with the recovery of biocrusts, even after accounting for time since fire. Factors related to disturbance, a composite of grazing and fire, were more important for structuring the cover and composition of morphogroups as opposed to environmental conditions. Lichens were the most sensitive morphogroup, compared to tall mosses, followed by short mosses which were favored by some disturbance but reduced in cover immediately after fire. Perennial grasses were also favored by some disturbance and perennial forbs did not show an obvious relationship with a disturbance gradient. Chapter 3 highlights that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region so much so that the effects of one on the abundances of morphogroups could not be separated from the other. Given the observed contributions of biocrusts to site resilience and resistance, I wanted to know if we could restore biocrusts in the field. Others have grown mosses in a lab setting but this was the first study to restore mosses in the Great Basin. I tested the influence of factors that are commonly used in the field of restoration for facilitating plant establishment. I tested the influence of season of inoculation (fall versus spring), the addition of organic matter (in the form of jute net), irrigation (in the spring season) and the climatic setting of moss the collection sites (for moss propagation), in comparison to the experiment site (warm, dry versus cool, moist) on moss growth. I used two moss species: a ruderal (Bryum argenteum) and a later successional species (Syntrichia ruralis). Moss cover increased when the climatic setting of the collection site matched the experiment site. Mosses were facilitated by the addition of the organic jute netting, putting on most of their growth in winter. Although there is still a great deal of work to be done developing moss material for restoration and working out inoculation rates of moss fragments, similar to seeding rates, land managers have another tool to consider when rehabilitating sites after disturbance. Managing the Great Basin for biocrusts in the presence of grazing and fire will not only increase site resistance to cheatgrass but it will add to the conservation of ecosystem functions related to nutrient cycling, hydrologic cycling and soil erosion. Site resistance will be improved with increased periods of rest from grazing following fire. The lichen component of biocrusts is a more sensitive indicator of disturbance when compared with mosses or perennial vegetation but we are currently actively managing for perennial vegetation and not biocrusts. The moss component of biocrusts can be successfully restored in the Great Basin, without irrigation. This dissertation shows that land managers should consider a suite of organisms, in addition to perennial plants to achieve management goals and maintain site resistance to cheatgrass. Title: Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Basin : An Examination of their Distribution, Recovery from Disturbance and Restoration Author: Condon, Lea A. We are at risk of losing the sagebrush steppe in the floristic Great Basin to the invasion of Bromus tectorum L., cheatgrass. The floristic Great Basin includes the Central Basin and Range, the Northern Basin and Range, and the Snake River Plain. The Great Basin receives most of its precipitation as winter snow and experiences hot and dry summers. Early accounts of invasion by cheatgrass associated it with farming and grazing practices. The non-farmed areas in the region are still actively grazed and referred to as rangelands. On invaded sites, cheatgrass changes the flammability of fuels on invaded landscapes, across the Great Basin, from coarser fuels that are widely spaced to fine fuels that are continuous, filling interspaces between perennial plants. The fuel load created by cheatgrass regenerates annually. This has resulted in a change in the fire regime of the Great Basin from infrequent, small fires to more frequent large fires. In arid lands globally, soil interspaces between perennial plants are typically filled by biological soil crusts (biocrusts). This is also true for ecoregions in and surrounding the Great Basin. Biocrusts are known to influence many ecosystem processes that cheatgrass influences, specifically nutrient cycling and availability of soil moisture. However, little work has been done on biocrusts of the Great Basin and to my knowledge, no one had restored biocrusts within the Great Basin. I attempt to fill some of this knowledge "interspace" by relating biocrust presence to disturbances and cheatgrass invasion and to demonstrate the potential for biocrust restoration within this region. Previous work in eastern Oregon demonstrated relationships between declines in biocrusts and increases in cheatgrass with increasing grazing intensity, soil temperature, and decreasing soil moisture. Grazing intensity influences the cover of biocrusts as well as the abundance and composition of native bunchgrasses. Native bunchgrasses influence the interspace gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation which is directly associated with the cover of cheatgrass. In a region where grazing records may be incomplete and may exist in various forms of data, having a simple indicator of grazing impacts would be useful. It is also crucial that we have an understanding of what leads to loss of site resistance to cheatgrass. This previous work suggested that cover of biocrusts, in addition to bunchgrass composition, were associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass. In Chapter 2, I used current grazing records from a range of suspected grazing intensities, to examine the ability of both biocrusts and perennial vegetation to maintain site resistance to cheatgrass after fire. I examined the ability of mosses and lichens to maintain site resistance separately given that these are two very different kinds of organisms. Mosses are non-vascular plants and early colonizers of sites in primary succession. Lichens have a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthesizing partner, a cyanobacteria, an algae or both. Using structural equation models, I corroborated that perennial vegetation and lichens are associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass and that mosses are associated with and may facilitate both lichens and perennial herbaceous vegetation. Also in Chapter 2, I identified that burned sites were associated with increased grazing pressure by livestock as shown by increases in cow dung density and increases in gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation. The Great Basin is managed for cover of perennial vegetation but it could also be managed for morphogroups of biocrusts. Considering morphogroups of biocrusts, which were shown in the Chapter 2 to be important for site resilience and resistance, I wanted to determine if there were site characteristics associated with biocrust distribution and recovery from disturbance, across the Great Basin. Outside of the Great Basin on the Columbia Plateau, others had found that mosses were still present on disturbed sites whereas lichens were often lost. In addition, biocrust species were more associated with soil properties than with grazing by livestock. Given that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region, I wanted to know if the same relationships between biocrusts, soil properties and disturbance were true in the Great Basin. I found that cover of the lichen component of biocrusts was higher on sites that were both ungrazed and unburned. Factors related to disturbance characteristics were correlated with the recovery of biocrusts, even after accounting for time since fire. Factors related to disturbance, a composite of grazing and fire, were more important for structuring the cover and composition of morphogroups as opposed to environmental conditions. Lichens were the most sensitive morphogroup, compared to tall mosses, followed by short mosses which were favored by some disturbance but reduced in cover immediately after fire. Perennial grasses were also favored by some disturbance and perennial forbs did not show an obvious relationship with a disturbance gradient. Chapter 3 highlights that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region so much so that the effects of one on the abundances of morphogroups could not be separated from the other. Given the observed contributions of biocrusts to site resilience and resistance, I wanted to know if we could restore biocrusts in the field. Others have grown mosses in a lab setting but this was the first study to restore mosses in the Great Basin. I tested the influence of factors that are commonly used in the field of restoration for facilitating plant establishment. I tested the influence of season of inoculation (fall versus spring), the addition of organic matter (in the form of jute net), irrigation (in the spring season) and the climatic setting of moss the collection sites (for moss propagation), in comparison to the experiment site (warm, dry versus cool, moist) on moss growth. I used two moss species: a ruderal (Bryum argenteum) and a later successional species (Syntrichia ruralis). Moss cover increased when the climatic setting of the collection site matched the experiment site. Mosses were facilitated by the addition of the organic jute netting, putting on most of their growth in winter. Although there is still a great deal of work to be done developing moss material for restoration and working out inoculation rates of moss fragments, similar to seeding rates, land managers have another tool to consider when rehabilitating sites after disturbance. Managing the Great Basin for biocrusts in the presence of grazing and fire will not only increase site resistance to cheatgrass but it will add to the conservation of ecosystem functions related to nutrient cycling, hydrologic cycling and soil erosion. Site resistance will be improved with increased periods of rest from grazing following fire. The lichen component of biocrusts is a more sensitive indicator of disturbance when compared with mosses or perennial vegetation but we are currently actively managing for perennial vegetation and not biocrusts. The moss component of biocrusts can be successfully restored in the Great Basin, without irrigation. This dissertation shows that land managers should consider a suite of organisms, in addition to perennial plants to achieve management goals and maintain site resistance to cheatgrass. Close

• 627. [Image] Past, present and future activities being conducted in the Klamath River Basin related to the protection and recovery of fish and their habitat

  	"March 2003"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Past, present and future activities being conducted in the Klamath River Basin related to the protection and recovery of fish and their habitat Author: United States. National Marine Fisheries Service Year: 2003, 2005 "March 2003" Title: Past, present and future activities being conducted in the Klamath River Basin related to the protection and recovery of fish and their habitat Author: United States. National Marine Fisheries Service Year: 2003, 2005 "March 2003" Close

• 628. [Image] Distribution and biology of suckers in Lower Klamath reservoirs : 1999 final report

  	Abstract The objectives of this two-year study (1998-1999) were to document distribution, abundance, age class structure, recruitment success, and habitat use by all life history stages of shortnose and ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution and biology of suckers in Lower Klamath reservoirs : 1999 final report Author: Desjardins, Marc; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2000, 2005 Abstract The objectives of this two-year study (1998-1999) were to document distribution, abundance, age class structure, recruitment success, and habitat use by all life history stages of shortnose and Lost River suckers in three lower Klamath River hydroelectric reservoirs (J. C. Boyle, Copco, and Iron Gate). Lost River sucker catches were sporadic (only 3 adult individuals total) and the focus of our analyses, therefore, shifted to shortnose suckers. Adult and larval suckers were found in all reservoirs both years. All life history stages (larvae, juveniles and adults) were found in J. C. Boyle during both years and in Copco in 1999. Juvenile suckers were not found in Copco in 1998. The number of adult shortnose suckers was highest in Copco reservoir (n=165), followed by J.C. Boyle (n=50) and Iron Gate (n=22). Larger and older individuals dominated Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs and little size structure was detected. J. C. Boyle tended to have smaller adult shortnose suckers and many size classes were present. Unidentifiable larval suckers were most abundant in Copco reservoir where historic spawning of shortnose suckers has been documented. Larval suckers in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were most abundant in mid to late June before quickly disappearing from catches. J. C. Boyle larval suckers peaked in mid July, attained larger sizes, and were caught later in the season. It appeared that recruitment of young-of-the-year suckers only occurred in J. C. Boyle with downstream reservoirs recruiting older individuals, perhaps those that had earlier recruited to J. C. Boyle. Tagging studies could clarify adult recruitment dynamics and an additional study of juvenile recruitment would be needed to confirm these patterns. Predation pressure may be somewhat reduced in J. C. Boyle in comparison to the other reservoirs as its fish community was dominated by native fishes while communities in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were dominated by exotic predators. J. C. Boyle also possessed proportionally more littoral habitat, which suggests it may provide a more stable environment for young fishes. However, our sampling was inadequate to demonstrate such relationships due to high variance in larval and juvenile catches and potentially confounding habitat variables. One such variable was water level fluctuations, which could interact with habitat and resource availability in complex ways. For example, water level fluctuations, presumed to have a negative impact, were greatest in J. C. Boyle. Extrapolation from the literature suggests it should have had the poorest habitat for larval and juvenile suckers, but our results indicated J. C. Boyle had the most young suckers. Additional study of the relationships between water level fluctuations, habitat availability, the exotic fish community, and juvenile sucker recruitment would be needed to better understand early life history ecology of endangered lake suckers in these systems. Title: Distribution and biology of suckers in Lower Klamath reservoirs : 1999 final report Author: Desjardins, Marc; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2000, 2005 Abstract The objectives of this two-year study (1998-1999) were to document distribution, abundance, age class structure, recruitment success, and habitat use by all life history stages of shortnose and Lost River suckers in three lower Klamath River hydroelectric reservoirs (J. C. Boyle, Copco, and Iron Gate). Lost River sucker catches were sporadic (only 3 adult individuals total) and the focus of our analyses, therefore, shifted to shortnose suckers. Adult and larval suckers were found in all reservoirs both years. All life history stages (larvae, juveniles and adults) were found in J. C. Boyle during both years and in Copco in 1999. Juvenile suckers were not found in Copco in 1998. The number of adult shortnose suckers was highest in Copco reservoir (n=165), followed by J.C. Boyle (n=50) and Iron Gate (n=22). Larger and older individuals dominated Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs and little size structure was detected. J. C. Boyle tended to have smaller adult shortnose suckers and many size classes were present. Unidentifiable larval suckers were most abundant in Copco reservoir where historic spawning of shortnose suckers has been documented. Larval suckers in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were most abundant in mid to late June before quickly disappearing from catches. J. C. Boyle larval suckers peaked in mid July, attained larger sizes, and were caught later in the season. It appeared that recruitment of young-of-the-year suckers only occurred in J. C. Boyle with downstream reservoirs recruiting older individuals, perhaps those that had earlier recruited to J. C. Boyle. Tagging studies could clarify adult recruitment dynamics and an additional study of juvenile recruitment would be needed to confirm these patterns. Predation pressure may be somewhat reduced in J. C. Boyle in comparison to the other reservoirs as its fish community was dominated by native fishes while communities in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were dominated by exotic predators. J. C. Boyle also possessed proportionally more littoral habitat, which suggests it may provide a more stable environment for young fishes. However, our sampling was inadequate to demonstrate such relationships due to high variance in larval and juvenile catches and potentially confounding habitat variables. One such variable was water level fluctuations, which could interact with habitat and resource availability in complex ways. For example, water level fluctuations, presumed to have a negative impact, were greatest in J. C. Boyle. Extrapolation from the literature suggests it should have had the poorest habitat for larval and juvenile suckers, but our results indicated J. C. Boyle had the most young suckers. Additional study of the relationships between water level fluctuations, habitat availability, the exotic fish community, and juvenile sucker recruitment would be needed to better understand early life history ecology of endangered lake suckers in these systems. Close

• 629. [Image] Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters

  	"July 2003."; "GAO-03-514."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters Author: United States. General Accounting Office Year: 2003, 2005 "July 2003."; "GAO-03-514." Title: Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters Author: United States. General Accounting Office Year: 2003, 2005 "July 2003."; "GAO-03-514." Close

• 630. [Image] The Water Report. Klamath Fishery Science: Controversy in the Klamath River Basin

  	Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographic references. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Water Report. Klamath Fishery Science: Controversy in the Klamath River Basin Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographic references. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/. Title: The Water Report. Klamath Fishery Science: Controversy in the Klamath River Basin Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographic references. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/. Close

• 631. [Image] Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft

  	Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office Year: 1994, 2004 Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35) Title: Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office Year: 1994, 2004 Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35) Close

• 632. [Article] Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Macmillan Publishers Limited and the Nature Publishing Group and can be found at: http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html. To ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas Author: Lovett, Jon, Arroyo-Rodriguez, Victor, Ewango, Corneille, Rendeiro, Julio, Dirzo, Rodolfo, Poulsen, John, Corlett, Richard, Waltert, Matthias, Cords, Marina, Goodale, Uromi, Struhsaker, Thomas, Terborgh, John, Magnusson, William, Schaab, Gertrud, Banki, Olaf, Babweteera, Fred, Foster, Mercedes, Rainey, Hugo, De Dijn, Bart, Herbinger, Ilka, Janovec, John, Montag, Luciano, Stanford, Craig, Lugo, Ariel, Guix, Juan C., Sun, I. Fang, Cannon, Charles H., Silman, Miles R., Kasangaki, Aventino, Wang, Benjamin, Surbeck, Martin, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Maisels, Fiona, Lindsell, Jeremy, Nielsen, Martin R., Krishnaswamy, Jagdish, Savini, Tommaso, Parthasarathy, N., Auzel, Philippe, Killeen, Timothy, de Almeida, Samuel Soares, Abernethy, Kate, Benitez-Malvido, Julieta, de Castilho, Carolina Volkmer, Venn, Linda, Umapathy, Govindaswamy, Carroll, Richard, Pisciotta, Katia, Arias-G, Juan Carlos, Wright, Patricia, Baker, Patrick, Jin, Chen, Round, Philip, Bruehl, Carsten A., Linsenmair, K. Eduard, McNab, Roan, Huang, Zhongliang, Itoh, Akira, Scatena, Frederick, Sloan, Sean P., Schulze, Christian, Klop, Erik, McGraw, W. Scott, Pearson, Richard, Laval, Richard, Karpanty, Sarah, Sanaiotti, Tania, Roedel, Mark-Oliver, Ickes, Kalan, Ashton, Peter, Diesmos, Arvin, Guthiga, Paul, Coates, Rosamond, Nepal, Sanjay, Kone, Inza, Plumptre, Andrew, Williams, Stephen, Goodman, Steven, van der Ploeg, Jan, Pitman, Nigel, Lattke, John, Mack, Andrew L., Brockelman, Warren, Haber, William, Wright, Debra D., Clark, Connie J., Chellam, Ravi, Smith, Thomas B., Zamzani, Franky, Reynolds, Glen, Edwards, David, Chapman, Colin, Quesada, Mauricio, Knott, Cheryl, Rajathurai, Subaraj, Renton, Katherine, Danielsen, Finn, Jiangming, Mo, Whitney, Ken, Vasudevan, Karthikeyan, Bila-Isia, Inogwabini, Estrada, Alejandro, Ivanauskas, Natalia, Whitacre, David, Timm, Robert, Congdon, Robert, Kalko, Elisabeth, Harris, David, Stewart, Kristine, Xiankai, Lu, Jackes, Betsy, da Silva, Rosa de Nazarepaes, Martins, Marlucia, Kalka, Margareta, Rivera, Jorge Vega, King, Hen-biau, Turkalo, Andrea, Clavijo, Jose, Wilkie, David, Wright, S. Joseph, Cao, Min, Sodhi, Navjot, Janzen, Daniel, Mudappa, Divya, Laurance, Susan G., Stoner, Kathryn E., Rovero, Francesco, McClearn, Deedra, Eaton, Mitchell, Hamer, Keith, Parker, Kenneth, Leal, Miguel, Norconk, Marilyn, Gale, George, Stokes, Emma, Hill, Jane, van Weerd, Merlijn, Logsdon, Willis, Fedigan, Linda, Alvarez, Patricia, Brokaw, Nicholas, Marshall, Andrew R., Dave, Chittaranjan, Seidensticker, John, Edwards, Felicity, Campbell, Mason, Useche, D. Carolina, Feer, Francois, Nabe-Nielsen, Jacob, Di Fiore, Anthony, Ouboter, Paul, Yonzon, Pralad, Watts, David, Laurance, William F., Davies, Glyn, Arroyo, Luzmila, Kudavidanage, Enoka, Blake, Stephen, Hart, John, Verea, Carlos, Tobler, Mathias, Willis, Jacalyn Giacalone, Forget, Pierre-Michel, Lentino, Miguel, Lawton, Robert, Roetgers, Christiane, Blom, Allard, Robinson, Douglas, Opiang, Muse, Tscharntke, Teja, Ribeiro, Jose Lahoz da Silva, Thompson, Jo Myers, Losos, Elizabeth, Babaasa, Dennis, Rothman, Jessica, Chao, Jung-Tai, Doran-Sheehy, Diane, Dinerstein, Eric, Harrison, Rhett, Ling-Ling, Lee, O'Donnell, Sean, Donnelly, Maureen A., Reichard, Ulrich, Leonel, Cristiane, Leighton, Mark, Bobo, Kadiri S., Kress, W. John, Fruth, Barbara, Pringle, Catherine, Thomas, Duncan, Justiniano, Hermes, Farwig, Nina, Bradshaw, Corey J. A., Sukumar, Raman, Venkataraman, Meena, Lwanga, Jeremiah, Ashton, Mark, Reynolds, Vernon, Sheil, Douglas, Riley, Erin, Siaka, Alhaji, Nakagawa, Michiko, Fashing, Peter, Urbina-Cardona, J. Nicolas, Beisiegel, Beatriz de Mello, Emmons, Louise, Weber, William, West, Paige, Reinartz, Gay, Dattaraja, H. S., Chave, Jerome, Prawiradilaga, Dewi, Jones, Trevor, Sakai, Shoko, Bass, Margot, Novotny, Vojtech This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Macmillan Publishers Limited and the Nature Publishing Group and can be found at: http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Title: Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas Author: Lovett, Jon, Arroyo-Rodriguez, Victor, Ewango, Corneille, Rendeiro, Julio, Dirzo, Rodolfo, Poulsen, John, Corlett, Richard, Waltert, Matthias, Cords, Marina, Goodale, Uromi, Struhsaker, Thomas, Terborgh, John, Magnusson, William, Schaab, Gertrud, Banki, Olaf, Babweteera, Fred, Foster, Mercedes, Rainey, Hugo, De Dijn, Bart, Herbinger, Ilka, Janovec, John, Montag, Luciano, Stanford, Craig, Lugo, Ariel, Guix, Juan C., Sun, I. Fang, Cannon, Charles H., Silman, Miles R., Kasangaki, Aventino, Wang, Benjamin, Surbeck, Martin, Bunyavejchewin, Sarayudh, Maisels, Fiona, Lindsell, Jeremy, Nielsen, Martin R., Krishnaswamy, Jagdish, Savini, Tommaso, Parthasarathy, N., Auzel, Philippe, Killeen, Timothy, de Almeida, Samuel Soares, Abernethy, Kate, Benitez-Malvido, Julieta, de Castilho, Carolina Volkmer, Venn, Linda, Umapathy, Govindaswamy, Carroll, Richard, Pisciotta, Katia, Arias-G, Juan Carlos, Wright, Patricia, Baker, Patrick, Jin, Chen, Round, Philip, Bruehl, Carsten A., Linsenmair, K. Eduard, McNab, Roan, Huang, Zhongliang, Itoh, Akira, Scatena, Frederick, Sloan, Sean P., Schulze, Christian, Klop, Erik, McGraw, W. Scott, Pearson, Richard, Laval, Richard, Karpanty, Sarah, Sanaiotti, Tania, Roedel, Mark-Oliver, Ickes, Kalan, Ashton, Peter, Diesmos, Arvin, Guthiga, Paul, Coates, Rosamond, Nepal, Sanjay, Kone, Inza, Plumptre, Andrew, Williams, Stephen, Goodman, Steven, van der Ploeg, Jan, Pitman, Nigel, Lattke, John, Mack, Andrew L., Brockelman, Warren, Haber, William, Wright, Debra D., Clark, Connie J., Chellam, Ravi, Smith, Thomas B., Zamzani, Franky, Reynolds, Glen, Edwards, David, Chapman, Colin, Quesada, Mauricio, Knott, Cheryl, Rajathurai, Subaraj, Renton, Katherine, Danielsen, Finn, Jiangming, Mo, Whitney, Ken, Vasudevan, Karthikeyan, Bila-Isia, Inogwabini, Estrada, Alejandro, Ivanauskas, Natalia, Whitacre, David, Timm, Robert, Congdon, Robert, Kalko, Elisabeth, Harris, David, Stewart, Kristine, Xiankai, Lu, Jackes, Betsy, da Silva, Rosa de Nazarepaes, Martins, Marlucia, Kalka, Margareta, Rivera, Jorge Vega, King, Hen-biau, Turkalo, Andrea, Clavijo, Jose, Wilkie, David, Wright, S. Joseph, Cao, Min, Sodhi, Navjot, Janzen, Daniel, Mudappa, Divya, Laurance, Susan G., Stoner, Kathryn E., Rovero, Francesco, McClearn, Deedra, Eaton, Mitchell, Hamer, Keith, Parker, Kenneth, Leal, Miguel, Norconk, Marilyn, Gale, George, Stokes, Emma, Hill, Jane, van Weerd, Merlijn, Logsdon, Willis, Fedigan, Linda, Alvarez, Patricia, Brokaw, Nicholas, Marshall, Andrew R., Dave, Chittaranjan, Seidensticker, John, Edwards, Felicity, Campbell, Mason, Useche, D. Carolina, Feer, Francois, Nabe-Nielsen, Jacob, Di Fiore, Anthony, Ouboter, Paul, Yonzon, Pralad, Watts, David, Laurance, William F., Davies, Glyn, Arroyo, Luzmila, Kudavidanage, Enoka, Blake, Stephen, Hart, John, Verea, Carlos, Tobler, Mathias, Willis, Jacalyn Giacalone, Forget, Pierre-Michel, Lentino, Miguel, Lawton, Robert, Roetgers, Christiane, Blom, Allard, Robinson, Douglas, Opiang, Muse, Tscharntke, Teja, Ribeiro, Jose Lahoz da Silva, Thompson, Jo Myers, Losos, Elizabeth, Babaasa, Dennis, Rothman, Jessica, Chao, Jung-Tai, Doran-Sheehy, Diane, Dinerstein, Eric, Harrison, Rhett, Ling-Ling, Lee, O'Donnell, Sean, Donnelly, Maureen A., Reichard, Ulrich, Leonel, Cristiane, Leighton, Mark, Bobo, Kadiri S., Kress, W. John, Fruth, Barbara, Pringle, Catherine, Thomas, Duncan, Justiniano, Hermes, Farwig, Nina, Bradshaw, Corey J. A., Sukumar, Raman, Venkataraman, Meena, Lwanga, Jeremiah, Ashton, Mark, Reynolds, Vernon, Sheil, Douglas, Riley, Erin, Siaka, Alhaji, Nakagawa, Michiko, Fashing, Peter, Urbina-Cardona, J. Nicolas, Beisiegel, Beatriz de Mello, Emmons, Louise, Weber, William, West, Paige, Reinartz, Gay, Dattaraja, H. S., Chave, Jerome, Prawiradilaga, Dewi, Jones, Trevor, Sakai, Shoko, Bass, Margot, Novotny, Vojtech This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Macmillan Publishers Limited and the Nature Publishing Group and can be found at: http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Close

• 633. [Image] Crater Lake limnological studies 1985 annual report

  	1982-2002; ill., maps; Title covers calendar years 1985-1987; CA 9000-3-0003 Subagreement 12; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Crater Lake limnological studies 1985 annual report Author: Oregon State University; in collaboration with Crater Lake National Park Year: 1985, 2009 1982-2002; ill., maps; Title covers calendar years 1985-1987; CA 9000-3-0003 Subagreement 12; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering Title: Crater Lake limnological studies 1985 annual report Author: Oregon State University; in collaboration with Crater Lake National Park Year: 1985, 2009 1982-2002; ill., maps; Title covers calendar years 1985-1987; CA 9000-3-0003 Subagreement 12; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering Close

• 634. [Article] Resolution and Reconstitution of the Photosystem I Reaction Center: Structure and Function of the Terminal Electron Acceptor FA/FB Polypeptide

  The Photosystem I core protein containing P700, A₀, A₁, and Fx has been isolated from Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 and spinach Photosystem I complexes with 6.8 M urea followed by sucrose density ultracentrifugtion. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Resolution and Reconstitution of the Photosystem I Reaction Center: Structure and Function of the Terminal Electron Acceptor FA/FB Polypeptide Author: Mehari, Tetemke Year: 1990 The Photosystem I core protein containing P700, A₀, A₁, and Fx has been isolated from Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 and spinach Photosystem I complexes with 6.8 M urea followed by sucrose density ultracentrifugtion. The Photosystem I core protein has retained > 90% of Fx and 100% of P700 (determined by optical spectroscopy) but is totally devoid of iron-sulfur centers Fᴀ and Fв (determined by optical and ESR spectroscopy). SDS-PAGE indicates the retention of the 82-and 83-kDa reaction center polypeptides. The loss of Fᴀ and Fв is further reflected in the decline of acid labile sulfide from 11.8 ± 0.4 S²-/P700 in the Photosystem I complex to 4.6 ± 0.3 S²-/P700 in the Photosystem I core.protein. This preparation represents the first isolation of an intact reaction center core incorporating the redox centers P700 through Fx but totally lacking Fᴀ and Fʙ. Complete restoration of electron flow from P700 to Fᴀ/Fв was achieved by incubating a P700 and Fx-containing Photosystem I core protein with a freshly isolated 8.9-kDa, Fᴀ/Fв polypeptide. When illuminated during freezing, both Fᴀ and Fв become quantitatively reduced, and the ESR spectrum is nearly indistinguishable from Fᴀ and Fв in the control Photosystem I complex. In the reconstituted Photosystem I complex Fx is photochemically reduced only in the presence of Fᴀ- and Fв- and the broad high field resonance of Fx in the core protein appears upon reconstitution to be indistinguishable from Fx in the control Photosystem I complex. Optical flash photolysis after extensive washing confirms the complete restoration of the P700+ [Fᴀ/Fв]- backreaction, indicating quantitative rebinding of the 8.9-kOa polypeptide. This procedure.represents the first reconstitution of the Photosystem I complex from a purified Photosystem I core protein and a freshly isolated 8.9 kDa Fᴀ/Fв holoprotein, and makes possible independent manipulation of the two subunits that carry the entire electron acceptor system of Photosystem I. The Fᴀ/Fв iron-sulfur clusters in the 8.9 kDa polypeptide are easily degraded to the level of zero-valence sulfur during isolation from the Photosystem I complex. The level of degradation is minimized by working under anaerobic conditions and low temperature. It has been found that incubation of the purified Photosystem I core protein and the low molecular mass polypeptides (which includes the 8.9-kDa Fᴀ/Fв apoprotein) with a solution of FeCI₃, Na₂S and B-mercaptoethanol restores the light induced charge separation between P700 and Fᴀ/Fв. The optical and spectroscopic properties are indistinguishable from the control Photosystem one I complex. When a rebuilt spinach or Synechococcus sp. PeC 6301 Fᴀ/Fв polypeptide is rebound to a Photosystem I core protein from the same species, the reconstituted complexes show light-induced ESR spectra of Fᴀ/Fв with g-values identical to their respective controls. However, when the rebuilt spinach Fᴀ/Fв polypeptide is rebound to a Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 Photosystem I core protein, the hybrid spinach Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 Photo system complex shows a light-induced ESR spectrum of Fᴀ/Fв with g- values that differ slightly, but characteristically, from those of both spinach and Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 control complexes. The hybrid spinach-Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 Photosystem I complex was completely functional in light-induced charge separation between P700 and Fᴀ/Fв and showed a normal 30-ms room temperature charge recombination between P700+ and [Fᴀ/Fв]-. Accordingly, rebuilding of the Fᴀ and Fв iron-sulfur clusters is now possible and reconstitution of the Fᴀ/Fв holoprotein after chemical modification of the Fᴀ/Fв apoprotein or genetic modification of the psaC gene should reveal new findings about Photosystem I structure and function. Title: Resolution and Reconstitution of the Photosystem I Reaction Center: Structure and Function of the Terminal Electron Acceptor FA/FB Polypeptide Author: Mehari, Tetemke Year: 1990 The Photosystem I core protein containing P700, A₀, A₁, and Fx has been isolated from Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 and spinach Photosystem I complexes with 6.8 M urea followed by sucrose density ultracentrifugtion. The Photosystem I core protein has retained > 90% of Fx and 100% of P700 (determined by optical spectroscopy) but is totally devoid of iron-sulfur centers Fᴀ and Fв (determined by optical and ESR spectroscopy). SDS-PAGE indicates the retention of the 82-and 83-kDa reaction center polypeptides. The loss of Fᴀ and Fв is further reflected in the decline of acid labile sulfide from 11.8 ± 0.4 S²-/P700 in the Photosystem I complex to 4.6 ± 0.3 S²-/P700 in the Photosystem I core.protein. This preparation represents the first isolation of an intact reaction center core incorporating the redox centers P700 through Fx but totally lacking Fᴀ and Fʙ. Complete restoration of electron flow from P700 to Fᴀ/Fв was achieved by incubating a P700 and Fx-containing Photosystem I core protein with a freshly isolated 8.9-kDa, Fᴀ/Fв polypeptide. When illuminated during freezing, both Fᴀ and Fв become quantitatively reduced, and the ESR spectrum is nearly indistinguishable from Fᴀ and Fв in the control Photosystem I complex. In the reconstituted Photosystem I complex Fx is photochemically reduced only in the presence of Fᴀ- and Fв- and the broad high field resonance of Fx in the core protein appears upon reconstitution to be indistinguishable from Fx in the control Photosystem I complex. Optical flash photolysis after extensive washing confirms the complete restoration of the P700+ [Fᴀ/Fв]- backreaction, indicating quantitative rebinding of the 8.9-kOa polypeptide. This procedure.represents the first reconstitution of the Photosystem I complex from a purified Photosystem I core protein and a freshly isolated 8.9 kDa Fᴀ/Fв holoprotein, and makes possible independent manipulation of the two subunits that carry the entire electron acceptor system of Photosystem I. The Fᴀ/Fв iron-sulfur clusters in the 8.9 kDa polypeptide are easily degraded to the level of zero-valence sulfur during isolation from the Photosystem I complex. The level of degradation is minimized by working under anaerobic conditions and low temperature. It has been found that incubation of the purified Photosystem I core protein and the low molecular mass polypeptides (which includes the 8.9-kDa Fᴀ/Fв apoprotein) with a solution of FeCI₃, Na₂S and B-mercaptoethanol restores the light induced charge separation between P700 and Fᴀ/Fв. The optical and spectroscopic properties are indistinguishable from the control Photosystem one I complex. When a rebuilt spinach or Synechococcus sp. PeC 6301 Fᴀ/Fв polypeptide is rebound to a Photosystem I core protein from the same species, the reconstituted complexes show light-induced ESR spectra of Fᴀ/Fв with g-values identical to their respective controls. However, when the rebuilt spinach Fᴀ/Fв polypeptide is rebound to a Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 Photosystem I core protein, the hybrid spinach Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 Photo system complex shows a light-induced ESR spectrum of Fᴀ/Fв with g- values that differ slightly, but characteristically, from those of both spinach and Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 control complexes. The hybrid spinach-Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301 Photosystem I complex was completely functional in light-induced charge separation between P700 and Fᴀ/Fв and showed a normal 30-ms room temperature charge recombination between P700+ and [Fᴀ/Fв]-. Accordingly, rebuilding of the Fᴀ and Fв iron-sulfur clusters is now possible and reconstitution of the Fᴀ/Fв holoprotein after chemical modification of the Fᴀ/Fв apoprotein or genetic modification of the psaC gene should reveal new findings about Photosystem I structure and function. Close

• 635. [Article] Final Report: Evaluation of the Morphoedaphic Index and Sediment Diatoms for Inference of Pre-European Settlement Total Phosphorus Concentration in EPA Region 10 Lakes

  Water quality in many Northwest lakes has declined over the past century due, in part, to increased anthropogenic nutrient loading (Edmonson and Lehman, 1981). Under the Clean Water Act, resource managers ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final Report: Evaluation of the Morphoedaphic Index and Sediment Diatoms for Inference of Pre-European Settlement Total Phosphorus Concentration in EPA Region 10 Lakes Author: Miller, Rich, Hook, Aaron, Petersen, Richard, Sytsma, Mark D. Year: 2005 Water quality in many Northwest lakes has declined over the past century due, in part, to increased anthropogenic nutrient loading (Edmonson and Lehman, 1981). Under the Clean Water Act, resource managers such as the Washington Department of Ecology, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, and tribes are responsible for restoring and protecting the integrity of these waters. Targets for restoration or criteria for impairment are not well defined, however, and may naturally vary by geology, hydrology, morphometry, and climate. One way to determine whether lakes are impaired and to identify restoration targets is to assess lake reference conditions (EPA 2000). Reference conditions are the water quality conditions that would exist in the absence of anthropogenic perturbation. Reference conditions are not nutrient criteria but can be useful in establishing realistic criteria that reflect natural regional variations in water quality. The EPA suggests three general approaches for assessing reference conditions (EPA 2000): Observation of reference lake or entire lake population distributions Paleolimnological reconstruction of past conditions. Estimation of past conditions from mass balance nutrient loading models, morphoedaphic index models, or other mathematical models. The lake population distribution approach involves observing data from either a set of lakes that are relatively unimpacted or from a random selection of all lakes in a region. The lower percentile of each population distribution is assumed to represent reference conditions. The lower 75th percentile of the relatively unimpacted population distribution has been used as a cutoff for reference conditions while the 25th percentile has been used for the lake population distribution as a whole. The Washington Department of Ecology has used this approach to develop phosphorus criteria (Moore and Hicks 2004). This approach assumes that the percentiles in a distribution represent reference conditions. Paleolimnological models are based on the observation that sediments continually incorporate information from the overlying water column and that sediment cores provide a history of past conditions. Sedimented diatom-based water quality reconstructions are based on two main observations (Hall and Smol 1992): (1) individual diatom species have restricted nutrient requirements and are sensitive indicators of lake trophic status, and (2) the cell walls of diatoms are abundant and well preserved in most lake sediments and can usually be identified to a specific or subspecific level. Weighted-averaging and calibration statistical models have been used to relate sediment surface diatom assemblages to contemporary water quality parameters. These speciesenvironment relationships, known as transfer functions, can then be used to infer past water quality conditions from diatom remains preserved deep in sediments. This approach has been successfully applied in several geographic regions including the northeastern United States (Dixit et al. 1999), Minnesota (Ramstack et al. 2003), and British Columbia (Reavie et al. 1995). The morphoedaphic index (MEI) was originally developed to predict fisheries yield in lakes based on lake morphometry and alkalinity or conductivity (Ryder 1965). Vighi and Chiaudani (1985) suggested the utility of the index for inferring natural background phosphorus levels in lakes. Their major assumption was that human activities have not altered lake morphometry and ionic strength to the degree that the same activities have increased nutrient loading. While the model is simple, it has been successfully used in to infer background phosphorus concentration in Midwest lakes (Ramstack et al. 2003). We used the MEI and the sedimented diatom total phosphorus inference models to assess lake reference conditions for Puget Lowlands and Northern Willamette Valley Ecoregion Lakes. Title: Final Report: Evaluation of the Morphoedaphic Index and Sediment Diatoms for Inference of Pre-European Settlement Total Phosphorus Concentration in EPA Region 10 Lakes Author: Miller, Rich, Hook, Aaron, Petersen, Richard, Sytsma, Mark D. Year: 2005 Water quality in many Northwest lakes has declined over the past century due, in part, to increased anthropogenic nutrient loading (Edmonson and Lehman, 1981). Under the Clean Water Act, resource managers such as the Washington Department of Ecology, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, and tribes are responsible for restoring and protecting the integrity of these waters. Targets for restoration or criteria for impairment are not well defined, however, and may naturally vary by geology, hydrology, morphometry, and climate. One way to determine whether lakes are impaired and to identify restoration targets is to assess lake reference conditions (EPA 2000). Reference conditions are the water quality conditions that would exist in the absence of anthropogenic perturbation. Reference conditions are not nutrient criteria but can be useful in establishing realistic criteria that reflect natural regional variations in water quality. The EPA suggests three general approaches for assessing reference conditions (EPA 2000): Observation of reference lake or entire lake population distributions Paleolimnological reconstruction of past conditions. Estimation of past conditions from mass balance nutrient loading models, morphoedaphic index models, or other mathematical models. The lake population distribution approach involves observing data from either a set of lakes that are relatively unimpacted or from a random selection of all lakes in a region. The lower percentile of each population distribution is assumed to represent reference conditions. The lower 75th percentile of the relatively unimpacted population distribution has been used as a cutoff for reference conditions while the 25th percentile has been used for the lake population distribution as a whole. The Washington Department of Ecology has used this approach to develop phosphorus criteria (Moore and Hicks 2004). This approach assumes that the percentiles in a distribution represent reference conditions. Paleolimnological models are based on the observation that sediments continually incorporate information from the overlying water column and that sediment cores provide a history of past conditions. Sedimented diatom-based water quality reconstructions are based on two main observations (Hall and Smol 1992): (1) individual diatom species have restricted nutrient requirements and are sensitive indicators of lake trophic status, and (2) the cell walls of diatoms are abundant and well preserved in most lake sediments and can usually be identified to a specific or subspecific level. Weighted-averaging and calibration statistical models have been used to relate sediment surface diatom assemblages to contemporary water quality parameters. These speciesenvironment relationships, known as transfer functions, can then be used to infer past water quality conditions from diatom remains preserved deep in sediments. This approach has been successfully applied in several geographic regions including the northeastern United States (Dixit et al. 1999), Minnesota (Ramstack et al. 2003), and British Columbia (Reavie et al. 1995). The morphoedaphic index (MEI) was originally developed to predict fisheries yield in lakes based on lake morphometry and alkalinity or conductivity (Ryder 1965). Vighi and Chiaudani (1985) suggested the utility of the index for inferring natural background phosphorus levels in lakes. Their major assumption was that human activities have not altered lake morphometry and ionic strength to the degree that the same activities have increased nutrient loading. While the model is simple, it has been successfully used in to infer background phosphorus concentration in Midwest lakes (Ramstack et al. 2003). We used the MEI and the sedimented diatom total phosphorus inference models to assess lake reference conditions for Puget Lowlands and Northern Willamette Valley Ecoregion Lakes. Close

• 636. [Article] Terrestrial amphibian distribution, habitat associations and downed wood temperature profiles in managed headwater forests with riparian buffers in the Oregon Coast Range

  Western forests have become increasingly fragmented landscapes dominated by young stands. Given that western Oregon forests largely consist of headwater systems, there is a need to better understand how ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Terrestrial amphibian distribution, habitat associations and downed wood temperature profiles in managed headwater forests with riparian buffers in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Kluber, Matthew R. Western forests have become increasingly fragmented landscapes dominated by young stands. Given that western Oregon forests largely consist of headwater systems, there is a need to better understand how headwater forest taxa and their habitats are impacted by forest management practices. Several amphibian species associated with forested headwater systems have emerged as management concerns. Forest management strategies, such as harvests that remove only part of the canopy and retention of riparian buffer strips, may help ameliorate some of the negative effects on amphibians in managed forests. Pre-existing site conditions, such as legacy downed wood, also may play a role in buffering the impacts of silvicultural practices on terrestrial amphibians. Downed wood is an important habitat component for many amphibians, because the cool, moist microclimates of downed wood can provide refugia for terrestrial amphibians during warmer summer months. However, downed wood habitat suitability is another emerging concern as the rate of input and size of downed wood declines in managed forests. As part of the USDI Bureau of Land Managements Density Management Study, we investigated how untreated streamside buffers modify impacts of upland thinning on headwater forest terrestrial amphibians and their habitat at three sites in the Oregon Coast Range. To further assess habitat associations of these animals, we conducted a field experiment to address amphibian cover use, including downed wood, moss and coarse and fine substrates. In addition, we examined how temperature profiles inside small- and large-diameter downed wood and soil temperatures differed from ambient air temperatures. Temperatures of wood and soil were monitored at different slope positions (near streams and upslope) and overstory regimes (thinned and unthinned stands) to assess potential habitat suitability and buffering capabilities against seasonal temperature extremes for plethodontid salamanders. Our results suggest that pre-existing site conditions (e.g., amount of rocky or fine substrate) play an important role in determining the response of terrestrial amphibians to upland forest thinning. However, retention of stream buffers is important in maintaining unaltered stream and riparian conditions. Moderate thinning and preservation of vital habitat in riparian and nearby upland areas by way of variable-width buffers (15 m minimum width) may be sufficient in maintaining suitable habitat and microclimatic conditions vital to amphibian assemblages in managed headwater forests. Additionally, logs of a wide size range and soils may provide sufficient protection against thermal extremes harmful to plethodontid salamanders in thinned stands with limited overstory. However, this alone cannot support plethodontid salamanders. These salamanders require exposed areas (e.g., leaf litter, soil surface, rock faces) where much of their foraging and well as courtship occurs. Partial retention of the canopy through moderate thinning coupled with variable-width riparain buffers that may increase in width when suitable terrestrial habitat is encountered, may provide sufficient microhabitat, microclimate, and protection in maintaining terrestrial amphibian assemblages in managed headwater forests. Title: Terrestrial amphibian distribution, habitat associations and downed wood temperature profiles in managed headwater forests with riparian buffers in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Kluber, Matthew R. Western forests have become increasingly fragmented landscapes dominated by young stands. Given that western Oregon forests largely consist of headwater systems, there is a need to better understand how headwater forest taxa and their habitats are impacted by forest management practices. Several amphibian species associated with forested headwater systems have emerged as management concerns. Forest management strategies, such as harvests that remove only part of the canopy and retention of riparian buffer strips, may help ameliorate some of the negative effects on amphibians in managed forests. Pre-existing site conditions, such as legacy downed wood, also may play a role in buffering the impacts of silvicultural practices on terrestrial amphibians. Downed wood is an important habitat component for many amphibians, because the cool, moist microclimates of downed wood can provide refugia for terrestrial amphibians during warmer summer months. However, downed wood habitat suitability is another emerging concern as the rate of input and size of downed wood declines in managed forests. As part of the USDI Bureau of Land Managements Density Management Study, we investigated how untreated streamside buffers modify impacts of upland thinning on headwater forest terrestrial amphibians and their habitat at three sites in the Oregon Coast Range. To further assess habitat associations of these animals, we conducted a field experiment to address amphibian cover use, including downed wood, moss and coarse and fine substrates. In addition, we examined how temperature profiles inside small- and large-diameter downed wood and soil temperatures differed from ambient air temperatures. Temperatures of wood and soil were monitored at different slope positions (near streams and upslope) and overstory regimes (thinned and unthinned stands) to assess potential habitat suitability and buffering capabilities against seasonal temperature extremes for plethodontid salamanders. Our results suggest that pre-existing site conditions (e.g., amount of rocky or fine substrate) play an important role in determining the response of terrestrial amphibians to upland forest thinning. However, retention of stream buffers is important in maintaining unaltered stream and riparian conditions. Moderate thinning and preservation of vital habitat in riparian and nearby upland areas by way of variable-width buffers (15 m minimum width) may be sufficient in maintaining suitable habitat and microclimatic conditions vital to amphibian assemblages in managed headwater forests. Additionally, logs of a wide size range and soils may provide sufficient protection against thermal extremes harmful to plethodontid salamanders in thinned stands with limited overstory. However, this alone cannot support plethodontid salamanders. These salamanders require exposed areas (e.g., leaf litter, soil surface, rock faces) where much of their foraging and well as courtship occurs. Partial retention of the canopy through moderate thinning coupled with variable-width riparain buffers that may increase in width when suitable terrestrial habitat is encountered, may provide sufficient microhabitat, microclimate, and protection in maintaining terrestrial amphibian assemblages in managed headwater forests. Close

• 637. [Article] A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon

  The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon Author: Johnson, Neal S. The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses has been impeded by institutional constraints and the scarcity of information regarding instream flow benefits. The objectives of this thesis were to provide preliminary economic data on the value of instream water in "producing" recreational fishing and to examine the effect of forestry, agriculture, and livestock practices on temporal streamflow patterns and anadromous fish production. The steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) sport fishery within the John Day River basin in north-central Oregon provided the setting for this research. The interdisciplinary methodology employed in estimating the marginal value of water with respect to steelhead production consisted of two tasks. The first task involved valuing a marginal change in the quality of the steelhead recreational fishery. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was selected for this purpose. Both open- and closed-ended willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions were included in a questionnaire administered to John Day River steelhead anglers during the 1986/87 steelhead fishing season. Survey data were analyzed to arrive at individual and aggregate bid functions relating WTP to expected angling success rates. Results indicate that, under current conditions, the average angler is willing to pay approximately $7.20 to catch an additional steelhead. The second task of the instream water valuation methodology was directed at deriving a streamflow/steelhead production relationship. By including variables influencing steelhead production in a Ricker stock-recruitment model, it was possible to develop a model which could be estimated using linear regression techniques. Some difficulty arose, however, with interpretation of the model due to the unavailability of cohort escapement data and the subsequent use of standing crop data. While possibly masking the true magnitude of streamflow's effect on fish production, this drawback was not deemed limiting within the general context of the interdisciplinary methodology. Results of the biological model conformed to a priori expectations. Increases in summer and winter streamflows led to increased steelhead survival, whereas higher spring flows increased mortality levels. Other results indicate that the John Day Dam was responsible for a 31.5 percent decline in the population index for the 1969-1983 period. Combining the economic and biological results into one equation yielded an estimate of the marginal value of summer instream water in "producing" recreational steelhead angling. Similar equations were developed for winter and spring flows. The marginal value of water in producing recreational steelhead fishing within the John Day basin was estimated at $0.56 per acre-foot for summer flows, $0.046 for winter flows, and -$0.075 for spring flows. By including out-of-basin benefits, these values increased to $2.26, $0.19, and -$0.30, respectively. In comparison, water's value in irrigation within the John Day basin has been estimated at between $10 to $24 per acre-foot. However, nonuse values of steelhead, as well as the increased production of other fish species (such as spring chinook salmon) were not included in the instream water values. In addition, no attempt was made at valuing instream water's contribution to boating, camping, or other benefit-producing activities. A secondary objective of this thesis was to briefly examine the possible benefits accruing to other instream and out-of-stream users due to an alteration in streamflow patterns. In addition, the impact of activities by other resource users -- namely forestry, agriculture, and livestock production --on anadromous fish production was reviewed. Improper management practices by these activities can negatively impact the aquatic and riparian ecosystems. While no firm conclusions were drawn, it appears the quality of these ecosystems, as opposed to the amount of streamflow, has the largest marginal impact on anadromous fish populations. Title: A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon Author: Johnson, Neal S. The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses has been impeded by institutional constraints and the scarcity of information regarding instream flow benefits. The objectives of this thesis were to provide preliminary economic data on the value of instream water in "producing" recreational fishing and to examine the effect of forestry, agriculture, and livestock practices on temporal streamflow patterns and anadromous fish production. The steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) sport fishery within the John Day River basin in north-central Oregon provided the setting for this research. The interdisciplinary methodology employed in estimating the marginal value of water with respect to steelhead production consisted of two tasks. The first task involved valuing a marginal change in the quality of the steelhead recreational fishery. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was selected for this purpose. Both open- and closed-ended willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions were included in a questionnaire administered to John Day River steelhead anglers during the 1986/87 steelhead fishing season. Survey data were analyzed to arrive at individual and aggregate bid functions relating WTP to expected angling success rates. Results indicate that, under current conditions, the average angler is willing to pay approximately $7.20 to catch an additional steelhead. The second task of the instream water valuation methodology was directed at deriving a streamflow/steelhead production relationship. By including variables influencing steelhead production in a Ricker stock-recruitment model, it was possible to develop a model which could be estimated using linear regression techniques. Some difficulty arose, however, with interpretation of the model due to the unavailability of cohort escapement data and the subsequent use of standing crop data. While possibly masking the true magnitude of streamflow's effect on fish production, this drawback was not deemed limiting within the general context of the interdisciplinary methodology. Results of the biological model conformed to a priori expectations. Increases in summer and winter streamflows led to increased steelhead survival, whereas higher spring flows increased mortality levels. Other results indicate that the John Day Dam was responsible for a 31.5 percent decline in the population index for the 1969-1983 period. Combining the economic and biological results into one equation yielded an estimate of the marginal value of summer instream water in "producing" recreational steelhead angling. Similar equations were developed for winter and spring flows. The marginal value of water in producing recreational steelhead fishing within the John Day basin was estimated at $0.56 per acre-foot for summer flows, $0.046 for winter flows, and -$0.075 for spring flows. By including out-of-basin benefits, these values increased to $2.26, $0.19, and -$0.30, respectively. In comparison, water's value in irrigation within the John Day basin has been estimated at between $10 to $24 per acre-foot. However, nonuse values of steelhead, as well as the increased production of other fish species (such as spring chinook salmon) were not included in the instream water values. In addition, no attempt was made at valuing instream water's contribution to boating, camping, or other benefit-producing activities. A secondary objective of this thesis was to briefly examine the possible benefits accruing to other instream and out-of-stream users due to an alteration in streamflow patterns. In addition, the impact of activities by other resource users -- namely forestry, agriculture, and livestock production --on anadromous fish production was reviewed. Improper management practices by these activities can negatively impact the aquatic and riparian ecosystems. While no firm conclusions were drawn, it appears the quality of these ecosystems, as opposed to the amount of streamflow, has the largest marginal impact on anadromous fish populations. Close

• 638. [Article] Top-down Influences of bald eagles on common murre populations in Oregon

  Populations of organisms are influenced by both top-down (predator driven) and bottom-up (environment or resource driven) effects. Seabird research has largely focused on bottom-up factors influencing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Top-down Influences of bald eagles on common murre populations in Oregon Author: Horton, Cheryl A. Populations of organisms are influenced by both top-down (predator driven) and bottom-up (environment or resource driven) effects. Seabird research has largely focused on bottom-up factors influencing reproduction, with little emphasis on top-down. Our goal was to better understand top-down impacts on colonial nesting seabirds over a range of spatio-temporal scales. We studied the coast-wide distribution and abundance of a Common Murre (Uria aalge) metapopulation during two decades (1988-2006) of Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) recovery in Oregon. Bald Eagles prey on seabirds, but were functionally absent during much of the 20th century. After eagles were protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1978, populations increased rapidly especially along the coast where eagles cause disturbance at seabird colonies. We also studied the effects of predation and disturbance in 2012 at three Common Murre breeding sites located in regions of varying Bald Eagle density, and at a single site over a seven year period from 2007-2013. We found regional changes in the distribution and abundance of Common Murres at breeding sites in Oregon associated with increases in coastal Bald Eagle nests over 20 years of study. Coast-wide Bald Eagle nest density was not uniform. The highest Bald Eagle nest density was found on the north coast, intermediate density on the central coast, and lowest density in on the south coast throughout the study. On the north coast, counts of murres declined by 50% between 1988 and 2006. In contrast, the number of murres counted and the number of breeding sites occupied increased substantially on the central coast, where Bald Eagle nest density was lower. Changes in the number and size of murre colonies on the north and central coast were associated with the regional density of Bald Eagle nests and initial number of murres present at each site, rather than immediate proximity of eagle nests to murre colonies. Bald Eagles were the main predators causing disturbance at individual breeding sites studied. In 2012, we found differences in disturbance frequency, colony disruption, and predator activity among three sites in regions of high, medium and low Bald Eagle abundance. Eagles caused complete reproductive failure at the north coast site (high eagle density) in 2012. In addition to Bald Eagles, California Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) caused disturbance at the central and south coast sites, leading to low reproductive success and failure of remaining chicks at these sites in July 2012. We found no difference in reproductive loss between disturbances caused by adult and sub-adult eagles however, secondary nest predators (gulls, corvids and vultures) had a greater overall impact on reproductive loss than primary predators. From 2007-2013, we found a negative association between mean reproductive success of murres and mean rate of eagle disturbance. Our observations provide evidence for top-down regulation of breeding populations of Common Murres in Oregon, mediated by recently recovered native, avian predators. These findings challenge the effectiveness of site fidelity and natal philopatry for murres in the presence of avian predators. Scientists and managers on the U.S. West Coast should expect continued impacts from Bald Eagles as the population reoccupies its former range and increases to carrying capacity. Increased disturbance is likely at more Common Murre colonies in the future, particularly in years when alternative prey is limited for eagles or pelicans. Title: Top-down Influences of bald eagles on common murre populations in Oregon Author: Horton, Cheryl A. Populations of organisms are influenced by both top-down (predator driven) and bottom-up (environment or resource driven) effects. Seabird research has largely focused on bottom-up factors influencing reproduction, with little emphasis on top-down. Our goal was to better understand top-down impacts on colonial nesting seabirds over a range of spatio-temporal scales. We studied the coast-wide distribution and abundance of a Common Murre (Uria aalge) metapopulation during two decades (1988-2006) of Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) recovery in Oregon. Bald Eagles prey on seabirds, but were functionally absent during much of the 20th century. After eagles were protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1978, populations increased rapidly especially along the coast where eagles cause disturbance at seabird colonies. We also studied the effects of predation and disturbance in 2012 at three Common Murre breeding sites located in regions of varying Bald Eagle density, and at a single site over a seven year period from 2007-2013. We found regional changes in the distribution and abundance of Common Murres at breeding sites in Oregon associated with increases in coastal Bald Eagle nests over 20 years of study. Coast-wide Bald Eagle nest density was not uniform. The highest Bald Eagle nest density was found on the north coast, intermediate density on the central coast, and lowest density in on the south coast throughout the study. On the north coast, counts of murres declined by 50% between 1988 and 2006. In contrast, the number of murres counted and the number of breeding sites occupied increased substantially on the central coast, where Bald Eagle nest density was lower. Changes in the number and size of murre colonies on the north and central coast were associated with the regional density of Bald Eagle nests and initial number of murres present at each site, rather than immediate proximity of eagle nests to murre colonies. Bald Eagles were the main predators causing disturbance at individual breeding sites studied. In 2012, we found differences in disturbance frequency, colony disruption, and predator activity among three sites in regions of high, medium and low Bald Eagle abundance. Eagles caused complete reproductive failure at the north coast site (high eagle density) in 2012. In addition to Bald Eagles, California Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) caused disturbance at the central and south coast sites, leading to low reproductive success and failure of remaining chicks at these sites in July 2012. We found no difference in reproductive loss between disturbances caused by adult and sub-adult eagles however, secondary nest predators (gulls, corvids and vultures) had a greater overall impact on reproductive loss than primary predators. From 2007-2013, we found a negative association between mean reproductive success of murres and mean rate of eagle disturbance. Our observations provide evidence for top-down regulation of breeding populations of Common Murres in Oregon, mediated by recently recovered native, avian predators. These findings challenge the effectiveness of site fidelity and natal philopatry for murres in the presence of avian predators. Scientists and managers on the U.S. West Coast should expect continued impacts from Bald Eagles as the population reoccupies its former range and increases to carrying capacity. Increased disturbance is likely at more Common Murre colonies in the future, particularly in years when alternative prey is limited for eagles or pelicans. Close

• 639. [Article] Biochemical and Physical Characterization of Fish Protein Isolate and Surimi for their Compatibility

  There are presently two successful methods used to refine fish muscle proteins: surimi and fish protein isolate (FPI). Both surimi and FPI have the ability to form an elastic gel upon comminution and heating. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biochemical and Physical Characterization of Fish Protein Isolate and Surimi for their Compatibility Author: Kobayashi, Yuka There are presently two successful methods used to refine fish muscle proteins: surimi and fish protein isolate (FPI). Both surimi and FPI have the ability to form an elastic gel upon comminution and heating. However, their gelation behaviors are different as they are refined in a biochemically opposite way based on the nature of protein denaturation. The focus of this study was to compare surimi and FPI under various processing conditions, such as rigor mortis, frozen storage, comminution conditions, and blending effect, and how these conditions can affect their functional properties including gel texture. The structural changes and rheological properties of tilapia protein prepared using FPI and surimi with pre- and post-rigor muscle were evaluated. No rigor effect was observed on the gel-forming ability of FPI, although higher storage modulus (G’) and better gel texture were obtained in surimi made from pre-rigor tilapia compared to surimi made from post-rigor tilapia. Results suggested pre-rigor processing may improve gel-formation properties of surimi, but not as much for the gelation of FPI. Storing fish in a freezer for extended periods of time can adversely affect the gel-forming ability of muscle proteins. The effect of frozen storage (0, 1, and 3 mo) on the biochemical and physical characterization of FPI and surimi made from tilapia was elucidated. The Ca²⁺ATPase activity of tilapia fillet continuously reduced throughout the frozen storage; however, the decline trend of its activity was slower than cold or temperate water species. As reported by storage modulus (G’), storing whole fish frozen for 3 mo did not affect the gelling ability of FPI and surimi. The results from surface hydrophobicity, surface reactive sulfhydryl (SRSH) content, and differential scanning calorimetry also corresponded to the results from storage modulus. Thus, frozen tilapia, if stored up to 3 mo, may be used like fresh fish in the processing of FPI and surimi and no negative effects on gel qualities. The uniqueness of tropical fish tilapia was thought due to its high thermal stability. The quality of surimi gels was affected more so under various rigor stages and frozen storage compared to FPI gels. Conversely, the addition of salt into FPI induced a higher degree of unfolding protein structure prior to gelation compared to surimi. In addition, comminution conditions affected the quality of FPI gel more than that of surimi gel. A significant increase in puncture gel texture was observed when FPI and surimi were chopped at 25°C for 18 min compared to samples chopped at 5°C for 6 min. The comparable results were detected as measured by storage modulus. FPI chopped with 3% salt at 5°C for 6 min showed the lowest gel texture among all treatments, possibly because protein structure was not disintegrated appropriately and formed larger protein aggregates and coarser gels demonstrated by microscopic analyses. Results suggested controlling chopping temperature and time, and the addition of salt, may be significant factors to enhance production of high quality gel in FPI and surimi. Moreover, the effect of various comminution conditions on structural changes were investigated using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopy. Both procedures exhibited increasing chopping temperature and time, adding salt, promoted a higher degree of unfolding protein structure in FPI and surimi paste made from tilapia, when they were chopped at 25°C for 18 min compared to samples chopped at 5°C for 6 min. Also, FPI and surimi gels prepared after chopping at 25°C for 18 min revealed higher β-sheet contents and more chemical bonds such as hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bonds than those at 5°C for 6 min. Controlling comminution conditions may be one of the important factors to produce high quality gels from FPI and surimi using tropical fish like tilapia. Additionally, FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy are useful complementary tools, allowing a better interpretation of the structural changes in FPI and surimi under various comminution conditions. The gelation properties of blending two different fish proteins obtained from surimi and FPI at different ratios was evaluated. Effects of blending surimi and FPI on gel functionality (whiteness, hardness, and cohesiveness) demonstrated a linear pattern when the proportion of surimi is larger than or equal to that of FPI. Also, breaking force and penetration distance decreased significantly when the ratio of surimi to FPI decreased. Results indicated gels cooked in a water bath tended to exhibit a higher breaking force than gels cooked ohmically. On the other hand, a higher penetration distance was observed for gels cooked ohmically compared to gels cooked in a water bath. Blending surimi and FPI did not affect the inter-molecular interactions of protein in a linear pattern, like mixing various grades of surimi, but this might be feasible only when the proportion of FPI does not exceed 50%. Title: Biochemical and Physical Characterization of Fish Protein Isolate and Surimi for their Compatibility Author: Kobayashi, Yuka There are presently two successful methods used to refine fish muscle proteins: surimi and fish protein isolate (FPI). Both surimi and FPI have the ability to form an elastic gel upon comminution and heating. However, their gelation behaviors are different as they are refined in a biochemically opposite way based on the nature of protein denaturation. The focus of this study was to compare surimi and FPI under various processing conditions, such as rigor mortis, frozen storage, comminution conditions, and blending effect, and how these conditions can affect their functional properties including gel texture. The structural changes and rheological properties of tilapia protein prepared using FPI and surimi with pre- and post-rigor muscle were evaluated. No rigor effect was observed on the gel-forming ability of FPI, although higher storage modulus (G’) and better gel texture were obtained in surimi made from pre-rigor tilapia compared to surimi made from post-rigor tilapia. Results suggested pre-rigor processing may improve gel-formation properties of surimi, but not as much for the gelation of FPI. Storing fish in a freezer for extended periods of time can adversely affect the gel-forming ability of muscle proteins. The effect of frozen storage (0, 1, and 3 mo) on the biochemical and physical characterization of FPI and surimi made from tilapia was elucidated. The Ca²⁺ATPase activity of tilapia fillet continuously reduced throughout the frozen storage; however, the decline trend of its activity was slower than cold or temperate water species. As reported by storage modulus (G’), storing whole fish frozen for 3 mo did not affect the gelling ability of FPI and surimi. The results from surface hydrophobicity, surface reactive sulfhydryl (SRSH) content, and differential scanning calorimetry also corresponded to the results from storage modulus. Thus, frozen tilapia, if stored up to 3 mo, may be used like fresh fish in the processing of FPI and surimi and no negative effects on gel qualities. The uniqueness of tropical fish tilapia was thought due to its high thermal stability. The quality of surimi gels was affected more so under various rigor stages and frozen storage compared to FPI gels. Conversely, the addition of salt into FPI induced a higher degree of unfolding protein structure prior to gelation compared to surimi. In addition, comminution conditions affected the quality of FPI gel more than that of surimi gel. A significant increase in puncture gel texture was observed when FPI and surimi were chopped at 25°C for 18 min compared to samples chopped at 5°C for 6 min. The comparable results were detected as measured by storage modulus. FPI chopped with 3% salt at 5°C for 6 min showed the lowest gel texture among all treatments, possibly because protein structure was not disintegrated appropriately and formed larger protein aggregates and coarser gels demonstrated by microscopic analyses. Results suggested controlling chopping temperature and time, and the addition of salt, may be significant factors to enhance production of high quality gel in FPI and surimi. Moreover, the effect of various comminution conditions on structural changes were investigated using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopy. Both procedures exhibited increasing chopping temperature and time, adding salt, promoted a higher degree of unfolding protein structure in FPI and surimi paste made from tilapia, when they were chopped at 25°C for 18 min compared to samples chopped at 5°C for 6 min. Also, FPI and surimi gels prepared after chopping at 25°C for 18 min revealed higher β-sheet contents and more chemical bonds such as hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bonds than those at 5°C for 6 min. Controlling comminution conditions may be one of the important factors to produce high quality gels from FPI and surimi using tropical fish like tilapia. Additionally, FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy are useful complementary tools, allowing a better interpretation of the structural changes in FPI and surimi under various comminution conditions. The gelation properties of blending two different fish proteins obtained from surimi and FPI at different ratios was evaluated. Effects of blending surimi and FPI on gel functionality (whiteness, hardness, and cohesiveness) demonstrated a linear pattern when the proportion of surimi is larger than or equal to that of FPI. Also, breaking force and penetration distance decreased significantly when the ratio of surimi to FPI decreased. Results indicated gels cooked in a water bath tended to exhibit a higher breaking force than gels cooked ohmically. On the other hand, a higher penetration distance was observed for gels cooked ohmically compared to gels cooked in a water bath. Blending surimi and FPI did not affect the inter-molecular interactions of protein in a linear pattern, like mixing various grades of surimi, but this might be feasible only when the proportion of FPI does not exceed 50%. Close

• 640. [Article] Response of Soil Microbially Mediated Nutrient Cycling and Community Structure to Timber Harvest in the Pacific Northwest

  Forest harvest persists as one of the most globally important industries, and crucially provides raw wood products for both building and fuel materials. Mechanistically complex abiotic and biotic processes ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Response of Soil Microbially Mediated Nutrient Cycling and Community Structure to Timber Harvest in the Pacific Northwest Author: Danielson, Rachel E. Forest harvest persists as one of the most globally important industries, and crucially provides raw wood products for both building and fuel materials. Mechanistically complex abiotic and biotic processes curb ecosystem recovery following timber harvest and it is of great importance to understand the effects of this practice on biogeochemical cycling and ecosystem function to determine the potential for long-term sustainability. This thesis was motivated by a lack of comprehensive understanding as to the consistency of preexisting and post-harvest microbially mediated process rates and community composition across a large region of the same dominant vegetation type. I sought to determine how timber harvest across the Pacific Northwest impacts microbial biogeochemical cycling activity and community structure of both prokaryotic and fungal communities in response to harvest. At nine managed Douglas-fir forests, samples were collected from exact locations within sites one year prior to and twelve to fifteen months following clear-cut harvesting. The objective of the first study was to determine the degree of variability in microbially mediated process rates and pools of C and N, and generalized trends that are evident across sites one year following harvest. Samples were analyzed for various C and N pools, and the potential activities of biogeochemically important extracellular enzymes were measured. Soil incubations were performed to determine respiration rate and N production over time. Soil DNA isolates were used to quantify 16S rRNA and ITS gene copy numbers using qPCR, and all measurements were statistically compared between pre-and post-harvest samples. Total soil C and N did not change significantly following harvest, but the C: N ratio of dissolved components decreased consistently and biomass C: N ratios generally increased. Activities of β-glucosidase and cellobiohydrolase increased significantly whereas activities of phenol oxidase and peroxidase decreased significantly. Cumulative respiration over the incubation period declined substantially, and total N pools changed from primarily DON pre-harvest, to primarily NO₃⁻post-harvest. Changes in activity rates and pool sizes following harvest were generally related to C to N balances. Pre-harvest measurements suggested communities may be co-limited by C and N, while the emergence of strong C limitation was evident post-harvest. The generalized trends identified from this study can be used in future research as reference points for ecosystem status during forest succession, and for correlation with an investigation of changes in microbial community composition and structure. The objective of the second study was to determine the factors shaping soil microbial communities of Douglas-fir forests in the Pacific Northwest, and to identify generalized short-term effects of timber harvest on the richness, diversity, and structureof these communities. DNA was extracted from soils and sequenced using the Illumina® Miseq platform to determine differences in prokaryotic and fungal communities. When communities were considered separately pre-and post-harvest, pH most consistently explained community dissimilarity among sites. Although community dispersion did not vary between pre-and post-harvest samples, OTU richness was consistently and significantly higher following tree removal. Both prokaryotic and fungal community structures were significantly different in post-compared to pre-harvest soils, even when just OTUs representing the top 50% of sequences were considered. Relative abundance of the dominant three bacterial phyla (Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Verrucomicrobia) did not change significantly following harvest, but some less-represented phyla decreased (Actinobacteria) or increased (Bacteroidetes) significantly in relative abundance. Basidiomycota abundance decreased significantly whereas Ascomycota and Zygomycota abundance increased. Ectomycorrhizal fungi were enriched across pre-harvest samples, whereas many known saprotrophic species were enriched post-harvest. In conclusion, general alterations in fungal communities, as well as select bacterial and archaeal taxa, may serve as appropriate indicators of disturbance and ecosystem status across this region. Title: Response of Soil Microbially Mediated Nutrient Cycling and Community Structure to Timber Harvest in the Pacific Northwest Author: Danielson, Rachel E. Forest harvest persists as one of the most globally important industries, and crucially provides raw wood products for both building and fuel materials. Mechanistically complex abiotic and biotic processes curb ecosystem recovery following timber harvest and it is of great importance to understand the effects of this practice on biogeochemical cycling and ecosystem function to determine the potential for long-term sustainability. This thesis was motivated by a lack of comprehensive understanding as to the consistency of preexisting and post-harvest microbially mediated process rates and community composition across a large region of the same dominant vegetation type. I sought to determine how timber harvest across the Pacific Northwest impacts microbial biogeochemical cycling activity and community structure of both prokaryotic and fungal communities in response to harvest. At nine managed Douglas-fir forests, samples were collected from exact locations within sites one year prior to and twelve to fifteen months following clear-cut harvesting. The objective of the first study was to determine the degree of variability in microbially mediated process rates and pools of C and N, and generalized trends that are evident across sites one year following harvest. Samples were analyzed for various C and N pools, and the potential activities of biogeochemically important extracellular enzymes were measured. Soil incubations were performed to determine respiration rate and N production over time. Soil DNA isolates were used to quantify 16S rRNA and ITS gene copy numbers using qPCR, and all measurements were statistically compared between pre-and post-harvest samples. Total soil C and N did not change significantly following harvest, but the C: N ratio of dissolved components decreased consistently and biomass C: N ratios generally increased. Activities of β-glucosidase and cellobiohydrolase increased significantly whereas activities of phenol oxidase and peroxidase decreased significantly. Cumulative respiration over the incubation period declined substantially, and total N pools changed from primarily DON pre-harvest, to primarily NO₃⁻post-harvest. Changes in activity rates and pool sizes following harvest were generally related to C to N balances. Pre-harvest measurements suggested communities may be co-limited by C and N, while the emergence of strong C limitation was evident post-harvest. The generalized trends identified from this study can be used in future research as reference points for ecosystem status during forest succession, and for correlation with an investigation of changes in microbial community composition and structure. The objective of the second study was to determine the factors shaping soil microbial communities of Douglas-fir forests in the Pacific Northwest, and to identify generalized short-term effects of timber harvest on the richness, diversity, and structureof these communities. DNA was extracted from soils and sequenced using the Illumina® Miseq platform to determine differences in prokaryotic and fungal communities. When communities were considered separately pre-and post-harvest, pH most consistently explained community dissimilarity among sites. Although community dispersion did not vary between pre-and post-harvest samples, OTU richness was consistently and significantly higher following tree removal. Both prokaryotic and fungal community structures were significantly different in post-compared to pre-harvest soils, even when just OTUs representing the top 50% of sequences were considered. Relative abundance of the dominant three bacterial phyla (Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Verrucomicrobia) did not change significantly following harvest, but some less-represented phyla decreased (Actinobacteria) or increased (Bacteroidetes) significantly in relative abundance. Basidiomycota abundance decreased significantly whereas Ascomycota and Zygomycota abundance increased. Ectomycorrhizal fungi were enriched across pre-harvest samples, whereas many known saprotrophic species were enriched post-harvest. In conclusion, general alterations in fungal communities, as well as select bacterial and archaeal taxa, may serve as appropriate indicators of disturbance and ecosystem status across this region. Close

• 641. [Article] Fire history of the ponderosa pine forests of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Oregon

  Fire has played a prominent role in the development and character of the ponderosa pine forests in western North American. Its records are written in the scars of trees that have survived the fire. Careful ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Fire history of the ponderosa pine forests of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Oregon Author: Soeriaatmadja, Roehajat Emon, 1936- Fire has played a prominent role in the development and character of the ponderosa pine forests in western North American. Its records are written in the scars of trees that have survived the fire. Careful studies of these fire-scars may be used as a means of reconstructing the fire history of the forest. This study was conducted in the Warm Springs Indian Reservation of the east side of the Cascades in Oregon, and was aimed at describing the fire history of the area in terms of frequency of occurrence, extent, and chronology, as these relate to somewhat different climate, topography, and vegetation structure found within the ponderosa pine zone in this area. Since accurate interpretation of the fire history generally required the exposure of the fire-scarred stumps through felling, the study areas were selected where tree felling was recent or in progress. Four study areas were selected within the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. These areas were located within the cutting boundaries of the Tenino Bench, Seekseequa, Boulder Creek and Lionshead logging units. A total of 305 fire-scarred stumps were sampled during the course of the study. Information concerning the character of the stand in the vicinity of the fire-scarred stumps was obtained from 100 x 100 foot plots. The fire-scarred stumps provided data pertinent to the frequency of fires during the past as indicated by the presence of successive ring scars. The date of a given fire was determined by counting the number of annual growth rings formed since the occurrence of the ring scar. For the Tenino Bench area, numbers of successive ring scars observed on the stumps ranged from 5 to 23 with an average 9.4 per stump. Forty-seven percent of the total number of fire-scarred stumps sampled showed seven, eight, nine and ten successive ring scars with an average time interval of 16.5 years between the ring scars. Average minimum and maximum time intervals between the ring scars on the fire-scarred stumps observed on the Tenino Bench study area were 6.5 and 36.3 years respectively. The number of successive ring scars on individual fire-scarred stumps averaged 10.8 in the Seekseequa area. Seventy-eight percent of the trees observed here showed 7 to 12 successive ring scars. The least number of ring scars occurring on any given stump was six. The greatest number was 25. The average time interval between ring scars was 14.2 years with an average minimum interval of 6.2 years and the average maximum interval of 28.8 years. A sharp reduction in the number of successive ring scars per individual tree is noted in the Boulder Creek and Lionshead study areas located at higher elevations. Thirty-two percent of the total number of stumps examined in the Boulder Creek area showed two, three and four successive ring scars with an average of 7.2 per stump. The bulk of the trees sampled showed numbers of ring scars ranging from two to ten. On the Lionshead area 63 percent of the trees showed less than seven successive ring scars. The average number of successive ring scars per stump was 6.3. The maximum number of successive ring scars observed in this area was 14. Although the frequency of fires was higher in the two most xeric areas (Tenino Bench and Seekseequa) these fires did not appear to be as severe (as evidenced by the size of the fire-scars) as the two more mesic areas (Boulder Creek and Lionshead). The difference in frequency and severity of fires within the ponderosa pine zone appears in part related to the susceptability of the area to fire and the accumulation of the fuel materials. The greater frequency of less severe fire in the lower part of the pine zone may be due to the more open nature of the stand and the slower accumulation of fuel materials. The more moist conditions of the forest at higher elevation may explain the less frequent occurrence of fire. However, because of the more dense nature of the forest and especially the presence of young age classes of more shade tolerant tree species, once fires do become started the possibility of the fire escalating to the crown type fire is greater. Ring scar evidence during the past 400 years indicates a sharp reduction in the frequency of fire since 1900. This marked decline in the occurrence of fire reflects the effectiveness of fire control efforts instigated by Federal Agencies in recent years. Changes in the composition and structure of this forest as a result of fire exclusion are noted. Title: Fire history of the ponderosa pine forests of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Oregon Author: Soeriaatmadja, Roehajat Emon, 1936- Fire has played a prominent role in the development and character of the ponderosa pine forests in western North American. Its records are written in the scars of trees that have survived the fire. Careful studies of these fire-scars may be used as a means of reconstructing the fire history of the forest. This study was conducted in the Warm Springs Indian Reservation of the east side of the Cascades in Oregon, and was aimed at describing the fire history of the area in terms of frequency of occurrence, extent, and chronology, as these relate to somewhat different climate, topography, and vegetation structure found within the ponderosa pine zone in this area. Since accurate interpretation of the fire history generally required the exposure of the fire-scarred stumps through felling, the study areas were selected where tree felling was recent or in progress. Four study areas were selected within the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. These areas were located within the cutting boundaries of the Tenino Bench, Seekseequa, Boulder Creek and Lionshead logging units. A total of 305 fire-scarred stumps were sampled during the course of the study. Information concerning the character of the stand in the vicinity of the fire-scarred stumps was obtained from 100 x 100 foot plots. The fire-scarred stumps provided data pertinent to the frequency of fires during the past as indicated by the presence of successive ring scars. The date of a given fire was determined by counting the number of annual growth rings formed since the occurrence of the ring scar. For the Tenino Bench area, numbers of successive ring scars observed on the stumps ranged from 5 to 23 with an average 9.4 per stump. Forty-seven percent of the total number of fire-scarred stumps sampled showed seven, eight, nine and ten successive ring scars with an average time interval of 16.5 years between the ring scars. Average minimum and maximum time intervals between the ring scars on the fire-scarred stumps observed on the Tenino Bench study area were 6.5 and 36.3 years respectively. The number of successive ring scars on individual fire-scarred stumps averaged 10.8 in the Seekseequa area. Seventy-eight percent of the trees observed here showed 7 to 12 successive ring scars. The least number of ring scars occurring on any given stump was six. The greatest number was 25. The average time interval between ring scars was 14.2 years with an average minimum interval of 6.2 years and the average maximum interval of 28.8 years. A sharp reduction in the number of successive ring scars per individual tree is noted in the Boulder Creek and Lionshead study areas located at higher elevations. Thirty-two percent of the total number of stumps examined in the Boulder Creek area showed two, three and four successive ring scars with an average of 7.2 per stump. The bulk of the trees sampled showed numbers of ring scars ranging from two to ten. On the Lionshead area 63 percent of the trees showed less than seven successive ring scars. The average number of successive ring scars per stump was 6.3. The maximum number of successive ring scars observed in this area was 14. Although the frequency of fires was higher in the two most xeric areas (Tenino Bench and Seekseequa) these fires did not appear to be as severe (as evidenced by the size of the fire-scars) as the two more mesic areas (Boulder Creek and Lionshead). The difference in frequency and severity of fires within the ponderosa pine zone appears in part related to the susceptability of the area to fire and the accumulation of the fuel materials. The greater frequency of less severe fire in the lower part of the pine zone may be due to the more open nature of the stand and the slower accumulation of fuel materials. The more moist conditions of the forest at higher elevation may explain the less frequent occurrence of fire. However, because of the more dense nature of the forest and especially the presence of young age classes of more shade tolerant tree species, once fires do become started the possibility of the fire escalating to the crown type fire is greater. Ring scar evidence during the past 400 years indicates a sharp reduction in the frequency of fire since 1900. This marked decline in the occurrence of fire reflects the effectiveness of fire control efforts instigated by Federal Agencies in recent years. Changes in the composition and structure of this forest as a result of fire exclusion are noted. Close

• 642. [Article] Vegetation and animal responses to grazing crested wheatgrass at three intensities and two seasons in southern Idaho

  Land useable for livestock grazing in the western United States is diminishing because of spreading municipalities, irrigation developments, highway construction, recreational demands and withdrawals. Concurrently, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Vegetation and animal responses to grazing crested wheatgrass at three intensities and two seasons in southern Idaho Author: Sharp, Lee Ajax Land useable for livestock grazing in the western United States is diminishing because of spreading municipalities, irrigation developments, highway construction, recreational demands and withdrawals. Concurrently, the demand for livestock and livestock products is increasing because of a rapidly growing population. As a result, production from the grazing land that remains must be increased to satisfy the increased wants of the population. Artificial seeding is improving the forage productivity on large areas of low producing range land in the Intermountain region. Methods of successfully establishing stands of forage plants by artificial means are reasonably well understood, but less information is available about grazing practices that will optimize the returns from these range improvement programs. A nine-year (1957-1965) grazing study was conducted on a crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum and A. desertorum) seeding near Malta, Idaho for the purpose of evaluating plant and animal responses under three intensities of grazing (light, moderate or heavy) in two seasons (spring or fall). With the information obtained, suggested grazing practices for optimum livestock production were developed. Stand density, frequency of occurrence and yield of crested wheatgrass were not affected appreciably during the nine years by light and moderate grazing intensities in the spring. Heavy spring grazing, however, caused a reduction in frequency of occurrence and a lower yield of crested wheatgrass in the latter years of the study. Intensity of grazing in the fall season had little effect on stand density, frequency of occurrence or annual yield of crested wheatgrass. Initial herbage production in the spring was found to be related to the amount of residue remaining after grazing in the previous year. In the heavy spring grazing treatment, each 100 pounds of increased residue produced an average increase of 64 pounds of initial growth. Gains per animal, average daily gains and gains per acre were higher in the spring treatments than in the fall treatments. Average gain per animal and average daily gains were greatest under light and least under heavy grazing in both seasons. Average gains per acre, however, were higher under heavy grazing than light or moderate grazing in both seasons. Plant and animal responses indicate that moderate grazing from early May to late June maintained forage productivity and produced optimum animal response. Forage was wasted with light spring grazing and heavy spring grazing caused a decline in plant vigor, forage productivity and animal response. It was revealed in this study, however, that vigor and production of heavily grazed crested wheatgrass stands could be improved by deferment of grazing for a growing season or two. All intensities of grazing in the fall maintained vigor and production of crested wheatgrass. Gains per animal were slightly less under heavy fall grazing but gains per acre were slightly more than under light or moderate grazing in this season. Information obtained on plant and animal responses indicated that greater livestock production may be realized if the area to be grazed is divided into two or more sections. When this is done, grazing can be alternated between or among the sections in such a way as to allow maximum opportunity for stand maintenance, forage production and animal response. The effectiveness of management programs that developed can be judged by observing the vigor and frequency of occurrence of crested wheatgrass. Dead centers and fragmentation of individual plants of crested wheatgrass occur when grazing is excessive and annual plant species increase in density and frequency. The fragmentation of crested wheatgrass plants into smaller unite made density estimates a less sensitive indication of plant response to grazing than frequency of occurrence. Grazing is abnormally patchy and coarse unpalatable plants are common when the forage is grazed at less than capacity. Title: Vegetation and animal responses to grazing crested wheatgrass at three intensities and two seasons in southern Idaho Author: Sharp, Lee Ajax Land useable for livestock grazing in the western United States is diminishing because of spreading municipalities, irrigation developments, highway construction, recreational demands and withdrawals. Concurrently, the demand for livestock and livestock products is increasing because of a rapidly growing population. As a result, production from the grazing land that remains must be increased to satisfy the increased wants of the population. Artificial seeding is improving the forage productivity on large areas of low producing range land in the Intermountain region. Methods of successfully establishing stands of forage plants by artificial means are reasonably well understood, but less information is available about grazing practices that will optimize the returns from these range improvement programs. A nine-year (1957-1965) grazing study was conducted on a crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum and A. desertorum) seeding near Malta, Idaho for the purpose of evaluating plant and animal responses under three intensities of grazing (light, moderate or heavy) in two seasons (spring or fall). With the information obtained, suggested grazing practices for optimum livestock production were developed. Stand density, frequency of occurrence and yield of crested wheatgrass were not affected appreciably during the nine years by light and moderate grazing intensities in the spring. Heavy spring grazing, however, caused a reduction in frequency of occurrence and a lower yield of crested wheatgrass in the latter years of the study. Intensity of grazing in the fall season had little effect on stand density, frequency of occurrence or annual yield of crested wheatgrass. Initial herbage production in the spring was found to be related to the amount of residue remaining after grazing in the previous year. In the heavy spring grazing treatment, each 100 pounds of increased residue produced an average increase of 64 pounds of initial growth. Gains per animal, average daily gains and gains per acre were higher in the spring treatments than in the fall treatments. Average gain per animal and average daily gains were greatest under light and least under heavy grazing in both seasons. Average gains per acre, however, were higher under heavy grazing than light or moderate grazing in both seasons. Plant and animal responses indicate that moderate grazing from early May to late June maintained forage productivity and produced optimum animal response. Forage was wasted with light spring grazing and heavy spring grazing caused a decline in plant vigor, forage productivity and animal response. It was revealed in this study, however, that vigor and production of heavily grazed crested wheatgrass stands could be improved by deferment of grazing for a growing season or two. All intensities of grazing in the fall maintained vigor and production of crested wheatgrass. Gains per animal were slightly less under heavy fall grazing but gains per acre were slightly more than under light or moderate grazing in this season. Information obtained on plant and animal responses indicated that greater livestock production may be realized if the area to be grazed is divided into two or more sections. When this is done, grazing can be alternated between or among the sections in such a way as to allow maximum opportunity for stand maintenance, forage production and animal response. The effectiveness of management programs that developed can be judged by observing the vigor and frequency of occurrence of crested wheatgrass. Dead centers and fragmentation of individual plants of crested wheatgrass occur when grazing is excessive and annual plant species increase in density and frequency. The fragmentation of crested wheatgrass plants into smaller unite made density estimates a less sensitive indication of plant response to grazing than frequency of occurrence. Grazing is abnormally patchy and coarse unpalatable plants are common when the forage is grazed at less than capacity. Close

• 643. [Article] Four centuries of soil carbon and nitrogen change after severe fire in a Western Cascades forest landscape

  Fire is a major disturbance process in many forests. Long-term studies of the biogeochemical effects of fires, especially on soils, are very rare. Consequently, long-term effects of fire on soils are often ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Four centuries of soil carbon and nitrogen change after severe fire in a Western Cascades forest landscape Author: Giesen, Thomas William Fire is a major disturbance process in many forests. Long-term studies of the biogeochemical effects of fires, especially on soils, are very rare. Consequently, long-term effects of fire on soils are often hypothesized from short-term effects. In a chronosequence study, I studied 24 western Cascades (Oregon) forest stands thought to have been initiated in fire. Twelve of those burned about 150 years ago (“young” sites), and the other 12 burned an average of 550 years ago (“old” sites). I hypothesized that young stands would have less carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in forest floor and in 0 -10 cm mineral soil than old stands. I found that forest floor N pools of old sites (average = 1,823 kg/ha ± s.e. = 132 kg/ha) were significantly greater than young sites (1,450 ± 98 kg/ha). Similarly, forest floor C pools of old sites (62,980 ± 5,403 kg/ha) were significantly greater than young sites (49,032 ± 2,965 kg/ha). Greater N and C pools in forest floor of old sites resulted from greater forest floor mass in old sites; concentrations of both N and C, and C:N ratios, did not differ significantly by forest age class. In mineral soil, neither concentrations nor pools of N and C differed between young and old sites. Despite overall similarity of C:N ratios in young versus old sites, potential N mineralization rates were twice as high in forest floor of old sites (average = 60 ± 7.3 mg N / g soil) than young sites (26 ± 3.5 mg N / g soil), . Nitrate accounted for only 2% or less of total N mineralized in forest floor samples. In mineral soil, potential net N mineralization did not differ by forest age class. The pattern of high net N mineralization and low nitrification in old forests is consistent with other studies of fire-prone forests, yet contrasts with many studies of forests that lack fire, and suggests that ammonium is not the sole control over nitrification in fire-prone ecosystems. Overall, fire appears to impart a longterm legacy of reduced forest floor N and C pools in this western Oregon Cascades landscape, which suggests that current fire-suppression activities in the region may increase forest floor N and C storage over historical conditions within several centuries. The differences in forest floor and soil N cycling processes that I observed by forest age class raise the further possibility that fire exclusion in these forests may change the relative abundance of soil inorganic N forms to favor ammonium over nitrate. Such changes may have unknown consequences for relative competitive abilities of plant and microbial species that rely preferentially on different N-forms to meet N nutrition requirements. While forest floor N and C pools increase from young to old stands, forest floor and soil N and C pools are not different, or decline, between 450 year old stands and the oldest stands at 800+ years, That, and other, anomalous changes in values from ~450 to 800+ years, suggest possible changes in ecosystem functions, and may indicate that this landscape could be a fruitful study area for examinations of a mature, steady-state ecosystem Title: Four centuries of soil carbon and nitrogen change after severe fire in a Western Cascades forest landscape Author: Giesen, Thomas William Fire is a major disturbance process in many forests. Long-term studies of the biogeochemical effects of fires, especially on soils, are very rare. Consequently, long-term effects of fire on soils are often hypothesized from short-term effects. In a chronosequence study, I studied 24 western Cascades (Oregon) forest stands thought to have been initiated in fire. Twelve of those burned about 150 years ago (“young” sites), and the other 12 burned an average of 550 years ago (“old” sites). I hypothesized that young stands would have less carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in forest floor and in 0 -10 cm mineral soil than old stands. I found that forest floor N pools of old sites (average = 1,823 kg/ha ± s.e. = 132 kg/ha) were significantly greater than young sites (1,450 ± 98 kg/ha). Similarly, forest floor C pools of old sites (62,980 ± 5,403 kg/ha) were significantly greater than young sites (49,032 ± 2,965 kg/ha). Greater N and C pools in forest floor of old sites resulted from greater forest floor mass in old sites; concentrations of both N and C, and C:N ratios, did not differ significantly by forest age class. In mineral soil, neither concentrations nor pools of N and C differed between young and old sites. Despite overall similarity of C:N ratios in young versus old sites, potential N mineralization rates were twice as high in forest floor of old sites (average = 60 ± 7.3 mg N / g soil) than young sites (26 ± 3.5 mg N / g soil), . Nitrate accounted for only 2% or less of total N mineralized in forest floor samples. In mineral soil, potential net N mineralization did not differ by forest age class. The pattern of high net N mineralization and low nitrification in old forests is consistent with other studies of fire-prone forests, yet contrasts with many studies of forests that lack fire, and suggests that ammonium is not the sole control over nitrification in fire-prone ecosystems. Overall, fire appears to impart a longterm legacy of reduced forest floor N and C pools in this western Oregon Cascades landscape, which suggests that current fire-suppression activities in the region may increase forest floor N and C storage over historical conditions within several centuries. The differences in forest floor and soil N cycling processes that I observed by forest age class raise the further possibility that fire exclusion in these forests may change the relative abundance of soil inorganic N forms to favor ammonium over nitrate. Such changes may have unknown consequences for relative competitive abilities of plant and microbial species that rely preferentially on different N-forms to meet N nutrition requirements. While forest floor N and C pools increase from young to old stands, forest floor and soil N and C pools are not different, or decline, between 450 year old stands and the oldest stands at 800+ years, That, and other, anomalous changes in values from ~450 to 800+ years, suggest possible changes in ecosystem functions, and may indicate that this landscape could be a fruitful study area for examinations of a mature, steady-state ecosystem Close

• 644. [Article] Characterization of the collagen protein in smooth pink shrimp (Pandalus jordani)

  The collagen content and composition of collagens in different age classes of shrimp were determined. Their physical and chemical characteristics were investigated. The interrelationship of shrimp size ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Characterization of the collagen protein in smooth pink shrimp (Pandalus jordani) Author: Akel, Phillip John The collagen content and composition of collagens in different age classes of shrimp were determined. Their physical and chemical characteristics were investigated. The interrelationship of shrimp size and muscle collagen content to raw and cooked meat yield was established. Total collagen content for three lots of round shrimp with weights averaging 2.58±.39, 5.27±.55 and 7.72±.96 g was determined to be 2.36, 3.35 and 3.47 mg collagen/g total musculature N, respectively. Unformed collagen comprised 53.85, 35.52 and 0.86% of the total collagen content, respectively. Maturation, as reflected by shrimp size, was accompanied by a near linear increase in formed collagen. A molecular weight of 310,000 for shrimp collagen was determined using SDS gel electrophoresis. The accuracy of this determination was compromised by limited mobility and lack of standard reference proteins of appropriate molecular weight, but did establish a molecular weight in a range common to other collagens. Variations in the amino acid composition of formed and unformed collagen reflected the function of the tissues in the musculature from which they were derived. Formed collagen contained higher amounts of glycine, proline and hydroxylysine than unformed collagen, providing a chemical basis for its structural function in formed connective tissues. Remaining amino acids, except histidine, glutamate and arginine were contained in higher amounts in unformed collagen. Unformed collagen also contained a substantial amount of unidentified components which were suspected to be amino sugar derivatives. Only trace amounts of these components were found in formed collagen. Shrimp collagen contained unusually low levels of glycine, only trace amounts of hydroxyproline and substantial quantities of tryptophan. Glycine and hydroxyproline are important amino acids in mammalian collagens, but tryptophan is usually not present. Shrimp collagen also contained higher levels of threonine, tyrosine, hydroxylysine, valine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and phenylalanine than most other reported collagens. These variations in amino acid composition seem to reflect a requirement for a structural protein possessing unique characteristics commensurate with the anatomical structure of the species. The yield (% dry wt.) of raw and cooked (100 sec; 101°C in steam) derived through hand peeling round shrimp, was correlated (P>.001) in a positive manner by well defined power functions. Raw meat yield (% dry wt.) declined during ice storage in a linear (P>.001) manner at a rate dependent upon shrimp size. The more rapid loss of solids from large shrimp reduced yield differences as storage was extended. Raw meat losses during ice storage ranged from 0.298 to 0.318 g raw meat dry matter/100 g round shrimp/day for 2.5 and 7.5 g shrimp respectively. Dry matter weight loss from raw meat through the washing action of melting ice, was replaced in a linear (P>.05-P>.005) manner with water to maintain yield (% wet wt.) during storage. Ice storage expanded cooked yield (% dry wt.) differences between shrimp sizes. Meat losses through cooking mediated by ice storage, ranged from 0.421 to 0.303 g cooked meat dry matter/100 g round shrimp/day for 2.5 and 7.5 g shrimp, respectively. The age class dependent content and composition of collagens in the musculature of shrimp was reflected in the recovery of raw and cooked meat. Meat from small shrimp contained higher levels of unformed collagen which possessed less dry matter and degraded more rapidly in ice storage. Proteolytic action on elevated levels of unformed collagen was not reflected in the rate of ice storage losses. But, it markedly increased heat induced solubilization of solids and enhanced moisture retention through steam precooking over larger shrimp. Maturation of shrimp associated with more formed and less unformed collagen reduced solids solubilization and moisture retention through steam precooking. Title: Characterization of the collagen protein in smooth pink shrimp (Pandalus jordani) Author: Akel, Phillip John The collagen content and composition of collagens in different age classes of shrimp were determined. Their physical and chemical characteristics were investigated. The interrelationship of shrimp size and muscle collagen content to raw and cooked meat yield was established. Total collagen content for three lots of round shrimp with weights averaging 2.58±.39, 5.27±.55 and 7.72±.96 g was determined to be 2.36, 3.35 and 3.47 mg collagen/g total musculature N, respectively. Unformed collagen comprised 53.85, 35.52 and 0.86% of the total collagen content, respectively. Maturation, as reflected by shrimp size, was accompanied by a near linear increase in formed collagen. A molecular weight of 310,000 for shrimp collagen was determined using SDS gel electrophoresis. The accuracy of this determination was compromised by limited mobility and lack of standard reference proteins of appropriate molecular weight, but did establish a molecular weight in a range common to other collagens. Variations in the amino acid composition of formed and unformed collagen reflected the function of the tissues in the musculature from which they were derived. Formed collagen contained higher amounts of glycine, proline and hydroxylysine than unformed collagen, providing a chemical basis for its structural function in formed connective tissues. Remaining amino acids, except histidine, glutamate and arginine were contained in higher amounts in unformed collagen. Unformed collagen also contained a substantial amount of unidentified components which were suspected to be amino sugar derivatives. Only trace amounts of these components were found in formed collagen. Shrimp collagen contained unusually low levels of glycine, only trace amounts of hydroxyproline and substantial quantities of tryptophan. Glycine and hydroxyproline are important amino acids in mammalian collagens, but tryptophan is usually not present. Shrimp collagen also contained higher levels of threonine, tyrosine, hydroxylysine, valine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and phenylalanine than most other reported collagens. These variations in amino acid composition seem to reflect a requirement for a structural protein possessing unique characteristics commensurate with the anatomical structure of the species. The yield (% dry wt.) of raw and cooked (100 sec; 101°C in steam) derived through hand peeling round shrimp, was correlated (P>.001) in a positive manner by well defined power functions. Raw meat yield (% dry wt.) declined during ice storage in a linear (P>.001) manner at a rate dependent upon shrimp size. The more rapid loss of solids from large shrimp reduced yield differences as storage was extended. Raw meat losses during ice storage ranged from 0.298 to 0.318 g raw meat dry matter/100 g round shrimp/day for 2.5 and 7.5 g shrimp respectively. Dry matter weight loss from raw meat through the washing action of melting ice, was replaced in a linear (P>.05-P>.005) manner with water to maintain yield (% wet wt.) during storage. Ice storage expanded cooked yield (% dry wt.) differences between shrimp sizes. Meat losses through cooking mediated by ice storage, ranged from 0.421 to 0.303 g cooked meat dry matter/100 g round shrimp/day for 2.5 and 7.5 g shrimp, respectively. The age class dependent content and composition of collagens in the musculature of shrimp was reflected in the recovery of raw and cooked meat. Meat from small shrimp contained higher levels of unformed collagen which possessed less dry matter and degraded more rapidly in ice storage. Proteolytic action on elevated levels of unformed collagen was not reflected in the rate of ice storage losses. But, it markedly increased heat induced solubilization of solids and enhanced moisture retention through steam precooking over larger shrimp. Maturation of shrimp associated with more formed and less unformed collagen reduced solids solubilization and moisture retention through steam precooking. Close

• 645. [Article] Comparing structure and development of Douglas-fir old-growth, plantations, and young natural forests in western Oregon

  Ages, diameter growth, density, tree size, and species were studied in old-growth, plantation, and young natural Douglas-fir stands in three areas in western Oregon: the western and eastern Coast Range ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Comparing structure and development of Douglas-fir old-growth, plantations, and young natural forests in western Oregon Author: Dowling, Christopher D. Ages, diameter growth, density, tree size, and species were studied in old-growth, plantation, and young natural Douglas-fir stands in three areas in western Oregon: the western and eastern Coast Range and the western Cascades. The purpose was to compare the development of these three stand types and to determine whether plantations and young natural stands would develop old-growth structures and characteristics. The Douglas-fir age ranges in plantations (8 to 15 yr) were much narrower and than the ranges of tree ages found in the young natural (21 to 102 yr) and in the old-growth stands (300 to 354 yr). This wide range of tree ages, along with diameter growth rates and tree and stand structural characteristics, supported the hypothesis that old-growth developed at low initial stand densities. These low initial stand densities, probably the result of prolonged stand establishment, likely enabled height and crown size advantages among old and younger trees. Dominant and large codominant trees maintained live crown ratios and sustained diameter growth resulting in large stable trees indicated by low height-to-diameter ratios. The mean diameters of the dominant trees in the old-growth and the dominant trees in the young natural stands were not significantly different at age 40 and 100, indicating the young natural stands appear to be growing at the same rates as the old-growth in its first 100 years. The mean dominant diameters in the plantations and old-growth at age 40 and 100 were significantly different, indicating the plantations are growing and developing differently than young natural and old-growth forests. Plantations had grown rapidly for the first 20 to 30 years, and computer simulation indicated that a significant rapid decline in radial growth would occur between ages 30 and 55. Simulations also indicate that during this period, the mean diameters of the dominant plantation trees would fall below those of the old-growth in two of the three stands by age 85. Pre-commercial thinning 20 to 25 years ago in the plantations has helped sustain high early growth rates for a longer period of time than would have occurred if thinning had not been performed. Additional thinning in the future is likely needed to maintain rapid current rates. When simulated to age 250 both the young natural stands and the plantations maintained higher densities of smaller diameter trees than the old-growth stands. This simulation result indicates the possible inability of these stands to self-thin to the densities found in old-growth stands without some sort of density-reducing disturbance. The broad range of tree ages in the old-growth stands suggests that stand disturbances are a normal part of old-growth development on these sites. Five different plantation thinning options were also simulated to age 250, including additional options with thinning of understory trees and ingrowth. The projections indicate that when the plantations are left unthinned they would generally develop trees with small live crowns and mean diameters but still produce stable dominant overstory trees (low H:D ratios). Shade tolerant understory trees and ingrowth, such as western hemlock, are a key part of old-growth development. These trees may reduce the rate of growth and alter crown structure of the overstory trees over extended periods of time (200+ years). Additional thinning, possibly in multiple entries, in both the overstory and understory may be necessary for dense plantations to develop the tree size heterogeneity found in local old-growth forests. I also demonstrated a methodology to determine site-specific management targets or goals for creating old-growth structure from plantations. This was performed using past and current forest structure and composition information within a local landscape scale of 500 to 1000 acres, typical of the public land checkerboard ownership pattern. Stand types making up the historical landscape are identified and described retrospectively using historical and current aerial photographs and digital orthophotos, cruise records, previous studies, and sample plots of standing and harvested forests. The degree of detail provided through this methodology will likely help forest managers to define complex late-successional characteristics of stands and landscapes. My results indicate that stand and project area-specific definitions of old-growth and clearly defined goals for young stand management will facilitate development of old forest characteristics. Title: Comparing structure and development of Douglas-fir old-growth, plantations, and young natural forests in western Oregon Author: Dowling, Christopher D. Ages, diameter growth, density, tree size, and species were studied in old-growth, plantation, and young natural Douglas-fir stands in three areas in western Oregon: the western and eastern Coast Range and the western Cascades. The purpose was to compare the development of these three stand types and to determine whether plantations and young natural stands would develop old-growth structures and characteristics. The Douglas-fir age ranges in plantations (8 to 15 yr) were much narrower and than the ranges of tree ages found in the young natural (21 to 102 yr) and in the old-growth stands (300 to 354 yr). This wide range of tree ages, along with diameter growth rates and tree and stand structural characteristics, supported the hypothesis that old-growth developed at low initial stand densities. These low initial stand densities, probably the result of prolonged stand establishment, likely enabled height and crown size advantages among old and younger trees. Dominant and large codominant trees maintained live crown ratios and sustained diameter growth resulting in large stable trees indicated by low height-to-diameter ratios. The mean diameters of the dominant trees in the old-growth and the dominant trees in the young natural stands were not significantly different at age 40 and 100, indicating the young natural stands appear to be growing at the same rates as the old-growth in its first 100 years. The mean dominant diameters in the plantations and old-growth at age 40 and 100 were significantly different, indicating the plantations are growing and developing differently than young natural and old-growth forests. Plantations had grown rapidly for the first 20 to 30 years, and computer simulation indicated that a significant rapid decline in radial growth would occur between ages 30 and 55. Simulations also indicate that during this period, the mean diameters of the dominant plantation trees would fall below those of the old-growth in two of the three stands by age 85. Pre-commercial thinning 20 to 25 years ago in the plantations has helped sustain high early growth rates for a longer period of time than would have occurred if thinning had not been performed. Additional thinning in the future is likely needed to maintain rapid current rates. When simulated to age 250 both the young natural stands and the plantations maintained higher densities of smaller diameter trees than the old-growth stands. This simulation result indicates the possible inability of these stands to self-thin to the densities found in old-growth stands without some sort of density-reducing disturbance. The broad range of tree ages in the old-growth stands suggests that stand disturbances are a normal part of old-growth development on these sites. Five different plantation thinning options were also simulated to age 250, including additional options with thinning of understory trees and ingrowth. The projections indicate that when the plantations are left unthinned they would generally develop trees with small live crowns and mean diameters but still produce stable dominant overstory trees (low H:D ratios). Shade tolerant understory trees and ingrowth, such as western hemlock, are a key part of old-growth development. These trees may reduce the rate of growth and alter crown structure of the overstory trees over extended periods of time (200+ years). Additional thinning, possibly in multiple entries, in both the overstory and understory may be necessary for dense plantations to develop the tree size heterogeneity found in local old-growth forests. I also demonstrated a methodology to determine site-specific management targets or goals for creating old-growth structure from plantations. This was performed using past and current forest structure and composition information within a local landscape scale of 500 to 1000 acres, typical of the public land checkerboard ownership pattern. Stand types making up the historical landscape are identified and described retrospectively using historical and current aerial photographs and digital orthophotos, cruise records, previous studies, and sample plots of standing and harvested forests. The degree of detail provided through this methodology will likely help forest managers to define complex late-successional characteristics of stands and landscapes. My results indicate that stand and project area-specific definitions of old-growth and clearly defined goals for young stand management will facilitate development of old forest characteristics. Close

• 646. [Article] Larval dispersal in marine fishes: novel methods reveal patterns of self-recruitment and population connectivity

  Many marine fish populations are severely declining due to over-fishing, loss of both juvenile and adult habitats, and accelerating environmental degradation. Fisheries management and the implementation ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Larval dispersal in marine fishes: novel methods reveal patterns of self-recruitment and population connectivity Author: Christie, Mark R. Many marine fish populations are severely declining due to over-fishing, loss of both juvenile and adult habitats, and accelerating environmental degradation. Fisheries management and the implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) and other conservation tools are currently hindered by large gaps in knowledge about larval dispersal and its subsequent effects on population dynamics and regulation. This lack of knowledge is due to the inherent difficulty associated with tracking miniscule marine fish larvae. Population genetics approaches are particularly promising, but current methods have been of limited use for inferring ecologically relevant rates of population connectivity because of the large population sizes and high amounts of gene flow present in most marine species. To address these issues, I developed novel genetic methods of identifying parent-offspring pairs to directly track the origin and settlement of larvae in natural populations. These parentage methods fully account for large numbers of pair-wise comparisons and do not require any demographic assumptions or observational data. Furthermore, these methods can be used when only a small proportion of candidate parents can be sampled, which is often the case in large marine populations. I also employed Bayes’ theorem to take into account the frequencies of shared alleles in putative parent-offspring pairs, which can maximize statistical power when faced with fixed numbers of loci. I accounted for genotyping errors by introducing a quantitative method to determine the number of loci to allow to mismatch based upon study-specific error rates. These novel parentage methods were applied to yellow tang (Zebrasoma flavescens, Acanthuridae) sampled around the Island of Hawai'i (measuring 140 km by 129 km) during the summer of 2006. We identified four parent-offspring pairs, which documented dispersal distances ranging from 15 to 184 kilometers. Two of the parents were located within MPAs and their offspring dispersed to unprotected areas. This observation provided direct evidence that MPAs can successfully seed unprotected sites with larvae that survive to become established juveniles. All four offspring were found to the north of their parents and a detailed oceanographic analysis from relevant time periods demonstrated that passive transport initially explained the documented dispersal patterns. However, passive dispersal could not explain how larvae eventually settled on the same island from which they were spawned, indicating a role for larval behavior interacting with fine-scale oceanographic features. Two findings together suggested that sampled reefs did not contribute equally to successful recruitment: (1) low levels of genetic differentiation among all recruit samples, and (2) the fact that the 4 documented parents occurred at only 2 sites. These findings empirically demonstrated the effectiveness of MPAs as useful conservation and management tools and highlighted the value of identifying both the sources and successful settlement sites of marine larvae. I next examined patterns of larval dispersal in bicolor damselfish (Stegastes partitus, Pomacentridae) collected during the summers of 2004 and 2005 from reefs lining the Exuma Sound, Bahamas (measuring 205 km by 85 km). Parentage analysis directly documented two parent-offspring pairs located within the two northern-most sites, which indicated self-recruitment at these sites. Multivariate analyses of pair-wise relatedness values confirmed that self-recruitment was common at all sampled populations. I also found evidence of “sweepstakes events”, whereby only a small proportion of mature adults contributed to subsequent generations. Independent sweepstakes events were indentified in both space and time, bolstering the direct observations of self-recruitment and suggesting a role for sweepstakes analyses to identify the scale of larval dispersal events. This dissertation provides insights into the patterns of larval dispersal in coral-reef fishes. The coupling of direct (e.g., parentage) and indirect (e.g., assignment methods, sweepstakes analyses) methods in conjunction with continued technological and methodological advances will soon provide large-scale, ecologically relevant, rates of larval exchange. By uncovering the dynamics of these enigmatic processes, the implementation of conservation and management strategies for marine fishes in general will undoubtedly experience greater success. Title: Larval dispersal in marine fishes: novel methods reveal patterns of self-recruitment and population connectivity Author: Christie, Mark R. Many marine fish populations are severely declining due to over-fishing, loss of both juvenile and adult habitats, and accelerating environmental degradation. Fisheries management and the implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) and other conservation tools are currently hindered by large gaps in knowledge about larval dispersal and its subsequent effects on population dynamics and regulation. This lack of knowledge is due to the inherent difficulty associated with tracking miniscule marine fish larvae. Population genetics approaches are particularly promising, but current methods have been of limited use for inferring ecologically relevant rates of population connectivity because of the large population sizes and high amounts of gene flow present in most marine species. To address these issues, I developed novel genetic methods of identifying parent-offspring pairs to directly track the origin and settlement of larvae in natural populations. These parentage methods fully account for large numbers of pair-wise comparisons and do not require any demographic assumptions or observational data. Furthermore, these methods can be used when only a small proportion of candidate parents can be sampled, which is often the case in large marine populations. I also employed Bayes’ theorem to take into account the frequencies of shared alleles in putative parent-offspring pairs, which can maximize statistical power when faced with fixed numbers of loci. I accounted for genotyping errors by introducing a quantitative method to determine the number of loci to allow to mismatch based upon study-specific error rates. These novel parentage methods were applied to yellow tang (Zebrasoma flavescens, Acanthuridae) sampled around the Island of Hawai'i (measuring 140 km by 129 km) during the summer of 2006. We identified four parent-offspring pairs, which documented dispersal distances ranging from 15 to 184 kilometers. Two of the parents were located within MPAs and their offspring dispersed to unprotected areas. This observation provided direct evidence that MPAs can successfully seed unprotected sites with larvae that survive to become established juveniles. All four offspring were found to the north of their parents and a detailed oceanographic analysis from relevant time periods demonstrated that passive transport initially explained the documented dispersal patterns. However, passive dispersal could not explain how larvae eventually settled on the same island from which they were spawned, indicating a role for larval behavior interacting with fine-scale oceanographic features. Two findings together suggested that sampled reefs did not contribute equally to successful recruitment: (1) low levels of genetic differentiation among all recruit samples, and (2) the fact that the 4 documented parents occurred at only 2 sites. These findings empirically demonstrated the effectiveness of MPAs as useful conservation and management tools and highlighted the value of identifying both the sources and successful settlement sites of marine larvae. I next examined patterns of larval dispersal in bicolor damselfish (Stegastes partitus, Pomacentridae) collected during the summers of 2004 and 2005 from reefs lining the Exuma Sound, Bahamas (measuring 205 km by 85 km). Parentage analysis directly documented two parent-offspring pairs located within the two northern-most sites, which indicated self-recruitment at these sites. Multivariate analyses of pair-wise relatedness values confirmed that self-recruitment was common at all sampled populations. I also found evidence of “sweepstakes events”, whereby only a small proportion of mature adults contributed to subsequent generations. Independent sweepstakes events were indentified in both space and time, bolstering the direct observations of self-recruitment and suggesting a role for sweepstakes analyses to identify the scale of larval dispersal events. This dissertation provides insights into the patterns of larval dispersal in coral-reef fishes. The coupling of direct (e.g., parentage) and indirect (e.g., assignment methods, sweepstakes analyses) methods in conjunction with continued technological and methodological advances will soon provide large-scale, ecologically relevant, rates of larval exchange. By uncovering the dynamics of these enigmatic processes, the implementation of conservation and management strategies for marine fishes in general will undoubtedly experience greater success. Close

• 647. [Article] An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

  Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Close

• 648. [Article] Long-term Ecohydrologic Response to Western Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) Control in Semiarid Watersheds of Central Oregon : A Paired Watershed Study

  Rangelands span over 50% of the globe and approximately 70% of the United States. Although livestock production is an important use of rangelands, the benefits of rangelands are highly diverse. Humans ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Long-term Ecohydrologic Response to Western Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) Control in Semiarid Watersheds of Central Oregon : A Paired Watershed Study Author: Ray, Grace L. Rangelands span over 50% of the globe and approximately 70% of the United States. Although livestock production is an important use of rangelands, the benefits of rangelands are highly diverse. Humans find intrinsic value in protecting these unique and variable landscapes for wildlife, vegetation, and recreation enthusiasts. Woodland plant encroachment has become a major concern for land management agencies and private landowners across the United States and many rangeland communities worldwide. Studies around the world are characterizing the effect that woody species may have on ecologic and hydrologic function, as well as the potential consequences of prolonged encroachment. This research is an addition to a central Oregon paired watershed study that began in 1993 as way of characterizing ecohydrologic effects of western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) removal. The overarching goals of the study presented here were to: 1) Characterize vegetation-soil water interactions at the landscape scale; 2) Analyze long-term soil water and groundwater fluctuations for treated versus untreated watersheds; 3) Asses subsurface flow connections between upland watersheds and a downstream valley. A landscape-scale assessment (2014 - 2015) of shallow soil water content, for to top 12-cm of the soil profile, across both watersheds indicated the treated watershed as having a significantly higher (P < 0.05) mean value of soil water content for three (July, January, and May) out of five measurement periods (July, November 2014 and January, March, May 2015). The untreated watershed was 2% higher in March 2015, and no significant difference was found between the two sites in November 2014. Analysis of the structure of canopy cover (i.e. juniper dominated versus juniper removed) using linear regression models found juniper cover to be correlated with decreasing soil water content for three of five months, with the exception of the wettest months of March and May, when juniper canopy was correlated with increases in soil water content. Soil textural properties were also analyzed as an independent variable in the linear models, and clay content was found to be correlated with increases in soil water content during the three wettest months (January, March, and May) across both watersheds. The long-term (2004 - 2015) analysis of groundwater level and deep soil water content fluctuations showed there to be distinct seasonal and storm-event responses. Groundwater levels in the untreated watershed consistently displayed higher yearly maximum values when compared to the treated, however, groundwater levels in the treated watershed persisted longer into the dry out period. Similar findings were reported in relation to long-term soil water content where the untreated watershed often displayed higher maximum responses but declined back to dry status sooner than the treated watershed. Both watersheds responded to seasonal and storm-event precipitation through soil water content fluctuations in the deep soil profile and through groundwater level fluctuations. Precipitation event responses could be observed on the order of hours for the treated watershed and on the order of days for the untreated. Antecedent soil water content seemed to play a large role in the effectiveness of the storm events. Summer precipitation had little influence on the deeper soil profile and on groundwater response. This may be due to dryer antecedent soil conditions and flashy overland flow. Water content in the top measured soil profile, however, increased and stayed at high levels for up to two weeks following a summer precipitation event which yielded approximately 27 mm of rainfall. Soil water and groundwater response were greatly influenced by winter precipitation events and pre-storm soil water conditions. The hydrologic connectivity of subsurface water flows, through fluctuations in deep soil water and groundwater levels, was found to be an important process in these watersheds. Temporary subsurface hydrologic connections were observed between upland and valley wells as the wet season progressed. This connection was supported by the results of a stable isotope analysis, which indicated that the origin of the water may be the same. This was concluded given the similar values of oxygen-18 found for both the treated and untreated upland sites and for valley groundwater monitoring locations. Large-scale juniper manipulation projects are taking place across the western United States and around the world. Many projects have the objectives of increasing water availability and stream flow to no avail. This research provides baseline data towards understanding the importance of the valuable subsurface water resources in landscapes with limited precipitation availability. Title: Long-term Ecohydrologic Response to Western Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) Control in Semiarid Watersheds of Central Oregon : A Paired Watershed Study Author: Ray, Grace L. Rangelands span over 50% of the globe and approximately 70% of the United States. Although livestock production is an important use of rangelands, the benefits of rangelands are highly diverse. Humans find intrinsic value in protecting these unique and variable landscapes for wildlife, vegetation, and recreation enthusiasts. Woodland plant encroachment has become a major concern for land management agencies and private landowners across the United States and many rangeland communities worldwide. Studies around the world are characterizing the effect that woody species may have on ecologic and hydrologic function, as well as the potential consequences of prolonged encroachment. This research is an addition to a central Oregon paired watershed study that began in 1993 as way of characterizing ecohydrologic effects of western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) removal. The overarching goals of the study presented here were to: 1) Characterize vegetation-soil water interactions at the landscape scale; 2) Analyze long-term soil water and groundwater fluctuations for treated versus untreated watersheds; 3) Asses subsurface flow connections between upland watersheds and a downstream valley. A landscape-scale assessment (2014 - 2015) of shallow soil water content, for to top 12-cm of the soil profile, across both watersheds indicated the treated watershed as having a significantly higher (P < 0.05) mean value of soil water content for three (July, January, and May) out of five measurement periods (July, November 2014 and January, March, May 2015). The untreated watershed was 2% higher in March 2015, and no significant difference was found between the two sites in November 2014. Analysis of the structure of canopy cover (i.e. juniper dominated versus juniper removed) using linear regression models found juniper cover to be correlated with decreasing soil water content for three of five months, with the exception of the wettest months of March and May, when juniper canopy was correlated with increases in soil water content. Soil textural properties were also analyzed as an independent variable in the linear models, and clay content was found to be correlated with increases in soil water content during the three wettest months (January, March, and May) across both watersheds. The long-term (2004 - 2015) analysis of groundwater level and deep soil water content fluctuations showed there to be distinct seasonal and storm-event responses. Groundwater levels in the untreated watershed consistently displayed higher yearly maximum values when compared to the treated, however, groundwater levels in the treated watershed persisted longer into the dry out period. Similar findings were reported in relation to long-term soil water content where the untreated watershed often displayed higher maximum responses but declined back to dry status sooner than the treated watershed. Both watersheds responded to seasonal and storm-event precipitation through soil water content fluctuations in the deep soil profile and through groundwater level fluctuations. Precipitation event responses could be observed on the order of hours for the treated watershed and on the order of days for the untreated. Antecedent soil water content seemed to play a large role in the effectiveness of the storm events. Summer precipitation had little influence on the deeper soil profile and on groundwater response. This may be due to dryer antecedent soil conditions and flashy overland flow. Water content in the top measured soil profile, however, increased and stayed at high levels for up to two weeks following a summer precipitation event which yielded approximately 27 mm of rainfall. Soil water and groundwater response were greatly influenced by winter precipitation events and pre-storm soil water conditions. The hydrologic connectivity of subsurface water flows, through fluctuations in deep soil water and groundwater levels, was found to be an important process in these watersheds. Temporary subsurface hydrologic connections were observed between upland and valley wells as the wet season progressed. This connection was supported by the results of a stable isotope analysis, which indicated that the origin of the water may be the same. This was concluded given the similar values of oxygen-18 found for both the treated and untreated upland sites and for valley groundwater monitoring locations. Large-scale juniper manipulation projects are taking place across the western United States and around the world. Many projects have the objectives of increasing water availability and stream flow to no avail. This research provides baseline data towards understanding the importance of the valuable subsurface water resources in landscapes with limited precipitation availability. Close

• 649. [Article] Potential for dispersal of the non-native parasite Myxobolus cerebralis : qualitative risk assessments for the state of Alaska and the Willamette River Basin, Oregon

  First introduced to the USA in 1958, Myxobolus cerebralis, the parasite responsible for whirling disease in salmonids, has since spread across the country causing severe declines in wild trout populations ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Potential for dispersal of the non-native parasite Myxobolus cerebralis : qualitative risk assessments for the state of Alaska and the Willamette River Basin, Oregon Author: Arsan, E. Leyla First introduced to the USA in 1958, Myxobolus cerebralis, the parasite responsible for whirling disease in salmonids, has since spread across the country causing severe declines in wild trout populations in the intermountain west. Recent development of risk assessment models used to assess the likelihood and consequences of exotic parasite introduction, have strengthened the process of science-based decision-making in aquatic animal health. In the case of M. cerebralis, it is necessary to use a risk assessment model with two unique segments that clearly address the distinct life stages and respective hosts of the parasite separately. The studies described examine the probability of M. cerebralis introduction and establishment for two regions: the state of Alaska, and the Willamette River basin, Oregon. The Alaska risk assessment was based on the assumption that the parasite did not already occur in the state. However, in the process of validating this assumption, we documented the first polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection of the parasite in the state. The pathogen was identified in hatchery rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) from the Anchorage area. Although this is the first detection of the parasite in Alaska, clinical whirling disease has never been documented in the state. To qualitatively assess the risk of further spread of M. cerebralis in Alaska, four potential routes of dissemination were examined: movement of fish by humans, natural dispersal (via migratory birds and stray anadromous salmon), recreational activities, and commercial seafood processing. This research indicates the most likely pathway for M. cerebralis transport in Alaska is human movement of fish. In the Willamette River basin, Oregon, introduction of M. cerebralis has already occurred, though establishment appears limited to a single private hatchery. Introduction in this region was considered the most likely to occur as a result of human movements of fish. Straying anadromous salmonids were also assessed and were present in higher numbers than predicted. However, they were not infected with the parasite, and thus the probability for introduction by this route is low. The probability of introduction of the parasite varies throughout the Willamette River basin. Areas with the highest probability for M. cerebralis introduction were identified as the Clackamas and Santiam River subbasins. The Clackamas River has already experienced an introduction of the parasite, has the largest concentration of hatcheries (state, federal, and private), has a popular sport fishery, and is the closest major tributary to the enormous piscivorous bird-populations in the Columbia River estuary. The Santiam subbasin has a popular sport fishery, received the highest number of stray fish in the Willamette River basin, and has the second largest concentration of hatcheries in the Willamette River basin. Unique from introduction, establishment of the parasite is dependent upon several environmental and biological factors including: water temperatures, spatial/temporal overlap of hosts, and the distribution and genetic composition of the parasite’s invertebrate host, Tubifex tubifex. The distribution, genetic composition and susceptibility of T. tubifex, were considered the most important factor in the ability of M. cerebralis to establish in both systems. Surveys of oligochaete populations were conducted in both study regions. In Alaska, T. tubifex was not detected from the southeast region and the apparent lack of appropriate tubificid hosts may prevent establishment in that part of the state. However, 4 lineages (I, III, IV, and VI) of the species were identified from southcentral Alaska. Lineage IV has not been previously been described in North America and its susceptibility to M. cerebralis was unknown. When lineage IV T. tubifex and 3 mixed-lineage (I, III, IV and VI) groups were exposed to M. cerebralis, only lineage III became infected under our experimental conditions. Thus, if the parasite were dispersed, conditions are appropriate for establishment and propagation of the parasite life cycle in southcentral Alaska, although detrimental effects on fish populations may be reduced as a result of the presence of non-susceptible lineages of T. tubifex. The probability of further establishment in this area is greatest in Ship Creek, where the abundance of susceptible T. tubifex, the presence of susceptible rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and the proximity to the known area of infection make conditions particularly appropriate. Similar to findings in Alaska, the Willamette River basin, Oregon also supports populations of susceptible T. tubifex. If the pathogen were introduced, probability of establishment is high in certain areas of the basin as all conditions are appropriate for propagation of the parasite life cycle. Tributaries to the mainstem Willamette River have the highest probability of establishment as these areas have the greatest numbers of susceptible T. tubifex. However, the abundance of resistant strains of T. tubifex could mitigate the effects of M. cerebralis if introduced. Management recommendations to reduce the likelihood of parasite dissemination are similar for Oregon and Alaska since human movement of fish and angler activities were considered the most likely routes of introduction for both regions. Based on this research, steps should also be taken to limit human movement of fish, whether by restricting carcass planting for stream enrichment in Oregon, or by prohibiting use of fish heads as bait in southcentral Alaska. The states should also allot resources to angler education and awareness of the effects of angler activity and recreation on dispersal of M. cerebralis. This could be done using a combination of brochures and signage at boat ramps describing how to prevent spread of aquatic nuisance species. Title: Potential for dispersal of the non-native parasite Myxobolus cerebralis : qualitative risk assessments for the state of Alaska and the Willamette River Basin, Oregon Author: Arsan, E. Leyla First introduced to the USA in 1958, Myxobolus cerebralis, the parasite responsible for whirling disease in salmonids, has since spread across the country causing severe declines in wild trout populations in the intermountain west. Recent development of risk assessment models used to assess the likelihood and consequences of exotic parasite introduction, have strengthened the process of science-based decision-making in aquatic animal health. In the case of M. cerebralis, it is necessary to use a risk assessment model with two unique segments that clearly address the distinct life stages and respective hosts of the parasite separately. The studies described examine the probability of M. cerebralis introduction and establishment for two regions: the state of Alaska, and the Willamette River basin, Oregon. The Alaska risk assessment was based on the assumption that the parasite did not already occur in the state. However, in the process of validating this assumption, we documented the first polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection of the parasite in the state. The pathogen was identified in hatchery rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) from the Anchorage area. Although this is the first detection of the parasite in Alaska, clinical whirling disease has never been documented in the state. To qualitatively assess the risk of further spread of M. cerebralis in Alaska, four potential routes of dissemination were examined: movement of fish by humans, natural dispersal (via migratory birds and stray anadromous salmon), recreational activities, and commercial seafood processing. This research indicates the most likely pathway for M. cerebralis transport in Alaska is human movement of fish. In the Willamette River basin, Oregon, introduction of M. cerebralis has already occurred, though establishment appears limited to a single private hatchery. Introduction in this region was considered the most likely to occur as a result of human movements of fish. Straying anadromous salmonids were also assessed and were present in higher numbers than predicted. However, they were not infected with the parasite, and thus the probability for introduction by this route is low. The probability of introduction of the parasite varies throughout the Willamette River basin. Areas with the highest probability for M. cerebralis introduction were identified as the Clackamas and Santiam River subbasins. The Clackamas River has already experienced an introduction of the parasite, has the largest concentration of hatcheries (state, federal, and private), has a popular sport fishery, and is the closest major tributary to the enormous piscivorous bird-populations in the Columbia River estuary. The Santiam subbasin has a popular sport fishery, received the highest number of stray fish in the Willamette River basin, and has the second largest concentration of hatcheries in the Willamette River basin. Unique from introduction, establishment of the parasite is dependent upon several environmental and biological factors including: water temperatures, spatial/temporal overlap of hosts, and the distribution and genetic composition of the parasite’s invertebrate host, Tubifex tubifex. The distribution, genetic composition and susceptibility of T. tubifex, were considered the most important factor in the ability of M. cerebralis to establish in both systems. Surveys of oligochaete populations were conducted in both study regions. In Alaska, T. tubifex was not detected from the southeast region and the apparent lack of appropriate tubificid hosts may prevent establishment in that part of the state. However, 4 lineages (I, III, IV, and VI) of the species were identified from southcentral Alaska. Lineage IV has not been previously been described in North America and its susceptibility to M. cerebralis was unknown. When lineage IV T. tubifex and 3 mixed-lineage (I, III, IV and VI) groups were exposed to M. cerebralis, only lineage III became infected under our experimental conditions. Thus, if the parasite were dispersed, conditions are appropriate for establishment and propagation of the parasite life cycle in southcentral Alaska, although detrimental effects on fish populations may be reduced as a result of the presence of non-susceptible lineages of T. tubifex. The probability of further establishment in this area is greatest in Ship Creek, where the abundance of susceptible T. tubifex, the presence of susceptible rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and the proximity to the known area of infection make conditions particularly appropriate. Similar to findings in Alaska, the Willamette River basin, Oregon also supports populations of susceptible T. tubifex. If the pathogen were introduced, probability of establishment is high in certain areas of the basin as all conditions are appropriate for propagation of the parasite life cycle. Tributaries to the mainstem Willamette River have the highest probability of establishment as these areas have the greatest numbers of susceptible T. tubifex. However, the abundance of resistant strains of T. tubifex could mitigate the effects of M. cerebralis if introduced. Management recommendations to reduce the likelihood of parasite dissemination are similar for Oregon and Alaska since human movement of fish and angler activities were considered the most likely routes of introduction for both regions. Based on this research, steps should also be taken to limit human movement of fish, whether by restricting carcass planting for stream enrichment in Oregon, or by prohibiting use of fish heads as bait in southcentral Alaska. The states should also allot resources to angler education and awareness of the effects of angler activity and recreation on dispersal of M. cerebralis. This could be done using a combination of brochures and signage at boat ramps describing how to prevent spread of aquatic nuisance species. Close

• 650. [Article] Trophic cascades and large mammals in the Yellowstone ecosystem

  Reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in 1995-96 provided a rare opportunity to observe the response of an ecosystem to the return of a top predator, including possible reversal of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Trophic cascades and large mammals in the Yellowstone ecosystem Author: Painter, Luke E. Reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in 1995-96 provided a rare opportunity to observe the response of an ecosystem to the return of a top predator, including possible reversal of decades of decline of aspen, cottonwood, and tall willows suppressed by intensive herbivory on elk winter ranges. To investigate changes in aspen stands in northern Yellowstone since the return of wolves, I compared browsing intensity and heights of young aspen in 87 randomly selected stands in 2012 to similar data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. I also measured the spatial density of elk and bison scat piles as an index to relative population densities, and used annual counts of elk to calculate trends in elk density. In 1998, browsing rates averaged 88%, heights were suppressed, and no tall saplings (≥200 cm) were found in sampling plots. In 2012, browsing rates in 2012 were much lower averaging 44%, and 28% of plots had at least one sapling ≥200 cm, tall enough to escape browsing and therefore more likely to survive to replace dying overstory trees. Heights of young aspen were inversely related to browsing intensity, but not significantly related to leader length, suggesting that differences in height were primarily due to differences in browsing, not factors related to productivity. Aspen recovery was patchy, possibly due in part to locally high elk or bison densities in some parts of the winter range. These results of reduced browsing with increased sapling recruitment were consistent with a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen resulting in a widespread and spatially variable recovery of aspen stands. There was wide variation in browsing intensity and aspen height between sectors of the Yellowstone northern ungulate winter range (northern range). The east sector generally had lower rates of browsing and more stands with tall saplings than the central and west sectors, a pattern that matched recent trends in elk population densities. Only a small minority of stands in the west sector had tall saplings, consistent with higher elk densities in the west. Densities of elk in winter on the northern range recently have been highest in the northwest sector outside the park boundary, where elk benefit from lower wolf densities and milder winters. Aspen stands did not recover at a comparable range-wide elk density when elk were culled in the park in the 1950s and 1960s, suggesting that the influence of wolves may be an important factor in the recent redistribution and reduction of herbivory impacts by elk. To examine the relationship between elk and aspen outside of YNP, I assessed browsing intensity and sapling recruitment in 43 aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest east of the park, compared to data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. As in northern YNP, results were consistent with a trophic cascade with reduced browsing and increased recruitment of aspen saplings, but aspen recovery was patchy. Elk densities were moderate to high in most of the area, suggesting that the partial aspen recovery may involve a behavioral response to predation or other factors resulting in local variation in browsing impacts. Livestock may also have limited aspen recruitment. Recovery of some aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest may provide some of the first evidence of a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen outside of a national park, a trophic cascade possibly weakened by the influence of another large herbivore (cattle). Like cattle, bison in northern Yellowstone may have an effect on woody browse plants. Bison have increased in number and may prevent recovery of some aspen stands in places of high bison density. I also examined browsing impacts of bison on willow and cottonwood in the Lamar Valley. To distinguish the effects of bison from those of elk, I compared browsing at different heights on tall willows, below and above the reach of bison. Because elk were absent from the area in summer when bison were present at high density, I also measured browsing that occurred in the summer. I found high rates of summer browsing, and growth of willows and cottonwoods was suppressed in the Lamar Valley. Above the reach of bison (>100 cm), growth was not suppressed and browsing rates were low, suggesting that these plant species have been released from suppression by elk but bison have compensated for some of the reduction in elk browsing. This study provided the first evidence of significant herbivory by bison of woody browse plants in Yellowstone, and revealed some of the complexity of the Yellowstone food web. In summary, these research results support the hypothesis of a trophic cascade resulting from large carnivore restoration and subsequent changes in elk population densities and distribution. The return of wolves may have combined with other factors such as changes in hunting and land ownership, and increased predation by bears, to result in large-scale shifts in the distribution of elk in northern Yellowstone and greatly reduced elk densities in some areas. If these trends continue, the result may be a new alternative state with lower elk densities, and potential for enhanced biodiversity through reduced herbivory of woody browse species. Title: Trophic cascades and large mammals in the Yellowstone ecosystem Author: Painter, Luke E. Reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in 1995-96 provided a rare opportunity to observe the response of an ecosystem to the return of a top predator, including possible reversal of decades of decline of aspen, cottonwood, and tall willows suppressed by intensive herbivory on elk winter ranges. To investigate changes in aspen stands in northern Yellowstone since the return of wolves, I compared browsing intensity and heights of young aspen in 87 randomly selected stands in 2012 to similar data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. I also measured the spatial density of elk and bison scat piles as an index to relative population densities, and used annual counts of elk to calculate trends in elk density. In 1998, browsing rates averaged 88%, heights were suppressed, and no tall saplings (≥200 cm) were found in sampling plots. In 2012, browsing rates in 2012 were much lower averaging 44%, and 28% of plots had at least one sapling ≥200 cm, tall enough to escape browsing and therefore more likely to survive to replace dying overstory trees. Heights of young aspen were inversely related to browsing intensity, but not significantly related to leader length, suggesting that differences in height were primarily due to differences in browsing, not factors related to productivity. Aspen recovery was patchy, possibly due in part to locally high elk or bison densities in some parts of the winter range. These results of reduced browsing with increased sapling recruitment were consistent with a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen resulting in a widespread and spatially variable recovery of aspen stands. There was wide variation in browsing intensity and aspen height between sectors of the Yellowstone northern ungulate winter range (northern range). The east sector generally had lower rates of browsing and more stands with tall saplings than the central and west sectors, a pattern that matched recent trends in elk population densities. Only a small minority of stands in the west sector had tall saplings, consistent with higher elk densities in the west. Densities of elk in winter on the northern range recently have been highest in the northwest sector outside the park boundary, where elk benefit from lower wolf densities and milder winters. Aspen stands did not recover at a comparable range-wide elk density when elk were culled in the park in the 1950s and 1960s, suggesting that the influence of wolves may be an important factor in the recent redistribution and reduction of herbivory impacts by elk. To examine the relationship between elk and aspen outside of YNP, I assessed browsing intensity and sapling recruitment in 43 aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest east of the park, compared to data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. As in northern YNP, results were consistent with a trophic cascade with reduced browsing and increased recruitment of aspen saplings, but aspen recovery was patchy. Elk densities were moderate to high in most of the area, suggesting that the partial aspen recovery may involve a behavioral response to predation or other factors resulting in local variation in browsing impacts. Livestock may also have limited aspen recruitment. Recovery of some aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest may provide some of the first evidence of a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen outside of a national park, a trophic cascade possibly weakened by the influence of another large herbivore (cattle). Like cattle, bison in northern Yellowstone may have an effect on woody browse plants. Bison have increased in number and may prevent recovery of some aspen stands in places of high bison density. I also examined browsing impacts of bison on willow and cottonwood in the Lamar Valley. To distinguish the effects of bison from those of elk, I compared browsing at different heights on tall willows, below and above the reach of bison. Because elk were absent from the area in summer when bison were present at high density, I also measured browsing that occurred in the summer. I found high rates of summer browsing, and growth of willows and cottonwoods was suppressed in the Lamar Valley. Above the reach of bison (>100 cm), growth was not suppressed and browsing rates were low, suggesting that these plant species have been released from suppression by elk but bison have compensated for some of the reduction in elk browsing. This study provided the first evidence of significant herbivory by bison of woody browse plants in Yellowstone, and revealed some of the complexity of the Yellowstone food web. In summary, these research results support the hypothesis of a trophic cascade resulting from large carnivore restoration and subsequent changes in elk population densities and distribution. The return of wolves may have combined with other factors such as changes in hunting and land ownership, and increased predation by bears, to result in large-scale shifts in the distribution of elk in northern Yellowstone and greatly reduced elk densities in some areas. If these trends continue, the result may be a new alternative state with lower elk densities, and potential for enhanced biodiversity through reduced herbivory of woody browse species. Close

• 651. [Article] A UK perspective on marine renewable energy environmental research: Keeping up with a ‘Deploy & Monitor’ philosophy

  There are many drivers for the pursuit of renewable energy extraction from coastal seas. In the United Kingdom these include moving away from fossil fuels to mitigate the impacts of climate change, improving ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A UK perspective on marine renewable energy environmental research: Keeping up with a ‘Deploy & Monitor’ philosophy Author: Wilson, Ben There are many drivers for the pursuit of renewable energy extraction from coastal seas. In the United Kingdom these include moving away from fossil fuels to mitigate the impacts of climate change, improving energy security by diversifying supply options, increasing wealth generation in outlying coastal communities, and seeking alternative sources of power as existing infrastructure (power stations) near the end of their useful lives. In Scotland these drivers are particularly strong because of the additional factors of decline of North Sea oil reserves; the political pressure not to re-develop nuclear power plants; and the abundant offshore wind, wave and tidal-stream resources. While these drivers are strong, and backed up by ambitious political targets, a variety of constraints currently limit development of a vibrant marine renewables sector in UK coastal waters. In addition to financial, technological and logistical issues, a diversity of environmental restrictions limitprogress of the renewables sector. Many of these environmental issues actually stem from a lack of basic knowledge of how marine renewable energy devices are likely to interact with the receiving environment and vulnerable species (particularly those protected by European legislation such as the Habitats and Species as well as the Birds Directives). Furthermore where negative interactions are known, there may be limited knowledge about, or options for, mitigating these impacts. Strictly applying precautionary principals to these new and diverse technologies with respect to their potential local negative environmental impacts threatens to halt development of these technologies despite their potential benefits for global climate and other environmental issues. This problem applies particularly to wave and tidal-stream technologies which are diverse, new, and without track-record. To overcome this issue, the Scottish government is implementing a staged introduction of these technologies under what has been termed a “Survey-Deploy-&-Monitor” policy. That is, commercial scale devices are being placed singly or in small arrays (< 10 MW) into areas of pre-determined and acceptable environmental sensitivity and then impacts are being quantified through a monitoring program. In parallel to this approach, The Crown Estate (the seabed owner) has performed a series of licensing rounds to lease preferred sites to specific wind, wave and tidal-stream developers. If consented, these sites will represent commercial-scale developments of all three technologies in Scottish and wider UK waters. Part of that consenting progress requires that developers provide evidence (through Environmental Impact Studies and the production of Environmental Statements) that their developments will not harm the surrounding environment. It is these consenting exercises and related fundamental questions about impacts that are currently driving most of the environmental research related to offshore wind and marine renewable technologies in the UK. Research tends to fall into three divisions based on the source of funding and the geographic scope of the issues. At the smallest scale are studies of individual sites of interest to individual developers seeking consents for a specific technology. More generic studies funded by government or industry consortia may be performed to understand environmental issues surrounding a particular group of technologies, installation methods, or operational parameters. In this case, the actual site may be less important. Finally, fundamental research (funded by Research Councils) may be carried out to understand how and why animals use renewable energy relevant sites. Because there are a large number of research studies currently underway at a wide range of scales, sites, and taxa in Scotland and the wider UK, it is not possible to summarize them all in this short talk. Instead, I will outline examples of the three broad areas of environmental research (site/device specific, technology generic and more basic ecology). These examples have also been chosen because they represent an ongoing project, a recently established group of research studies, and a potential new research program. Some of the perhaps less intuitive lessons that have arisen from some of such projects include : 1. The responses of organisms may not be tied to particular brands of device or energy extraction, whether wind, wave, tidal-stream or even oil platform. For fouling organisms the particulars of the substrate might be the important factor rather than the device’s method of energy extraction. Likewise for fish it may be the device complexity and position in the water column that is key to their interactions. 2. Conversely, particular, seemingly unimportant features of devices may have relevance to marine organisms. For example, the color of a turbine may be extremely important for animals maneuvering around the rotors, a duct or the pile. 3. Test centers used to assess full-scale devices may seem like excellent places to also perform environmental research; however care must be taken as the devices in test centers are typically early generation prototypes and may be swapped out frequently. Furthermore activities by other companies at neighboring berths may invalidate site or device specific experiments. 4. Inter-annual variability does not suit the current pace of marine renewables development and careful consideration of the use of control sites and BACI designs should be made. 5. Cumulative impacts of multiple renewable and other developments offer a massive challenge to determining environmental impact. This difficulty represents a significant area of uncertainty for developers seeking consent and may encourage a development race with companies not wanting to have to consider their development relative to all of the others that preceded them. 6. Finally, while much effort is currently being devoted to gathering sufficient data to permit consent and early stage deployments, the significant investments only come when developers set up arrays capable of producing commercially relevant power. At this point there may be a step change in the degree of monitoring required of any potential environmental interactions. Should intolerable impacts be found, then mitigation will be urgently required or an exit strategy implemented. Title: A UK perspective on marine renewable energy environmental research: Keeping up with a ‘Deploy & Monitor’ philosophy Author: Wilson, Ben There are many drivers for the pursuit of renewable energy extraction from coastal seas. In the United Kingdom these include moving away from fossil fuels to mitigate the impacts of climate change, improving energy security by diversifying supply options, increasing wealth generation in outlying coastal communities, and seeking alternative sources of power as existing infrastructure (power stations) near the end of their useful lives. In Scotland these drivers are particularly strong because of the additional factors of decline of North Sea oil reserves; the political pressure not to re-develop nuclear power plants; and the abundant offshore wind, wave and tidal-stream resources. While these drivers are strong, and backed up by ambitious political targets, a variety of constraints currently limit development of a vibrant marine renewables sector in UK coastal waters. In addition to financial, technological and logistical issues, a diversity of environmental restrictions limitprogress of the renewables sector. Many of these environmental issues actually stem from a lack of basic knowledge of how marine renewable energy devices are likely to interact with the receiving environment and vulnerable species (particularly those protected by European legislation such as the Habitats and Species as well as the Birds Directives). Furthermore where negative interactions are known, there may be limited knowledge about, or options for, mitigating these impacts. Strictly applying precautionary principals to these new and diverse technologies with respect to their potential local negative environmental impacts threatens to halt development of these technologies despite their potential benefits for global climate and other environmental issues. This problem applies particularly to wave and tidal-stream technologies which are diverse, new, and without track-record. To overcome this issue, the Scottish government is implementing a staged introduction of these technologies under what has been termed a “Survey-Deploy-&-Monitor” policy. That is, commercial scale devices are being placed singly or in small arrays (< 10 MW) into areas of pre-determined and acceptable environmental sensitivity and then impacts are being quantified through a monitoring program. In parallel to this approach, The Crown Estate (the seabed owner) has performed a series of licensing rounds to lease preferred sites to specific wind, wave and tidal-stream developers. If consented, these sites will represent commercial-scale developments of all three technologies in Scottish and wider UK waters. Part of that consenting progress requires that developers provide evidence (through Environmental Impact Studies and the production of Environmental Statements) that their developments will not harm the surrounding environment. It is these consenting exercises and related fundamental questions about impacts that are currently driving most of the environmental research related to offshore wind and marine renewable technologies in the UK. Research tends to fall into three divisions based on the source of funding and the geographic scope of the issues. At the smallest scale are studies of individual sites of interest to individual developers seeking consents for a specific technology. More generic studies funded by government or industry consortia may be performed to understand environmental issues surrounding a particular group of technologies, installation methods, or operational parameters. In this case, the actual site may be less important. Finally, fundamental research (funded by Research Councils) may be carried out to understand how and why animals use renewable energy relevant sites. Because there are a large number of research studies currently underway at a wide range of scales, sites, and taxa in Scotland and the wider UK, it is not possible to summarize them all in this short talk. Instead, I will outline examples of the three broad areas of environmental research (site/device specific, technology generic and more basic ecology). These examples have also been chosen because they represent an ongoing project, a recently established group of research studies, and a potential new research program. Some of the perhaps less intuitive lessons that have arisen from some of such projects include : 1. The responses of organisms may not be tied to particular brands of device or energy extraction, whether wind, wave, tidal-stream or even oil platform. For fouling organisms the particulars of the substrate might be the important factor rather than the device’s method of energy extraction. Likewise for fish it may be the device complexity and position in the water column that is key to their interactions. 2. Conversely, particular, seemingly unimportant features of devices may have relevance to marine organisms. For example, the color of a turbine may be extremely important for animals maneuvering around the rotors, a duct or the pile. 3. Test centers used to assess full-scale devices may seem like excellent places to also perform environmental research; however care must be taken as the devices in test centers are typically early generation prototypes and may be swapped out frequently. Furthermore activities by other companies at neighboring berths may invalidate site or device specific experiments. 4. Inter-annual variability does not suit the current pace of marine renewables development and careful consideration of the use of control sites and BACI designs should be made. 5. Cumulative impacts of multiple renewable and other developments offer a massive challenge to determining environmental impact. This difficulty represents a significant area of uncertainty for developers seeking consent and may encourage a development race with companies not wanting to have to consider their development relative to all of the others that preceded them. 6. Finally, while much effort is currently being devoted to gathering sufficient data to permit consent and early stage deployments, the significant investments only come when developers set up arrays capable of producing commercially relevant power. At this point there may be a step change in the degree of monitoring required of any potential environmental interactions. Should intolerable impacts be found, then mitigation will be urgently required or an exit strategy implemented. Close

• 652. [Article] Age-specific and lifetime reproductive success of known age Northern Spotted Owls on four study areas in Oregon and Washington

  Northern Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) are a long-lived forest owl and range-wide declines in their numbers have resulted in the species being listed as threatened under the endangered species ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Age-specific and lifetime reproductive success of known age Northern Spotted Owls on four study areas in Oregon and Washington Author: Loschl, Peter J. Northern Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) are a long-lived forest owl and range-wide declines in their numbers have resulted in the species being listed as threatened under the endangered species act. While many studies have been focused on population trends and reproductive performance of Spotted Owls from different age-classes, none have examined age related performance or lifetime reproductive success of individual owls. Using data from known age Spotted Owls on four long-term demography studies in Oregon and Washington, I conducted separate analyses to examine the functional relationship of age and reproductive success, measured as the number of young fledged (NYF), and to examine lifetime reproductive success. In my age-specific analysis, I used a mixed models approach to account for repeated measures on individual owls. I found that the standard 3-level age-class approach (1-year-old, 2-year-old, adult) often used in Spotted Owl research was a poor fit relative to curvilinear and threshold models that allowed for age-dependent variation beyond age 3. A quadratic age effect was more often supported for males, whereas a threshold effect indicating a linear increase in NYF from ages 1 to 4 was most supported in the analyses of female data. Females tended to achieve a maximum in reproductive performance at earlier ages than males, and there appeared to be a negative relationship between the age when a maximum in mean NYF was reached and overall fecundity, as reported in earlier studies. Temporal variability in numbers of young fledged at each age was best modeled with a categorical year variable as opposed to a cyclic biennial ("even-odd") year effect. Lifetime reproductive success of Spotted Owls, measured as the total numbers of fledglings and recruits produced by individuals, varied widely. For owls with relatively complete data, the number of lifetime fledglings ranged from 0 to 20 and the number of lifetime offspring that were observed as recruits within study areas ranged from 0 to 7. There was a significant positive relationship between the number of lifetime young fledged and the number that later recruited locally. Seventy five percent of females and 67% of males bred at least once. Whereas 17% of females and 16% of males produced 50% of the offspring fledged by each sex, only 9% of females and 7% of males produced 50% of the banded young that were later observed as recruits. Thirty nine percent of females and 30% of males produced no fledglings and 64% of females and 69% of males produced no local recruits. Thus while most owls fledged at least 1 offspring, most did not produce any fledglings that recruited locally during the study. Cumulative proportions of individual owls that first bred at different ages indicated that females tended to initiate their breeding at earlier ages than males. Whereas 36% of females bred first at ages 1 or 2, only 19% of males bred first before age 3. Of the owls that bred, 98% of females and 91% of males bred at least once by age 6. Compared to owls on the three Oregon study areas, owls on the Cle Elum Study Area in the eastern Cascades of Washington bred early (>50% by age 2), had higher mean numbers of fledglings (>1) at most ages, and had short mean lifespans (6 years). On the Oregon study areas, owls first bred at later ages (>50% at age ≥3), had lower mean numbers of fledglings (0.4–0.7) at most ages, and had longer mean lifespans (7–9 years). These patterns appear consistent with a compensatory relationship between reproduction and survival that was suggested in at least one previous study. Life history theory is also consistent with the idea that where lower and more variable non-juvenile survival occurs (as has been documented on Cle Elum), selection pressure for earlier breeding and greater offspring production at each attempt are to be expected. Nevertheless, it is unclear if local conditions such as prey abundance, harsh winter conditions, or predation pressure act proximately to influence reproduction and survival of Spotted Owls in these studies, or if the variability in patterns of age-specific reproductive success and components of lifetime reproduction on these study areas reflect adaptive life history responses among populations of Spotted Owls. It is likely that both plasticity and life history adaptations underlie the differences and patterns that were revealed, but tests of these hypotheses were beyond the scope of my study. Title: Age-specific and lifetime reproductive success of known age Northern Spotted Owls on four study areas in Oregon and Washington Author: Loschl, Peter J. Northern Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) are a long-lived forest owl and range-wide declines in their numbers have resulted in the species being listed as threatened under the endangered species act. While many studies have been focused on population trends and reproductive performance of Spotted Owls from different age-classes, none have examined age related performance or lifetime reproductive success of individual owls. Using data from known age Spotted Owls on four long-term demography studies in Oregon and Washington, I conducted separate analyses to examine the functional relationship of age and reproductive success, measured as the number of young fledged (NYF), and to examine lifetime reproductive success. In my age-specific analysis, I used a mixed models approach to account for repeated measures on individual owls. I found that the standard 3-level age-class approach (1-year-old, 2-year-old, adult) often used in Spotted Owl research was a poor fit relative to curvilinear and threshold models that allowed for age-dependent variation beyond age 3. A quadratic age effect was more often supported for males, whereas a threshold effect indicating a linear increase in NYF from ages 1 to 4 was most supported in the analyses of female data. Females tended to achieve a maximum in reproductive performance at earlier ages than males, and there appeared to be a negative relationship between the age when a maximum in mean NYF was reached and overall fecundity, as reported in earlier studies. Temporal variability in numbers of young fledged at each age was best modeled with a categorical year variable as opposed to a cyclic biennial ("even-odd") year effect. Lifetime reproductive success of Spotted Owls, measured as the total numbers of fledglings and recruits produced by individuals, varied widely. For owls with relatively complete data, the number of lifetime fledglings ranged from 0 to 20 and the number of lifetime offspring that were observed as recruits within study areas ranged from 0 to 7. There was a significant positive relationship between the number of lifetime young fledged and the number that later recruited locally. Seventy five percent of females and 67% of males bred at least once. Whereas 17% of females and 16% of males produced 50% of the offspring fledged by each sex, only 9% of females and 7% of males produced 50% of the banded young that were later observed as recruits. Thirty nine percent of females and 30% of males produced no fledglings and 64% of females and 69% of males produced no local recruits. Thus while most owls fledged at least 1 offspring, most did not produce any fledglings that recruited locally during the study. Cumulative proportions of individual owls that first bred at different ages indicated that females tended to initiate their breeding at earlier ages than males. Whereas 36% of females bred first at ages 1 or 2, only 19% of males bred first before age 3. Of the owls that bred, 98% of females and 91% of males bred at least once by age 6. Compared to owls on the three Oregon study areas, owls on the Cle Elum Study Area in the eastern Cascades of Washington bred early (>50% by age 2), had higher mean numbers of fledglings (>1) at most ages, and had short mean lifespans (6 years). On the Oregon study areas, owls first bred at later ages (>50% at age ≥3), had lower mean numbers of fledglings (0.4–0.7) at most ages, and had longer mean lifespans (7–9 years). These patterns appear consistent with a compensatory relationship between reproduction and survival that was suggested in at least one previous study. Life history theory is also consistent with the idea that where lower and more variable non-juvenile survival occurs (as has been documented on Cle Elum), selection pressure for earlier breeding and greater offspring production at each attempt are to be expected. Nevertheless, it is unclear if local conditions such as prey abundance, harsh winter conditions, or predation pressure act proximately to influence reproduction and survival of Spotted Owls in these studies, or if the variability in patterns of age-specific reproductive success and components of lifetime reproduction on these study areas reflect adaptive life history responses among populations of Spotted Owls. It is likely that both plasticity and life history adaptations underlie the differences and patterns that were revealed, but tests of these hypotheses were beyond the scope of my study. Close

• 653. [Article] Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i

  The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i Author: Malachowski, Christopher P. The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as habitat loss, overharvest, introduced mammalian predators, and hybridization with introduced feral Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). A key objective for Hawaiian Duck recovery is to establish a protected and managed network of wetland habitats; however, development of effective habitat management plans is stymied by the lack of information on patterns of habitat use in relation to fundamental resource requirements. Furthermore, many generalizations regarding dabbling duck behavior and resource requirements that guide seasonal wetland management objectives in North America may not apply to tropical regions and island systems. In this thesis, I compare the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck with closely related island-endemic waterfowl and migratory North American Anas, I investigate the behavioral response of Hawaiian Ducks to wetland habitat management and taro cultivation, and I examine the effects of environmental, climatic, temporal, and social factors on the activity budgets of Hawaiian Ducks. I conducted instantaneous focal sampling (n = 984 observation sessions; 328.8 hr) throughout the annual cycle from September 2010 to August 2011 at managed wetlands and taro lo'i within Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Kaua'i. I documented 73 specific Hawaiian Duck behaviors in eight broad behavior categories including foraging, maintenance, resting, locomotion, alert, courtship, and intraspecific and interspecific agonistic interactions. I found that the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck was similar to that of the Mallard; however, subtle variations in the form and linkage of certain courtship displays, such as nod-swimming, were observed. Additionally, male Hawaiian Ducks were occasionally associated with brood-rearing females (11% of brood observations), and this behavior appeared to be a male strategy whereby females received little perceived benefit , but males may have potentially garnered additional breeding attempts or maintained pair-bonds for subsequent breeding seasons. After accounting for sex, pair status, month, and time of day, the diurnal behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed between managed wetlands and taro habitats (F₆,₉₆₀ = 30.3, P < 0.001). Hawaiian Ducks utilized taro predominantly for resting (44%), maintenance (21%), and foraging (15%), while birds used managed wetlands for a variety of activities, including foraging (11%), maintenance (28%), resting (27%), and locomotion (22%). Social activities, particularly courtship, occurred more frequently in managed wetlands than in taro (H₁ = 11.9, P < 0.001). In managed wetlands, birds foraged slightly more with increasing cover of Cyperus spp. (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and Fimbristylis littoralis (r = 0.17, P < 0.01) and decreasing cover of Urochloa mutica (r = -0.15, P < 0.01) and wetland vegetation height (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Within taro habitat, the behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed significantly between birds in lo'i and on dikes (F₆,₄₆₈ = 142.8, P < 0.001); birds utilized lo‘i dikes for resting (60%) and maintenance activities (21%), whereas birds entered lo‘i primarily to forage (45%). The activity budget of Hawaiian Ducks was strongly influenced by time of day (F₁₈,₂₇₁₅.₇₈ = 6.4, P < 0.001), and birds spent more time engaged in active behaviors (i.e., foraging, locomotion, and alert) and less time resting during early morning and evening than during late morning and afternoon. While strong seasonal shifts in most behavioral patterns were not detected, males allocated more time to courting (1.1 vs. 0.3%; H1 = 6.92, P = 0.009) and mate-guarding (0.5 vs. <0.1%; H₁ = 9.83, P = 0.002) in managed wetlands between November and March than the remainder of the year. The effects of sex (F₆,₉₆₀ = 6.06, P < 0.001) and social status (F₆,₆₈₂ = 6.69, P < 0.001) on activity budgets were also significant. Females spent more time foraging (18 vs. 12%) and less time in alert, locomotor, and social behaviors than males. Paired birds allocated more time to aggression towards conspecifics, mate-guarding, and courtship, and within taro lo‘i, paired birds foraged more and rested less than unpaired birds. Overall, Hawaiian Duck allocated diurnal activity budgets differently in managed and cultivated wetland habitat at Hanalei NWR, suggesting that both systems may play an important role in fulfilling fundamental daily and seasonal resource requirements. The increased range of activities and foraging tactics used in managed wetlands may indicate the greater habitat diversity (e.g., vegetation structure, patchiness, plant species richness, range of water depths) provided by seasonal wetlands. In general, Hawaiian Duck allocated less time to diurnal foraging than North American Anas, such Mallard and Mottled Duck (A. fulvigula), suggesting that Hawaiian Duck may have lower daily and seasonal energy demands, have access to higher quality diet, or allot more time to nocturnal foraging activities. Also, unlike many North American migratory waterfowl that demonstrate significant behavioral plasticity in adjusting activity budgets to meet seasonal energy demands associated with breeding, molting, wintering, and migration, Hawaiian Duck did not exhibit a strong seasonal shift in most behaviors which may reflect their non-migratory nature and asynchronous life history cycle. Title: Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i Author: Malachowski, Christopher P. The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as habitat loss, overharvest, introduced mammalian predators, and hybridization with introduced feral Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). A key objective for Hawaiian Duck recovery is to establish a protected and managed network of wetland habitats; however, development of effective habitat management plans is stymied by the lack of information on patterns of habitat use in relation to fundamental resource requirements. Furthermore, many generalizations regarding dabbling duck behavior and resource requirements that guide seasonal wetland management objectives in North America may not apply to tropical regions and island systems. In this thesis, I compare the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck with closely related island-endemic waterfowl and migratory North American Anas, I investigate the behavioral response of Hawaiian Ducks to wetland habitat management and taro cultivation, and I examine the effects of environmental, climatic, temporal, and social factors on the activity budgets of Hawaiian Ducks. I conducted instantaneous focal sampling (n = 984 observation sessions; 328.8 hr) throughout the annual cycle from September 2010 to August 2011 at managed wetlands and taro lo'i within Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Kaua'i. I documented 73 specific Hawaiian Duck behaviors in eight broad behavior categories including foraging, maintenance, resting, locomotion, alert, courtship, and intraspecific and interspecific agonistic interactions. I found that the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck was similar to that of the Mallard; however, subtle variations in the form and linkage of certain courtship displays, such as nod-swimming, were observed. Additionally, male Hawaiian Ducks were occasionally associated with brood-rearing females (11% of brood observations), and this behavior appeared to be a male strategy whereby females received little perceived benefit , but males may have potentially garnered additional breeding attempts or maintained pair-bonds for subsequent breeding seasons. After accounting for sex, pair status, month, and time of day, the diurnal behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed between managed wetlands and taro habitats (F₆,₉₆₀ = 30.3, P < 0.001). Hawaiian Ducks utilized taro predominantly for resting (44%), maintenance (21%), and foraging (15%), while birds used managed wetlands for a variety of activities, including foraging (11%), maintenance (28%), resting (27%), and locomotion (22%). Social activities, particularly courtship, occurred more frequently in managed wetlands than in taro (H₁ = 11.9, P < 0.001). In managed wetlands, birds foraged slightly more with increasing cover of Cyperus spp. (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and Fimbristylis littoralis (r = 0.17, P < 0.01) and decreasing cover of Urochloa mutica (r = -0.15, P < 0.01) and wetland vegetation height (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Within taro habitat, the behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed significantly between birds in lo'i and on dikes (F₆,₄₆₈ = 142.8, P < 0.001); birds utilized lo‘i dikes for resting (60%) and maintenance activities (21%), whereas birds entered lo‘i primarily to forage (45%). The activity budget of Hawaiian Ducks was strongly influenced by time of day (F₁₈,₂₇₁₅.₇₈ = 6.4, P < 0.001), and birds spent more time engaged in active behaviors (i.e., foraging, locomotion, and alert) and less time resting during early morning and evening than during late morning and afternoon. While strong seasonal shifts in most behavioral patterns were not detected, males allocated more time to courting (1.1 vs. 0.3%; H1 = 6.92, P = 0.009) and mate-guarding (0.5 vs. <0.1%; H₁ = 9.83, P = 0.002) in managed wetlands between November and March than the remainder of the year. The effects of sex (F₆,₉₆₀ = 6.06, P < 0.001) and social status (F₆,₆₈₂ = 6.69, P < 0.001) on activity budgets were also significant. Females spent more time foraging (18 vs. 12%) and less time in alert, locomotor, and social behaviors than males. Paired birds allocated more time to aggression towards conspecifics, mate-guarding, and courtship, and within taro lo‘i, paired birds foraged more and rested less than unpaired birds. Overall, Hawaiian Duck allocated diurnal activity budgets differently in managed and cultivated wetland habitat at Hanalei NWR, suggesting that both systems may play an important role in fulfilling fundamental daily and seasonal resource requirements. The increased range of activities and foraging tactics used in managed wetlands may indicate the greater habitat diversity (e.g., vegetation structure, patchiness, plant species richness, range of water depths) provided by seasonal wetlands. In general, Hawaiian Duck allocated less time to diurnal foraging than North American Anas, such Mallard and Mottled Duck (A. fulvigula), suggesting that Hawaiian Duck may have lower daily and seasonal energy demands, have access to higher quality diet, or allot more time to nocturnal foraging activities. Also, unlike many North American migratory waterfowl that demonstrate significant behavioral plasticity in adjusting activity budgets to meet seasonal energy demands associated with breeding, molting, wintering, and migration, Hawaiian Duck did not exhibit a strong seasonal shift in most behaviors which may reflect their non-migratory nature and asynchronous life history cycle. Close

• 654. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout

  	We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). For the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout, the critical habitat designation includes approximately 1,748 miles (mi) (2,813 kilometers (km)) of streams and 61,235 acres (ac) (24,781 hectares (ha)) of lakes and marshes. We solicited data and comments from the public on all aspects of the proposed rule, including data on economic and other impacts of the designation Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). For the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout, the critical habitat designation includes approximately 1,748 miles (mi) (2,813 kilometers (km)) of streams and 61,235 acres (ac) (24,781 hectares (ha)) of lakes and marshes. We solicited data and comments from the public on all aspects of the proposed rule, including data on economic and other impacts of the designation Close

• 655. [Image] Review of the hatchery measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds. Part I, Consistency of the Oregon plan with recommendations from recent scientific review panels

  	"December 10, 1998."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Review of the hatchery measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds. Part I, Consistency of the Oregon plan with recommendations from recent scientific review panels Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 10, 1998." Title: Review of the hatchery measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds. Part I, Consistency of the Oregon plan with recommendations from recent scientific review panels Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 10, 1998." Close

• 656. [Article] Evaluating tools used to estimate and manage browse available to wintering moose on the Copper River Delta, Alaska

  Ungulates comprise some of the most well researched and intensely managed wildlife populations on earth. As such, they are recognized as ideal study subjects for developing and modifying management tools ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluating tools used to estimate and manage browse available to wintering moose on the Copper River Delta, Alaska Author: Smythe, Sharon E. Ungulates comprise some of the most well researched and intensely managed wildlife populations on earth. As such, they are recognized as ideal study subjects for developing and modifying management tools or theories (Danell et al. 1994, Shipley 2010). An introduced moose (Alces alces gigas) population on the Copper River Delta (CRD; Delta) of south-central Alaska functions as a valuable resource for the residents of Cordova and an isolated research population on which to test managerial techniques. Since its introduction (1949-1958), the founding population of 23 moose has grown to over 830 in 2013, divided into two sub-populations. However, in 1964, the largest earthquake recorded in U.S. history (9.2 magnitude) uplifted the Delta by 1.0-4.0 m, initiating delta-wide changes in hydrology, vegetation distributions, and successional processes. The proportion of stands dominated by woody species, especially alder (Alnus viridis sinuata) and spruce (Picea sitchensis), increased visibly. Furthermore, previous research (1987-89) observed that 90% of the moose on the western region of the Delta wintered within 9-24% of the total land area, possibly restricting their available winter browse. Because moose diets on the CRD are dominated by willows (Salix spp.), managers were concerned that the combined effects of a restricted winter range and earthquake-initiated vegetation changes would negatively influence the population. Managers have responded to this concern by 1) supporting work to estimate the nutritional carrying capacity (NCC; i.e., the forage available to a population within a specified area and time) of the Delta, and 2) by exploring the feasibility of mechanical treatment as a means of stimulating browse production for the moose. Thus, the objectives of this thesis were to 1) explore the factors influencing NCC for moose on the west CRD while combining updated digital and field-collected data to estimate NCC, and 2) to assess the effects of mechanical treatment on the production of moose browse across stand types and over time. We collected field data and evaluated differences in the past (1988-89) and present (2012-13) biomass-predicting regression equations for two willow species (Barclay's and Hooker's willow, Salix barclayi and hookeriana) used within NCC models to determine 1) whether past and present models of Barclay's willow predicted similarly and 2) whether Hooker’s and Barclay's willow differed in average available biomass, nutritional quality, and utilization by moose. The linear coefficients for the current (2013) Barclay’s willow, Hooker's willow, and combined equations were 2.2x, 1.6x, and 1.9x larger, respectively, than that derived from the 1988 model for Barclay’s willow (which possibly included Hooker's willow data). Thus, willows on the CRD may now be supporting more biomass per stem than predicted by prior models. Hooker's and Barclay's willow did not differ in mean available biomass, nutritional values, or utilization rates. These results suggest a need to evaluate the accuracy of older allometric regressions, though separate identification of the visually-similar Barclay's and Hooker's willow may be unnecessary for future biomass-estimating efforts on the CRD. To further explore the factors influencing the biomass available to moose and their associated NCC estimates, we compared 5 NCC model types across 4 winter ranges and under 3 winter-severity scenarios for the western CRD moose population. We conducted a sensitivity analysis (Sx) of our final model to determine the relative influence of factors affecting NCC estimates. Lastly, we compared current (2012-13) browse available biomass, stand type areas (2011), and NCC results to those obtained by past research (1987-89, MacCracken et al. 1997 and 1959/1986, Stephenson et al. 2006) to determine changes over time, while evaluating the effects of models incorporating satellite-based estimates of stand areas and forage nutritional values on NCC estimates. Because recent aerial survey observations suggest expansion of the moose winter range, our final model estimated NCC between 2,198-3,471 moose depending on winter severity within a winter range encompassing the entire west Delta. These results suggest the current western moose population (approximately 600 in 2013) is below NCC. Model components with the largest and smallest Sx were snow depth and tannin- and lignin-caused reductions in forage nutritional quality, respectively. Changes from 1987-2013 in available biomass of forage species ranged from -66-493%, while changes from 1959-2011 in stand type areas ranged from -60-661%. Overall, NCC estimates only declined by 2% from 1959-2013, however inclusion of forage nutritional quality in models reduced NCC estimates by 60%. Lastly, we assessed the use of hydraulic-axing (i.e., hydro-axing) as tool for increasing the available willow biomass. We evaluated treatment effects on biomass, height, nutritional quality (crude protein, lignin, and tannin levels), utilization, and snow burial of the winter forage species within 3 winter-severity scenarios. Sites were treated in 4 winters (1990-92, 2008, 2010, and 2012) within 5 stand types in 20 locations varying from 0.86-63.40 ha in size. Results indicate few significant differences relative to controls, though treatment significantly increased the ratio of willow to alder. Our results may be limited by sample sizes (n = 1-9 per stand type or treatment year) as visual comparison suggests treatment via hydraulic-axing may be an effective method for increasing willow biomass without influencing nutritional quality. However, willows 20-23 years post-treatment are still significantly shorter than untreated willows (P = 0.03). Thus, treatment may result in decreased forage available to moose in severe winters. Management concerns regarding continued earthquake-initiated changes in vegetation distributions and successional processes prompted our investigation. However, studies on the vegetation dynamics of the CRD suggest the vegetation distribution of the Delta may be relatively stable (Boggs 2000, Thilenius 2008). If so, our current estimates of NCC suggest the west Delta can support a larger moose population than is currently present. Hydro-axing may not be necessary to ensure the future of the moose population, though it could be used to counter increases in alder (Alnus viridis sinuata) which are likely within certain successional sequences. However, together with earthquakes, the processes determining the future forage available on the CRD include complex, interactive forces such as glaciers, the Copper River, oceanic tides, and zoological- and human-caused influences. These forces and their effects on the vegetation create a dynamic ecosystem for the moose population, are difficult to predict, and may be further complicated by climate change. As a result, application of any managerial tool may be temporary and often difficult. However, this guarantees a constant need for further revision and redevelopment of the tools used to manage the moose population, ensuring that the moose of the CRD will remain an important resource for researching and refining ungulate management worldwide. Title: Evaluating tools used to estimate and manage browse available to wintering moose on the Copper River Delta, Alaska Author: Smythe, Sharon E. Ungulates comprise some of the most well researched and intensely managed wildlife populations on earth. As such, they are recognized as ideal study subjects for developing and modifying management tools or theories (Danell et al. 1994, Shipley 2010). An introduced moose (Alces alces gigas) population on the Copper River Delta (CRD; Delta) of south-central Alaska functions as a valuable resource for the residents of Cordova and an isolated research population on which to test managerial techniques. Since its introduction (1949-1958), the founding population of 23 moose has grown to over 830 in 2013, divided into two sub-populations. However, in 1964, the largest earthquake recorded in U.S. history (9.2 magnitude) uplifted the Delta by 1.0-4.0 m, initiating delta-wide changes in hydrology, vegetation distributions, and successional processes. The proportion of stands dominated by woody species, especially alder (Alnus viridis sinuata) and spruce (Picea sitchensis), increased visibly. Furthermore, previous research (1987-89) observed that 90% of the moose on the western region of the Delta wintered within 9-24% of the total land area, possibly restricting their available winter browse. Because moose diets on the CRD are dominated by willows (Salix spp.), managers were concerned that the combined effects of a restricted winter range and earthquake-initiated vegetation changes would negatively influence the population. Managers have responded to this concern by 1) supporting work to estimate the nutritional carrying capacity (NCC; i.e., the forage available to a population within a specified area and time) of the Delta, and 2) by exploring the feasibility of mechanical treatment as a means of stimulating browse production for the moose. Thus, the objectives of this thesis were to 1) explore the factors influencing NCC for moose on the west CRD while combining updated digital and field-collected data to estimate NCC, and 2) to assess the effects of mechanical treatment on the production of moose browse across stand types and over time. We collected field data and evaluated differences in the past (1988-89) and present (2012-13) biomass-predicting regression equations for two willow species (Barclay's and Hooker's willow, Salix barclayi and hookeriana) used within NCC models to determine 1) whether past and present models of Barclay's willow predicted similarly and 2) whether Hooker’s and Barclay's willow differed in average available biomass, nutritional quality, and utilization by moose. The linear coefficients for the current (2013) Barclay’s willow, Hooker's willow, and combined equations were 2.2x, 1.6x, and 1.9x larger, respectively, than that derived from the 1988 model for Barclay’s willow (which possibly included Hooker's willow data). Thus, willows on the CRD may now be supporting more biomass per stem than predicted by prior models. Hooker's and Barclay's willow did not differ in mean available biomass, nutritional values, or utilization rates. These results suggest a need to evaluate the accuracy of older allometric regressions, though separate identification of the visually-similar Barclay's and Hooker's willow may be unnecessary for future biomass-estimating efforts on the CRD. To further explore the factors influencing the biomass available to moose and their associated NCC estimates, we compared 5 NCC model types across 4 winter ranges and under 3 winter-severity scenarios for the western CRD moose population. We conducted a sensitivity analysis (Sx) of our final model to determine the relative influence of factors affecting NCC estimates. Lastly, we compared current (2012-13) browse available biomass, stand type areas (2011), and NCC results to those obtained by past research (1987-89, MacCracken et al. 1997 and 1959/1986, Stephenson et al. 2006) to determine changes over time, while evaluating the effects of models incorporating satellite-based estimates of stand areas and forage nutritional values on NCC estimates. Because recent aerial survey observations suggest expansion of the moose winter range, our final model estimated NCC between 2,198-3,471 moose depending on winter severity within a winter range encompassing the entire west Delta. These results suggest the current western moose population (approximately 600 in 2013) is below NCC. Model components with the largest and smallest Sx were snow depth and tannin- and lignin-caused reductions in forage nutritional quality, respectively. Changes from 1987-2013 in available biomass of forage species ranged from -66-493%, while changes from 1959-2011 in stand type areas ranged from -60-661%. Overall, NCC estimates only declined by 2% from 1959-2013, however inclusion of forage nutritional quality in models reduced NCC estimates by 60%. Lastly, we assessed the use of hydraulic-axing (i.e., hydro-axing) as tool for increasing the available willow biomass. We evaluated treatment effects on biomass, height, nutritional quality (crude protein, lignin, and tannin levels), utilization, and snow burial of the winter forage species within 3 winter-severity scenarios. Sites were treated in 4 winters (1990-92, 2008, 2010, and 2012) within 5 stand types in 20 locations varying from 0.86-63.40 ha in size. Results indicate few significant differences relative to controls, though treatment significantly increased the ratio of willow to alder. Our results may be limited by sample sizes (n = 1-9 per stand type or treatment year) as visual comparison suggests treatment via hydraulic-axing may be an effective method for increasing willow biomass without influencing nutritional quality. However, willows 20-23 years post-treatment are still significantly shorter than untreated willows (P = 0.03). Thus, treatment may result in decreased forage available to moose in severe winters. Management concerns regarding continued earthquake-initiated changes in vegetation distributions and successional processes prompted our investigation. However, studies on the vegetation dynamics of the CRD suggest the vegetation distribution of the Delta may be relatively stable (Boggs 2000, Thilenius 2008). If so, our current estimates of NCC suggest the west Delta can support a larger moose population than is currently present. Hydro-axing may not be necessary to ensure the future of the moose population, though it could be used to counter increases in alder (Alnus viridis sinuata) which are likely within certain successional sequences. However, together with earthquakes, the processes determining the future forage available on the CRD include complex, interactive forces such as glaciers, the Copper River, oceanic tides, and zoological- and human-caused influences. These forces and their effects on the vegetation create a dynamic ecosystem for the moose population, are difficult to predict, and may be further complicated by climate change. As a result, application of any managerial tool may be temporary and often difficult. However, this guarantees a constant need for further revision and redevelopment of the tools used to manage the moose population, ensuring that the moose of the CRD will remain an important resource for researching and refining ungulate management worldwide. Close

• 657. [Image] Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2001, 2005 Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, Pediastrum, and cyanobacterial akinetes. These results were used to reconstruct changes in water quality in Upper Klamath Lake over the last 150 years. The results showed that there was substantial mixing of the upper 10 cm of sediment, representing the previous 20 to 30 years. However, below that, 210Pb activity declined monotonically, allowing reasonable dating for the period from about 1850 to 1970. The sediment accumulation rates (SAR) showed a substantial increase in the 20th century. The increase in SAR corresponded with increases in erosional input from the watershed as represented by the increases in sediment concentrations of Ti and Al. The upper 20 cm of sediment (representing the last 150 years) also showed increases in C, N, P, and 15N. The increases in nutrient concentrations may be affected to various degrees by diagenetic reactions within the sediments, although the changes in concentrations also were marked by changes in the N:P ratio and in a qualitative change in the source of N as reflected in increasing S15N. The diatoms showed modest changes, particularly in the upper sediments, with increases in Asterionellaformosa, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and S. parvus. Pediastrum, a green alga, was well-preserved in the sediments and exhibited a sharp decline in relative abundance in the upper sediments. Total cyanobacteria, as represented by preserved akinetes, exhibited only minor changes in the last 1000 years. However, a taxon which was formerly not present in the lake 150 years ago, Aphanizomenon, has shown major increases in recent decades. Although the mixing in the upper sediments prevents high-resolution temporal analysis of the recent history (e.g. last 30 years) of Upper Klamath Lake, the results demonstrate that major changes in water quality likely have occurred leading to a major modification of the phytoplankton assemblage. The changes in sediment composition are consistent with land use activities during this period that include substantial deforestation, drainage of wetlands, and agricultural activities associated with livestock and irrigated cropland. Title: Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2001, 2005 Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, Pediastrum, and cyanobacterial akinetes. These results were used to reconstruct changes in water quality in Upper Klamath Lake over the last 150 years. The results showed that there was substantial mixing of the upper 10 cm of sediment, representing the previous 20 to 30 years. However, below that, 210Pb activity declined monotonically, allowing reasonable dating for the period from about 1850 to 1970. The sediment accumulation rates (SAR) showed a substantial increase in the 20th century. The increase in SAR corresponded with increases in erosional input from the watershed as represented by the increases in sediment concentrations of Ti and Al. The upper 20 cm of sediment (representing the last 150 years) also showed increases in C, N, P, and 15N. The increases in nutrient concentrations may be affected to various degrees by diagenetic reactions within the sediments, although the changes in concentrations also were marked by changes in the N:P ratio and in a qualitative change in the source of N as reflected in increasing S15N. The diatoms showed modest changes, particularly in the upper sediments, with increases in Asterionellaformosa, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and S. parvus. Pediastrum, a green alga, was well-preserved in the sediments and exhibited a sharp decline in relative abundance in the upper sediments. Total cyanobacteria, as represented by preserved akinetes, exhibited only minor changes in the last 1000 years. However, a taxon which was formerly not present in the lake 150 years ago, Aphanizomenon, has shown major increases in recent decades. Although the mixing in the upper sediments prevents high-resolution temporal analysis of the recent history (e.g. last 30 years) of Upper Klamath Lake, the results demonstrate that major changes in water quality likely have occurred leading to a major modification of the phytoplankton assemblage. The changes in sediment composition are consistent with land use activities during this period that include substantial deforestation, drainage of wetlands, and agricultural activities associated with livestock and irrigated cropland. Close

• 658. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker

  	The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes to designate critical habitat for the Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris), two species federally listed ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes to designate critical habitat for the Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris), two species federally listed as endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973. as amended (Act). Both species are large, long-lived fish endemic to the Upper Klamath River Basin of Oregon and California. The proposed designation includes a total of approximately 182,400 hectares (456,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the shortnose sucker and approximately 170,000 hectares (424,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the Lost River sucker. This proposed critical habitat designation would result in additional review requirements under section 7 of the Act with regard to Federal agency actions. Section 4 of the Act requires the Service to consider economic costs and benefits prior to making a final decision on the size and scope of critical habitat Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes to designate critical habitat for the Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris), two species federally listed as endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973. as amended (Act). Both species are large, long-lived fish endemic to the Upper Klamath River Basin of Oregon and California. The proposed designation includes a total of approximately 182,400 hectares (456,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the shortnose sucker and approximately 170,000 hectares (424,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the Lost River sucker. This proposed critical habitat designation would result in additional review requirements under section 7 of the Act with regard to Federal agency actions. Section 4 of the Act requires the Service to consider economic costs and benefits prior to making a final decision on the size and scope of critical habitat Close

• 659. [Image] A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl

  	ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl Author: Thomas, Jack Ward Year: 1990, 2010 ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references Title: A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl Author: Thomas, Jack Ward Year: 1990, 2010 ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references Close

• 660. [Image] Water quality conditions in Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon, 2005

  	Agency Lakes. Oregon. 2005 M.Wood By Gene R. Hoilman, Mary K. Lindenberg, and Tamara Abstract During June-October 2005, water quality data were collected from Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes In Oregon, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water quality conditions in Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon, 2005 Author: Hoilman, Gene R Year: 2008 Agency Lakes. Oregon. 2005 M.Wood By Gene R. Hoilman, Mary K. Lindenberg, and Tamara Abstract During June-October 2005, water quality data were collected from Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes In Oregon, and meteorological data were collected around and within Upper Klamath Lake. Data recorded at two continuous water quality monitors In Agency Lake showed similar temperature patterns throughout the field season, but data recorded at the northern site showed more day-to-day variability for dissolved oxygen concentration and saturation after late June and more day-to-day variability for pH and specific conductance values after mid-July. Data recorded from the northern and southern parts of Agency Lake showed more comparable day-to-day variability in dissolved oxygen concentrations and pH from September through the end of the monitoring period. For Upper Klamath Lake, seasonal (late July through early August) lows of dissolved oxygen concentrations and saturation were coincident with a seasonal low of pH values and seasonal highs of ammonia and orthophosphate concentrations, specific conductance values, and water temperatures. Patterns in these parameters, excluding water temperature, were associated with bloom dynamics of the cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Aphanizomenonflos-aquae in Upper Klamath Lake. In Upper Klamath Lake, water temperature in excess of 28 degrees Celsius (a high stress threshold for Upper Klamath Lake suckers) was recorded only once at one site during the field season. Large areas of Upper Klamath Lake had periods of dissolved oxygen concentration of less than 4 milligrams per liter and pH value greater than 9.7, but these conditions were not persistent throughout days at most sites. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in Upper Klamath Lake on time scales of days and months appeared to be influenced, in part, by bathymetry and prevailing current flow patterns. Diel patterns of water column stratification were evident, even at the deepest sites. This diel pattern of stratification was attributable to diel wind speed patterns and the shallow nature of most of Upper Klamath Lake. Timing of the daily extreme values of dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and water temperature was less distinct with increased water column depth. Chlorophyll a concentrations varied spatially and temporally throughout Upper Klamath Lake. Location greatly affected algal concentrations, in turn affecting nutrient and dissolved oxygen concentrations—some of the highest chlorophyll a concentrations were associated with the lowest dissolved oxygen concentrations and the highest un-ionized ammonia concentrations. The occurrence of the low dissolved oxygen and high un-ionized ammonia concentrations coincided with a decline in algae resulting from cell death, as rn.easu.red by concentrations of chlorophyll a. Dissolved oxygen production, rates in. experim.en.ts were as high as 1.47 milligrams of oxygen per liter per hour, and consumption rates were as much as -0.73 milligrams of oxygen per liter per hour. Dissolved oxygen, consumption rates measured in. this study were comparable to those measured in a 2002 Upper Klamath Lake study, and a higher rate of dissolved oxygen consumption was recorded in. dark bottles positioned higher in the water column. Data, though, inconclusive, indicated that a decreasing trend of dissolved oxygen productivity through July could have contributed to the decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations and percent saturation recorded in Upper Klamath Lake during this time. Phytoplankton self-shading was evident from, a general inverse relation between depth of photic zone and chlorophyll a concentrations. This shading caused net dissolved oxygen consumption during daylight hours in lower parts of the water column that would otherwise have been in the photic zone. Meteorological data collected in and around Upper Klamath Lake showed that winds were likely to come from a broad range of westerly directions in the northern one-third of the lake, but tended to come from a narrow range of northwesterly directions over the main body of the lake farther south. Title: Water quality conditions in Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon, 2005 Author: Hoilman, Gene R Year: 2008 Agency Lakes. Oregon. 2005 M.Wood By Gene R. Hoilman, Mary K. Lindenberg, and Tamara Abstract During June-October 2005, water quality data were collected from Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes In Oregon, and meteorological data were collected around and within Upper Klamath Lake. Data recorded at two continuous water quality monitors In Agency Lake showed similar temperature patterns throughout the field season, but data recorded at the northern site showed more day-to-day variability for dissolved oxygen concentration and saturation after late June and more day-to-day variability for pH and specific conductance values after mid-July. Data recorded from the northern and southern parts of Agency Lake showed more comparable day-to-day variability in dissolved oxygen concentrations and pH from September through the end of the monitoring period. For Upper Klamath Lake, seasonal (late July through early August) lows of dissolved oxygen concentrations and saturation were coincident with a seasonal low of pH values and seasonal highs of ammonia and orthophosphate concentrations, specific conductance values, and water temperatures. Patterns in these parameters, excluding water temperature, were associated with bloom dynamics of the cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Aphanizomenonflos-aquae in Upper Klamath Lake. In Upper Klamath Lake, water temperature in excess of 28 degrees Celsius (a high stress threshold for Upper Klamath Lake suckers) was recorded only once at one site during the field season. Large areas of Upper Klamath Lake had periods of dissolved oxygen concentration of less than 4 milligrams per liter and pH value greater than 9.7, but these conditions were not persistent throughout days at most sites. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in Upper Klamath Lake on time scales of days and months appeared to be influenced, in part, by bathymetry and prevailing current flow patterns. Diel patterns of water column stratification were evident, even at the deepest sites. This diel pattern of stratification was attributable to diel wind speed patterns and the shallow nature of most of Upper Klamath Lake. Timing of the daily extreme values of dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and water temperature was less distinct with increased water column depth. Chlorophyll a concentrations varied spatially and temporally throughout Upper Klamath Lake. Location greatly affected algal concentrations, in turn affecting nutrient and dissolved oxygen concentrations—some of the highest chlorophyll a concentrations were associated with the lowest dissolved oxygen concentrations and the highest un-ionized ammonia concentrations. The occurrence of the low dissolved oxygen and high un-ionized ammonia concentrations coincided with a decline in algae resulting from cell death, as rn.easu.red by concentrations of chlorophyll a. Dissolved oxygen production, rates in. experim.en.ts were as high as 1.47 milligrams of oxygen per liter per hour, and consumption rates were as much as -0.73 milligrams of oxygen per liter per hour. Dissolved oxygen, consumption rates measured in. this study were comparable to those measured in a 2002 Upper Klamath Lake study, and a higher rate of dissolved oxygen consumption was recorded in. dark bottles positioned higher in the water column. Data, though, inconclusive, indicated that a decreasing trend of dissolved oxygen productivity through July could have contributed to the decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations and percent saturation recorded in Upper Klamath Lake during this time. Phytoplankton self-shading was evident from, a general inverse relation between depth of photic zone and chlorophyll a concentrations. This shading caused net dissolved oxygen consumption during daylight hours in lower parts of the water column that would otherwise have been in the photic zone. Meteorological data collected in and around Upper Klamath Lake showed that winds were likely to come from a broad range of westerly directions in the northern one-third of the lake, but tended to come from a narrow range of northwesterly directions over the main body of the lake farther south. Close

• 661. [Image] Trinity River Flow Evaluation: final report: a report to the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior

  	TRINITY RIVER FLOW EVALUATION - FINAL REPORT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When Congress authorized construction of the Trinity River Division (TRD) of the Central Valley Project (CVP) in 1955, the expectation was ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Trinity River Flow Evaluation: final report: a report to the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office; Hoopa Valley Tribe Year: 1999, 2006, 2005 TRINITY RIVER FLOW EVALUATION - FINAL REPORT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When Congress authorized construction of the Trinity River Division (TRD) of the Central Valley Project (CVP) in 1955, the expectation was that surplus water could be exported to the Central Valley without harm to the fish and wildlife resources of the Trinity River. The TRD began operations in 1963, diverting up to 90 percent of the Trinity River's average annual yield at Lewiston, California. Access to 109 river miles of fish habitat and replenishment of coarse sediment from upstream river segments were permanently eliminated by Lewiston and Trinity Dams. Within a decade of completing the TRD, the adverse biological and geomorphic responses to TRD operations were obvious. Riverine habitats below Lewiston Dam degraded and salmon and steelhead populations noticeably declined. In 1981, the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) directed that a Trinity River Flow Evaluation (TRFE) study be conducted to determine how to rest Title: Trinity River Flow Evaluation: final report: a report to the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office; Hoopa Valley Tribe Year: 1999, 2006, 2005 TRINITY RIVER FLOW EVALUATION - FINAL REPORT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When Congress authorized construction of the Trinity River Division (TRD) of the Central Valley Project (CVP) in 1955, the expectation was that surplus water could be exported to the Central Valley without harm to the fish and wildlife resources of the Trinity River. The TRD began operations in 1963, diverting up to 90 percent of the Trinity River's average annual yield at Lewiston, California. Access to 109 river miles of fish habitat and replenishment of coarse sediment from upstream river segments were permanently eliminated by Lewiston and Trinity Dams. Within a decade of completing the TRD, the adverse biological and geomorphic responses to TRD operations were obvious. Riverine habitats below Lewiston Dam degraded and salmon and steelhead populations noticeably declined. In 1981, the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) directed that a Trinity River Flow Evaluation (TRFE) study be conducted to determine how to rest Close

• 662. [Image] Lower Klamath River instream flow study : scoping evaluation for the Yurok Indian Reservation

  	ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lower Columbia River Fishery Resource Office was funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs to conduct an instream flow assessment for the lower Klamath River within ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lower Klamath River instream flow study : scoping evaluation for the Yurok Indian Reservation Author: Anglin, Donald R Year: 1994, 2007, 2006 ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lower Columbia River Fishery Resource Office was funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs to conduct an instream flow assessment for the lower Klamath River within the Yurok Indian Reservation in northern California using the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM). Specific study tasks consisted of developing an explicit statement of purpose, definition of the study area and target species, assembly and evaluation of hydrologic, water quality, and physical data as well as biological and fish habitat information. A reconnaissance survey of the proposed study area was also conducted. The purpose for conducting the proposed flow study was the Yurok Tribe's desire to protect the Klamath basin water supply for the production of anadromous fish. The ultimate goal was to protect, restore, and enhance the anadromous fishery resources on the Reservation and in the basin as a whole. The study area was defined as the lower Klamath River and tributaries from the confluence with the Trinity River downstream to the area of tidal influence. Although the mainstem Klamath only was proposed for flow studies, the tributaries were included in the study area as a result of their hydrologic and biological relevance. Target species were identified as chinook salmon {Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (0. kisutch), steelhead trout (0. mykiss) , green sturgeon {Acipenser medirostris) , eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) , and Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) . Assembly and evaluation of relevant information was accomplished from results of a public scoping meeting and the review of a large volume of both published and file reports as well as numerous personal communications. Hydrology of the lower Klamath River is affected by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation projects in both the upper Klamath and upper Trinity subbasins. Several hydroelectric projects in the upper Klamath subbasin affect flow patterns, and agricultural activities in the upper Klamath subbasin and tributaries and the Central Valley Project in the upper Trinity subbasin have reduced water yield from the basin. Water quality concerns were identified as elevated water temperatures and nutrient levels resulting from land use activities throughout the basin. Hydrologic and water quality impacts are partially mitigated in the lower Klamath by tributary inflow throughout the basin. The physical environment in the basin has been altered by land use practices and several major flood events. Alterations include loss of riparian vegetation and stream channel stability, loss of soil moisture storage capacity and infiltration potential, debris slides and logjams resulting in migration barriers, reduced supply of large woody debris for recruitment into the stream channel, and sedimentation of spawning and rearing habitat. Fish habitat in most lower Klamath tributaries has been surveyed and deficiencies as well as good quality habitat have been described. Significant production potential exists in most tributaries, however much restoration work needs to be completed to realize the potential. Habitat characteristics for the mainstem Klamath have not been described. Life history and production data are presented for target species and a brief review of sources for suitability criteria is presented. Harvest management and escapement for naturally spawning fall chinook salmon were reviewed from 1978 through 1993. Escapement has varied over the years but a general downward trend in naturally spawning fall chinook can be observed, particularly in recent years. Escapement goals for the Klamath basin varied from 115,000 in 1978 to an "emergency" floor of 27,000 in 1992. Actual escapement of naturally spawning adult fall chinook varied from a high of 113,000 in 1986 to a low of 11,600 in 1991. Escapement in 1978 totalled 58,500 and preliminary estimates of escapement in 1993 were 21,000 naturally spawning adults. Factors affecting production and subsequent stock size and escapement included variable ocean survival, degraded freshwater habitat conditions, the recent six-year drought, releases of large numbers of hatchery juveniles, and harvest management methodologies that have failed to adequately match harvest to predicted stock size. Differential harvest rates for Klamath and Trinity subbasin fall chinook have also complicated attempts to structure the harvest. Field reconnaisance surveys were conducted in spring and summer 1993 for the proposed mainstem Klamath study area. Two distinct river segments were identified based on macrohabitat characteristics. Microhabitat was classified within each river segment and mapped on USGS quadrangle maps. Cross section identification was postponed pending the decision to move forward with the flow study. Following the scoping tasks described above, conclusions and recommendations were developed. No information was reviewed that indicated the need for an instream flow study in the lower Klamath River. The two basic problems affecting anadromous fish production are degraded freshwater habitat and chronic underescapement. Coordination and planning for instream flow studies on a basin-wide scale was recommended. Biological data gaps were identified which need to be addressed before an instream flow study can be completed for the lower Klamath. Suitability criteria for habitat analysis also need to be identified. Habitat restoration and protection and proper management of anadromous fishery resources were identified as the highest priorities to begin restoration of anadromous stocks. Specific recommendations for habitat restoration included watershed and riparian zone restoration, barrier removal, instream habitat inventory, restoration, and monitoring, estuary studies, and description of streamflow characteristics for lower Klamath tributaries. Recommended fishery resource studies included collection of basic life history data, monitoring for adult escapement and juvenile production, description of estuary usage, effects of hatchery programs on both adult and juvenile wild fish, evaluation of the accelerated stocking program, and refinement of harvest management methodologies to achieve appropriate escapement of naturally spawning stocks into all subbasins. Title: Lower Klamath River instream flow study : scoping evaluation for the Yurok Indian Reservation Author: Anglin, Donald R Year: 1994, 2007, 2006 ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lower Columbia River Fishery Resource Office was funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs to conduct an instream flow assessment for the lower Klamath River within the Yurok Indian Reservation in northern California using the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM). Specific study tasks consisted of developing an explicit statement of purpose, definition of the study area and target species, assembly and evaluation of hydrologic, water quality, and physical data as well as biological and fish habitat information. A reconnaissance survey of the proposed study area was also conducted. The purpose for conducting the proposed flow study was the Yurok Tribe's desire to protect the Klamath basin water supply for the production of anadromous fish. The ultimate goal was to protect, restore, and enhance the anadromous fishery resources on the Reservation and in the basin as a whole. The study area was defined as the lower Klamath River and tributaries from the confluence with the Trinity River downstream to the area of tidal influence. Although the mainstem Klamath only was proposed for flow studies, the tributaries were included in the study area as a result of their hydrologic and biological relevance. Target species were identified as chinook salmon {Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), coho salmon (0. kisutch), steelhead trout (0. mykiss) , green sturgeon {Acipenser medirostris) , eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) , and Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) . Assembly and evaluation of relevant information was accomplished from results of a public scoping meeting and the review of a large volume of both published and file reports as well as numerous personal communications. Hydrology of the lower Klamath River is affected by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation projects in both the upper Klamath and upper Trinity subbasins. Several hydroelectric projects in the upper Klamath subbasin affect flow patterns, and agricultural activities in the upper Klamath subbasin and tributaries and the Central Valley Project in the upper Trinity subbasin have reduced water yield from the basin. Water quality concerns were identified as elevated water temperatures and nutrient levels resulting from land use activities throughout the basin. Hydrologic and water quality impacts are partially mitigated in the lower Klamath by tributary inflow throughout the basin. The physical environment in the basin has been altered by land use practices and several major flood events. Alterations include loss of riparian vegetation and stream channel stability, loss of soil moisture storage capacity and infiltration potential, debris slides and logjams resulting in migration barriers, reduced supply of large woody debris for recruitment into the stream channel, and sedimentation of spawning and rearing habitat. Fish habitat in most lower Klamath tributaries has been surveyed and deficiencies as well as good quality habitat have been described. Significant production potential exists in most tributaries, however much restoration work needs to be completed to realize the potential. Habitat characteristics for the mainstem Klamath have not been described. Life history and production data are presented for target species and a brief review of sources for suitability criteria is presented. Harvest management and escapement for naturally spawning fall chinook salmon were reviewed from 1978 through 1993. Escapement has varied over the years but a general downward trend in naturally spawning fall chinook can be observed, particularly in recent years. Escapement goals for the Klamath basin varied from 115,000 in 1978 to an "emergency" floor of 27,000 in 1992. Actual escapement of naturally spawning adult fall chinook varied from a high of 113,000 in 1986 to a low of 11,600 in 1991. Escapement in 1978 totalled 58,500 and preliminary estimates of escapement in 1993 were 21,000 naturally spawning adults. Factors affecting production and subsequent stock size and escapement included variable ocean survival, degraded freshwater habitat conditions, the recent six-year drought, releases of large numbers of hatchery juveniles, and harvest management methodologies that have failed to adequately match harvest to predicted stock size. Differential harvest rates for Klamath and Trinity subbasin fall chinook have also complicated attempts to structure the harvest. Field reconnaisance surveys were conducted in spring and summer 1993 for the proposed mainstem Klamath study area. Two distinct river segments were identified based on macrohabitat characteristics. Microhabitat was classified within each river segment and mapped on USGS quadrangle maps. Cross section identification was postponed pending the decision to move forward with the flow study. Following the scoping tasks described above, conclusions and recommendations were developed. No information was reviewed that indicated the need for an instream flow study in the lower Klamath River. The two basic problems affecting anadromous fish production are degraded freshwater habitat and chronic underescapement. Coordination and planning for instream flow studies on a basin-wide scale was recommended. Biological data gaps were identified which need to be addressed before an instream flow study can be completed for the lower Klamath. Suitability criteria for habitat analysis also need to be identified. Habitat restoration and protection and proper management of anadromous fishery resources were identified as the highest priorities to begin restoration of anadromous stocks. Specific recommendations for habitat restoration included watershed and riparian zone restoration, barrier removal, instream habitat inventory, restoration, and monitoring, estuary studies, and description of streamflow characteristics for lower Klamath tributaries. Recommended fishery resource studies included collection of basic life history data, monitoring for adult escapement and juvenile production, description of estuary usage, effects of hatchery programs on both adult and juvenile wild fish, evaluation of the accelerated stocking program, and refinement of harvest management methodologies to achieve appropriate escapement of naturally spawning stocks into all subbasins. Close

• 663. [Image] Final economic analysis of critical habitat designation for the bull trout

  	FINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION FOR THE BULL TROUT September 2004 FINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION FOR THE BULL TROUT Prepared for: Division of Economics U. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final economic analysis of critical habitat designation for the bull trout Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Year: 2004, 2005 FINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION FOR THE BULL TROUT September 2004 FINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION FOR THE BULL TROUT Prepared for: Division of Economics U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 N. Fairfax Drive Arlington, VA 22203 Prepared by: Bioeconomics, Inc. 315 S. 4th E. Missoula, MT 59801 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES- 1 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1- 1 1.1 Description of Species and Habitat 1- 2 1.2 Proposed Critical Habitat 1- 5 1.3 Framework and Methodology 1- 6 1.3.1 Types of Economic Effects Considered 1- 6 1.3.2 Defining the Baseline 1- 9 1.3.3 Direct Compliance Costs 1- 10 1.3.4 Indirect Costs 1- 10 1.3.5 Benefits 1- 14 1.3.6 Analytic Time Frame 1- 15 1.3.7 General Analytic Steps 1- 15 1.4 Information Sources 1- 16 2 RELEVANT BASELINE INFORMATION 2- 1 2.1 Socioeconomic Profile of the Critical Habitat Areas 2- 1 2.1.1 Population 2- 1 2.1.2 Land Ownership and Major Uses 2- 2 2.1.3 Employment 2- 12 2.1.4 Economic and Demographic Characteristics of the 74 Counties Containing Bull Trout Critical Habitat 2- 15 2.1.5. Tribes of the Columbia and Klamath Basins 2- 18 2.2 Baseline Elements 2- 21 2.2.1 Recovery Plan 2- 21 2.2.2 Overlap with Other Listed Species 2- 22 2.2.3 Federal and State Statutes and Regulations 2- 25 2.2.4 Summary Discussion of Impacts of Baseline Regulations on Economic Analysis 2- 40 2.2.5 Discussion: Impacts of Existing Fisheries Policies on Timber and Grazing Activities 2- 43 3 FORECASTED ECONOMIC IMPACTS 3- 1 3.1 Categories of Economic Impacts 3- 1 3.1.1 Section 7 Consultations 3- 2 3.1.2 Technical Assistance 3- 4 3.1.3 Project Modifications 3- 5 3.1.4 Distributional and Regional Economic Effects 3- 5 3.2 Consultation History for Bull Trout Since Listing 3- 7 3.2.1 Action Agencies and Activities Involved in Past Bull Trout Consultations 3- 7 3.2.2 Formal Section 7 Consultations History on Bull Trout Since Listing . 3- 13 3.2.3 Informal Section 7 Consultations History on Bull Trout 3- 15 3.3 Project Modifications 3- 16 3.3.1 Modifications to FHWA Bridge Projects 3- 16 3.3.2 Modifications to Grazing Permits 3- 17 3.3.3 Modifications to Timber Harvest 3- 18 3.3.4 Modifications to Mining Operations 3- 20 3.3.5 Modifications to Agricultural Irrigation Projects 3- 21 3.3.6 Modifications to Dams and Hydroelectric Projects 3- 24 3.3.7 Modifications to Forest Management and Road Maintenance Projects 3- 29 3.3.8 Activities Unlikely to Involve Significant Modification 3- 29 3.4 Projected Future Section 7 Consultations Involving the Bull Trout 3- 29 3.4.1 Projected Future Formal Section 7 Consultations 3- 33 3.4.2 Projected Future Informal Section 7 Consultations 3- 36 ESTIMATING THE CO- EXTENSIVE COSTS OF THE DESIGNATION 4- 1 4.1 Summary of Estimated Impacts 4- 2 4.1.1 Annual Administrative Costs of Consultation 4- 2 4.1.2 Costs Associated with Development of HCPs Within Proposed Bull Trout Critical Habitat 4- 3 4.1.3 Annual Bull Trout Project Modification Costs 4- 4 4.1.4 Proposed Critical Habitat Units Expected to Generate the Greatest Economic Impacts 4- 5 4.2 Discussion of Impacts by Action Agency 4- 6 4.2.1 Army Corps of Engineers 4- 7 4.2.2 Bureau of Land Management 4- 9 4.2.3 Bonneville Power Administration 4- 10 4.2.4 Bureau of Reclamation 4- 25 4.2.5 Federal Highway Administration 4- 29 4.2.6 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 4- 31 4.2.7 U. S. Forest Service 4- 52 4.2.8 Other Action Agencies 4- 79 4.3 Potential Impacts on Small Entities 4- 79 4.3.1 Identifying Activities That May Involve Small Entities 4- 81 4.3.2 Costs Associated with Agriculture Water Diversions 4- 83 4.3.3 Hydroelectric Facility Re- licensing 4- 84 4.3.4 Mining 4- 87 4.4 Potential Impacts on the Energy Industry 4- 88 4.4.1 Evaluation of Whether the Designation will Result in a Reduction in Electricity Production in Excess of One Billion Kilowatt- Hours Per Year or in Excess of 500 Megawatts of Installed Capacity 4- 89 4.4.2 Evaluation of Whether the Designation will Result in an Increase in the Cost of Energy Production in Excess of One Percent 4- 91 APPENDIX A: Detailed Description of Critical Habitat Units A- l APPENDIX B: Ownership of Lands Adjacent to Proposed Critical Habitat Unit and Subunit B- l APPENDIX C: Overlap of Proposed Bull Trout Critical Habitat and Salmon and Steelhead Habitat C- l APPENDIX D: Listing of All Suggested Project Modifications Found in Formal Biological Opinions: By Activity Type D- l APPENDIX E: Length ( stream) and area ( lakes) of proposed designated bull trout critical habitat that is within U. S. Forest Service Land and Forest Service Wilderness Areas E- l APPENDIX F: Breakdown of Total Annual Estimated Costs by Proposed Critical Habitat Unit F- l EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. The purpose of this report is to identify and analyze the potential economic impacts associated with the designation of critical habitat for the Columbia River and Klamath River Distinct Population Segments ( DPSs) of bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus), hereafter " bull trout." This report was prepared by Bioeconomics, Inc. of Missoula, Montana, for the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's ( the Service) Division of Economics. 2. Section 4( b)( 2) of the Endangered Species Act ( the Act) requires the Service to designate critical habitat on the basis of the best scientific data available, after taking into consideration the economic impact, and any other relevant impact, of specifying any particular area as critical habitat. The Service may exclude areas from critical habitat designation when the benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefits of including the areas within critical habitat, provided the exclusion will not result in extinction of the species. KEY FINDINGS Total costs associated with both listing and critical habitat designation for the bull trout are forecast to be $ 200 million to $ 260 million over the next ten years. Total costs associated with both listing and critical habitat designation for the bull trout within the proposed Klamath Distinct Population Segment are forecast to be $ 5.3 million to $ 7.3 million over the next ten years. Total costs associated with both listing and critical habitat designation for the bull trout within the proposed Columbia Distinct Population Segment are forecast to be $ 195 million to $ 253 million over the next ten years. Federal agencies are expected to bear 70 to 75 percent of these costs; private entities will incur the remaining 25 to 30 percent. Project modification costs account for as much as 63 percent of forecast costs. Administrative cost represent the remaining 37 percent. U. S. Forest Service and Army Corps of Engineer- related activities account for approximately 70 percent of forecast project modification costs. Activities experiencing the greatest costs include timber harvesting, irrigation diversions, and dam and reservoir operations. Dam and reservoir- related consultations, including power facility re- licensing, account for 42 percent of forecast project modification costs ( excluding the cost associated with reduced irrigation diversions). Timber harvest, irrigation diversions, habitat conservation plans, and mining account for 29 percent, 12 percent, eight percent, and three percent of forecast costs, respectively. In terms of river miles, approximately 18 percent of the total forecast costs are associated with one percent of the proposed designation, 25 percent with five percent of the proposed designation, and 45 percent with ten percent of the proposed designation. When expressed in terms of the expected cost per river mile, the two most costly units are the Willamette River Basin ( Unit 4) and the Malheur River Basin ( Unit 13). ES- 1 Framework for the Analysis 3. The primary purpose of this analysis is to estimate the economic impact associated with the designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. This information is intended to assist the Secretary in making decisions about whether the benefits of excluding particular areas from the designation outweigh the benefits of including those areas in the designation. 1 This economic analysis considers the economic efficiency effects that may result from the designation, including habitat protections that may be co- extensive with the listing of the species. It also addresses distribution of impacts, including an assessment of the potential effects on small entities and the energy industry. This information can be used by decision- makers to assess whether the effects of the designation might unduly burden a particular group or economic sector. 4. This analysis focuses on the direct and indirect costs of the rule. However, economic impacts to land use activities can exist in the absence of critical habitat. These impacts may result from, for example, local zoning laws, State and natural resource laws, and enforceable management plans and best management practices ( BMPs) applied by other State and Federal agencies. For example, as discussed in detail in this report, regional management plans, such as the Northwest Forest Plan, PACFISH and INFISH provide significant protection to bull trout and its habitat while imposing significant costs within the region. Economic impacts that result from these types of protections are not included in this assessment as they are considered to be part of the regulatory and policy " baseline." 5. The measurement of direct compliance costs focuses on the implementation of section 7 of the Act. This section requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service to ensure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out will not likely jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. The administrative costs of these consultations, along with the costs of project modifications resulting from these consultations, represent the direct compliance costs of designating critical habitat. Importantly, this analysis does not differentiate between consultations that result from the listing of the species ( i. e., the jeopardy standard) and consultations that result from the presence of critical habitat ( i. e., the adverse modification standard). 6. The analysis examines activities taking place both within and adjacent to the proposed designation. It estimates impacts based on activities that are " reasonably foreseeable," including, but not limited to, activities that are currently authorized, permitted, or funded, or for which proposed plans are currently available to the public. Accordingly, the analysis bases estimates on activities that are likely to occur within a ten- year time frame, beginning on the day that the current proposed rule became available to the public ( November 30, 2002). The ten- year time frame was chosen for the analysis because, as the time horizon for an economic analysis is expanded, the assumptions on which the projected number of projects and cost impacts associated with those projects becomes increasingly 1 16U. S. C. § 1533( b)( 2). ES- 2 speculative. An exception to the 10 year analysis time horizon used in this analysis is for Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ( FERC) licenses, which are renewed for up to 50 years. Accordingly, this analysis estimates the annualized costs of the expected impacts associated with section 7 bull trout consultations involving FERC re- licensing over a 50 year time horizon. 7. The analysis is based on a wide range of information sources. Numerous individuals were contacted from the Service, as well as from the U. S. Forest Service ( USFS), Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA), Bureau of Land Management ( BLM), Army Corps of Engineers ( ACOE), Bureau of Reclamation ( BOR), Bonneville Power Administration ( BPA), Natural Resources Conservation Service ( NRCS), U. S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) and other Federal agencies. The analysis of the hydroelectric facilities and other dam structures in the region also relied in information from the Northwest Power and Conservation Council ( NWPCC), the Pacific Northwest Utility Coordinating Council as well as information from utilities owning dams in bull trout proposed critical habitat ( e. g., Avista Corporation ( Avista), Eugene Water and Electric Board, Pacificorp and Portland General Electric ( PGE)). Native American Tribes ( e. g., Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes), State agencies ( e. g., State Departments of Environmental Quality ( DEQ) and State Departments of Transportation ( DOTs)) and industry organizations ( e. g., American Forest Resource Council, American Farm Bureau and Northwest Mining Association) were also contacted, as were numerous individuals in the private sector on topics ranging from irrigation to forestry to bull trout conservation. Census Bureau and other Department of Commerce data was relied on to characterize the regional economy. 8. The bull trout was listed as a threatened species in 1998.2 Since that time, numerous Action agencies have participated in well over 200 formal consultations and thousands of informal consultations involving bull trout. The past consultation record was used as a starting point from which to predict future consultation activity. Action agencies provided additional information on likely changes in future consultation activity following designation of critical habitat. In some cases these agencies saw little change in future consultation levels. For example, FHWA projects are planned for many years in advance and bridge or road- related bull trout consultations are generally quite certain and foreseeable. In some cases ( e. g., mining activity, irrigation diversions) it was determined that the historical consultation record understated the potential level of future consultation activity for the species and adjustments to future predicted consultation levels were made. For dam and reservoir operations, a wide spectrum of information from agency representatives, as well as the actual FERC re- licensing schedules for privately operated hydropower facilities were used to augment historical consultation rates and develop future annual cost estimates associated with bull trout consultations on dam, reservoir and power- related activities. 2 This economic analysis applies only to the Columbia River and Klamath River DPSs of bull trout and is not a rangewide analysis. The rangewide listing of the bull trout occurred in 1999 and critical habitat will be proposed for the remainder of the range at a later date. ES- 3 Exhibit ES. l provides a summary of the wide range of activities that may be impacted by bull trout- related consultations. Exhibit ES. l PROJECTED ACTIVITIES AFFECTED BY BULL TROUT Action Agency Army Corps of Engineers Bureau of Land Management Bonneville Power Administration Bureau of Reclamation Federal Highway Commission Federal Energy Regulatory Commission U. S. Forest Service Other agencies, including NPS, BIA, U. S. Department of Agriculture ( USDA), U. S. Geological Survey ( USGS), U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Fisheries Activities Consulted on Dam and reservoir operations, streambank stabilization, dredging, bridge replacement, stream restoration. Forest management, grazing, timber harvest, resource maintenance and road construction, weed management, streambank stabilization, flood control projects. Federal Columbia River Power System ( FCRPS)- dam operation, fisheries restoration and augmentation, agricultural practices and irrigation systems. Dam and reservoir operations, irrigation diversions. Highway bridge replacement. Dam re- licensing and removal. Timber harvest, grazing, mining, resource maintenance and road construction, weed management, streambank stabilization, recreation, special use permits, watershed restoration, road decommissioning, irrigation diversions, culvert replacement, and prescribed fuel reduction programs. Assorted activities, primarily fisheries and stream and wetland restoration. Results of the Analysis 9. The economic impacts associated with the designation of critical habitat for the bull trout are expected to range from $ 200 million to $ 260 million over the next ten years ($ 20 million to $ 26 million per year). Federal agencies are expected to bear approximately 70 to 75 percent of the total costs of this designation. A significant portion of the land adjacent to the proposed designation is Federally owned ( 58 percent), 36 percent is under private ownership and the remainder is comprised of Tribal, State or local interests. Of the Federal lands, the majority is managed by the USFS ( 85 percent) and the BLM ( 12 percent). The remaining 25 to 30 percent of costs are expected to be borne by private entities. Exhibit ES. 2 shows the location of USFS and BLM managed land within the proposed designation. ES- 4 Exhibit ES. 2 ES- 5 10. In some cases, the cost associated with consultation is not borne by the Action agency, but passed onto other parties. For example, while farmers and ranchers do not consult on the operation of Federal irrigation impoundments, irrigators could be impacted by potential reductions in water deliveries to maintain instream flow during dry years. While the unit location of USFS- related water diversions is uncertain, it is likely to occur in the Salmon River ( Unit 16), Clark Fork ( Unit 2), Southwest Idaho River and Clearwater River ( Unit 15) Basins, as these units contain the largest portion of USFS managed lands. 11. Consultations that may involve private entities include those related to timber harvest, grazing, mining and power facility re- licensing. Some of the costs associated with these consultations, however, are expected to be borne directly by or passed onto the Federal government ( e. g., increased logging and yarding costs passed onto the USFS through lower stumpage bids for timber). Most of the forecast project modification costs resulting from designation ( 42 percent) are dam and reservoir related ( excluding USFS water diversions). These costs result from consultations on ACOE and BOR dams and reservoirs, BPA consultations on the FCRPS, and FERC re- licensing consultations. Exhibit ES. 3 illustrates the location of major dams within the proposed critical habitat. The remaining project modification costs are associated with timber harvest ( 29 percent), USFS- related water diversions ( 12 percent), habitat conservation plans ( eight percent), and placer gold mining ( three percent). Grazing, forest management, road and bridge construction and maintenance and other activities each account for less than two percent of forecast project modification costs. Exhibit ES. 4 provides the distribution of total costs by activity. 12. Costs can be expressed in terms of unit or river mile; both of these metrics are useful in describing economic impacts. 3 On a cost per unit basis the largest portion of forecast costs are expected to occur in Unit 4, the Willamette River Basin ( 18 percent). These costs are attributable to fish passage and temperature control projects and annual operating and maintenance and fish study costs at ACOE's facilities in the Upper Willamette River System ( Dexter, Lookout Point, Hills Creek and Blue River Dams). The next most costly unit is Unit 16, the Salmon River Basin ( 12 percent). Because this is the largest unit in terms of river miles and proportion of USFS managed land, and because future USFS activities are expected to generate approximately 70 percent of the consultation activity, this unit bears the greatest number of future bull trout- related consultations. Therefore, the administrative costs account for a large portion of the costs in this unit. Together, these two units account for 30 percent ( approximately $ 8.2 million) of forecast costs. The next three most costly units, Hells Canyon complex ( Unit 12) and the Clark Fork River ( Unit 2) and Malheur River ( Unit 13) Basins, each account for eight percent ( a unit cost range of approximately $ 2.1 million to $ 2.3 million) of forecast costs. In total, these five units account for almost 55 percent of forecast costs ( approximately $ 14.8 million). 3 Twelve of the units also contain more than 500,000 lake acres of critical habitat. These units account for approximately 55 percent of the potential economic impacts associated with the proposed designation ($ 15.4 million). The Clark Fork River Basin ( Unit 2) contains almost 60 percent of the lake acres ( more than 300,000 acres) and accounts for eight percent of the cost ( approximately $ 3 million). Because all 25 units contain river miles, the costs are expressed in terms of dollars per river mile for comparison. ES- 6 ES- 7 ES- 8 13. Project modifications or other restrictions that engender cost and revenue impacts involving commercial enterprises can have a subsequent detrimental effect on other sectors of the local economy, especially when the affected industry is central to the local economy. Industries within a geographic area are interdependent in the sense that they purchase output from other industries and sectors, while also supplying inputs to other businesses. Therefore, direct economic effects on a particular enterprise can affect regional output and employment in multiple industries. The extent to which regional economic impacts are realized depends largely on whether a significant number of projects are stopped or fundamentally altered. For example, impacts to the timber or grazing industries depend on whether required project modifications substantially reduce output within economic sectors below that which would be seen in the absence of the trout consultation. 14. Examination of BOs involving timber harvest and grazing show only small and sporadic reductions in either grazing opportunity or available timber harvest. Therefore, this analysis assumes that regional economic impacts associated with these activities will be unpredictable ( in terms of geographic location and timing) and small in the context of the overall economy of the Columbia River Basin. In the case of agricultural water diversions on Forest Service lands, regional economic impacts are not modeled due to uncertainty about the magnitude and potential location of impacts. 15. Exhibit ES- 5 highlights the relative contributions of each unit to total forecast costs. Exhibit ES- 6 then presents the unit cost by river mile. Considering the cost per river mile, the Willamette River ( Unit 4) and Malheur River ( Unit 13) Basins are the most costly units. Together these two units account for 25 percent of the costs ( approximately $ 7.0 million, annualized) over two percent of the proposed miles of the designation ( 451 miles). Overall, 10 percent of the river miles ( 1,910 miles) in eight units account for approximately 45 percent of the total costs ( approximately $ 12.5 million, annualized). 4 4 In terms of cost per lake acre, the Willamette River Basin is the most expensive unit ( Unit 4), followed by the Northeast Washington River ( Unit 22) and Upper Columbia River ( Unit 21) Basins. These three units account for approximately 25 percent of the cost ($ 6.8 million) and five percent of the river miles ( 1,020 miles) in the proposed designation. ES- 9 tn m W GO 16. Consideration of the regulatory baseline is particularly pertinent in the context of estimating economic costs attributable to section 7 for bull trout. Specifically, existing regulations such as the Federal Power Act ( FPA) and Wilderness Act of 1964, fisheries management directives ( Northwest Forest Plan, INFISH and PACFISH) and the presence of other listed species ( especially anadromous fish) provide for the protection of areas that could contribute to the recovery of bull trout and improve riparian habitat and water quality throughout the proposed designation. Thus, the costs of this designation is limited by the extent to which existing regulations already impose requirements on land use and resource management within the proposed designation. In addition, the cost estimates developed in this report reflect various allocations made throughout the analysis for projects benefitting more than one listed species. Since these allocations are important to the analysis, Exhibit ES. 7 describes how forecasted costs were allocated among bull trout and other listed species. Exhibit ES. 7 ALLOCATION OF ESTIMATED FUTURE PROJECT MODIFICATION COSTS Agency / Project ACOE - Upper Willamette River Dams and Reservoirs BPA - Federal Columbia River Power System FERC - re- licensing hydroelectric facilities USFS activities Allocation NOAA Fisheries and the Service are currently consulting on salmon, steelhead and bull trout in this proposed area. No clear allocation of costs can be made between these species, as most of the projects modifications would be sought under both the NOAA and Service consultations. Therefore, one- third of estimated costs are allocated to each species. This is likely to overstate the cost of bull trout conservation rather than understate it, since the primary driving force behind these project modifications is the salmon. While there is extensive discussion of the relative magnitude of potential bull trout versus salmon mitigation actions, because of the relatively modest project modification costs ( up to $ 400,000 associated with fishery studies) there is no allocation of costs to salmon. The estimation of section 7 bull trout costs associated with FERC re- licensing includes allocation of mitigation costs for specific dams to salmon, as well as to other aquatic species. As a result, a little more than 40 percent of total fishery-related costs are allocated to bull trout, and five percent specifically to bull trout section 7 consultation. While certain costs in the sample of timber consultations were allocated to other listed species ( e. g. grizzlies and cutthroat trout), there is no allocation of costs to anadromous species. Summary of Costs 17. Exhibit ES. 8 provides a detailed summary of the co- extensive costs of designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. These costs are presented on an annualized basis. A map of the watersheds that encompass each unit is provided in Exhibit ES. 9 to assist the reader in understanding the location and distribution of estimated costs. A detailed discussion of the estimated administrative and project modification costs by critical habitat unit is presented in the unit- by- unit summary section following Exhibit ES. 8. ES- 12 Exhibit ES. 8 SUMMARY OF SECTION 7 COSTS FOR THE BULL TROUT ( Annualized) Unit Unit 1 - Klamath River Basin Unit 2 - Clark Fork River Basin Unit 3 - Kootenai River Basin Unit 4 - Willamette River Basin Unit 5 - Hood River Basin Unit 6 - Deschutes River Basin Unit 7 - Odell Lake Unit 8 - John Day River Basin Unit 9 - Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins Unit 10 - Grande Ronde River Basin Unit 11 - Imaha/ Snake River Basins Unit 12 - Hells Canyon Complex Unit 13 - Malheur River Basin Unit 14 - Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Unit 15 - Clearwater River Basin Unit 16 - Salmon River Basin Unit 17 - Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit 18 - Little Lost River Basin Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River Basin Unit 20 - Middle Columbia River Basin Unit 21 - Upper Columbia River Basin Unit 22 - Northwest Washington River Basins Unit 23 - Snake River Basin in Washington Unit 24 - Columbia River Basin Unit 25 - Snake River Basin Multiple unit or unknown a Estimated Range of Cost ($ l, 000fs) $ 529 to $ 733 $ 1,321 to $ 2,192 $ 328 to $ 402 $ 4,497 to $ 4,891 $ 328 to $ 413 $ 430 to $ 719 $ 51 to $ 56 $ 446 to $ 600 $ 98 to $ 211 $ 467 to $ 580 $ 559 to $ 605 $ 1,939 to $ 2,338 $ 2,006 to $ 2,095 $ 429 to $ 693 $ 995 to $ 1,676 $ 2,059 to $ 3,319 $ 1,004 to $ 1,867 $ 150 to $ 176 $ 385 to $ 494 $ 391 to $ 494 $ 196 to $ 505 $ 965 to $ 1,397 $ 230 to $ 287 $ 243 to $ 504 $ 135 $ 1,303 Notes: These estimates include all section 7 costs, including those co- extensive with the listing and designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. Costs are reported in 2003 dollars. A more detailed presentation of these costs is provided in Appendix F. a Miscellaneous costs ($ 213,000 annually) and the costs associated with development of habitat conservation Dlans ($ 1,090,000 annuallv) have not been allocated to the unit level due to uncertainty as to their location. ES- 13 Exhibit ES- 9 ES- 14 Unit- bv- Unit Summary 18. The following discussion presents a unit- by- unit synopsis of the co- extensive costs of designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. Details on how these cost estimates were developed is provided in Section 4 of this report. 19. From an aggregate perspective, forecast project modification costs are dominated by dam related activities, totaling about 42 percent of all estimated costs. Typical costs include fish passage, changes in operations, habitat protection or restoration, and fishery studies at 36 FERC- licensed hydroelectric facilities and at more than 30 major Federal hydropower, irrigation and flood projects. The second largest category of costs is associated with timber harvest on Federal lands, representing about 29 percent of all estimated costs. These costs include harvest reduction, fishery study and monitoring costs, costs related to roads and culverts, and changes to log yarding systems. The remaining costs are split among a large number of activities including the development of habitat conservation plans, mining, agriculture and irrigation diversions, grazing, bridge construction and maintenance, and general forest management. Accordingly, the primary factor driving the distribution of costs across units is the location of significant dam projects for power, irrigation, and flood control. This factor is highlighted in the following unit- by- unit discussion. The second most important factor is the occurrence of federally- owned acreage within a given unit, particularly the acreage of non- wilderness lands managed by the USFS. This factor drives both timber costs and administrative consultation costs. 20. A significant component of the total estimated cost of this designation are the administrative costs associated with conducting both formal and informal consultations on the species ( approximately 37 to 50 percent of total forecast bull trout- related costs). These costs accrue to the Service as well as to action agencies and the public. In some cases these administrative costs constitute a majority of the estimated costs for a unit, suggesting that there will be many activities consulted on but few resulting project modifications. 21. This discussion is presented on a unit by unit basis. A perspective on how the units compare, in both absolute terms and in terms of cost per river mile of proposed critical habitat, is provided in Exhibits ES- 6 and ES- 7. For purposes of this summary, proposed units with per mile costs ( after adjusting each unit's costs for its respective unoccupied habitat) forecast to be less than half of the proposed designation- wide average are described as having " relatively low costs." Units with per mile costs forecast to be between 50 percent and 200 percent ( i. e., twice) the designation- wide average costs are described as having " relatively moderate costs." Units with per- mile costs forecast to be greater than twice the designation- wide average costs are described as having " relatively high costs." Note that these descriptors are intended as a general guide, and refer to total cost only. Individual economic sectors and entities within a unit may bear disproportionate shares of these costs, as discussed in Section 4. 22. Unit 1: Klamath River Basin - The Klamath River Basin is located in south- central Oregon. Proposed critical habitat within this unit includes 475 km ( 295 mi) of streams and ES- 15 3,775 ha ( 9,327 ac) of lake habitat. The Klamath River Basin Unit is largely contained within Klamath County Oregon. The town of Klamath Falls is the largest community within the county. The Klamath River Basin Unit has a relatively high percentage of proposed critical habitat that is currently either unoccupied or of unknown occupancy ( 72 percent). Approximately 69 percent of the stream miles proposed for designation are within Federal land. 23. The Klamath River Basin Unit is a relatively moderate cost unit. Estimated total annual bull trout- related costs within this unit range between $ 529,000 and $ 733,000. These estimates include $ 425,000 per year in administrative costs. It is estimated that costs associated with consultations on timber harvest and agricultural irrigation withdrawals will constitute the large majority of potential future project modification costs in the unit ( estimated at between 73 percent and 87 percent of total annual project modification costs). These agricultural diversion- related costs are expected to result from reductions in available irrigation water. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 24. Unit 2: Clark Fork River Basin - The Clark Fork River Basin Unit is the largest unit within the proposed designation. This unit includes most of Western Montana and the Idaho panhandle. This Unit includes the Missoula and Bitterroot River Valleys in Western Montana, the Kalispell- Flathead Lake Region, and the Lake Pend Orielle Region of North Idaho. These areas contain many of the larger towns and communities within Western Montana and North Idaho. Approximately 54 percent of the proposed streams and 33 percent of proposed lakes in Clark Fork Unit are within Federal lands. There is no unoccupied habitat within the proposed Clark Fork Critical Habitat Unit. 25. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 1.3 million and $ 2.2 million. These estimates include $ 800,000 per year in administrative costs. In addition, a number of agencies and activities will incur significant annual project modification costs associated with the bull trout in this unit. Specifically, • Timber harvest activity is expected to generate the largest share of future project modification costs in this unit ($ 270,000 to $ 680,000 per year). These costs include harvest reduction, fishery study and monitoring costs, costs related to road and culverts, and changes to log yarding systems. • Costs associated with forecast project modifications to irrigation diversions within this unit range from zero to $ 280,000. These costs represent potential costs to agricultural producers associated with reductions in available irrigation water. 26. Other significant forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with mining ( up to $ 100,000 annually, principally involving watershed assessment costs), FERC hydro re- licensing ($ 50,000 to $ 91,000 annually), and FHWA bridge and road work ($ 45,000 per year, generally involving constraints on in- stream work periods). Forecast FERC- related costs are associated with several major hydroelectric facilities within the unit, ES- 16 including Kerr Dam on the Flathead River and Thompson Falls Dam on the Clark Fork. Additionally, bull trout- related modifications on operation of the FCRPS have resulted in changes in operations at Hungry Horse Dam ( a BOR facility on the S. Fork of the Flathead) and Albeni Falls ( an ACOE facility that controls the level of Lake Pend Orielle). Bull trout study costs specific to the Clark Fork Unit and associated with FCRPS consultation are expected to cost up to $ 97,000 annually. 27. Although the proposed Clark Fork River Basin Critical Habitat Unit has significant forecast total annual costs, these costs should be viewed in light of the large size of this proposed unit. In fact, the Clark Fork Unit is forecast to be one of the lowest cost units, when expressed per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. 28. Unit 3: Kootenai River Basin - A short stretch of the Kootenai River lies in the U. S., looping down out of British Columbia. The Kootenai Unit thus comprises only the northwestern corner of Montana, including Libby Dam, and the northeastern tip of the Idaho panhandle. This unit is contained within two counties, Boundary County, Idaho and Lincoln County, Montana. Within this proposed critical habitat unit, approximately 53 percent of the rivers and streams proposed for designation are on Federal land. There is no unoccupied bull trout habitat within this unit. 29. The Kootenai River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Total forecast annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 328,000 and $ 402,000. Of this amount, the majority, approximately $ 290,000 annually, are forecast administrative costs. In addition, it is estimated that project modification costs within the Kootenai River Unit will total between $ 38,000 and $ 112,000 annually. Costs associated with timber harvest are expected to be the largest category of future project modification costs in this unit ($ 27,000 to $ 69,000 per year, including costs of harvest reduction, fishery study and monitoring costs, costs related to roads and culverts, and changes to log yarding systems). Costs resulting from modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions ( primarily reductions in irrigation withdrawals) could range from zero to $ 28,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 per year in project modification costs. Bull trout- related modifications to operations of the FCRPS have resulted in changes in operations at Libby Dam. 30. Unit 4: Willamette River Basin - The Willamette River Basin Unit includes 337 km ( 209 mi) of stream and 1,600 ha ( 3,954 ac) of lake habitat in the McKenzie River and Middle Fork Willamette River subbasins of Western Oregon. The unit is located primarily within Lane County, but also extends into Linn County. The unit contains Eugene, Oregon and surrounding areas. Approximately 46 percent of the proposed waters within this unit are on Federal land and about 23 percent of the waters in the unit are currently either unoccupied by the bull trout or of unknown occupancy. 31. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 4.5 million and $ 4.9 million. Of this amount, approximately $ 125,000 are forecast ES- 17 administrative costs. Thus, most of the costs for this unit are associated with required project modifications. While project modification costs are forecast to be associated with timber harvest activities and agricultural diversions within this unit ( estimated between $ 22,000 and $ 55,000 annually), the vast majority of forecast costs are associated with dam and reservoir operations in the unit. 32. The ACOE is currently in consultation on 13 flood control facilities located in the Upper Willamette River system. Potential future costs of required modifications for bull trout will likely be driven by provisions for temperature control facilities at the Lookout Point, Hills Creek, and Blue River dams, and trap and haul passage at Lookout Point, Hills Creek, and possibly a fish ladder at Dexter Dam. It is estimated that these passage and temperature control modifications and operation at ACOE operated impoundments in the unit will cost between $ 4.3 and $ 4.5 million per year. It is further estimated that annual project modification costs associated with FERC re- licensing of hydroelectric facilities in the unit will cost between $ 70,000 and $ 144,000 annually. These costs are associated with several hydroelectric facilities operated by the City of Eugene: Trail Bridge and Carmen on the McKenzie River, and Blue River Dam. 33. The Willamette River Unit is the highest cost of the proposed units in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation ( greater than $ 20,000 per river mile, annually). These costs are associated with dam and reservoir modifications to ACOE projects. However, the ACOE is also consulting with NOAA Fisheries on the impacts of these facilities on chinook salmon and steelhead, these costs might occur even absent the bull trout. 34. Unit 5: Hood River Basin - The Hood River Unit lies entirely within Hood River County, Oregon and contains the communities of Hood River and The Dalles among a number of smaller towns. The Unit includes the mainstem Hood River and three major tributaries: the Clear Branch Hood River, West Fork Hood River, and East Fork Hood River. A relatively high 43 percent of the proposed habitat in the Hood River Unit is currently either unoccupied or of unknown occupancy. Overall, about 48 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal lands. 35. The Hood River Unit is a relatively moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 328,000 and $ 413,000. Of this amount, a substantial portion are forecast administrative costs ( approximately $ 282,000). The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Costs associated with FERC re- licensing of hydroelectric facilities ($ 24,000 to $ 67,000) and timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 16,000 to $ 40,000 per year) are expected to be the most significant categories of future project modification costs in the unit. FERC licensed facilities include Powerdale on the Hood River. Agricultural irrigation diversions in the unit could experience up to $ 16,000 in annual project modification costs. Other activities are individually estimated to account for less than $ 5,000 per year in project modification costs. ES- 18 36. Unit 6: Deschutes River Basin - The Deschutes River Basin Unit in central Oregon contains two critical habitat subunits: the lower Deschutes and the upper Deschutes, separated by Big Falls, an impassible barrier on the Deschutes River. The Lower Deschutes critical habitat subunit is in Wasco, Sherman, Jefferson, Deschutes, and Crook Counties. The Upper Deschutes River critical habitat subunit is located in Deschutes, Crook, and Klamath counties. Approximately 801 km ( 498 mi) of stream habitat in the Deschutes River basin is proposed for critical habitat designation. Overall, a relatively high 37 percent of the proposed habitat within the Deschutes River Unit is unoccupied. The entire upper Deschutes River Critical Habitat subunit is currently unoccupied by the species. A relatively low portion ( 35 percent) of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are on Federal land. This unit also has a substantial amount of Tribal land ( 23 percent of proposed waters). 37. The Deschutes River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is forecast that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 431,000 and $ 719,000. A relatively small portion of this amount, approximately $ 102,000 annually, are forecast administrative costs. The vast majority of these costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, costs associated with operation of BOR irrigation impoundments ($ 159,000 annually, largely associated with fishery studies), FERC re- licensing of hydroelectric facilities, ($ 106,000 to $ 280,000) and timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 42,000 to $ 105,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems) are expected to be the most significant categories of future project modification costs in this unit. The BOR- related costs are for studies at Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs on the Upper Deschutes River. Since both of these reservoirs are in the currently unoccupied Upper Deschutes subunit, dam and reservoir modifications are not reasonably foreseeable. Projected FERC re- licensing costs are for bull trout studies and passage at the Pelton- Round Butte Project on the Deschutes River. Agricultural irrigation diversion project modification costs associated with potential reductions in irrigation water availability could range from zero to $ 43,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 38. Unit 7: Odell Lake - The Odell Lake Unit in central Oregon lies entirely within the Deschutes National Forest in Deschutes and Klamath counties. This unit is the smallest of the proposed units within the designation. Total proposed critical habitat includes approximately 2,675 ha ( 6,611 ac) of lake habitat and 18.1 km ( 11.3 mi) of streams. There is no unoccupied habitat within this unit. 39. Total annual costs associated with the bull trout within the unit are forecast to be between $ 51,000 and $ 56,000. Of this amount, almost all ( approximately $ 50,000 annually) will be associated with the administrative costs of the consultation process. It is estimated that project modification costs within the Odell Lake Unit will total less than $ 5,000 annually. These project modification costs are forecast to be largely associated with USFS activities. ES- 19 40. Unit 8: John Day River Basin - The John Day River Basin Unit in eastern Oregon includes the North Fork, the Middle Fork, and mainstem portions of the John Day River and their tributary streams in Wheeler, Grant, and Umatilla counties. A total of 1,080 km ( 671 mi) of stream habitat is proposed for designation as critical habitat. Overall, 19 percent of the proposed areas within the John Day River Unit are currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 54 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the John Day Unit are located on Federal land. 41. The John Day River Unit is a relatively low cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are forecast to be between $ 446,000 and $ 600,000. Of this amount, a large portion, approximately $ 278,000 annually, will be made up of administrative costs. The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, project modifications associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 57,000 to $ 143,000 per year from reductions in harvest, fisheries studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems) and placer mining on USFS lands ( up to $ 88,000 per year associated with requirements for and limitations on allowed stream crossing activity) are expected to generate the greatest share of project modification costs in this unit. Costs associated with agricultural irrigation diversion reductions could range from zero to $ 58,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. The John Day River Basin is one of two units identified in this study as a setting where bull trout related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small placer mining business, the other is the Hells Canyon Complex ( Unit 12). 42. Unit 9: Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins - The Umatilla and Walla Walla Rivers Unit is located in northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. The unit includes 636 km ( 395 mi) of streams extending across portions of Umatilla, Union, and Wallowa counties in Oregon, and Walla Walla and Columbia counties in Washington. Overall, 17 percent of the proposed critical habitat within this unit is currently unoccupied by the species. A relatively low portion ( 32 percent) of the waters proposed for designation within the Umatilla- Walla Walla Unit are located on Federal land. 43. The Umatilla- Walla Walla River Unit is among the lowest cost units, in terms of consultation- related cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is estimated that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 98,000 and $ 211,000. Of this amount, approximately $ 59,000 annually will be associated with the administrative costs of the consultation process and the remainder with required project modifications. Specifically, fisheries studies associated with FCRPS consultations could cost up to $ 43,000 annually. Project modification associated with timber harvest on USFS lands is expected to be another significant category of future costs in this unit ($ 26,000 to $ 65,000 per year). Agricultural irrigation diversions could experience up to $ 26,000 in annual project modification costs within this unit. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. In addition to the consultation and project modification costs, the Walla Walla Drainage is in ES- 20 the final stages of developing a basin- wide habitat conservation plan to protect bull trout, among other species. The plan has cost approximately $ 4 million to develop, and it is expected an additional $ 1 million will be spent to complete the plan during the next year or two. 44. Unit 10: Grande Ronde River Basin - The Grande Ronde Unit extends across Union, Wallowa, and Umatilla counties in northeastern Oregon, and Asotin, Columbia, and Garfield counties in southeastern Washington. This unit includes the Grande Ronde River from its headwaters to the confluence with the Snake River and a number of its tributaries, the largest being the Wallowa River. Approximately 1,030 km ( 640 mi) of stream habitat in the Grande Ronde River basin is proposed for critical habitat designation. Overall, seven percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Grand Ronde River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 52 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal land. 45. The Grand Ronde River Unit is a low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 467,000 and $ 580,000. Of this amount, the vast majority, approximately $ 417,000 annually, are forecast to be administrative costs. The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, fisheries studies within the unit associated with FCRPS consultations could cost up to $ 19,000 annually. Timber harvest on USFS lands is expected to be another significant source of future project modification costs in this unit ($ 34,000 to $ 87,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fisheries studies, and road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems). Agricultural irrigation diversion costs could be up to $ 35,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 46. Unit 11: Imnaha/ Snake River Basins - The Imnaha/ Snake Unit extends across Wallowa, Baker, and Union counties in northeastern Oregon and Adams and Idaho counties in western Idaho. The unit contains approximately 306 km ( 190 mi) of proposed critical habitat. All of the proposed habitat within the Imnaha- Snake River Unit is currently occupied by the species. Approximately 51 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal land. 47. The Imnaha/ Snake River Unit is a moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 559,000 and $ 605,000. Of this amount, the large majority are made up of administrative costs ( approximately $ 544,000, annually). The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, fishery studies within the unit associated with FCRPS consultations could cost up to $ 18,000 annually. Timber harvest activities on USFS lands are expected to be another significant category of future project modification costs ($ 10,000 to $ 26,000 per year). Agricultural irrigation diversion related project modification costs could range from zero ES- 21 to $ 11,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 48. Unit 12: Hells Canyon Complex - The Hells Canyon Complex Unit encompasses basins in Idaho and Oregon draining into the Snake River and its associated reservoirs, from Hells Canyon Dam upstream to the confluence of the Weiser River. The Hells Canyon Complex unit includes a total of approximately 1,000 km ( 621 mi) of streams proposed as critical habitat. A relatively high portion ( about 48 percent) of the proposed critical habitat within the Hells Canyon Complex Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 47 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal land. 49. The Hells Canyon Complex Unit is a relatively moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is forecast that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 1.9 million and $ 2.3 million. Of this amount, a majority are expected to be made up of administrative costs ( approximately $ 1.4 million, annually). In addition, significant categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 92,000 to $ 233,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems), placer mining on USFS land ($ 69,000 associated with requirements for and limitations on allowed stream crossing activity), FERC hydroelectric re- licensing ($ 111,000 to $ 259,000), and BOR reservoir activities ($ 192,000 annually, primarily for study related costs). The BOR reservoirs in the unit include Phillips Reservoir and Thief Valley Reservoir; projected costs are for bull trout related studies. Major FERC- licensed hydroelectric facilities in the unit include Hells Canyon, Brownlee and Oxbow. Agricultural irrigation diversions could experience up to $ 95,000 in annual project modification costs within this unit. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than 20,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. The Hells Canyon complex is one of two units identified in this study as a setting where bull trout related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small placer mining business, the other is the John Day River Basin ( Unit 8). 50. Unit 13: Malheur River Basin - The Malheur Unit is in the Malheur River Basin in eastern Oregon, in Grant, Baker, Harney, and Malheur counties. A total of 389 km ( 241 mi) of streams and two reservoirs are proposed for critical habitat. About 25 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Malheur River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 63 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Malheur River Unit are located on Federal land. 51. The Malheur River Unit is the second highest cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 2.0 million and $ 2.1 million. Project modification costs make up a small portion of these costs, between $ 179,000 and $ 268,000 annually. The rest of the forecast costs are associated with administrative requirements. Major categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with ES- 22 timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 33,000 to $ 83,000 per year) and BOR reservoir activities ($ 133,000 annually). The BOR costs are for research as well as trap and haul fish passage that is ongoing at Beulah Reservoir on the Malheur River, and estimated research costs at Warm Springs Reservoir, which is currently unoccupied by bull trout. Possible reductions in agricultural irrigation diversions could cost from zero to $ 34,000 annually . Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 per year in project modification costs. 52. Unit 14: Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin - The Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Unit in Idaho is broken into two subunits. The Coeur d'Alene Lake subunit lies within Kootenai, Shoshone, Benewah and Bonner counties. The St. Joe River subunit includes streams in Shoshone, Benewah, and Latah counties, Idaho. Thirty stream reaches or tributaries ( 677 km ( 421 mi)) and lakes comprising 12,727 ha ( 31,450 ac) of surface area are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. Of this, a relatively high portion ( 46 percent) is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 58 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this Unit are located on Federal land. 53. The Coeur d'Alene Lake Unit is relatively low cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 429,000 and $ 693,000. A large share of this amount, approximately $ 287,000 annually, is forecast to be made up of administrative costs. In addition, major categories of forecast project modification costs within the unit are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 97,000 to $ 245,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems), and FHWA bridge and road work ($ 23,000 associated with limitations on in- stream work periods). Modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could result in costs from zero to $ 100,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 54. Unit 15: Clearwater River Basin - The Clearwater River Unit includes 3,063 km ( 1,904 mi) of streams and 6,722 ha ( 16,611 ac) of lakes proposed as critical habitat for bull trout in north- central Idaho. This large unit extends from the Snake River confluence at Lewiston on the west to headwaters in the Bitterroot Mountains along the Idaho/ Montana border on the east. About 13 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Clearwater River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 78 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Unit are located on Federal land. 55. Total forecast costs associated with consultation on bull trout within this unit are between $ 1.0 million and $ 1.7 million annually. Of this amount, approximately $ 572,000 is associated with administrative costs. In addition, major categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 252,000 to $ 635,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems), recreational suction mining on USFS land ($ 115,000 associated with reduced availability of stream access due to seasonal closures), highway bridge and road work ($ 25,000), and USFS management activities ($ 35,000 ES- 23 annually). Agricultural irrigation diversion project modification costs could range from zero up to $ 259,000 annually. These costs may result from reductions in irrigation deliveries. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 56. Although the proposed Clearwater River Basin Critical Habitat Unit is forecast to experience significant costs associated with the bull trout, these costs should be viewed in light of the large size of the proposed unit. In fact, the Clearwater Unit is one of the lowest cost of the proposed units, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. 57. Unit 16: Salmon River Basin - The Salmon River basin is a geographically large unit that extends across central Idaho from the Snake River to the Montana border. The critical habitat unit includes 7,688 km ( 4,777 mi) of streams extending across portions of Adams, Blaine, Custer, Idaho, Lemhi, Nez Perce, and Valley counties in Idaho. About six percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Salmon River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 86 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Unit are located on Federal land. 58. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 2.1 million and $ 3.3 million. Of this amount, approximately $ 1.3 million is associated with administrative costs, with the rest made up of project modification costs. Major categories of forecast project modification costs are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 465,000 to $ 1.2 million per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems), highway bridge and road work ($ 57,000), and USFS general forest management activities ($ 65,000 annually). The cost of modifications to agricultural irrigation water deliveries could range from zero up to $ 479,000 annually. Costs associated with mining activities at Hecla Mining Company's Grouse Creek and Thompson Creek mines are estimated at $ 132,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 25,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 59. Although the proposed Salmon River Basin Critical Habitat Unit has significant forecast costs associated with the bull trout, these costs should be viewed in light of the large size of the proposed unit. In fact, the Salmon River Unit is also one of the lowest cost of the proposed units, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. 60. Unit 17: Southwest Idaho River Basins - The Southwest Idaho Unit includes a total of approximately 2,792 km ( 1,735 mi) of streams in the Boise, Payette, and Weiser River basins. A number of southern Idaho counties are wholly or partially within this unit, including Ada, Adams, Boise, Camas, Canyon, Elmore, Gem, Payette, Valley, and Washington counties. The counties within the southern Idaho unit include both a significant portion of productive agricultural land as well as the largest population center in the state ( the Boise Valley). About 24 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Southwest ES- 24 Idaho Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 78 percent of the proposed streams and 66 percent of proposed lakes and reservoirs within the Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit are located on Federal land. 61. The Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 1.0 million and $ 1.9 million. Total administrative costs are forecast to be a relatively small portion of this total ($ 328,000 annually). The remainder of the forecast costs are expected to result from forecast project modifications. Specifically, project modification costs within this unit are forecast to be associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 309,000 to $ 781,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems) and BOR reservoir activities ($ 263,000 annually). Major BOR reservoirs in this unit include Anderson Ranch and Arrowrock Reservoirs on the Boise River, Cascade Reservoir on the North Fork Payette, and Deadwood Reservoir on the Payette River. Forecast project modification costs include bull trout life- cycle studies and monitoring at all the reservoirs, and trap and haul passage around the Boise River reservoirs. Costs associated with FERC relicensing at the Lucky Peak facility on the Boise River, and power facilities at the Cascade impoundment, are expected to cost between $ 31,000 and $ 58,000 annually. Modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could range from zero to $ 318,000 annually. These costs could potentially be associated with reductions in irrigation water withdrawals. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 30,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 62. Unit 18: Little Lost River Basin - The Little Lost River Unit is within Butte, Custer, and Lemhi counties in east- central Idaho. Approximately 184.6 km ( 115.4 mi) of stream habitat in the Little Lost River Basin is proposed for critical habitat designation. About eight percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Little Lost River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 76 percent of the proposed streams within the Little Lost River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 63. The Little Lost River Unit is forecast to be a relatively inexpensive unit compared to others in the designation, and is a moderate- cost unit in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is estimated that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 150,000 and $ 176,000. Of this amount, a large share, approximately $ 136,000 annually, is forecast to be comprised of administrative costs, with the remainder made up of project modification costs. The largest category of project modification costs within this unit is forecast to be associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 10,000 to $ 24,000 per year). Project modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could result in costs from zero to $ 10,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 64. Unit 19: Lower Columbia River Basin - The Lower Columbia Unit consists of portions of the Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat Rivers, and associated tributaries in ES- 25 southwestern and south- central Washington. The unit extends across Clark, Cowlitz, Klickitat, Skamania, and Yakima counties. Approximately 340 km ( 210 mi) of streams and three reservoirs covering 5,054 ha ( 12,488 ac) are proposed for critical habitat designation. About 20 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Lower Columbia River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. A low portion ( 18 percent) of the proposed streams and 29 percent of the proposed lakes and reservoirs within the Lower Columbia River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 65. When forecast total costs for this unit are viewed in light of its size, the Lower Columbia River Basins Unit is a moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is estimated that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within the unit will be between $ 385,000 to $ 494,000. Total administrative costs associated with the consultation process are estimated to be a relatively large fraction of these costs ($ 304,000 annually). In addition, project modification costs are forecast to be associated with FERC hydroelectric facility re- licensing activities ($ 67,000 to $ 153,000 annually). These FERC re- licensing costs are for the significant hydroelectric developments on the Lewis River, including Yale, Merwin, Swift No. 1, and Swift No. 2. These costs are projected to include study costs, trap and haul passage, and habitat acquisition. Swift No, 2 is one of two hydroelectric projects identified in this study where bull trout- related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small business; the other is Box Canyon in the Northeast Washington River Basin ( Unit 22). Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 66. Unit 20: Middle Columbia River Basin - The Middle Columbia River unit encompasses the entire Yakima River basin located in south central Washington, draining approximately 15,900 square km ( 6,155 square mi). The basin occupies most of Yakima and Kittitas counties, about half of Benton County, and a small portion of Klickitat County. Approximately 846 km ( 529 mi) of stream habitat and 6,066 ha ( 14,986 ac) of lake and reservoir surface area are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. About 13 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Middle Columbia River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 44 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Middle Columbia River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 67. The Middle Columbia River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit in terms of cost per stream mile. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 391,000 and $ 494,000 annually. Of this amount, a very small portion, approximately $ 50,000 annually, will be associated with the administrative costs of the consultation process, while the remainder will be associated with project modifications. While there are projected to be project modification costs associated with timber harvest activities ( through consultation with the USFS; estimated to be between $ 36,000 and $ 91,000 annually), the majority of forecast costs for this unit are associated with dam and reservoir operations. The BOR operates a system of five dams in this basin ( Cle Elum Lake, Kachess Lake, Keechelus Lake, Tieton Dam, and Bumping Lake) which provide power and irrigation for this agriculturally important region. It is estimated that project modification costs ( periodic trap- ES- 26 and- haul passage to allow genetic interchange between isolated bull trout populations) at the BOR operated impoundments in the unit will cost approximately $ 290,000 per year. Other activities are individually estimated to account for a small portion of forecast annual project modification costs. 68. TheMiddle Columbia River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit in terms of cost per stream mile. 69. Unit 21: Upper Columbia River Basin - The Upper Columbia River Basin includes three subunits in central and northern Washington: the Wenatchee River subunit in Chelan County; the Entiat River subunit in Chelan County; and the Methow River subunit in Okanogan County. A total of 909.7 km ( 565.4 mi) of streams and 1,010 ha ( 2,497 ac) of lake surface area are proposed for critical habitat. About nine percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Upper Columbia River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 58 percent of the proposed streams and 41 percent of the proposed lakes and reservoirs within the Upper Columbia River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 70. The Upper Columbia River Basins Unit is a low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 196,000 to $ 505,000 annually. Total administrative costs associated with the consultation process are estimated to be $ 122,000, with the remainder of the forecast costs made up of project modification requirements. Major categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with FCRPS fisheries studies ( zero to $ 155,000 per year), and USFS timber harvest activities ($ 57,000 to $ 144,000 annually resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems). The FCRPS fisheries studies are for bull trout radio telemetry, snorkel and general monitoring study costs in the Entiat, Methow, and Wenatchee Rivers. In addition, modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could result in costs from zero to $ 59,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 71. Unit 22: Northeast Washington River Basins - The Northeast Washington unit includes bull trout above Chief Joseph Dam on the Columbia River. A total of 373.1 km ( 231.9 mi) of streams and 1,166 ha ( 2,880 ac) of lake surface area are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. A high proportion ( 54 percent) of the proposed critical habitat within the Northeast Washington River Basins Unit is currently unoccupied by the species, and approximately 58 percent of the proposed streams and reservoirs within this unit are located on Federal land. 72. The Northeast Washington River Basins Unit is forecast to be a relatively high- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 965,000 to $ 1.4 million annually. Total annual administrative costs are estimated to be a large share of these costs ($ 676,000), with the remainder associated with project modifications. A major category of ES- 27 annual project modification costs within this unit involves FERC hydroelectric facility re-licensing activities ( up to $ 540,000 annually). The estimated FERC re- licensing costs are related to two major hydroelectric facilities on the Pend Orielle River: Box Canyon and Boundary. The Box Canyon re- licensing terms are currently in continuing settlement negotiations, and likely costs specific to this facility are not currently available. However, a recent FERC environmental impact statement ( EIS) estimates that the present value of bull trout related project modifications ( including habitat acquisition) could total upwards of $ 60 million for this relatively small ( 60 MW) facility. Box Canyon is one of two hydroelectric projects identified in this study where bull trout- related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small business; the other is Swift No. 2 in the Lower Columbia River Basin ( Unit 19). Modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could impose costs from zero to $ 46,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 73. Unit 23: Snake River Basin in Washington - The Snake River Washington Unit includes two critical habitat subunits located in southeast Washington: the Tucannon River subunit located in Columbia and Garfield counties, and the Asotin Creek subunit within Garfield and Asotin counties. A total of 326 km ( 203 mi) of stream reaches are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. About 23 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Snake River Basin in Washington Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 52 percent of the proposed streams within the Snake River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 74. The Snake River Basin Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within the unit will be between $ 230,000 to $ 287,000. Total annual administrative costs associated with the bull trout are estimated to be a large portion of this total ($ 201,000). The major category of project modification costs within this unit is forecast to be associated with USFS timber harvest activities ($ 21,000 to $ 53,000 annually). Agricultural irrigation diversions could see up to $ 22,000 in annual project modification costs within this unit. Other activities are estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 75. Unit 24: Columbia River - This unit is located in the states of Oregon and Washington and includes Clatsop, Columbia, Multnomah, Hood River, Wasco, Sherman, Gilliam, Morrow, and Umatilla counties in Oregon and Pacific, Wahkiakum, Cowlitz, Clark, Skamania, Klickitat, Benton, Walla Walla, Franklin, Yakima, Grant, Kittitas, Chelan, Douglas, and Okanogan counties in Washington. All of this stretch of the Columbia River is currently considered occupied by the bull trout. A relatively low share of the land adjacent to the river in this unit is made up of Federally managed lands ( approximately 39 percent). 76. The Columbia River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 243,000 to $ 504,000 annually. Total annual ES- 28 administrative costs associated with this unit are relatively low ($ 50,000). The major category of annual project modification costs within the unit are forecast to be associated FERC hydroelectric facility re- licensing activities ( up to $ 362,000 annually). Major FERC-licensed hydroelectric projects on the mainstem Columbia River include Priest Rapids, Rocky Reach, and Wells. These very large facilities are operated by PUD's. Other activities are individually forecast to account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 77. Unit 25: Snake River - The lower Snake River is located in Washington ( Franklin, Walla Walla, Columbia, Whitman, and Asotin counties) from its mouth to the confluence with the Clearwater River at the cities of Clarkston, Washington and Lewiston, Idaho. The Snake River forms the border between Washington and Idaho from Clarkston/ Lewiston upstream to the Oregon border. The Snake River forms the boundary between Idaho and Oregon from that point upstream to the limit of this critical habitat unit. This portion of the Snake River is within Nez Perce, Idaho, Adams, and Washington counties in Idaho, and Wallowa, Baker, and Malheur counties in Oregon. About 20 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Snake River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 50 percent of the habitat proposed for designation within the Snake River Unit is located on Federal land. 78. The Snake River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are approximately $ 135,000. Administrative costs associated with the consultation process are estimated to be nearly all of that amount, or $ 125,000 annually. Small Business Effects 79. Under the Regulatory Flexibility Act ( RFA) ( as amended by the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act ( SBREFA) of 1996), whenever a Federal agency is required to publish a notice of rulemaking for any proposed or final rule, it must prepare and make available for public comment a regulatory flexibility analysis that describes the effect of the rule on small entities ( i. e., small businesses, small organizations, and small government jurisdictions). The following summarizes the potential effects of critical habitat designation on small entities: Reductions in contractual USFS water deliveries could significantly impact five ranching/ farming operations annually. However, the location of the reduction in water deliveries within the critical habitat designation is uncertain. Small hydroelectric producers in Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana could be affected by project modification costs at the time of facility re- licensing. Specifically, the resulting project modifications could have a significant economic impact on the financial operations of Cowlitz County public utility district ( PUD) ( Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River) and Pend Orielle County PUD ( Unit 22 - Northeast Washington River). ES- 29 • Section 7- related costs associated with instream work is expected to affect approximately 15 placer mines annually in the John Day River Basin ( Unit 8) and Hells Canyon Complex ( Unit 12). While the financial characteristics of these mining operations are unknown, this analysis assumes the economic effect will be significant for those operations that are impacted. Energy Industry Impacts 80. Pursuant to Executive Order No. 13211, Federal agencies are required to submit a summary of the potential effects of regulatory actions on the supply, distribution and use of energy. Two criteria are relevant to this analysis: 1) reductions in electricity production in excess of 1 billion kilowatt- hours per year or in excess of 500 megawatts ( MWs) of installed capacity and 2) increases in the cost of energy production in excess of one percent. The constraints placed on energy production within the region from compliance with bull trout section 7 consultations will not result in significant decreases in production or increases in energy costs within the region. Changes From Draft Economic Analysis 81. Information supplied though public comments to the Draft Economic Analysis along with additional information from Action agency and Service personnel on issues raised through public comment led to several changes to the analysis. This Final Economic Analysis contains the following significant changes from the draft report. 1) Additional information on Habitat Conservation Plans ( HCPs) currently under development within the proposed designation has been incorporated. Additional costs on the order of one million dollars annually have been added to the estimated costs reported. 2) The BOR supplied extensive comments on current and potential costs associated with consultation on its impoundments. Costs associated with potential project modifications to Yakima Drainage dams ( as well as for other BOR impoundments within the proposed designation) have been reduced in response to the new BOR information. 3) Information from Hecla Mining Company identified additional consultation- related costs for the Hecla Grouse Creek and Thompson Creek mines. These costs have been included in the section 4 discussion of USFS mining activity. 4) Information from USFS personnel from the Wallowa/ Whitman National Forest identified impacts associated with limitations on in- stream work windows for placer mining operations as baseline State of Oregon regulations that are independent of bull trout section 7 consultation. Estimated impacts to Oregon placer mining have been adjusted accordingly. ES- 30 5) Additionally, corrections to minor errors within the report, not impacting final cost estimates, have been made in response to public comments. Caveats to Economic Analysis 82. Exhibit ES. 10 presents the key assumptions of this economic analysis, as well as the potential direction and relative scale of bias introduced by the assumptions. 83. These caveats below describe factors that introduce uncertainty into the results of this analysis. ES. 10 CAVEATS TO THE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Key Assumption Projected USFS timber harvest activity is based on recent regional history and ignores the declining long- term trend of the industry. USFS water diversion reductions occur annually and representative water costs reflect the high- end of water lease rates in Washington. Cost of USFS water diversion reductions and timber harvest project modifications are distributed across the units in proportion to USFS non- wilderness acreage. While this may have no effect on the total cost estimate, it may have an effect on the unit cost estimate. Total costs of providing technical assistance is expected to be small relative to other economic impacts; therefore, this analysis does not quantify the instances and costs of technical assistance efforts. Project modifications incorporating measures suggested by the Service and voluntarily agreed to by the applicant during the informal consultation process in order to minimize impact to the bull trout and/ or its habitat are not quantified in this analysis. Amortization of fishery- related capital investments are based on the life of the project rather than a shorter revenue recovery period. Changes in hydroelectric power revenues attributable to reductions in operational flexibility at Libby and Hungry Horse dams is not quantified Most of the project modification costs will either be borne directly by or passed onto the Federal government. The FPA, the Pacific Northwest Electric Power Planning and Conservation Act, and fisheries management directives ( Northwest Forest Plan, INFISH and PACFISH) provide baseline protection. Project modification costs allocated between bull trout and other listed species. Limited consultation with the NRCS is anticipated and based on a the record of past formal and informal consultation activity on the bull trout Effect on Cost Estimate + + +/- - - - - +/- +/- +/- - -: This assumption may result in an underestimate of real costs. + : This assumption may result in an overestimate of real costs. +/-: This assumption has an unknown effect on estimates. ES- 31 Estimated Cost of the Final Designation 84. The analysis contained in this report is consistent with the designation as described in the proposed rule; 5 however, the Service is expected to exclude some proposed areas of habitat to arrive at a final designation. The purpose of this section is to detail the expected changes to the proposed designation and show the implication of these changes on estimated consultation and project modification costs. 85. Exhibit ES. ll compares the spatial extent of the proposed and expected final designations for bull trout critical habitat for both river and stream miles and lake and reservoir acres. Overall, 1,925 miles of rivers and streams and approximately 55,000 acres of lakes and reservoirs are expected to be excluded from critical habitat in the final designation. The greatest reductions in critical habitat stream miles are expected to occur in the Deschutes River Unit ( 60.5 percent reduction), Hood River Unit ( 33.2 percent), Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit ( 32.8 percent), and the Hells Canyon Complex Unit ( 21.3 percent). Most of the reductions in lake and reservoir critical habitat acres are expected to occur in the Deschutes River, Southwest Idaho River Basins and Malheur River Units, all with more than a 70 percent reduction in designated lake and reservoir critical habitat compared to the original proposed designation. ExhibitES. il SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN BULL TROUT CRITICAL HABITAT FROM PROPOSED TO FINAL DESIGNATION Unit Unit 1 - Klamath River Basin Unit 2 - Clark Fork River Basin Unit 3 - Kootenai River Basin Unit 4 - Willamette River Basin Unit 5 - Hood River Basin Unit 6 - Deschutes River Basin Unit 7 - Odell Lake Unit 8 - John Day River Basin Unit 9 - Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins Unit 10 - Grande Ronde River Basin Unit 11 - Imaha/ Snake River Basins Unit 12 - Hells Canyon Complex Unit 13 - Malheur River Basin Unit 14 - Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Proposed Designation Stream Miles 296 3,372 368 200 103 439 15 639 396 644 191 599 233 403 Lake and Reservoir Acres 33,939 304,226 30,094 8,899 91 23,314 6,439 0 0 0 0 0 5,926 27,296 Final Designation Stream Miles 280 3,368 368 200 69 173 13 563 348 625 191 471 214 403 Lake and Reservoir Acres 33,939 304,225 30,094 8,899 91 3,407 6,439 0 0 0 0 0 1,769 27,296 5 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Proposed Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Distinct Population Segments of Bull Trout, November 29, 2002 ( 67 FR 71235- 71284). ES- 32 Exhibit ES. ll SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN BULL TROUT CRITICAL HABITAT FROM PROPOSED TO FINAL DESIGNATION Unit Unit 15 - Clearwater River Basin Unit 16 - Salmon River Basin Unit 17 - Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit 18 - Little Lost River Basin Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River Basin Unit 20 - Middle Columbia River Basin Unit 21 - Upper Columbia River Basin Unit 22 - Northwest Washington River Basins Unit 23 - Snake River Basin in Washington Unit 24 - Columbia River Basin Unit 25 - Snake River Basin Total Proposed Designation Stream Miles 1,904 4,296 1,657 113 171 523 591 232 204 537 343 18,468 Lake and Reservoir Acres 16,610 3,683 41,307 0 12,078 14,987 2,553 1,279 0 0 0 532.724 Final Designation Stream Miles 1,655 3,835 1,114 110 145 519 578 232 189 537 343 16,543 Lake and Reservoir Acres 16,610 3,487 10,651 0 12,000 15,548 2,553 1,279 0 0 0 478,188 86. As noted, the costs reported in the body of this report are consistent with the proposed designation. Expected changes to the proposed designation and the impact of these exclusions on costs are summarized in Exhibit ES. 12, where estimates of annual section 7- related consultation costs for both the proposed and expected final bull trout critical habitat designations are shown. The expected changes to the final designation impacts estimated costs in two ways. 87. First, where future consultation and project modification costs were estimated for dams and reservoirs located within stream reaches that are expected to be excluded from the final critical habitat designation, the costs associated with these anticipated consultations are removed. Three critical habitat units have dams and reservoirs located on waters expected to be excluded in the final designation. The previously quantified costs associated with consultations on Lucky Peak and Cascade Dams and Reservoirs, and Warm Springs, Crane Prairie, and Wickiup Reservoirs have therefore been removed from the forecast total costs associated with the final critical habitat designation. Costs associated with consultations on Lucky Peak and Cascade Dams and Reservoirs have been removed from estimates for the Southwest Idaho River Basins Units, costs associated with consultation on Warm Springs Reservoir have been removed from estimates for the Malheur River Unit, and costs associated with consultations on Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs have been removed from estimates for the Deschutes River Unit. 88. Second, because the Service is expected to exclude areas of unknown occupancy from the final designation, the spatial extent of unoccupied habitat in each critical habitat ES- 33 unit is adjusted to reflect the expected final designation ( see Appendix F, Exhibit F. 11), and the forecast costs of the expected final designation reflect these changes. 89. Exhibit ES. 12 presents a summary of the annualized forecast total costs, by unit, likely to be associated with the final critical habitat designation over the next ten years. Overall, the removal of waters from the proposed to the expected final bull trout designation is expected to lower forecast section 7- related consultation and project modification costs by approximately $ 18 to $ 24 million over the next ten years ( nine percent). In six units where no changes in the proposed designation were made, there is no change in forecast costs. As a percentage of unit costs, the greatest reduction in forecast costs resulting from the exclusions is expected to occur in the Deschutes River Basin Unit, where forecast costs of the expected final designation are 43 to 55 percent of the costs originally forecast for the proposed designation. 90. The economic impacts associated with the final designation, discounted to present value using a rate of seven percent, are forecast to range from approximately $ 180 to $ 245 million over the next ten years, or $ 18.0 to $ 24.5 million annually. Total costs associated with the final designation for the Klamath Distinct Population Segment of bull trout are forecast to range from approximately $ 5 million to $ 7 million over the next ten years ($ 0.5 to 0.7 million annually), while costs associated with the final designation for the Columbia Distinct Population Segment of bull trout are forecast to range from approximately $ 175 million $ 235 million ($ 17.5 to $ 23.5 million annually). 91. These costs will be incurred primarily by Federal agencies responsible for section 7 consultations ( approximately 65 percent of forecast costs) and the Service ( approximately five to ten percent of forecast costs); private entities will incur the remaining 25 to 30 percent. Project modification costs account for as much as 50 to 60 percent of forecast costs, and administrative costs the remaining 40 to 50 percent. Dam and reservoir- related consultations, including power facility re- licensing, account for approximately 42 percent of forecast project modification costs ( excluding the cost associated with reduced irrigation diversions). Timber harvest, irrigation diversions, habitat conservation plans, and mining account for 20 percent, 12 percent, nine percent, and three percent of forecast project modification costs, respectively. 92. The main text of the report discusses impacts to small businesses expected under the rulemaking as proposed. Impacts to small businesses are primarily related to potential reductions in USFS water deliveries to farmers/ ranchers, project modifications triggered during hydroelectric facility re- licensing, and costs associated with activity restrictions for placer mining. Under the final designation, the reduction in small business impacts would parallel the extent to which these activities occur in habitat removed from the final designation and losses related to these activities reduced. ES- 34 Exhibit ES. 12 SUMMARY COMPARISON OF PROPOSED AND FINAL CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION SECTION 7 COSTS FOR THE BULL TROUT ( Annualized $ l, 000fs) Unit Unit 1 - Klamath River Basin Unit 2 - Clark Fork River Basin Unit 3 - Kootenai River Basin Unit 4 - Willamette River Basin Unit 5 - Hood River Basin Unit 6 - Deschutes River Basin Unit 7 - Odell Lake Unit 8 - John Day River Basin Unit 9 - Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins Unit 10 - Grande Ronde River Basin Unit 11 - Imaha/ Snake River Basins Unit 12 - Hells Canyon Complex Unit 13 - Malheur River Basin Unit 14 - Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Unit 15 - Clearwater River Basin Unit 16 - Salmon River Basin Unit 17 - Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit 18 - Little Lost River Basin Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River Basin Unit 20 - Middle Columbia River Basin Unit 21 - Upper Columbia River Basin Unit 22 - Northwest Washington River Basins Unit 23 - Snake River Basin in Washington Unit 24 - Columbia River Basin Estimated Range of Cost Proposed Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate $ 529 1,321 328 4,497 328 430 51 446 98 467 559 1,939 2,006 429 995 2,059 1,004 150 385 391 196 965 230 243 High Estimate $ 733 2,192 402 4,891 413 719 56 600 211 580 605 2,338 2,095 693 1,676 3,319 1,867 176 494 494 505 1,397 287 504 Estimated Range of Cost Final Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate $ 507 1,321 328 3,463 248 195 51 411 81 444 559 1,443 1,792 279 881 1,942 698 144 308 376 178 663 177 243 High Estimate $ 703 2,192 402 3,766 312 401 56 553 175 551 605 1,740 1,874 450 1,483 3,130 1,348 169 396 475 460 959 221 504 ES- 35 Exhibit ES. 12 SUMMARY COMPARISON OF PROPOSED AND FINAL CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION SECTION 7 COSTS FOR THE BULL TROUT ( Annualized $ l, 000fs) Unit Unit 25 - Snake River Basin Multiple unit or unknown a Estimated Range of Cost Proposed Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate 135 1,303 High Estimate 135 1,303 Estimated Range of Cost Final Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate 135 1,303 High Estimate 135 1,303 Notes: These estimates include all section 7 costs, including those co- extensive with the listing and designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. Costs are reported in 2003 dollars. a Miscellaneous costs ($ 213,000 annually) and the costs associated with development of HCP's ($ 1,090,000 annually) have not been allocated to the unit level due to uncertainty as to their location. ES- 36 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND SECTION 1 93. In November 2002, the Service proposed to designate critical habitat for the Columbia River and Klamath River DPSs of bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus), hereafter " bull trout." 6 The purpose of this report is to identify and analyze potential economic impacts associated with the proposed critical habitat designation. This report was prepared by Bioeconomics, Inc. of Missoula, Montana. 94. Section 4( b)( 2) of the Act requires the Service to designate critical habitat on the basis of the best scientific data available, after taking into consideration the economic impact, and any other relevant impact, of specifying any particular area as critical habitat. The Service may exclude areas from critical habitat designation when the benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefits of including the areas within critical habitat, provided the exclusion will not result in extinction of the species. 95. Under the listing of a species, section 7( a)( 2) of the Act requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service in order to ensure that activities they fund, authorize, permit, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species. The Service defines jeopardy as any action that would appreciably reduce the likelihood of both the survival and recovery of the species. For designated critical habitat, section 7( a)( 2) also requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service to ensure that activities they fund, authorize, permit, or carry out do not result in destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. Adverse modification of critical habitat is currently construed as any direct or indirect alteration that appreciably diminishes the value of critical habitat for conservation of a listed species. 6 On January 26,2001, the Alliance for the Wild Rockies, Inc. and Friends of the Wild Swan, Inc. filed a lawsuit in the U. S. District Court of Oregon challenging the Service's failure to designate critical habitat for bull trout. The Service entered into a settlement agreement on January 14, 2002, which stipulated that the Service would make critical habitat determinations for five populations of bull trout ( Civil Case No: CV 01- 127- JO). The Service has proposed critical habitat for the Columbia River and Klamath River populations, which are the subject of this analysis. 1- 1 1.1 Description of Species and Habitat7 96. Bull trout { Salvelinus confluentus, family Salmonidae) is a char native to waters of western North America. The historic range of bull trout includes major river basins in the Pacific Northwest from about 41° north to 60° north latitude, extending south to the McCloud River in northern California and the Jarbidge River in Nevada, and north to the headwaters of the Yukon River in Northwest Territories, Canada. To the west, bull trout range includes Puget Sound, various coastal rivers of British Columbia, Canada, and southeast Alaska. Bull trout occur in portions of the Columbia River and Snake River basins, extending east to headwater streams in Montana and Idaho, and into Canada. Bull trout also occur in the Klamath River basin of south- central Oregon. East of the Continental Divide in Canada, the bull trout's range includes the headwaters of the Saskatchewan River in Alberta, and the MacKenzie River system in Alberta and British Columbia. 97. Bull trout were first described as Salmo spectabilis by Girard in 1856 from a specimen collected on the lower Columbia River near The Dalles, Oregon, and subsequently described under a number of names such as Salmo confluentus and Salvelinus malma. Bull trout and Dolly Varden ( Salvelinus malma) were previously considered a single species. However, in 1980, the American Fisheries Society formally recognized bull trout and Dolly Varden as separate species. Two of the most useful characteristics in separating the two species are the shape and size of the head. The head of bull trout is more broad and flat on top, unlike Dolly Varden. Bull trout have an elongated body and large mouth, with the maxilla ( jaw) extending beyond the eye and with well- developed teeth on both jaws and head of the vomer ( a bone in teleost fishes that form the front part of the roof of the mouth and often bears teeth). Bull trout have 11 dorsal fin rays, nine anal fin rays, and the caudal fin is slightly forked. Although they are often olive green to brown with paler sides, color is variable with locality and habitat. 98. Bull trout exhibit both resident and migratory life history strategies. Resident bull trout complete their entire life cycle in the tributary streams where they spawn and rear. Migratory bull trout spawn in tributary streams where juvenile fish rear from one to four years before migrating to either a larger river or lake, where they spend their adult life, returning to the tributary stream only to spawn. These migratory forms occur in areas where conditions allow for movement from upper watershed spawning streams to larger downstream waters that contain greater foraging opportunities. Bull trout that migrate to a downstream river are referred to as " fluvial" fish, while the term " adfluvial" is used to describe fish that migrate to a lake or reservoir. Resident and migratory forms may spawn in the same areas and either form can produce resident or migratory offspring. 7 Information on the bull trout and its habitat is taken from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Proposed Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Distinct Population Segments of Bull Trout, November 29, 2002 ( 67 FR 71235- 71284). 1- 2 99. The Klamath River population segment consists of bull trout in the Upper Klamath Lake, Sprague River, and Sycan River watersheds in Oregon. Historical records suggest that bull trout were once widely distributed and exhibited diverse life- history traits in the Klamath River basin. Currently, bull trout in this basin are non- migratory fish that are confined to headwater streams. The local populations that remain reside in an estimated 21 percent of the historic range of bull trout in the Klamath River basin, and they are isolated from one another. 100. The Columbia River population segment includes bull trout residing in portions of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana. The Bull Trout Draft Recovery Plan ( Draft Recovery Plan) ( Service 2002) identifies 22 recovery units within the Columbia River basin: the Willamette River ( upper tributaries including the McKenzie River), Lower Columbia River ( principally the Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat Rivers), Hood River, Deschutes River, Odell Lake, John Day River, Umatilla and Walla Walla Rivers, Middle Columbia River ( principally the Yakima River), Snake River ( including Asotin Creek and Tucannon River), Grande Ronde River, Clearwater River, Salmon River, Little Lost River, Imnaha River, Hells Canyon ( including Powder River), Malheur River, Southwest Idaho, Upper Columbia River ( principally the Wenatchee, Entiat, and Methow Rivers), Northeast Washington, Clark Fork River, Kootenai River, and Coeur d'Alene Lake. Bull trout are estimated to have once occupied about 60 percent of the Columbia River basin; they presently occur in approximately 45 percent of their historic range. Although still somewhat widely distributed in the Columbia River basin, bull trout occur in low numbers in many areas and populations are considered depressed or declining across much of their range. 101. Many factors have contributed to the decline of bull trout in the Columbia and Klamath River basins. However, several appear to be particularly significant: ( 1) fragmentation and isolation of local populations due to dams and water diversions that have eliminated habitat, altered water flow and temperature regimes, and impeded migratory movements; ( 2) degradation of spawning and rearing habitat in upper watershed areas, particularly alterations in sedimentation rates and water temperature resulting from past forest and rangeland management practices and intensive development of roads; and ( 3) the introduction and spread of non- native species, particularly brook trout ( Salvelinusfontinalis) and lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush), which compete with bull trout for limited resources and, in the case of brook trout, hybridize with bull trout. 102. Bull trout have more specific habitat requirements than most other salmonids. Habitat components that influence bull trout distribution and abundance include water temperature, cover, channel form and stability, spawning and rearing substrate conditions, and migratory corridors. 103. Bull trout are found primarily in cold streams; water temperatures above 15° Celsius ( C) ( 59° Fahrenheit ( F)) are believed to limit bull trout distribution. Adult bull trout have been observed in large rivers throughout the Columbia River basin in water temperatures up to 20° C ( 68° F); however, there are documented steady and substantial declines in 1- 3 abundance in stream reaches where water temperature ranged from 15° to 20° C ( 59° to 68° F). In large rivers, bull trout are often observed " dipping" into the lower reaches of tributary streams, and it is suspected that cooler waters in these tributary mouths may provide important thermal refugia, allowing them to forage, migrate, and overwinter in waters that would otherwise be, at least seasonally, too warm. 104. Preferred spawning habitat consists of low- gradient stream reaches with loose, clean gravel, and water temperatures that range from 4° to 10° C ( 39° to 51° F). Such areas are often associated with cold- water springs or groundwater up- welling. Because bull trout eggs incubate about seven months in the gravel, they are especially vulnerable to fine sediments and water quality degradation. Increases in fine sediment appear to reduce egg survival and emergence. Juveniles are likely similarly affected, as they also live on or within the stream bed cobble. 105. Throughout their lives, bull trout require complex forms of cover, including large woody debris, undercut banks, boulders, and pools. Bull trout are opportunistic feeders, with food habits that are primarily a function of size and life- history strategy. Resident and juvenile migratory bull trout prey on terrestrial and aquatic insects, macro- zooplankton, and small fish. Adult migratory bull trout feed almost exclusively on other fish. 106. The ability to migrate is important to the persistence of bull trout. Maintaining the full complement of bull trout life history forms appears to be important for long- term population persistence in a dynamic and unpredictable environment. Migratory bull trout become much larger than resident fish in the more productive waters of larger streams and lakes, leading to increased reproductive potential. Migration also results in increased dispersion of the population which facilitates gene flow among local populations when individuals from different local populations interbreed, stray, or return to non- natal streams. Local populations that are extirpated by catastrophic events may also become re- established by bull trout migrants. 107. Introduced brook trout threaten bull trout through hybridization, competition, and possibly predation. Hybridization between brook trout and bull trout has been reported in Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. In addition, brook trout mature at an earlier age and have a higher reproductive rate than bull trout. This difference appears to favor brook trout over bull trout when they occur together, often leading to the decline or extirpation of bull trout. Brook trout also appear to adapt better to degraded habitat than bull trout and are more tolerant of high water temperatures. Non- native lake trout also negatively affect bull trout. In a study of 34 lakes in Montana, Alberta, and British Columbia, lake trout appeared to limit foraging opportunities and reduce the distribution and abundance of migratory bull trout in mountain lakes. 108. The Service determined the primary constituent elements of bull trout habitat from studies of their habitat requirements, life history characteristics, and population biology, as outlined above. These primary constituent elements are: 1- 4 Permanent water and associated substrate having low levels of contaminants such that normal reproduction, growth and survival are not inhibited; Water temperatures ranging from 2° to 15° C ( 37° to 59° F). Adequate thermal refugia may be necessary for persistence of bull trout if water temperatures commonly exceed this range. Specific temperatures within this range will vary depending on bull trout life history stage and form, geography, elevation, diurnal and seasonal variation, shade, such as that provided by riparian habitat, and local groundwater influence; • Complex stream channels with features such as woody debris, side channels, pools, and undercut banks to provide a variety of depths, velocities, and instream structures; • Substrates of sufficient amount, size, and composition to ensure success of egg and embryo overwinter survival, fry emergence, and young- of- the- year and juvenile survival. A minimal amount of fines less than 0.63 cm ( 0.25 in) in diameter and minimal substrate embeddedness are characteristic of these conditions; • A natural hydrograph, including high, low, peak, and base flows within historic ranges or, if regulated, a hydrograph that demonstrates the ability to support bull trout populations; • Springs, seeps, groundwater sources, and subsurface water connectivity to contribute to water quality and quantity; • Migratory corridors with minimal physical, biological or chemical barriers between spawning, rearing, overwintering, and foraging habitats, including intermittent or seasonal barriers induced by high water temperatures or low flows; • An abundant food base including terrestrial organisms of riparian origin, aquatic macroinvertebrates, and forage fish; and • Few or no predatory, interbreeding, or competitive non- native species present. An area need not include all of these elements to qualify for designation as critical habitat. 1.2 Proposed Critical Habitat 109. The areas proposed for designation as critical habitat for the bull trout provide one or more of the primary constituent elements described above. All of the proposed areas require special management considerations to ensure their contribution to the conservation of the bull trout. The critical habitat area consists of 18,469 river miles and 532,721 acres of lake and reservoir habitat within 25 units. While the lateral extent of proposed riverine 1- 5 critical habitat is the width of the stream channel defined by its bankfull elevation, the designation of critical habitat is expected to impact inland activity. How far inland the designation's effects extend is a more or less a site specific issue. For example, with regards to land- based activities such as timber sales or grazing practices, it is a matter of site specific physical processes such as sediment transport, the local topography, and the size of the drainage basin. Descriptions of each critical habitat unit are provided in Appendix A. 1.3 Framework and Methodology 110. The primary purpose of this analysis is to estimate the economic impact associated with the designation of critical habitat for bull trout. 8 This information is intended to assist the Secretary in making decisions about whether the benefits of excluding particular areas from the designation outweigh the benefits of including those areas in the designation. 9 In addition, this information allows the Service to address the requirements of Executive Orders 12866 and 13211, the RFA, as amended by the SBREFA. 10 111. This chapter provides the framework for this analysis. First, it defines the economic effects considered in the analysis. Second, it establishes the baseline against which these effects are measured. Third, it describes the measurement of direct compliance costs, which include costs associated with, and generated as a result of, section 7 consultations. Fourth, it identifies potential indirect economic effects of the rule resulting from ( 1) compliance with other parts of the Act potentially triggered by critical habitat, ( 2) compliance with other laws, and ( 3) time delays and regulatory uncertainty. Fifth, it discusses the need for an economic assessment of the benefits of critical habitat designation. Finally, the section concludes by discussing the time frame for the analysis and the general steps followed in the analysis. 1.3.1 Types of Economic Effects Considered 112. This economic analysis considers both the economic efficiency and distributional effects. For the purpose of this analysis, economic efficiency effects generally reflect the " opportunity costs" associated with the commitment of resources required to comply with the Act. For example, if the activities that can take place on a parcel of private land are limited as a result of a designation, and thus the market value of the land reduced, this reduction in value represents one measure of opportunity cost or change in economic efficiency. Similarly, the costs incurred by a Federal Action agency to consult with the Service under section 7 represent economic opportunity costs. 8 This analysis considers the effects of the regulatory action as proposed in the Federal Register on November 29, 2002 ( 67 FR 71236). M6U. S. C. § 1533( b)( 2). 10 Executive Order 12866, " Regulatory Planning and Review," September 30, 1993; Executive Order 13211, " Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use," May 18, 2001; 5 U. S. C. § § 601 etseq; and Pub Law No. 104- 121. 1- 6 113. This analysis also addresses how the impacts are distributed, including an assessment of any local or regional economic impacts and the potential effects on small entities and the energy industry. This information can be used by decision- makers to assess whether the effects might unduly burden a particular group or economic sector. 114. For example, while the designation may have a relatively small impact when measured in terms of changes in economic efficiency, individuals employed in a particular sector of the economy in the geographic area of the designation may experience relatively greater effects. The difference between economic efficiency effects and distributional effects, as well as their application in this analysis, are discussed in greater detail below. Efficiency Effects 115. At the guidance of the OMB and in compliance with Executive Order 12866 " Regulatory Planning and Review," Federal agencies measure changes in economic efficiency in order to understand how society, as a whole, will be affected by a regulatory action. 11 In the context of this regulatory action, these efficiency effects represent the opportunity cost of resources used or benefits foregone by society as a result of critical habitat designation and other co- extensive regulations. 12 Economists generally characterize opportunity costs in terms of changes in producer and consumer surpluses in affected markets. 13 116. In some instances, compliance costs may provide a reasonable approximation for the efficiency effects associated with a regulatory action. For example, a landowner or manager may need to enter into a consultation with the Service to ensure that a particular activity will not adversely modify critical habitat. The effort required for the consultation represents an economic opportunity cost, because the landowner or manager's time and effort would have been spent in an alternative activity had the parcel not been included in the designation. When compliance activity is not expected to significantly affect markets — that is, not result in a shift in the quantity of a good or service provided at a given price, or in the quantity of a good or service demanded given a change in price ~ the measurement of compliance costs can provide a reasonable estimate of the change in economic efficiency. 11 Executive Order 12866, " Regulatory Planning and Review," September 30,1993; U. S. Office of Management and Budget, " Circular A- 4," September 17, 2003. 12 The term " co- extensive" is discussed in greater detail in Section 1.3.3. 13 For additional information on the definition of " surplus" and an explanation of consumer and producer surplus in the context of regulatory analysis, see Gramlich, Edward M, A Guide to Benefit- Cost Analysis ( 2nd Ed.), Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc., 1990; and U. S. EPA, Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses, EPA 240- R- 00- 003, September 2000, available at http:// yosemite. epa. gov/ ee/ epa/ eed. nsf/ webpages/ Guidelines. html. 1- 7 117. Where a designation is expected to significantly impact a market, it may be necessary to estimate changes in producer and consumer surpluses. For example, a designation that precludes the development of large areas of land may shift the price and quantity of housing supplied in a region. In this case, changes in economic efficiency can be measured by considering changes in producer and consumer surplus in the real estate market. 118. This analysis begins by measuring reasonably foreseeable compliance costs. As noted above, in some cases, compliance costs can provide a reasonable estimate of changes in economic efficiency. However, if the designation is expected to significantly impact markets, the analysis will consider potential changes in consumer and/ or producer surplus in affected markets. Distributional and Regional Economic Effects 119. Measurements of changes in economic efficiency focus on the net impact of the regulation, without consideration for how certain economic sectors or groups of people are affected. Thus, a discussion of efficiency effects alone may miss important distributional considerations concerning groups that may be disproportionately affected. OMB encourages Federal agencies to consider distributional effects separately from efficiency effects. 14 This analysis considers the potential for several types of distributional effects, including impacts on small entities; impacts on energy supply distribution and use; and regional economic impacts. It is important to note that these are fundamentally different measures of economic impact than efficiency effects, and thus cannot be added to or compared with estimates of changes in economic efficiency. Impacts on Small Entities and Energy Supply, Distribution and Use 120. This analysis considers how small entities, including small businesses, organizations, and governments, as defined by the RFA, might be affected by critical habitat designation and other co- extensive regulatory actions. 15 In addition, in response to Executive Order 13211 " Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use," this analysis considers the impacts of critical habitat on the energy industry and its customers. 16 14 U. S. Office of Management and Budget, " Circular A- 4," September 17, 2003. 155U. S. C. § 60\ etseq. 16 Executive Order 13211, " Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use," May 18, 2001. 1- 8 Regional Economic Effects 121. Regional economic impact analysis provides an assessment of the potential localized effects of critical habitat designation and other co- extensive regulations. Specifically, regional economic impact analysis produces a quantitative estimate of the potential magnitude of the initial change in the regional economy resulting from a regulatory action. Regional economic impacts are commonly measured using regional input/ output models. These models rely on multipliers that mathematically represent the relationship between a change in one sector of the economy ( e. g., hydroelectric power generation) and the effect of that change on economic output, income, or employment in other local industries ( e. g., manufacturers relying on the electricity generated). These economic data provide a quantitative estimate of the magnitude of shifts of jobs and revenues in the local economy. 122. The use of regional input/ output models can overstate the long- term impacts of a regulatory change. Most importantly, these models provide a static view of the economy of a region. That is, they measure the initial impact of a regulatory change on an economy but do not consider long- term adjustments that the economy will make in response to this change. For example, these models provide estimates of the number of jobs lost as a result of a regulatory change, but do not consider re- employment of these individuals over time. In addition, the flow of goods and services across the regional boundaries defined in the model may change as a result of the designation, compensating for a potential decrease in economic activity within the region. 123. Despite these and other limitations, in certain circumstances regional economic impact analysis may provide useful information about the scale and scope of localized impacts. It is important to remember that measures of regional economic effects generally reflect shifts in resource use rather than efficiency losses. These types of distributional effects, therefore, should be reported separately from efficiency effects ( i. e., not summed). In addition, measures of regional economic impact cannot be compared with estimates of efficiency effects. 1.3.2 Defining the Baseline 124. The purpose of this analysis is to measure the economic impact of compliance with the protections derived from the designation of critical habitat, including habitat protections that may be " co- extensive" with the listing of the species ( the term " co- extensive" is described in greater detail in the following section). Economic impacts to land use activities may exist in the absence of co- extensive protections. These impacts may result from, for example: • Local zoning laws; • State and natural resource laws; and 1- 9 • Enforceable management plans and BMPs applied by other State and Federal agencies. 125. Economic impacts that result from these types of protections are not included in this assessment; they are considered to be part of the " baseline." Existing laws, regulations, and policies are described in greater detail in Section 2.3 of this analysis. 1.3.3 Direct Compliance Costs 126. The measurement of direct compliance costs focuses on the implementation of section 7 of the Act. This section requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service to ensure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out will not likely jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. The administrative costs of these consultations, along with the costs of project modifications resulting from these consultations, represent the direct compliance costs of designating critical habitat. 127. This analysis does not differentiate between consultations that result from the listing of the species ( i. e., the jeopardy standard) and consultations that result from the presence of critical habitat ( i. e., the adverse modification standard). Consultations resulting from the listing of the species, or project modifications meant specifically to protect the species as opposed to its habitat, may occur even in the absence of critical habitat. However, in 2001, the U. S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals instructed the Service to conduct a full analysis of all of the economic impacts of critical habitat designation, regardless of whether those impacts are attributable co- extensively to other causes. 17 Given the similarity in regulatory definitions between the terms " jeopardy" and " adverse modification," in practice it can be difficult to pre- determine the standard that drives a section 7 consultation. Consequently, in an effort to ensure that this economic analysis complies with the instructions of the 10th Circuit as well as to ensure that no costs of the proposed designation are omitted, the potential effects associated with all section 7 impacts in or near proposed critical habitat are fully considered. In doing so, the analysis ensures that any critical habitat impacts that are co- extensive with the listing of the species are not overlooked. 1.3.4 Indirect Costs 128. A designation may Title: Final economic analysis of critical habitat designation for the bull trout Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Year: 2004, 2005 FINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION FOR THE BULL TROUT September 2004 FINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION FOR THE BULL TROUT Prepared for: Division of Economics U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 N. Fairfax Drive Arlington, VA 22203 Prepared by: Bioeconomics, Inc. 315 S. 4th E. Missoula, MT 59801 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES- 1 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1- 1 1.1 Description of Species and Habitat 1- 2 1.2 Proposed Critical Habitat 1- 5 1.3 Framework and Methodology 1- 6 1.3.1 Types of Economic Effects Considered 1- 6 1.3.2 Defining the Baseline 1- 9 1.3.3 Direct Compliance Costs 1- 10 1.3.4 Indirect Costs 1- 10 1.3.5 Benefits 1- 14 1.3.6 Analytic Time Frame 1- 15 1.3.7 General Analytic Steps 1- 15 1.4 Information Sources 1- 16 2 RELEVANT BASELINE INFORMATION 2- 1 2.1 Socioeconomic Profile of the Critical Habitat Areas 2- 1 2.1.1 Population 2- 1 2.1.2 Land Ownership and Major Uses 2- 2 2.1.3 Employment 2- 12 2.1.4 Economic and Demographic Characteristics of the 74 Counties Containing Bull Trout Critical Habitat 2- 15 2.1.5. Tribes of the Columbia and Klamath Basins 2- 18 2.2 Baseline Elements 2- 21 2.2.1 Recovery Plan 2- 21 2.2.2 Overlap with Other Listed Species 2- 22 2.2.3 Federal and State Statutes and Regulations 2- 25 2.2.4 Summary Discussion of Impacts of Baseline Regulations on Economic Analysis 2- 40 2.2.5 Discussion: Impacts of Existing Fisheries Policies on Timber and Grazing Activities 2- 43 3 FORECASTED ECONOMIC IMPACTS 3- 1 3.1 Categories of Economic Impacts 3- 1 3.1.1 Section 7 Consultations 3- 2 3.1.2 Technical Assistance 3- 4 3.1.3 Project Modifications 3- 5 3.1.4 Distributional and Regional Economic Effects 3- 5 3.2 Consultation History for Bull Trout Since Listing 3- 7 3.2.1 Action Agencies and Activities Involved in Past Bull Trout Consultations 3- 7 3.2.2 Formal Section 7 Consultations History on Bull Trout Since Listing . 3- 13 3.2.3 Informal Section 7 Consultations History on Bull Trout 3- 15 3.3 Project Modifications 3- 16 3.3.1 Modifications to FHWA Bridge Projects 3- 16 3.3.2 Modifications to Grazing Permits 3- 17 3.3.3 Modifications to Timber Harvest 3- 18 3.3.4 Modifications to Mining Operations 3- 20 3.3.5 Modifications to Agricultural Irrigation Projects 3- 21 3.3.6 Modifications to Dams and Hydroelectric Projects 3- 24 3.3.7 Modifications to Forest Management and Road Maintenance Projects 3- 29 3.3.8 Activities Unlikely to Involve Significant Modification 3- 29 3.4 Projected Future Section 7 Consultations Involving the Bull Trout 3- 29 3.4.1 Projected Future Formal Section 7 Consultations 3- 33 3.4.2 Projected Future Informal Section 7 Consultations 3- 36 ESTIMATING THE CO- EXTENSIVE COSTS OF THE DESIGNATION 4- 1 4.1 Summary of Estimated Impacts 4- 2 4.1.1 Annual Administrative Costs of Consultation 4- 2 4.1.2 Costs Associated with Development of HCPs Within Proposed Bull Trout Critical Habitat 4- 3 4.1.3 Annual Bull Trout Project Modification Costs 4- 4 4.1.4 Proposed Critical Habitat Units Expected to Generate the Greatest Economic Impacts 4- 5 4.2 Discussion of Impacts by Action Agency 4- 6 4.2.1 Army Corps of Engineers 4- 7 4.2.2 Bureau of Land Management 4- 9 4.2.3 Bonneville Power Administration 4- 10 4.2.4 Bureau of Reclamation 4- 25 4.2.5 Federal Highway Administration 4- 29 4.2.6 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 4- 31 4.2.7 U. S. Forest Service 4- 52 4.2.8 Other Action Agencies 4- 79 4.3 Potential Impacts on Small Entities 4- 79 4.3.1 Identifying Activities That May Involve Small Entities 4- 81 4.3.2 Costs Associated with Agriculture Water Diversions 4- 83 4.3.3 Hydroelectric Facility Re- licensing 4- 84 4.3.4 Mining 4- 87 4.4 Potential Impacts on the Energy Industry 4- 88 4.4.1 Evaluation of Whether the Designation will Result in a Reduction in Electricity Production in Excess of One Billion Kilowatt- Hours Per Year or in Excess of 500 Megawatts of Installed Capacity 4- 89 4.4.2 Evaluation of Whether the Designation will Result in an Increase in the Cost of Energy Production in Excess of One Percent 4- 91 APPENDIX A: Detailed Description of Critical Habitat Units A- l APPENDIX B: Ownership of Lands Adjacent to Proposed Critical Habitat Unit and Subunit B- l APPENDIX C: Overlap of Proposed Bull Trout Critical Habitat and Salmon and Steelhead Habitat C- l APPENDIX D: Listing of All Suggested Project Modifications Found in Formal Biological Opinions: By Activity Type D- l APPENDIX E: Length ( stream) and area ( lakes) of proposed designated bull trout critical habitat that is within U. S. Forest Service Land and Forest Service Wilderness Areas E- l APPENDIX F: Breakdown of Total Annual Estimated Costs by Proposed Critical Habitat Unit F- l EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. The purpose of this report is to identify and analyze the potential economic impacts associated with the designation of critical habitat for the Columbia River and Klamath River Distinct Population Segments ( DPSs) of bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus), hereafter " bull trout." This report was prepared by Bioeconomics, Inc. of Missoula, Montana, for the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's ( the Service) Division of Economics. 2. Section 4( b)( 2) of the Endangered Species Act ( the Act) requires the Service to designate critical habitat on the basis of the best scientific data available, after taking into consideration the economic impact, and any other relevant impact, of specifying any particular area as critical habitat. The Service may exclude areas from critical habitat designation when the benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefits of including the areas within critical habitat, provided the exclusion will not result in extinction of the species. KEY FINDINGS Total costs associated with both listing and critical habitat designation for the bull trout are forecast to be $ 200 million to $ 260 million over the next ten years. Total costs associated with both listing and critical habitat designation for the bull trout within the proposed Klamath Distinct Population Segment are forecast to be $ 5.3 million to $ 7.3 million over the next ten years. Total costs associated with both listing and critical habitat designation for the bull trout within the proposed Columbia Distinct Population Segment are forecast to be $ 195 million to $ 253 million over the next ten years. Federal agencies are expected to bear 70 to 75 percent of these costs; private entities will incur the remaining 25 to 30 percent. Project modification costs account for as much as 63 percent of forecast costs. Administrative cost represent the remaining 37 percent. U. S. Forest Service and Army Corps of Engineer- related activities account for approximately 70 percent of forecast project modification costs. Activities experiencing the greatest costs include timber harvesting, irrigation diversions, and dam and reservoir operations. Dam and reservoir- related consultations, including power facility re- licensing, account for 42 percent of forecast project modification costs ( excluding the cost associated with reduced irrigation diversions). Timber harvest, irrigation diversions, habitat conservation plans, and mining account for 29 percent, 12 percent, eight percent, and three percent of forecast costs, respectively. In terms of river miles, approximately 18 percent of the total forecast costs are associated with one percent of the proposed designation, 25 percent with five percent of the proposed designation, and 45 percent with ten percent of the proposed designation. When expressed in terms of the expected cost per river mile, the two most costly units are the Willamette River Basin ( Unit 4) and the Malheur River Basin ( Unit 13). ES- 1 Framework for the Analysis 3. The primary purpose of this analysis is to estimate the economic impact associated with the designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. This information is intended to assist the Secretary in making decisions about whether the benefits of excluding particular areas from the designation outweigh the benefits of including those areas in the designation. 1 This economic analysis considers the economic efficiency effects that may result from the designation, including habitat protections that may be co- extensive with the listing of the species. It also addresses distribution of impacts, including an assessment of the potential effects on small entities and the energy industry. This information can be used by decision- makers to assess whether the effects of the designation might unduly burden a particular group or economic sector. 4. This analysis focuses on the direct and indirect costs of the rule. However, economic impacts to land use activities can exist in the absence of critical habitat. These impacts may result from, for example, local zoning laws, State and natural resource laws, and enforceable management plans and best management practices ( BMPs) applied by other State and Federal agencies. For example, as discussed in detail in this report, regional management plans, such as the Northwest Forest Plan, PACFISH and INFISH provide significant protection to bull trout and its habitat while imposing significant costs within the region. Economic impacts that result from these types of protections are not included in this assessment as they are considered to be part of the regulatory and policy " baseline." 5. The measurement of direct compliance costs focuses on the implementation of section 7 of the Act. This section requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service to ensure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out will not likely jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. The administrative costs of these consultations, along with the costs of project modifications resulting from these consultations, represent the direct compliance costs of designating critical habitat. Importantly, this analysis does not differentiate between consultations that result from the listing of the species ( i. e., the jeopardy standard) and consultations that result from the presence of critical habitat ( i. e., the adverse modification standard). 6. The analysis examines activities taking place both within and adjacent to the proposed designation. It estimates impacts based on activities that are " reasonably foreseeable," including, but not limited to, activities that are currently authorized, permitted, or funded, or for which proposed plans are currently available to the public. Accordingly, the analysis bases estimates on activities that are likely to occur within a ten- year time frame, beginning on the day that the current proposed rule became available to the public ( November 30, 2002). The ten- year time frame was chosen for the analysis because, as the time horizon for an economic analysis is expanded, the assumptions on which the projected number of projects and cost impacts associated with those projects becomes increasingly 1 16U. S. C. § 1533( b)( 2). ES- 2 speculative. An exception to the 10 year analysis time horizon used in this analysis is for Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ( FERC) licenses, which are renewed for up to 50 years. Accordingly, this analysis estimates the annualized costs of the expected impacts associated with section 7 bull trout consultations involving FERC re- licensing over a 50 year time horizon. 7. The analysis is based on a wide range of information sources. Numerous individuals were contacted from the Service, as well as from the U. S. Forest Service ( USFS), Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA), Bureau of Land Management ( BLM), Army Corps of Engineers ( ACOE), Bureau of Reclamation ( BOR), Bonneville Power Administration ( BPA), Natural Resources Conservation Service ( NRCS), U. S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) and other Federal agencies. The analysis of the hydroelectric facilities and other dam structures in the region also relied in information from the Northwest Power and Conservation Council ( NWPCC), the Pacific Northwest Utility Coordinating Council as well as information from utilities owning dams in bull trout proposed critical habitat ( e. g., Avista Corporation ( Avista), Eugene Water and Electric Board, Pacificorp and Portland General Electric ( PGE)). Native American Tribes ( e. g., Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes), State agencies ( e. g., State Departments of Environmental Quality ( DEQ) and State Departments of Transportation ( DOTs)) and industry organizations ( e. g., American Forest Resource Council, American Farm Bureau and Northwest Mining Association) were also contacted, as were numerous individuals in the private sector on topics ranging from irrigation to forestry to bull trout conservation. Census Bureau and other Department of Commerce data was relied on to characterize the regional economy. 8. The bull trout was listed as a threatened species in 1998.2 Since that time, numerous Action agencies have participated in well over 200 formal consultations and thousands of informal consultations involving bull trout. The past consultation record was used as a starting point from which to predict future consultation activity. Action agencies provided additional information on likely changes in future consultation activity following designation of critical habitat. In some cases these agencies saw little change in future consultation levels. For example, FHWA projects are planned for many years in advance and bridge or road- related bull trout consultations are generally quite certain and foreseeable. In some cases ( e. g., mining activity, irrigation diversions) it was determined that the historical consultation record understated the potential level of future consultation activity for the species and adjustments to future predicted consultation levels were made. For dam and reservoir operations, a wide spectrum of information from agency representatives, as well as the actual FERC re- licensing schedules for privately operated hydropower facilities were used to augment historical consultation rates and develop future annual cost estimates associated with bull trout consultations on dam, reservoir and power- related activities. 2 This economic analysis applies only to the Columbia River and Klamath River DPSs of bull trout and is not a rangewide analysis. The rangewide listing of the bull trout occurred in 1999 and critical habitat will be proposed for the remainder of the range at a later date. ES- 3 Exhibit ES. l provides a summary of the wide range of activities that may be impacted by bull trout- related consultations. Exhibit ES. l PROJECTED ACTIVITIES AFFECTED BY BULL TROUT Action Agency Army Corps of Engineers Bureau of Land Management Bonneville Power Administration Bureau of Reclamation Federal Highway Commission Federal Energy Regulatory Commission U. S. Forest Service Other agencies, including NPS, BIA, U. S. Department of Agriculture ( USDA), U. S. Geological Survey ( USGS), U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Fisheries Activities Consulted on Dam and reservoir operations, streambank stabilization, dredging, bridge replacement, stream restoration. Forest management, grazing, timber harvest, resource maintenance and road construction, weed management, streambank stabilization, flood control projects. Federal Columbia River Power System ( FCRPS)- dam operation, fisheries restoration and augmentation, agricultural practices and irrigation systems. Dam and reservoir operations, irrigation diversions. Highway bridge replacement. Dam re- licensing and removal. Timber harvest, grazing, mining, resource maintenance and road construction, weed management, streambank stabilization, recreation, special use permits, watershed restoration, road decommissioning, irrigation diversions, culvert replacement, and prescribed fuel reduction programs. Assorted activities, primarily fisheries and stream and wetland restoration. Results of the Analysis 9. The economic impacts associated with the designation of critical habitat for the bull trout are expected to range from $ 200 million to $ 260 million over the next ten years ($ 20 million to $ 26 million per year). Federal agencies are expected to bear approximately 70 to 75 percent of the total costs of this designation. A significant portion of the land adjacent to the proposed designation is Federally owned ( 58 percent), 36 percent is under private ownership and the remainder is comprised of Tribal, State or local interests. Of the Federal lands, the majority is managed by the USFS ( 85 percent) and the BLM ( 12 percent). The remaining 25 to 30 percent of costs are expected to be borne by private entities. Exhibit ES. 2 shows the location of USFS and BLM managed land within the proposed designation. ES- 4 Exhibit ES. 2 ES- 5 10. In some cases, the cost associated with consultation is not borne by the Action agency, but passed onto other parties. For example, while farmers and ranchers do not consult on the operation of Federal irrigation impoundments, irrigators could be impacted by potential reductions in water deliveries to maintain instream flow during dry years. While the unit location of USFS- related water diversions is uncertain, it is likely to occur in the Salmon River ( Unit 16), Clark Fork ( Unit 2), Southwest Idaho River and Clearwater River ( Unit 15) Basins, as these units contain the largest portion of USFS managed lands. 11. Consultations that may involve private entities include those related to timber harvest, grazing, mining and power facility re- licensing. Some of the costs associated with these consultations, however, are expected to be borne directly by or passed onto the Federal government ( e. g., increased logging and yarding costs passed onto the USFS through lower stumpage bids for timber). Most of the forecast project modification costs resulting from designation ( 42 percent) are dam and reservoir related ( excluding USFS water diversions). These costs result from consultations on ACOE and BOR dams and reservoirs, BPA consultations on the FCRPS, and FERC re- licensing consultations. Exhibit ES. 3 illustrates the location of major dams within the proposed critical habitat. The remaining project modification costs are associated with timber harvest ( 29 percent), USFS- related water diversions ( 12 percent), habitat conservation plans ( eight percent), and placer gold mining ( three percent). Grazing, forest management, road and bridge construction and maintenance and other activities each account for less than two percent of forecast project modification costs. Exhibit ES. 4 provides the distribution of total costs by activity. 12. Costs can be expressed in terms of unit or river mile; both of these metrics are useful in describing economic impacts. 3 On a cost per unit basis the largest portion of forecast costs are expected to occur in Unit 4, the Willamette River Basin ( 18 percent). These costs are attributable to fish passage and temperature control projects and annual operating and maintenance and fish study costs at ACOE's facilities in the Upper Willamette River System ( Dexter, Lookout Point, Hills Creek and Blue River Dams). The next most costly unit is Unit 16, the Salmon River Basin ( 12 percent). Because this is the largest unit in terms of river miles and proportion of USFS managed land, and because future USFS activities are expected to generate approximately 70 percent of the consultation activity, this unit bears the greatest number of future bull trout- related consultations. Therefore, the administrative costs account for a large portion of the costs in this unit. Together, these two units account for 30 percent ( approximately $ 8.2 million) of forecast costs. The next three most costly units, Hells Canyon complex ( Unit 12) and the Clark Fork River ( Unit 2) and Malheur River ( Unit 13) Basins, each account for eight percent ( a unit cost range of approximately $ 2.1 million to $ 2.3 million) of forecast costs. In total, these five units account for almost 55 percent of forecast costs ( approximately $ 14.8 million). 3 Twelve of the units also contain more than 500,000 lake acres of critical habitat. These units account for approximately 55 percent of the potential economic impacts associated with the proposed designation ($ 15.4 million). The Clark Fork River Basin ( Unit 2) contains almost 60 percent of the lake acres ( more than 300,000 acres) and accounts for eight percent of the cost ( approximately $ 3 million). Because all 25 units contain river miles, the costs are expressed in terms of dollars per river mile for comparison. ES- 6 ES- 7 ES- 8 13. Project modifications or other restrictions that engender cost and revenue impacts involving commercial enterprises can have a subsequent detrimental effect on other sectors of the local economy, especially when the affected industry is central to the local economy. Industries within a geographic area are interdependent in the sense that they purchase output from other industries and sectors, while also supplying inputs to other businesses. Therefore, direct economic effects on a particular enterprise can affect regional output and employment in multiple industries. The extent to which regional economic impacts are realized depends largely on whether a significant number of projects are stopped or fundamentally altered. For example, impacts to the timber or grazing industries depend on whether required project modifications substantially reduce output within economic sectors below that which would be seen in the absence of the trout consultation. 14. Examination of BOs involving timber harvest and grazing show only small and sporadic reductions in either grazing opportunity or available timber harvest. Therefore, this analysis assumes that regional economic impacts associated with these activities will be unpredictable ( in terms of geographic location and timing) and small in the context of the overall economy of the Columbia River Basin. In the case of agricultural water diversions on Forest Service lands, regional economic impacts are not modeled due to uncertainty about the magnitude and potential location of impacts. 15. Exhibit ES- 5 highlights the relative contributions of each unit to total forecast costs. Exhibit ES- 6 then presents the unit cost by river mile. Considering the cost per river mile, the Willamette River ( Unit 4) and Malheur River ( Unit 13) Basins are the most costly units. Together these two units account for 25 percent of the costs ( approximately $ 7.0 million, annualized) over two percent of the proposed miles of the designation ( 451 miles). Overall, 10 percent of the river miles ( 1,910 miles) in eight units account for approximately 45 percent of the total costs ( approximately $ 12.5 million, annualized). 4 4 In terms of cost per lake acre, the Willamette River Basin is the most expensive unit ( Unit 4), followed by the Northeast Washington River ( Unit 22) and Upper Columbia River ( Unit 21) Basins. These three units account for approximately 25 percent of the cost ($ 6.8 million) and five percent of the river miles ( 1,020 miles) in the proposed designation. ES- 9 tn m W GO 16. Consideration of the regulatory baseline is particularly pertinent in the context of estimating economic costs attributable to section 7 for bull trout. Specifically, existing regulations such as the Federal Power Act ( FPA) and Wilderness Act of 1964, fisheries management directives ( Northwest Forest Plan, INFISH and PACFISH) and the presence of other listed species ( especially anadromous fish) provide for the protection of areas that could contribute to the recovery of bull trout and improve riparian habitat and water quality throughout the proposed designation. Thus, the costs of this designation is limited by the extent to which existing regulations already impose requirements on land use and resource management within the proposed designation. In addition, the cost estimates developed in this report reflect various allocations made throughout the analysis for projects benefitting more than one listed species. Since these allocations are important to the analysis, Exhibit ES. 7 describes how forecasted costs were allocated among bull trout and other listed species. Exhibit ES. 7 ALLOCATION OF ESTIMATED FUTURE PROJECT MODIFICATION COSTS Agency / Project ACOE - Upper Willamette River Dams and Reservoirs BPA - Federal Columbia River Power System FERC - re- licensing hydroelectric facilities USFS activities Allocation NOAA Fisheries and the Service are currently consulting on salmon, steelhead and bull trout in this proposed area. No clear allocation of costs can be made between these species, as most of the projects modifications would be sought under both the NOAA and Service consultations. Therefore, one- third of estimated costs are allocated to each species. This is likely to overstate the cost of bull trout conservation rather than understate it, since the primary driving force behind these project modifications is the salmon. While there is extensive discussion of the relative magnitude of potential bull trout versus salmon mitigation actions, because of the relatively modest project modification costs ( up to $ 400,000 associated with fishery studies) there is no allocation of costs to salmon. The estimation of section 7 bull trout costs associated with FERC re- licensing includes allocation of mitigation costs for specific dams to salmon, as well as to other aquatic species. As a result, a little more than 40 percent of total fishery-related costs are allocated to bull trout, and five percent specifically to bull trout section 7 consultation. While certain costs in the sample of timber consultations were allocated to other listed species ( e. g. grizzlies and cutthroat trout), there is no allocation of costs to anadromous species. Summary of Costs 17. Exhibit ES. 8 provides a detailed summary of the co- extensive costs of designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. These costs are presented on an annualized basis. A map of the watersheds that encompass each unit is provided in Exhibit ES. 9 to assist the reader in understanding the location and distribution of estimated costs. A detailed discussion of the estimated administrative and project modification costs by critical habitat unit is presented in the unit- by- unit summary section following Exhibit ES. 8. ES- 12 Exhibit ES. 8 SUMMARY OF SECTION 7 COSTS FOR THE BULL TROUT ( Annualized) Unit Unit 1 - Klamath River Basin Unit 2 - Clark Fork River Basin Unit 3 - Kootenai River Basin Unit 4 - Willamette River Basin Unit 5 - Hood River Basin Unit 6 - Deschutes River Basin Unit 7 - Odell Lake Unit 8 - John Day River Basin Unit 9 - Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins Unit 10 - Grande Ronde River Basin Unit 11 - Imaha/ Snake River Basins Unit 12 - Hells Canyon Complex Unit 13 - Malheur River Basin Unit 14 - Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Unit 15 - Clearwater River Basin Unit 16 - Salmon River Basin Unit 17 - Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit 18 - Little Lost River Basin Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River Basin Unit 20 - Middle Columbia River Basin Unit 21 - Upper Columbia River Basin Unit 22 - Northwest Washington River Basins Unit 23 - Snake River Basin in Washington Unit 24 - Columbia River Basin Unit 25 - Snake River Basin Multiple unit or unknown a Estimated Range of Cost ($ l, 000fs) $ 529 to $ 733 $ 1,321 to $ 2,192 $ 328 to $ 402 $ 4,497 to $ 4,891 $ 328 to $ 413 $ 430 to $ 719 $ 51 to $ 56 $ 446 to $ 600 $ 98 to $ 211 $ 467 to $ 580 $ 559 to $ 605 $ 1,939 to $ 2,338 $ 2,006 to $ 2,095 $ 429 to $ 693 $ 995 to $ 1,676 $ 2,059 to $ 3,319 $ 1,004 to $ 1,867 $ 150 to $ 176 $ 385 to $ 494 $ 391 to $ 494 $ 196 to $ 505 $ 965 to $ 1,397 $ 230 to $ 287 $ 243 to $ 504 $ 135 $ 1,303 Notes: These estimates include all section 7 costs, including those co- extensive with the listing and designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. Costs are reported in 2003 dollars. A more detailed presentation of these costs is provided in Appendix F. a Miscellaneous costs ($ 213,000 annually) and the costs associated with development of habitat conservation Dlans ($ 1,090,000 annuallv) have not been allocated to the unit level due to uncertainty as to their location. ES- 13 Exhibit ES- 9 ES- 14 Unit- bv- Unit Summary 18. The following discussion presents a unit- by- unit synopsis of the co- extensive costs of designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. Details on how these cost estimates were developed is provided in Section 4 of this report. 19. From an aggregate perspective, forecast project modification costs are dominated by dam related activities, totaling about 42 percent of all estimated costs. Typical costs include fish passage, changes in operations, habitat protection or restoration, and fishery studies at 36 FERC- licensed hydroelectric facilities and at more than 30 major Federal hydropower, irrigation and flood projects. The second largest category of costs is associated with timber harvest on Federal lands, representing about 29 percent of all estimated costs. These costs include harvest reduction, fishery study and monitoring costs, costs related to roads and culverts, and changes to log yarding systems. The remaining costs are split among a large number of activities including the development of habitat conservation plans, mining, agriculture and irrigation diversions, grazing, bridge construction and maintenance, and general forest management. Accordingly, the primary factor driving the distribution of costs across units is the location of significant dam projects for power, irrigation, and flood control. This factor is highlighted in the following unit- by- unit discussion. The second most important factor is the occurrence of federally- owned acreage within a given unit, particularly the acreage of non- wilderness lands managed by the USFS. This factor drives both timber costs and administrative consultation costs. 20. A significant component of the total estimated cost of this designation are the administrative costs associated with conducting both formal and informal consultations on the species ( approximately 37 to 50 percent of total forecast bull trout- related costs). These costs accrue to the Service as well as to action agencies and the public. In some cases these administrative costs constitute a majority of the estimated costs for a unit, suggesting that there will be many activities consulted on but few resulting project modifications. 21. This discussion is presented on a unit by unit basis. A perspective on how the units compare, in both absolute terms and in terms of cost per river mile of proposed critical habitat, is provided in Exhibits ES- 6 and ES- 7. For purposes of this summary, proposed units with per mile costs ( after adjusting each unit's costs for its respective unoccupied habitat) forecast to be less than half of the proposed designation- wide average are described as having " relatively low costs." Units with per mile costs forecast to be between 50 percent and 200 percent ( i. e., twice) the designation- wide average costs are described as having " relatively moderate costs." Units with per- mile costs forecast to be greater than twice the designation- wide average costs are described as having " relatively high costs." Note that these descriptors are intended as a general guide, and refer to total cost only. Individual economic sectors and entities within a unit may bear disproportionate shares of these costs, as discussed in Section 4. 22. Unit 1: Klamath River Basin - The Klamath River Basin is located in south- central Oregon. Proposed critical habitat within this unit includes 475 km ( 295 mi) of streams and ES- 15 3,775 ha ( 9,327 ac) of lake habitat. The Klamath River Basin Unit is largely contained within Klamath County Oregon. The town of Klamath Falls is the largest community within the county. The Klamath River Basin Unit has a relatively high percentage of proposed critical habitat that is currently either unoccupied or of unknown occupancy ( 72 percent). Approximately 69 percent of the stream miles proposed for designation are within Federal land. 23. The Klamath River Basin Unit is a relatively moderate cost unit. Estimated total annual bull trout- related costs within this unit range between $ 529,000 and $ 733,000. These estimates include $ 425,000 per year in administrative costs. It is estimated that costs associated with consultations on timber harvest and agricultural irrigation withdrawals will constitute the large majority of potential future project modification costs in the unit ( estimated at between 73 percent and 87 percent of total annual project modification costs). These agricultural diversion- related costs are expected to result from reductions in available irrigation water. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 24. Unit 2: Clark Fork River Basin - The Clark Fork River Basin Unit is the largest unit within the proposed designation. This unit includes most of Western Montana and the Idaho panhandle. This Unit includes the Missoula and Bitterroot River Valleys in Western Montana, the Kalispell- Flathead Lake Region, and the Lake Pend Orielle Region of North Idaho. These areas contain many of the larger towns and communities within Western Montana and North Idaho. Approximately 54 percent of the proposed streams and 33 percent of proposed lakes in Clark Fork Unit are within Federal lands. There is no unoccupied habitat within the proposed Clark Fork Critical Habitat Unit. 25. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 1.3 million and $ 2.2 million. These estimates include $ 800,000 per year in administrative costs. In addition, a number of agencies and activities will incur significant annual project modification costs associated with the bull trout in this unit. Specifically, • Timber harvest activity is expected to generate the largest share of future project modification costs in this unit ($ 270,000 to $ 680,000 per year). These costs include harvest reduction, fishery study and monitoring costs, costs related to road and culverts, and changes to log yarding systems. • Costs associated with forecast project modifications to irrigation diversions within this unit range from zero to $ 280,000. These costs represent potential costs to agricultural producers associated with reductions in available irrigation water. 26. Other significant forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with mining ( up to $ 100,000 annually, principally involving watershed assessment costs), FERC hydro re- licensing ($ 50,000 to $ 91,000 annually), and FHWA bridge and road work ($ 45,000 per year, generally involving constraints on in- stream work periods). Forecast FERC- related costs are associated with several major hydroelectric facilities within the unit, ES- 16 including Kerr Dam on the Flathead River and Thompson Falls Dam on the Clark Fork. Additionally, bull trout- related modifications on operation of the FCRPS have resulted in changes in operations at Hungry Horse Dam ( a BOR facility on the S. Fork of the Flathead) and Albeni Falls ( an ACOE facility that controls the level of Lake Pend Orielle). Bull trout study costs specific to the Clark Fork Unit and associated with FCRPS consultation are expected to cost up to $ 97,000 annually. 27. Although the proposed Clark Fork River Basin Critical Habitat Unit has significant forecast total annual costs, these costs should be viewed in light of the large size of this proposed unit. In fact, the Clark Fork Unit is forecast to be one of the lowest cost units, when expressed per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. 28. Unit 3: Kootenai River Basin - A short stretch of the Kootenai River lies in the U. S., looping down out of British Columbia. The Kootenai Unit thus comprises only the northwestern corner of Montana, including Libby Dam, and the northeastern tip of the Idaho panhandle. This unit is contained within two counties, Boundary County, Idaho and Lincoln County, Montana. Within this proposed critical habitat unit, approximately 53 percent of the rivers and streams proposed for designation are on Federal land. There is no unoccupied bull trout habitat within this unit. 29. The Kootenai River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Total forecast annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 328,000 and $ 402,000. Of this amount, the majority, approximately $ 290,000 annually, are forecast administrative costs. In addition, it is estimated that project modification costs within the Kootenai River Unit will total between $ 38,000 and $ 112,000 annually. Costs associated with timber harvest are expected to be the largest category of future project modification costs in this unit ($ 27,000 to $ 69,000 per year, including costs of harvest reduction, fishery study and monitoring costs, costs related to roads and culverts, and changes to log yarding systems). Costs resulting from modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions ( primarily reductions in irrigation withdrawals) could range from zero to $ 28,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 per year in project modification costs. Bull trout- related modifications to operations of the FCRPS have resulted in changes in operations at Libby Dam. 30. Unit 4: Willamette River Basin - The Willamette River Basin Unit includes 337 km ( 209 mi) of stream and 1,600 ha ( 3,954 ac) of lake habitat in the McKenzie River and Middle Fork Willamette River subbasins of Western Oregon. The unit is located primarily within Lane County, but also extends into Linn County. The unit contains Eugene, Oregon and surrounding areas. Approximately 46 percent of the proposed waters within this unit are on Federal land and about 23 percent of the waters in the unit are currently either unoccupied by the bull trout or of unknown occupancy. 31. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 4.5 million and $ 4.9 million. Of this amount, approximately $ 125,000 are forecast ES- 17 administrative costs. Thus, most of the costs for this unit are associated with required project modifications. While project modification costs are forecast to be associated with timber harvest activities and agricultural diversions within this unit ( estimated between $ 22,000 and $ 55,000 annually), the vast majority of forecast costs are associated with dam and reservoir operations in the unit. 32. The ACOE is currently in consultation on 13 flood control facilities located in the Upper Willamette River system. Potential future costs of required modifications for bull trout will likely be driven by provisions for temperature control facilities at the Lookout Point, Hills Creek, and Blue River dams, and trap and haul passage at Lookout Point, Hills Creek, and possibly a fish ladder at Dexter Dam. It is estimated that these passage and temperature control modifications and operation at ACOE operated impoundments in the unit will cost between $ 4.3 and $ 4.5 million per year. It is further estimated that annual project modification costs associated with FERC re- licensing of hydroelectric facilities in the unit will cost between $ 70,000 and $ 144,000 annually. These costs are associated with several hydroelectric facilities operated by the City of Eugene: Trail Bridge and Carmen on the McKenzie River, and Blue River Dam. 33. The Willamette River Unit is the highest cost of the proposed units in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation ( greater than $ 20,000 per river mile, annually). These costs are associated with dam and reservoir modifications to ACOE projects. However, the ACOE is also consulting with NOAA Fisheries on the impacts of these facilities on chinook salmon and steelhead, these costs might occur even absent the bull trout. 34. Unit 5: Hood River Basin - The Hood River Unit lies entirely within Hood River County, Oregon and contains the communities of Hood River and The Dalles among a number of smaller towns. The Unit includes the mainstem Hood River and three major tributaries: the Clear Branch Hood River, West Fork Hood River, and East Fork Hood River. A relatively high 43 percent of the proposed habitat in the Hood River Unit is currently either unoccupied or of unknown occupancy. Overall, about 48 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal lands. 35. The Hood River Unit is a relatively moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 328,000 and $ 413,000. Of this amount, a substantial portion are forecast administrative costs ( approximately $ 282,000). The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Costs associated with FERC re- licensing of hydroelectric facilities ($ 24,000 to $ 67,000) and timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 16,000 to $ 40,000 per year) are expected to be the most significant categories of future project modification costs in the unit. FERC licensed facilities include Powerdale on the Hood River. Agricultural irrigation diversions in the unit could experience up to $ 16,000 in annual project modification costs. Other activities are individually estimated to account for less than $ 5,000 per year in project modification costs. ES- 18 36. Unit 6: Deschutes River Basin - The Deschutes River Basin Unit in central Oregon contains two critical habitat subunits: the lower Deschutes and the upper Deschutes, separated by Big Falls, an impassible barrier on the Deschutes River. The Lower Deschutes critical habitat subunit is in Wasco, Sherman, Jefferson, Deschutes, and Crook Counties. The Upper Deschutes River critical habitat subunit is located in Deschutes, Crook, and Klamath counties. Approximately 801 km ( 498 mi) of stream habitat in the Deschutes River basin is proposed for critical habitat designation. Overall, a relatively high 37 percent of the proposed habitat within the Deschutes River Unit is unoccupied. The entire upper Deschutes River Critical Habitat subunit is currently unoccupied by the species. A relatively low portion ( 35 percent) of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are on Federal land. This unit also has a substantial amount of Tribal land ( 23 percent of proposed waters). 37. The Deschutes River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is forecast that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 431,000 and $ 719,000. A relatively small portion of this amount, approximately $ 102,000 annually, are forecast administrative costs. The vast majority of these costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, costs associated with operation of BOR irrigation impoundments ($ 159,000 annually, largely associated with fishery studies), FERC re- licensing of hydroelectric facilities, ($ 106,000 to $ 280,000) and timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 42,000 to $ 105,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems) are expected to be the most significant categories of future project modification costs in this unit. The BOR- related costs are for studies at Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs on the Upper Deschutes River. Since both of these reservoirs are in the currently unoccupied Upper Deschutes subunit, dam and reservoir modifications are not reasonably foreseeable. Projected FERC re- licensing costs are for bull trout studies and passage at the Pelton- Round Butte Project on the Deschutes River. Agricultural irrigation diversion project modification costs associated with potential reductions in irrigation water availability could range from zero to $ 43,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 38. Unit 7: Odell Lake - The Odell Lake Unit in central Oregon lies entirely within the Deschutes National Forest in Deschutes and Klamath counties. This unit is the smallest of the proposed units within the designation. Total proposed critical habitat includes approximately 2,675 ha ( 6,611 ac) of lake habitat and 18.1 km ( 11.3 mi) of streams. There is no unoccupied habitat within this unit. 39. Total annual costs associated with the bull trout within the unit are forecast to be between $ 51,000 and $ 56,000. Of this amount, almost all ( approximately $ 50,000 annually) will be associated with the administrative costs of the consultation process. It is estimated that project modification costs within the Odell Lake Unit will total less than $ 5,000 annually. These project modification costs are forecast to be largely associated with USFS activities. ES- 19 40. Unit 8: John Day River Basin - The John Day River Basin Unit in eastern Oregon includes the North Fork, the Middle Fork, and mainstem portions of the John Day River and their tributary streams in Wheeler, Grant, and Umatilla counties. A total of 1,080 km ( 671 mi) of stream habitat is proposed for designation as critical habitat. Overall, 19 percent of the proposed areas within the John Day River Unit are currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 54 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the John Day Unit are located on Federal land. 41. The John Day River Unit is a relatively low cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are forecast to be between $ 446,000 and $ 600,000. Of this amount, a large portion, approximately $ 278,000 annually, will be made up of administrative costs. The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, project modifications associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 57,000 to $ 143,000 per year from reductions in harvest, fisheries studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems) and placer mining on USFS lands ( up to $ 88,000 per year associated with requirements for and limitations on allowed stream crossing activity) are expected to generate the greatest share of project modification costs in this unit. Costs associated with agricultural irrigation diversion reductions could range from zero to $ 58,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. The John Day River Basin is one of two units identified in this study as a setting where bull trout related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small placer mining business, the other is the Hells Canyon Complex ( Unit 12). 42. Unit 9: Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins - The Umatilla and Walla Walla Rivers Unit is located in northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. The unit includes 636 km ( 395 mi) of streams extending across portions of Umatilla, Union, and Wallowa counties in Oregon, and Walla Walla and Columbia counties in Washington. Overall, 17 percent of the proposed critical habitat within this unit is currently unoccupied by the species. A relatively low portion ( 32 percent) of the waters proposed for designation within the Umatilla- Walla Walla Unit are located on Federal land. 43. The Umatilla- Walla Walla River Unit is among the lowest cost units, in terms of consultation- related cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is estimated that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 98,000 and $ 211,000. Of this amount, approximately $ 59,000 annually will be associated with the administrative costs of the consultation process and the remainder with required project modifications. Specifically, fisheries studies associated with FCRPS consultations could cost up to $ 43,000 annually. Project modification associated with timber harvest on USFS lands is expected to be another significant category of future costs in this unit ($ 26,000 to $ 65,000 per year). Agricultural irrigation diversions could experience up to $ 26,000 in annual project modification costs within this unit. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. In addition to the consultation and project modification costs, the Walla Walla Drainage is in ES- 20 the final stages of developing a basin- wide habitat conservation plan to protect bull trout, among other species. The plan has cost approximately $ 4 million to develop, and it is expected an additional $ 1 million will be spent to complete the plan during the next year or two. 44. Unit 10: Grande Ronde River Basin - The Grande Ronde Unit extends across Union, Wallowa, and Umatilla counties in northeastern Oregon, and Asotin, Columbia, and Garfield counties in southeastern Washington. This unit includes the Grande Ronde River from its headwaters to the confluence with the Snake River and a number of its tributaries, the largest being the Wallowa River. Approximately 1,030 km ( 640 mi) of stream habitat in the Grande Ronde River basin is proposed for critical habitat designation. Overall, seven percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Grand Ronde River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 52 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal land. 45. The Grand Ronde River Unit is a low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 467,000 and $ 580,000. Of this amount, the vast majority, approximately $ 417,000 annually, are forecast to be administrative costs. The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, fisheries studies within the unit associated with FCRPS consultations could cost up to $ 19,000 annually. Timber harvest on USFS lands is expected to be another significant source of future project modification costs in this unit ($ 34,000 to $ 87,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fisheries studies, and road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems). Agricultural irrigation diversion costs could be up to $ 35,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 46. Unit 11: Imnaha/ Snake River Basins - The Imnaha/ Snake Unit extends across Wallowa, Baker, and Union counties in northeastern Oregon and Adams and Idaho counties in western Idaho. The unit contains approximately 306 km ( 190 mi) of proposed critical habitat. All of the proposed habitat within the Imnaha- Snake River Unit is currently occupied by the species. Approximately 51 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal land. 47. The Imnaha/ Snake River Unit is a moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 559,000 and $ 605,000. Of this amount, the large majority are made up of administrative costs ( approximately $ 544,000, annually). The remainder of the forecast costs are associated with required project modifications. Specifically, fishery studies within the unit associated with FCRPS consultations could cost up to $ 18,000 annually. Timber harvest activities on USFS lands are expected to be another significant category of future project modification costs ($ 10,000 to $ 26,000 per year). Agricultural irrigation diversion related project modification costs could range from zero ES- 21 to $ 11,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 48. Unit 12: Hells Canyon Complex - The Hells Canyon Complex Unit encompasses basins in Idaho and Oregon draining into the Snake River and its associated reservoirs, from Hells Canyon Dam upstream to the confluence of the Weiser River. The Hells Canyon Complex unit includes a total of approximately 1,000 km ( 621 mi) of streams proposed as critical habitat. A relatively high portion ( about 48 percent) of the proposed critical habitat within the Hells Canyon Complex Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 47 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this unit are located on Federal land. 49. The Hells Canyon Complex Unit is a relatively moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is forecast that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 1.9 million and $ 2.3 million. Of this amount, a majority are expected to be made up of administrative costs ( approximately $ 1.4 million, annually). In addition, significant categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 92,000 to $ 233,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems), placer mining on USFS land ($ 69,000 associated with requirements for and limitations on allowed stream crossing activity), FERC hydroelectric re- licensing ($ 111,000 to $ 259,000), and BOR reservoir activities ($ 192,000 annually, primarily for study related costs). The BOR reservoirs in the unit include Phillips Reservoir and Thief Valley Reservoir; projected costs are for bull trout related studies. Major FERC- licensed hydroelectric facilities in the unit include Hells Canyon, Brownlee and Oxbow. Agricultural irrigation diversions could experience up to $ 95,000 in annual project modification costs within this unit. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than 20,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. The Hells Canyon complex is one of two units identified in this study as a setting where bull trout related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small placer mining business, the other is the John Day River Basin ( Unit 8). 50. Unit 13: Malheur River Basin - The Malheur Unit is in the Malheur River Basin in eastern Oregon, in Grant, Baker, Harney, and Malheur counties. A total of 389 km ( 241 mi) of streams and two reservoirs are proposed for critical habitat. About 25 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Malheur River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 63 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Malheur River Unit are located on Federal land. 51. The Malheur River Unit is the second highest cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 2.0 million and $ 2.1 million. Project modification costs make up a small portion of these costs, between $ 179,000 and $ 268,000 annually. The rest of the forecast costs are associated with administrative requirements. Major categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with ES- 22 timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 33,000 to $ 83,000 per year) and BOR reservoir activities ($ 133,000 annually). The BOR costs are for research as well as trap and haul fish passage that is ongoing at Beulah Reservoir on the Malheur River, and estimated research costs at Warm Springs Reservoir, which is currently unoccupied by bull trout. Possible reductions in agricultural irrigation diversions could cost from zero to $ 34,000 annually . Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 per year in project modification costs. 52. Unit 14: Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin - The Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Unit in Idaho is broken into two subunits. The Coeur d'Alene Lake subunit lies within Kootenai, Shoshone, Benewah and Bonner counties. The St. Joe River subunit includes streams in Shoshone, Benewah, and Latah counties, Idaho. Thirty stream reaches or tributaries ( 677 km ( 421 mi)) and lakes comprising 12,727 ha ( 31,450 ac) of surface area are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. Of this, a relatively high portion ( 46 percent) is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 58 percent of the waters proposed for designation within this Unit are located on Federal land. 53. The Coeur d'Alene Lake Unit is relatively low cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 429,000 and $ 693,000. A large share of this amount, approximately $ 287,000 annually, is forecast to be made up of administrative costs. In addition, major categories of forecast project modification costs within the unit are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 97,000 to $ 245,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs, and changes in yarding systems), and FHWA bridge and road work ($ 23,000 associated with limitations on in- stream work periods). Modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could result in costs from zero to $ 100,000. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 54. Unit 15: Clearwater River Basin - The Clearwater River Unit includes 3,063 km ( 1,904 mi) of streams and 6,722 ha ( 16,611 ac) of lakes proposed as critical habitat for bull trout in north- central Idaho. This large unit extends from the Snake River confluence at Lewiston on the west to headwaters in the Bitterroot Mountains along the Idaho/ Montana border on the east. About 13 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Clearwater River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 78 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Unit are located on Federal land. 55. Total forecast costs associated with consultation on bull trout within this unit are between $ 1.0 million and $ 1.7 million annually. Of this amount, approximately $ 572,000 is associated with administrative costs. In addition, major categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 252,000 to $ 635,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems), recreational suction mining on USFS land ($ 115,000 associated with reduced availability of stream access due to seasonal closures), highway bridge and road work ($ 25,000), and USFS management activities ($ 35,000 ES- 23 annually). Agricultural irrigation diversion project modification costs could range from zero up to $ 259,000 annually. These costs may result from reductions in irrigation deliveries. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 56. Although the proposed Clearwater River Basin Critical Habitat Unit is forecast to experience significant costs associated with the bull trout, these costs should be viewed in light of the large size of the proposed unit. In fact, the Clearwater Unit is one of the lowest cost of the proposed units, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. 57. Unit 16: Salmon River Basin - The Salmon River basin is a geographically large unit that extends across central Idaho from the Snake River to the Montana border. The critical habitat unit includes 7,688 km ( 4,777 mi) of streams extending across portions of Adams, Blaine, Custer, Idaho, Lemhi, Nez Perce, and Valley counties in Idaho. About six percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Salmon River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 86 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Unit are located on Federal land. 58. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 2.1 million and $ 3.3 million. Of this amount, approximately $ 1.3 million is associated with administrative costs, with the rest made up of project modification costs. Major categories of forecast project modification costs are associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 465,000 to $ 1.2 million per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems), highway bridge and road work ($ 57,000), and USFS general forest management activities ($ 65,000 annually). The cost of modifications to agricultural irrigation water deliveries could range from zero up to $ 479,000 annually. Costs associated with mining activities at Hecla Mining Company's Grouse Creek and Thompson Creek mines are estimated at $ 132,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 25,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 59. Although the proposed Salmon River Basin Critical Habitat Unit has significant forecast costs associated with the bull trout, these costs should be viewed in light of the large size of the proposed unit. In fact, the Salmon River Unit is also one of the lowest cost of the proposed units, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. 60. Unit 17: Southwest Idaho River Basins - The Southwest Idaho Unit includes a total of approximately 2,792 km ( 1,735 mi) of streams in the Boise, Payette, and Weiser River basins. A number of southern Idaho counties are wholly or partially within this unit, including Ada, Adams, Boise, Camas, Canyon, Elmore, Gem, Payette, Valley, and Washington counties. The counties within the southern Idaho unit include both a significant portion of productive agricultural land as well as the largest population center in the state ( the Boise Valley). About 24 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Southwest ES- 24 Idaho Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 78 percent of the proposed streams and 66 percent of proposed lakes and reservoirs within the Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit are located on Federal land. 61. The Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 1.0 million and $ 1.9 million. Total administrative costs are forecast to be a relatively small portion of this total ($ 328,000 annually). The remainder of the forecast costs are expected to result from forecast project modifications. Specifically, project modification costs within this unit are forecast to be associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 309,000 to $ 781,000 per year resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems) and BOR reservoir activities ($ 263,000 annually). Major BOR reservoirs in this unit include Anderson Ranch and Arrowrock Reservoirs on the Boise River, Cascade Reservoir on the North Fork Payette, and Deadwood Reservoir on the Payette River. Forecast project modification costs include bull trout life- cycle studies and monitoring at all the reservoirs, and trap and haul passage around the Boise River reservoirs. Costs associated with FERC relicensing at the Lucky Peak facility on the Boise River, and power facilities at the Cascade impoundment, are expected to cost between $ 31,000 and $ 58,000 annually. Modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could range from zero to $ 318,000 annually. These costs could potentially be associated with reductions in irrigation water withdrawals. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 30,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 62. Unit 18: Little Lost River Basin - The Little Lost River Unit is within Butte, Custer, and Lemhi counties in east- central Idaho. Approximately 184.6 km ( 115.4 mi) of stream habitat in the Little Lost River Basin is proposed for critical habitat designation. About eight percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Little Lost River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 76 percent of the proposed streams within the Little Lost River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 63. The Little Lost River Unit is forecast to be a relatively inexpensive unit compared to others in the designation, and is a moderate- cost unit in terms of forecast costs per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is estimated that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 150,000 and $ 176,000. Of this amount, a large share, approximately $ 136,000 annually, is forecast to be comprised of administrative costs, with the remainder made up of project modification costs. The largest category of project modification costs within this unit is forecast to be associated with timber harvest on USFS lands ($ 10,000 to $ 24,000 per year). Project modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could result in costs from zero to $ 10,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 64. Unit 19: Lower Columbia River Basin - The Lower Columbia Unit consists of portions of the Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat Rivers, and associated tributaries in ES- 25 southwestern and south- central Washington. The unit extends across Clark, Cowlitz, Klickitat, Skamania, and Yakima counties. Approximately 340 km ( 210 mi) of streams and three reservoirs covering 5,054 ha ( 12,488 ac) are proposed for critical habitat designation. About 20 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Lower Columbia River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. A low portion ( 18 percent) of the proposed streams and 29 percent of the proposed lakes and reservoirs within the Lower Columbia River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 65. When forecast total costs for this unit are viewed in light of its size, the Lower Columbia River Basins Unit is a moderate- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. It is estimated that total annual costs associated with the bull trout within the unit will be between $ 385,000 to $ 494,000. Total administrative costs associated with the consultation process are estimated to be a relatively large fraction of these costs ($ 304,000 annually). In addition, project modification costs are forecast to be associated with FERC hydroelectric facility re- licensing activities ($ 67,000 to $ 153,000 annually). These FERC re- licensing costs are for the significant hydroelectric developments on the Lewis River, including Yale, Merwin, Swift No. 1, and Swift No. 2. These costs are projected to include study costs, trap and haul passage, and habitat acquisition. Swift No, 2 is one of two hydroelectric projects identified in this study where bull trout- related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small business; the other is Box Canyon in the Northeast Washington River Basin ( Unit 22). Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 66. Unit 20: Middle Columbia River Basin - The Middle Columbia River unit encompasses the entire Yakima River basin located in south central Washington, draining approximately 15,900 square km ( 6,155 square mi). The basin occupies most of Yakima and Kittitas counties, about half of Benton County, and a small portion of Klickitat County. Approximately 846 km ( 529 mi) of stream habitat and 6,066 ha ( 14,986 ac) of lake and reservoir surface area are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. About 13 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Middle Columbia River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 44 percent of the waters proposed for designation within the Middle Columbia River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 67. The Middle Columbia River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit in terms of cost per stream mile. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 391,000 and $ 494,000 annually. Of this amount, a very small portion, approximately $ 50,000 annually, will be associated with the administrative costs of the consultation process, while the remainder will be associated with project modifications. While there are projected to be project modification costs associated with timber harvest activities ( through consultation with the USFS; estimated to be between $ 36,000 and $ 91,000 annually), the majority of forecast costs for this unit are associated with dam and reservoir operations. The BOR operates a system of five dams in this basin ( Cle Elum Lake, Kachess Lake, Keechelus Lake, Tieton Dam, and Bumping Lake) which provide power and irrigation for this agriculturally important region. It is estimated that project modification costs ( periodic trap- ES- 26 and- haul passage to allow genetic interchange between isolated bull trout populations) at the BOR operated impoundments in the unit will cost approximately $ 290,000 per year. Other activities are individually estimated to account for a small portion of forecast annual project modification costs. 68. TheMiddle Columbia River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit in terms of cost per stream mile. 69. Unit 21: Upper Columbia River Basin - The Upper Columbia River Basin includes three subunits in central and northern Washington: the Wenatchee River subunit in Chelan County; the Entiat River subunit in Chelan County; and the Methow River subunit in Okanogan County. A total of 909.7 km ( 565.4 mi) of streams and 1,010 ha ( 2,497 ac) of lake surface area are proposed for critical habitat. About nine percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Upper Columbia River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 58 percent of the proposed streams and 41 percent of the proposed lakes and reservoirs within the Upper Columbia River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 70. The Upper Columbia River Basins Unit is a low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 196,000 to $ 505,000 annually. Total administrative costs associated with the consultation process are estimated to be $ 122,000, with the remainder of the forecast costs made up of project modification requirements. Major categories of forecast project modification costs within this unit are associated with FCRPS fisheries studies ( zero to $ 155,000 per year), and USFS timber harvest activities ($ 57,000 to $ 144,000 annually resulting from reduced harvest, fishery studies, road and culvert costs and changes in yarding systems). The FCRPS fisheries studies are for bull trout radio telemetry, snorkel and general monitoring study costs in the Entiat, Methow, and Wenatchee Rivers. In addition, modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could result in costs from zero to $ 59,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 71. Unit 22: Northeast Washington River Basins - The Northeast Washington unit includes bull trout above Chief Joseph Dam on the Columbia River. A total of 373.1 km ( 231.9 mi) of streams and 1,166 ha ( 2,880 ac) of lake surface area are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. A high proportion ( 54 percent) of the proposed critical habitat within the Northeast Washington River Basins Unit is currently unoccupied by the species, and approximately 58 percent of the proposed streams and reservoirs within this unit are located on Federal land. 72. The Northeast Washington River Basins Unit is forecast to be a relatively high- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are between $ 965,000 to $ 1.4 million annually. Total annual administrative costs are estimated to be a large share of these costs ($ 676,000), with the remainder associated with project modifications. A major category of ES- 27 annual project modification costs within this unit involves FERC hydroelectric facility re-licensing activities ( up to $ 540,000 annually). The estimated FERC re- licensing costs are related to two major hydroelectric facilities on the Pend Orielle River: Box Canyon and Boundary. The Box Canyon re- licensing terms are currently in continuing settlement negotiations, and likely costs specific to this facility are not currently available. However, a recent FERC environmental impact statement ( EIS) estimates that the present value of bull trout related project modifications ( including habitat acquisition) could total upwards of $ 60 million for this relatively small ( 60 MW) facility. Box Canyon is one of two hydroelectric projects identified in this study where bull trout- related project modifications could have a significant impact on a small business; the other is Swift No. 2 in the Lower Columbia River Basin ( Unit 19). Modifications to agricultural irrigation diversions could impose costs from zero to $ 46,000 annually. Other activities are individually estimated to each account for less than $ 10,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 73. Unit 23: Snake River Basin in Washington - The Snake River Washington Unit includes two critical habitat subunits located in southeast Washington: the Tucannon River subunit located in Columbia and Garfield counties, and the Asotin Creek subunit within Garfield and Asotin counties. A total of 326 km ( 203 mi) of stream reaches are proposed as critical habitat within this unit. About 23 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Snake River Basin in Washington Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 52 percent of the proposed streams within the Snake River Basin Unit are located on Federal land. 74. The Snake River Basin Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within the unit will be between $ 230,000 to $ 287,000. Total annual administrative costs associated with the bull trout are estimated to be a large portion of this total ($ 201,000). The major category of project modification costs within this unit is forecast to be associated with USFS timber harvest activities ($ 21,000 to $ 53,000 annually). Agricultural irrigation diversions could see up to $ 22,000 in annual project modification costs within this unit. Other activities are estimated to each account for less than $ 5,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 75. Unit 24: Columbia River - This unit is located in the states of Oregon and Washington and includes Clatsop, Columbia, Multnomah, Hood River, Wasco, Sherman, Gilliam, Morrow, and Umatilla counties in Oregon and Pacific, Wahkiakum, Cowlitz, Clark, Skamania, Klickitat, Benton, Walla Walla, Franklin, Yakima, Grant, Kittitas, Chelan, Douglas, and Okanogan counties in Washington. All of this stretch of the Columbia River is currently considered occupied by the bull trout. A relatively low share of the land adjacent to the river in this unit is made up of Federally managed lands ( approximately 39 percent). 76. The Columbia River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast total costs associated with the bull trout within this unit will be between $ 243,000 to $ 504,000 annually. Total annual ES- 28 administrative costs associated with this unit are relatively low ($ 50,000). The major category of annual project modification costs within the unit are forecast to be associated FERC hydroelectric facility re- licensing activities ( up to $ 362,000 annually). Major FERC-licensed hydroelectric projects on the mainstem Columbia River include Priest Rapids, Rocky Reach, and Wells. These very large facilities are operated by PUD's. Other activities are individually forecast to account for less than $ 15,000 dollars per year in project modification costs. 77. Unit 25: Snake River - The lower Snake River is located in Washington ( Franklin, Walla Walla, Columbia, Whitman, and Asotin counties) from its mouth to the confluence with the Clearwater River at the cities of Clarkston, Washington and Lewiston, Idaho. The Snake River forms the border between Washington and Idaho from Clarkston/ Lewiston upstream to the Oregon border. The Snake River forms the boundary between Idaho and Oregon from that point upstream to the limit of this critical habitat unit. This portion of the Snake River is within Nez Perce, Idaho, Adams, and Washington counties in Idaho, and Wallowa, Baker, and Malheur counties in Oregon. About 20 percent of the proposed critical habitat within the Snake River Unit is currently unoccupied by the species. Approximately 50 percent of the habitat proposed for designation within the Snake River Unit is located on Federal land. 78. The Snake River Unit is a relatively low- cost unit, in terms of forecast cost per river mile of habitat proposed for designation. Forecast costs associated with the bull trout within this unit are approximately $ 135,000. Administrative costs associated with the consultation process are estimated to be nearly all of that amount, or $ 125,000 annually. Small Business Effects 79. Under the Regulatory Flexibility Act ( RFA) ( as amended by the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act ( SBREFA) of 1996), whenever a Federal agency is required to publish a notice of rulemaking for any proposed or final rule, it must prepare and make available for public comment a regulatory flexibility analysis that describes the effect of the rule on small entities ( i. e., small businesses, small organizations, and small government jurisdictions). The following summarizes the potential effects of critical habitat designation on small entities: Reductions in contractual USFS water deliveries could significantly impact five ranching/ farming operations annually. However, the location of the reduction in water deliveries within the critical habitat designation is uncertain. Small hydroelectric producers in Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana could be affected by project modification costs at the time of facility re- licensing. Specifically, the resulting project modifications could have a significant economic impact on the financial operations of Cowlitz County public utility district ( PUD) ( Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River) and Pend Orielle County PUD ( Unit 22 - Northeast Washington River). ES- 29 • Section 7- related costs associated with instream work is expected to affect approximately 15 placer mines annually in the John Day River Basin ( Unit 8) and Hells Canyon Complex ( Unit 12). While the financial characteristics of these mining operations are unknown, this analysis assumes the economic effect will be significant for those operations that are impacted. Energy Industry Impacts 80. Pursuant to Executive Order No. 13211, Federal agencies are required to submit a summary of the potential effects of regulatory actions on the supply, distribution and use of energy. Two criteria are relevant to this analysis: 1) reductions in electricity production in excess of 1 billion kilowatt- hours per year or in excess of 500 megawatts ( MWs) of installed capacity and 2) increases in the cost of energy production in excess of one percent. The constraints placed on energy production within the region from compliance with bull trout section 7 consultations will not result in significant decreases in production or increases in energy costs within the region. Changes From Draft Economic Analysis 81. Information supplied though public comments to the Draft Economic Analysis along with additional information from Action agency and Service personnel on issues raised through public comment led to several changes to the analysis. This Final Economic Analysis contains the following significant changes from the draft report. 1) Additional information on Habitat Conservation Plans ( HCPs) currently under development within the proposed designation has been incorporated. Additional costs on the order of one million dollars annually have been added to the estimated costs reported. 2) The BOR supplied extensive comments on current and potential costs associated with consultation on its impoundments. Costs associated with potential project modifications to Yakima Drainage dams ( as well as for other BOR impoundments within the proposed designation) have been reduced in response to the new BOR information. 3) Information from Hecla Mining Company identified additional consultation- related costs for the Hecla Grouse Creek and Thompson Creek mines. These costs have been included in the section 4 discussion of USFS mining activity. 4) Information from USFS personnel from the Wallowa/ Whitman National Forest identified impacts associated with limitations on in- stream work windows for placer mining operations as baseline State of Oregon regulations that are independent of bull trout section 7 consultation. Estimated impacts to Oregon placer mining have been adjusted accordingly. ES- 30 5) Additionally, corrections to minor errors within the report, not impacting final cost estimates, have been made in response to public comments. Caveats to Economic Analysis 82. Exhibit ES. 10 presents the key assumptions of this economic analysis, as well as the potential direction and relative scale of bias introduced by the assumptions. 83. These caveats below describe factors that introduce uncertainty into the results of this analysis. ES. 10 CAVEATS TO THE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Key Assumption Projected USFS timber harvest activity is based on recent regional history and ignores the declining long- term trend of the industry. USFS water diversion reductions occur annually and representative water costs reflect the high- end of water lease rates in Washington. Cost of USFS water diversion reductions and timber harvest project modifications are distributed across the units in proportion to USFS non- wilderness acreage. While this may have no effect on the total cost estimate, it may have an effect on the unit cost estimate. Total costs of providing technical assistance is expected to be small relative to other economic impacts; therefore, this analysis does not quantify the instances and costs of technical assistance efforts. Project modifications incorporating measures suggested by the Service and voluntarily agreed to by the applicant during the informal consultation process in order to minimize impact to the bull trout and/ or its habitat are not quantified in this analysis. Amortization of fishery- related capital investments are based on the life of the project rather than a shorter revenue recovery period. Changes in hydroelectric power revenues attributable to reductions in operational flexibility at Libby and Hungry Horse dams is not quantified Most of the project modification costs will either be borne directly by or passed onto the Federal government. The FPA, the Pacific Northwest Electric Power Planning and Conservation Act, and fisheries management directives ( Northwest Forest Plan, INFISH and PACFISH) provide baseline protection. Project modification costs allocated between bull trout and other listed species. Limited consultation with the NRCS is anticipated and based on a the record of past formal and informal consultation activity on the bull trout Effect on Cost Estimate + + +/- - - - - +/- +/- +/- - -: This assumption may result in an underestimate of real costs. + : This assumption may result in an overestimate of real costs. +/-: This assumption has an unknown effect on estimates. ES- 31 Estimated Cost of the Final Designation 84. The analysis contained in this report is consistent with the designation as described in the proposed rule; 5 however, the Service is expected to exclude some proposed areas of habitat to arrive at a final designation. The purpose of this section is to detail the expected changes to the proposed designation and show the implication of these changes on estimated consultation and project modification costs. 85. Exhibit ES. ll compares the spatial extent of the proposed and expected final designations for bull trout critical habitat for both river and stream miles and lake and reservoir acres. Overall, 1,925 miles of rivers and streams and approximately 55,000 acres of lakes and reservoirs are expected to be excluded from critical habitat in the final designation. The greatest reductions in critical habitat stream miles are expected to occur in the Deschutes River Unit ( 60.5 percent reduction), Hood River Unit ( 33.2 percent), Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit ( 32.8 percent), and the Hells Canyon Complex Unit ( 21.3 percent). Most of the reductions in lake and reservoir critical habitat acres are expected to occur in the Deschutes River, Southwest Idaho River Basins and Malheur River Units, all with more than a 70 percent reduction in designated lake and reservoir critical habitat compared to the original proposed designation. ExhibitES. il SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN BULL TROUT CRITICAL HABITAT FROM PROPOSED TO FINAL DESIGNATION Unit Unit 1 - Klamath River Basin Unit 2 - Clark Fork River Basin Unit 3 - Kootenai River Basin Unit 4 - Willamette River Basin Unit 5 - Hood River Basin Unit 6 - Deschutes River Basin Unit 7 - Odell Lake Unit 8 - John Day River Basin Unit 9 - Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins Unit 10 - Grande Ronde River Basin Unit 11 - Imaha/ Snake River Basins Unit 12 - Hells Canyon Complex Unit 13 - Malheur River Basin Unit 14 - Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Proposed Designation Stream Miles 296 3,372 368 200 103 439 15 639 396 644 191 599 233 403 Lake and Reservoir Acres 33,939 304,226 30,094 8,899 91 23,314 6,439 0 0 0 0 0 5,926 27,296 Final Designation Stream Miles 280 3,368 368 200 69 173 13 563 348 625 191 471 214 403 Lake and Reservoir Acres 33,939 304,225 30,094 8,899 91 3,407 6,439 0 0 0 0 0 1,769 27,296 5 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Proposed Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Distinct Population Segments of Bull Trout, November 29, 2002 ( 67 FR 71235- 71284). ES- 32 Exhibit ES. ll SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN BULL TROUT CRITICAL HABITAT FROM PROPOSED TO FINAL DESIGNATION Unit Unit 15 - Clearwater River Basin Unit 16 - Salmon River Basin Unit 17 - Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit 18 - Little Lost River Basin Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River Basin Unit 20 - Middle Columbia River Basin Unit 21 - Upper Columbia River Basin Unit 22 - Northwest Washington River Basins Unit 23 - Snake River Basin in Washington Unit 24 - Columbia River Basin Unit 25 - Snake River Basin Total Proposed Designation Stream Miles 1,904 4,296 1,657 113 171 523 591 232 204 537 343 18,468 Lake and Reservoir Acres 16,610 3,683 41,307 0 12,078 14,987 2,553 1,279 0 0 0 532.724 Final Designation Stream Miles 1,655 3,835 1,114 110 145 519 578 232 189 537 343 16,543 Lake and Reservoir Acres 16,610 3,487 10,651 0 12,000 15,548 2,553 1,279 0 0 0 478,188 86. As noted, the costs reported in the body of this report are consistent with the proposed designation. Expected changes to the proposed designation and the impact of these exclusions on costs are summarized in Exhibit ES. 12, where estimates of annual section 7- related consultation costs for both the proposed and expected final bull trout critical habitat designations are shown. The expected changes to the final designation impacts estimated costs in two ways. 87. First, where future consultation and project modification costs were estimated for dams and reservoirs located within stream reaches that are expected to be excluded from the final critical habitat designation, the costs associated with these anticipated consultations are removed. Three critical habitat units have dams and reservoirs located on waters expected to be excluded in the final designation. The previously quantified costs associated with consultations on Lucky Peak and Cascade Dams and Reservoirs, and Warm Springs, Crane Prairie, and Wickiup Reservoirs have therefore been removed from the forecast total costs associated with the final critical habitat designation. Costs associated with consultations on Lucky Peak and Cascade Dams and Reservoirs have been removed from estimates for the Southwest Idaho River Basins Units, costs associated with consultation on Warm Springs Reservoir have been removed from estimates for the Malheur River Unit, and costs associated with consultations on Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs have been removed from estimates for the Deschutes River Unit. 88. Second, because the Service is expected to exclude areas of unknown occupancy from the final designation, the spatial extent of unoccupied habitat in each critical habitat ES- 33 unit is adjusted to reflect the expected final designation ( see Appendix F, Exhibit F. 11), and the forecast costs of the expected final designation reflect these changes. 89. Exhibit ES. 12 presents a summary of the annualized forecast total costs, by unit, likely to be associated with the final critical habitat designation over the next ten years. Overall, the removal of waters from the proposed to the expected final bull trout designation is expected to lower forecast section 7- related consultation and project modification costs by approximately $ 18 to $ 24 million over the next ten years ( nine percent). In six units where no changes in the proposed designation were made, there is no change in forecast costs. As a percentage of unit costs, the greatest reduction in forecast costs resulting from the exclusions is expected to occur in the Deschutes River Basin Unit, where forecast costs of the expected final designation are 43 to 55 percent of the costs originally forecast for the proposed designation. 90. The economic impacts associated with the final designation, discounted to present value using a rate of seven percent, are forecast to range from approximately $ 180 to $ 245 million over the next ten years, or $ 18.0 to $ 24.5 million annually. Total costs associated with the final designation for the Klamath Distinct Population Segment of bull trout are forecast to range from approximately $ 5 million to $ 7 million over the next ten years ($ 0.5 to 0.7 million annually), while costs associated with the final designation for the Columbia Distinct Population Segment of bull trout are forecast to range from approximately $ 175 million $ 235 million ($ 17.5 to $ 23.5 million annually). 91. These costs will be incurred primarily by Federal agencies responsible for section 7 consultations ( approximately 65 percent of forecast costs) and the Service ( approximately five to ten percent of forecast costs); private entities will incur the remaining 25 to 30 percent. Project modification costs account for as much as 50 to 60 percent of forecast costs, and administrative costs the remaining 40 to 50 percent. Dam and reservoir- related consultations, including power facility re- licensing, account for approximately 42 percent of forecast project modification costs ( excluding the cost associated with reduced irrigation diversions). Timber harvest, irrigation diversions, habitat conservation plans, and mining account for 20 percent, 12 percent, nine percent, and three percent of forecast project modification costs, respectively. 92. The main text of the report discusses impacts to small businesses expected under the rulemaking as proposed. Impacts to small businesses are primarily related to potential reductions in USFS water deliveries to farmers/ ranchers, project modifications triggered during hydroelectric facility re- licensing, and costs associated with activity restrictions for placer mining. Under the final designation, the reduction in small business impacts would parallel the extent to which these activities occur in habitat removed from the final designation and losses related to these activities reduced. ES- 34 Exhibit ES. 12 SUMMARY COMPARISON OF PROPOSED AND FINAL CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION SECTION 7 COSTS FOR THE BULL TROUT ( Annualized $ l, 000fs) Unit Unit 1 - Klamath River Basin Unit 2 - Clark Fork River Basin Unit 3 - Kootenai River Basin Unit 4 - Willamette River Basin Unit 5 - Hood River Basin Unit 6 - Deschutes River Basin Unit 7 - Odell Lake Unit 8 - John Day River Basin Unit 9 - Umatilla- Walla Walla River Basins Unit 10 - Grande Ronde River Basin Unit 11 - Imaha/ Snake River Basins Unit 12 - Hells Canyon Complex Unit 13 - Malheur River Basin Unit 14 - Coeur d'Alene Lake Basin Unit 15 - Clearwater River Basin Unit 16 - Salmon River Basin Unit 17 - Southwest Idaho River Basins Unit 18 - Little Lost River Basin Unit 19 - Lower Columbia River Basin Unit 20 - Middle Columbia River Basin Unit 21 - Upper Columbia River Basin Unit 22 - Northwest Washington River Basins Unit 23 - Snake River Basin in Washington Unit 24 - Columbia River Basin Estimated Range of Cost Proposed Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate $ 529 1,321 328 4,497 328 430 51 446 98 467 559 1,939 2,006 429 995 2,059 1,004 150 385 391 196 965 230 243 High Estimate $ 733 2,192 402 4,891 413 719 56 600 211 580 605 2,338 2,095 693 1,676 3,319 1,867 176 494 494 505 1,397 287 504 Estimated Range of Cost Final Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate $ 507 1,321 328 3,463 248 195 51 411 81 444 559 1,443 1,792 279 881 1,942 698 144 308 376 178 663 177 243 High Estimate $ 703 2,192 402 3,766 312 401 56 553 175 551 605 1,740 1,874 450 1,483 3,130 1,348 169 396 475 460 959 221 504 ES- 35 Exhibit ES. 12 SUMMARY COMPARISON OF PROPOSED AND FINAL CRITICAL HABITAT DESIGNATION SECTION 7 COSTS FOR THE BULL TROUT ( Annualized $ l, 000fs) Unit Unit 25 - Snake River Basin Multiple unit or unknown a Estimated Range of Cost Proposed Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate 135 1,303 High Estimate 135 1,303 Estimated Range of Cost Final Critical Habitat Designation Low Estimate 135 1,303 High Estimate 135 1,303 Notes: These estimates include all section 7 costs, including those co- extensive with the listing and designation of critical habitat for the bull trout. Costs are reported in 2003 dollars. a Miscellaneous costs ($ 213,000 annually) and the costs associated with development of HCP's ($ 1,090,000 annually) have not been allocated to the unit level due to uncertainty as to their location. ES- 36 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND SECTION 1 93. In November 2002, the Service proposed to designate critical habitat for the Columbia River and Klamath River DPSs of bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus), hereafter " bull trout." 6 The purpose of this report is to identify and analyze potential economic impacts associated with the proposed critical habitat designation. This report was prepared by Bioeconomics, Inc. of Missoula, Montana. 94. Section 4( b)( 2) of the Act requires the Service to designate critical habitat on the basis of the best scientific data available, after taking into consideration the economic impact, and any other relevant impact, of specifying any particular area as critical habitat. The Service may exclude areas from critical habitat designation when the benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefits of including the areas within critical habitat, provided the exclusion will not result in extinction of the species. 95. Under the listing of a species, section 7( a)( 2) of the Act requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service in order to ensure that activities they fund, authorize, permit, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species. The Service defines jeopardy as any action that would appreciably reduce the likelihood of both the survival and recovery of the species. For designated critical habitat, section 7( a)( 2) also requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service to ensure that activities they fund, authorize, permit, or carry out do not result in destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. Adverse modification of critical habitat is currently construed as any direct or indirect alteration that appreciably diminishes the value of critical habitat for conservation of a listed species. 6 On January 26,2001, the Alliance for the Wild Rockies, Inc. and Friends of the Wild Swan, Inc. filed a lawsuit in the U. S. District Court of Oregon challenging the Service's failure to designate critical habitat for bull trout. The Service entered into a settlement agreement on January 14, 2002, which stipulated that the Service would make critical habitat determinations for five populations of bull trout ( Civil Case No: CV 01- 127- JO). The Service has proposed critical habitat for the Columbia River and Klamath River populations, which are the subject of this analysis. 1- 1 1.1 Description of Species and Habitat7 96. Bull trout { Salvelinus confluentus, family Salmonidae) is a char native to waters of western North America. The historic range of bull trout includes major river basins in the Pacific Northwest from about 41° north to 60° north latitude, extending south to the McCloud River in northern California and the Jarbidge River in Nevada, and north to the headwaters of the Yukon River in Northwest Territories, Canada. To the west, bull trout range includes Puget Sound, various coastal rivers of British Columbia, Canada, and southeast Alaska. Bull trout occur in portions of the Columbia River and Snake River basins, extending east to headwater streams in Montana and Idaho, and into Canada. Bull trout also occur in the Klamath River basin of south- central Oregon. East of the Continental Divide in Canada, the bull trout's range includes the headwaters of the Saskatchewan River in Alberta, and the MacKenzie River system in Alberta and British Columbia. 97. Bull trout were first described as Salmo spectabilis by Girard in 1856 from a specimen collected on the lower Columbia River near The Dalles, Oregon, and subsequently described under a number of names such as Salmo confluentus and Salvelinus malma. Bull trout and Dolly Varden ( Salvelinus malma) were previously considered a single species. However, in 1980, the American Fisheries Society formally recognized bull trout and Dolly Varden as separate species. Two of the most useful characteristics in separating the two species are the shape and size of the head. The head of bull trout is more broad and flat on top, unlike Dolly Varden. Bull trout have an elongated body and large mouth, with the maxilla ( jaw) extending beyond the eye and with well- developed teeth on both jaws and head of the vomer ( a bone in teleost fishes that form the front part of the roof of the mouth and often bears teeth). Bull trout have 11 dorsal fin rays, nine anal fin rays, and the caudal fin is slightly forked. Although they are often olive green to brown with paler sides, color is variable with locality and habitat. 98. Bull trout exhibit both resident and migratory life history strategies. Resident bull trout complete their entire life cycle in the tributary streams where they spawn and rear. Migratory bull trout spawn in tributary streams where juvenile fish rear from one to four years before migrating to either a larger river or lake, where they spend their adult life, returning to the tributary stream only to spawn. These migratory forms occur in areas where conditions allow for movement from upper watershed spawning streams to larger downstream waters that contain greater foraging opportunities. Bull trout that migrate to a downstream river are referred to as " fluvial" fish, while the term " adfluvial" is used to describe fish that migrate to a lake or reservoir. Resident and migratory forms may spawn in the same areas and either form can produce resident or migratory offspring. 7 Information on the bull trout and its habitat is taken from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Proposed Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Distinct Population Segments of Bull Trout, November 29, 2002 ( 67 FR 71235- 71284). 1- 2 99. The Klamath River population segment consists of bull trout in the Upper Klamath Lake, Sprague River, and Sycan River watersheds in Oregon. Historical records suggest that bull trout were once widely distributed and exhibited diverse life- history traits in the Klamath River basin. Currently, bull trout in this basin are non- migratory fish that are confined to headwater streams. The local populations that remain reside in an estimated 21 percent of the historic range of bull trout in the Klamath River basin, and they are isolated from one another. 100. The Columbia River population segment includes bull trout residing in portions of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana. The Bull Trout Draft Recovery Plan ( Draft Recovery Plan) ( Service 2002) identifies 22 recovery units within the Columbia River basin: the Willamette River ( upper tributaries including the McKenzie River), Lower Columbia River ( principally the Lewis, White Salmon, and Klickitat Rivers), Hood River, Deschutes River, Odell Lake, John Day River, Umatilla and Walla Walla Rivers, Middle Columbia River ( principally the Yakima River), Snake River ( including Asotin Creek and Tucannon River), Grande Ronde River, Clearwater River, Salmon River, Little Lost River, Imnaha River, Hells Canyon ( including Powder River), Malheur River, Southwest Idaho, Upper Columbia River ( principally the Wenatchee, Entiat, and Methow Rivers), Northeast Washington, Clark Fork River, Kootenai River, and Coeur d'Alene Lake. Bull trout are estimated to have once occupied about 60 percent of the Columbia River basin; they presently occur in approximately 45 percent of their historic range. Although still somewhat widely distributed in the Columbia River basin, bull trout occur in low numbers in many areas and populations are considered depressed or declining across much of their range. 101. Many factors have contributed to the decline of bull trout in the Columbia and Klamath River basins. However, several appear to be particularly significant: ( 1) fragmentation and isolation of local populations due to dams and water diversions that have eliminated habitat, altered water flow and temperature regimes, and impeded migratory movements; ( 2) degradation of spawning and rearing habitat in upper watershed areas, particularly alterations in sedimentation rates and water temperature resulting from past forest and rangeland management practices and intensive development of roads; and ( 3) the introduction and spread of non- native species, particularly brook trout ( Salvelinusfontinalis) and lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush), which compete with bull trout for limited resources and, in the case of brook trout, hybridize with bull trout. 102. Bull trout have more specific habitat requirements than most other salmonids. Habitat components that influence bull trout distribution and abundance include water temperature, cover, channel form and stability, spawning and rearing substrate conditions, and migratory corridors. 103. Bull trout are found primarily in cold streams; water temperatures above 15° Celsius ( C) ( 59° Fahrenheit ( F)) are believed to limit bull trout distribution. Adult bull trout have been observed in large rivers throughout the Columbia River basin in water temperatures up to 20° C ( 68° F); however, there are documented steady and substantial declines in 1- 3 abundance in stream reaches where water temperature ranged from 15° to 20° C ( 59° to 68° F). In large rivers, bull trout are often observed " dipping" into the lower reaches of tributary streams, and it is suspected that cooler waters in these tributary mouths may provide important thermal refugia, allowing them to forage, migrate, and overwinter in waters that would otherwise be, at least seasonally, too warm. 104. Preferred spawning habitat consists of low- gradient stream reaches with loose, clean gravel, and water temperatures that range from 4° to 10° C ( 39° to 51° F). Such areas are often associated with cold- water springs or groundwater up- welling. Because bull trout eggs incubate about seven months in the gravel, they are especially vulnerable to fine sediments and water quality degradation. Increases in fine sediment appear to reduce egg survival and emergence. Juveniles are likely similarly affected, as they also live on or within the stream bed cobble. 105. Throughout their lives, bull trout require complex forms of cover, including large woody debris, undercut banks, boulders, and pools. Bull trout are opportunistic feeders, with food habits that are primarily a function of size and life- history strategy. Resident and juvenile migratory bull trout prey on terrestrial and aquatic insects, macro- zooplankton, and small fish. Adult migratory bull trout feed almost exclusively on other fish. 106. The ability to migrate is important to the persistence of bull trout. Maintaining the full complement of bull trout life history forms appears to be important for long- term population persistence in a dynamic and unpredictable environment. Migratory bull trout become much larger than resident fish in the more productive waters of larger streams and lakes, leading to increased reproductive potential. Migration also results in increased dispersion of the population which facilitates gene flow among local populations when individuals from different local populations interbreed, stray, or return to non- natal streams. Local populations that are extirpated by catastrophic events may also become re- established by bull trout migrants. 107. Introduced brook trout threaten bull trout through hybridization, competition, and possibly predation. Hybridization between brook trout and bull trout has been reported in Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. In addition, brook trout mature at an earlier age and have a higher reproductive rate than bull trout. This difference appears to favor brook trout over bull trout when they occur together, often leading to the decline or extirpation of bull trout. Brook trout also appear to adapt better to degraded habitat than bull trout and are more tolerant of high water temperatures. Non- native lake trout also negatively affect bull trout. In a study of 34 lakes in Montana, Alberta, and British Columbia, lake trout appeared to limit foraging opportunities and reduce the distribution and abundance of migratory bull trout in mountain lakes. 108. The Service determined the primary constituent elements of bull trout habitat from studies of their habitat requirements, life history characteristics, and population biology, as outlined above. These primary constituent elements are: 1- 4 Permanent water and associated substrate having low levels of contaminants such that normal reproduction, growth and survival are not inhibited; Water temperatures ranging from 2° to 15° C ( 37° to 59° F). Adequate thermal refugia may be necessary for persistence of bull trout if water temperatures commonly exceed this range. Specific temperatures within this range will vary depending on bull trout life history stage and form, geography, elevation, diurnal and seasonal variation, shade, such as that provided by riparian habitat, and local groundwater influence; • Complex stream channels with features such as woody debris, side channels, pools, and undercut banks to provide a variety of depths, velocities, and instream structures; • Substrates of sufficient amount, size, and composition to ensure success of egg and embryo overwinter survival, fry emergence, and young- of- the- year and juvenile survival. A minimal amount of fines less than 0.63 cm ( 0.25 in) in diameter and minimal substrate embeddedness are characteristic of these conditions; • A natural hydrograph, including high, low, peak, and base flows within historic ranges or, if regulated, a hydrograph that demonstrates the ability to support bull trout populations; • Springs, seeps, groundwater sources, and subsurface water connectivity to contribute to water quality and quantity; • Migratory corridors with minimal physical, biological or chemical barriers between spawning, rearing, overwintering, and foraging habitats, including intermittent or seasonal barriers induced by high water temperatures or low flows; • An abundant food base including terrestrial organisms of riparian origin, aquatic macroinvertebrates, and forage fish; and • Few or no predatory, interbreeding, or competitive non- native species present. An area need not include all of these elements to qualify for designation as critical habitat. 1.2 Proposed Critical Habitat 109. The areas proposed for designation as critical habitat for the bull trout provide one or more of the primary constituent elements described above. All of the proposed areas require special management considerations to ensure their contribution to the conservation of the bull trout. The critical habitat area consists of 18,469 river miles and 532,721 acres of lake and reservoir habitat within 25 units. While the lateral extent of proposed riverine 1- 5 critical habitat is the width of the stream channel defined by its bankfull elevation, the designation of critical habitat is expected to impact inland activity. How far inland the designation's effects extend is a more or less a site specific issue. For example, with regards to land- based activities such as timber sales or grazing practices, it is a matter of site specific physical processes such as sediment transport, the local topography, and the size of the drainage basin. Descriptions of each critical habitat unit are provided in Appendix A. 1.3 Framework and Methodology 110. The primary purpose of this analysis is to estimate the economic impact associated with the designation of critical habitat for bull trout. 8 This information is intended to assist the Secretary in making decisions about whether the benefits of excluding particular areas from the designation outweigh the benefits of including those areas in the designation. 9 In addition, this information allows the Service to address the requirements of Executive Orders 12866 and 13211, the RFA, as amended by the SBREFA. 10 111. This chapter provides the framework for this analysis. First, it defines the economic effects considered in the analysis. Second, it establishes the baseline against which these effects are measured. Third, it describes the measurement of direct compliance costs, which include costs associated with, and generated as a result of, section 7 consultations. Fourth, it identifies potential indirect economic effects of the rule resulting from ( 1) compliance with other parts of the Act potentially triggered by critical habitat, ( 2) compliance with other laws, and ( 3) time delays and regulatory uncertainty. Fifth, it discusses the need for an economic assessment of the benefits of critical habitat designation. Finally, the section concludes by discussing the time frame for the analysis and the general steps followed in the analysis. 1.3.1 Types of Economic Effects Considered 112. This economic analysis considers both the economic efficiency and distributional effects. For the purpose of this analysis, economic efficiency effects generally reflect the " opportunity costs" associated with the commitment of resources required to comply with the Act. For example, if the activities that can take place on a parcel of private land are limited as a result of a designation, and thus the market value of the land reduced, this reduction in value represents one measure of opportunity cost or change in economic efficiency. Similarly, the costs incurred by a Federal Action agency to consult with the Service under section 7 represent economic opportunity costs. 8 This analysis considers the effects of the regulatory action as proposed in the Federal Register on November 29, 2002 ( 67 FR 71236). M6U. S. C. § 1533( b)( 2). 10 Executive Order 12866, " Regulatory Planning and Review," September 30, 1993; Executive Order 13211, " Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use," May 18, 2001; 5 U. S. C. § § 601 etseq; and Pub Law No. 104- 121. 1- 6 113. This analysis also addresses how the impacts are distributed, including an assessment of any local or regional economic impacts and the potential effects on small entities and the energy industry. This information can be used by decision- makers to assess whether the effects might unduly burden a particular group or economic sector. 114. For example, while the designation may have a relatively small impact when measured in terms of changes in economic efficiency, individuals employed in a particular sector of the economy in the geographic area of the designation may experience relatively greater effects. The difference between economic efficiency effects and distributional effects, as well as their application in this analysis, are discussed in greater detail below. Efficiency Effects 115. At the guidance of the OMB and in compliance with Executive Order 12866 " Regulatory Planning and Review," Federal agencies measure changes in economic efficiency in order to understand how society, as a whole, will be affected by a regulatory action. 11 In the context of this regulatory action, these efficiency effects represent the opportunity cost of resources used or benefits foregone by society as a result of critical habitat designation and other co- extensive regulations. 12 Economists generally characterize opportunity costs in terms of changes in producer and consumer surpluses in affected markets. 13 116. In some instances, compliance costs may provide a reasonable approximation for the efficiency effects associated with a regulatory action. For example, a landowner or manager may need to enter into a consultation with the Service to ensure that a particular activity will not adversely modify critical habitat. The effort required for the consultation represents an economic opportunity cost, because the landowner or manager's time and effort would have been spent in an alternative activity had the parcel not been included in the designation. When compliance activity is not expected to significantly affect markets — that is, not result in a shift in the quantity of a good or service provided at a given price, or in the quantity of a good or service demanded given a change in price ~ the measurement of compliance costs can provide a reasonable estimate of the change in economic efficiency. 11 Executive Order 12866, " Regulatory Planning and Review," September 30,1993; U. S. Office of Management and Budget, " Circular A- 4," September 17, 2003. 12 The term " co- extensive" is discussed in greater detail in Section 1.3.3. 13 For additional information on the definition of " surplus" and an explanation of consumer and producer surplus in the context of regulatory analysis, see Gramlich, Edward M, A Guide to Benefit- Cost Analysis ( 2nd Ed.), Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc., 1990; and U. S. EPA, Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses, EPA 240- R- 00- 003, September 2000, available at http:// yosemite. epa. gov/ ee/ epa/ eed. nsf/ webpages/ Guidelines. html. 1- 7 117. Where a designation is expected to significantly impact a market, it may be necessary to estimate changes in producer and consumer surpluses. For example, a designation that precludes the development of large areas of land may shift the price and quantity of housing supplied in a region. In this case, changes in economic efficiency can be measured by considering changes in producer and consumer surplus in the real estate market. 118. This analysis begins by measuring reasonably foreseeable compliance costs. As noted above, in some cases, compliance costs can provide a reasonable estimate of changes in economic efficiency. However, if the designation is expected to significantly impact markets, the analysis will consider potential changes in consumer and/ or producer surplus in affected markets. Distributional and Regional Economic Effects 119. Measurements of changes in economic efficiency focus on the net impact of the regulation, without consideration for how certain economic sectors or groups of people are affected. Thus, a discussion of efficiency effects alone may miss important distributional considerations concerning groups that may be disproportionately affected. OMB encourages Federal agencies to consider distributional effects separately from efficiency effects. 14 This analysis considers the potential for several types of distributional effects, including impacts on small entities; impacts on energy supply distribution and use; and regional economic impacts. It is important to note that these are fundamentally different measures of economic impact than efficiency effects, and thus cannot be added to or compared with estimates of changes in economic efficiency. Impacts on Small Entities and Energy Supply, Distribution and Use 120. This analysis considers how small entities, including small businesses, organizations, and governments, as defined by the RFA, might be affected by critical habitat designation and other co- extensive regulatory actions. 15 In addition, in response to Executive Order 13211 " Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use," this analysis considers the impacts of critical habitat on the energy industry and its customers. 16 14 U. S. Office of Management and Budget, " Circular A- 4," September 17, 2003. 155U. S. C. § 60\ etseq. 16 Executive Order 13211, " Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use," May 18, 2001. 1- 8 Regional Economic Effects 121. Regional economic impact analysis provides an assessment of the potential localized effects of critical habitat designation and other co- extensive regulations. Specifically, regional economic impact analysis produces a quantitative estimate of the potential magnitude of the initial change in the regional economy resulting from a regulatory action. Regional economic impacts are commonly measured using regional input/ output models. These models rely on multipliers that mathematically represent the relationship between a change in one sector of the economy ( e. g., hydroelectric power generation) and the effect of that change on economic output, income, or employment in other local industries ( e. g., manufacturers relying on the electricity generated). These economic data provide a quantitative estimate of the magnitude of shifts of jobs and revenues in the local economy. 122. The use of regional input/ output models can overstate the long- term impacts of a regulatory change. Most importantly, these models provide a static view of the economy of a region. That is, they measure the initial impact of a regulatory change on an economy but do not consider long- term adjustments that the economy will make in response to this change. For example, these models provide estimates of the number of jobs lost as a result of a regulatory change, but do not consider re- employment of these individuals over time. In addition, the flow of goods and services across the regional boundaries defined in the model may change as a result of the designation, compensating for a potential decrease in economic activity within the region. 123. Despite these and other limitations, in certain circumstances regional economic impact analysis may provide useful information about the scale and scope of localized impacts. It is important to remember that measures of regional economic effects generally reflect shifts in resource use rather than efficiency losses. These types of distributional effects, therefore, should be reported separately from efficiency effects ( i. e., not summed). In addition, measures of regional economic impact cannot be compared with estimates of efficiency effects. 1.3.2 Defining the Baseline 124. The purpose of this analysis is to measure the economic impact of compliance with the protections derived from the designation of critical habitat, including habitat protections that may be " co- extensive" with the listing of the species ( the term " co- extensive" is described in greater detail in the following section). Economic impacts to land use activities may exist in the absence of co- extensive protections. These impacts may result from, for example: • Local zoning laws; • State and natural resource laws; and 1- 9 • Enforceable management plans and BMPs applied by other State and Federal agencies. 125. Economic impacts that result from these types of protections are not included in this assessment; they are considered to be part of the " baseline." Existing laws, regulations, and policies are described in greater detail in Section 2.3 of this analysis. 1.3.3 Direct Compliance Costs 126. The measurement of direct compliance costs focuses on the implementation of section 7 of the Act. This section requires Federal agencies to consult with the Service to ensure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out will not likely jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. The administrative costs of these consultations, along with the costs of project modifications resulting from these consultations, represent the direct compliance costs of designating critical habitat. 127. This analysis does not differentiate between consultations that result from the listing of the species ( i. e., the jeopardy standard) and consultations that result from the presence of critical habitat ( i. e., the adverse modification standard). Consultations resulting from the listing of the species, or project modifications meant specifically to protect the species as opposed to its habitat, may occur even in the absence of critical habitat. However, in 2001, the U. S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals instructed the Service to conduct a full analysis of all of the economic impacts of critical habitat designation, regardless of whether those impacts are attributable co- extensively to other causes. 17 Given the similarity in regulatory definitions between the terms " jeopardy" and " adverse modification," in practice it can be difficult to pre- determine the standard that drives a section 7 consultation. Consequently, in an effort to ensure that this economic analysis complies with the instructions of the 10th Circuit as well as to ensure that no costs of the proposed designation are omitted, the potential effects associated with all section 7 impacts in or near proposed critical habitat are fully considered. In doing so, the analysis ensures that any critical habitat impacts that are co- extensive with the listing of the species are not overlooked. 1.3.4 Indirect Costs 128. A designation may Close

• 664. [Image] Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999

  	"December 10, 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Close

• 665. [Image] Annual survey of abundance and distribution of age 0 shortnose and Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake

  	One chapter of a seven chapter annual report from 1999 examining ecological issues regarding the shortnose and Lost River sucker populations in Upper Klamath Lake and Williamson River.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Annual survey of abundance and distribution of age 0 shortnose and Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake Author: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Year: 2000, 2005 One chapter of a seven chapter annual report from 1999 examining ecological issues regarding the shortnose and Lost River sucker populations in Upper Klamath Lake and Williamson River. Title: Annual survey of abundance and distribution of age 0 shortnose and Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake Author: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Year: 2000, 2005 One chapter of a seven chapter annual report from 1999 examining ecological issues regarding the shortnose and Lost River sucker populations in Upper Klamath Lake and Williamson River. Close

• 666. [Image] Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment

  	"May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment Year: 2000, 2005 "May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, 821 SE 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 and US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Tribes, PacifiCorp, Cell Tech International; Includes bibliographic references (p. 60-66) Title: Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment Year: 2000, 2005 "May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, 821 SE 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 and US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Tribes, PacifiCorp, Cell Tech International; Includes bibliographic references (p. 60-66) Close

• 667. [Image] Crater Lake limnological studies 1997 annual report

  	1982 - 2002; ill., maps; Title covers calendar years 1990-2002; Bibliographic description is based on 1990 annual report; CA 9000-8-0006 Subagreement 8; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Crater Lake limnological studies 1997 annual report Author: Oregon State University; in collaboration with the National Park Service Year: 1997, 2009 1982 - 2002; ill., maps; Title covers calendar years 1990-2002; Bibliographic description is based on 1990 annual report; CA 9000-8-0006 Subagreement 8; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering Title: Crater Lake limnological studies 1997 annual report Author: Oregon State University; in collaboration with the National Park Service Year: 1997, 2009 1982 - 2002; ill., maps; Title covers calendar years 1990-2002; Bibliographic description is based on 1990 annual report; CA 9000-8-0006 Subagreement 8; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering Close

• 668. [Article] Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1987

  This seventh annual report outlines our continued progress on each of six objectives. Improved fumigants: We continue to evaluate previously established field tests, which inlicate that chioropicrin continues ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1987 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) This seventh annual report outlines our continued progress on each of six objectives. Improved fumigants: We continue to evaluate previously established field tests, which inlicate that chioropicrin continues to protect Douglas-fir poles after 17 years and piling after 12 years. Vorlex treated poles are being gradually recolonized by decay fungi, while the Vapam treated poles appear to have little resistance to decay fungi. The latter poles were retreated last summer and will be used to determine the effectiveness of fumigant retreatment. Solid methylisothiocyanate (NIT) continues to protect Douglasfir poles, although the 20 percent NIT treatment has experienced slightly higher levels of colonization after 9 years. Additional tests to evaluate the effectiveness of gelatin encapsulated MIT or chioropicrin indicate that both chemicals continue to remain effective. In addition, there now appears to be little difference between the levels of control exhibited following addition of varying amounts of water to the poles along with gelatin encapsulated NIT. Closed tube bioassays indicate the chioropicrin remains at fungitoxic levels after 17 years, while no volatile fungitoxins appear to be present in Vapam or Vorlex treated wood. The evaluation of untreated Douglas-fir posts treated with NIT, chloropicrin, or Vapam indicate that fumigants can not ccatletely protect untreated wood in ground contact unless there is sane other type of preservative treated barrier present. Although the NIT treatment provided the best protection, all of the posts experienced some surface decay and termite attack after 10 years. These results appear similar to those found with more recent tests of posts treated with various coLthinations of preservative containing wraps and fuinigants. Evaluation of Mylone and tridipain, two solid chemicals that degrade to produce NIT, initcates that NIT production and fungal control are enhanced by the addition of basic pH buffers; however, only the pH 12 buffer resulted in rapid fungal control. These results Jnitcate that the rate of fumigant release can be tailored to control specific decay problems. We have also investigated the decomposition of Vapam in wood. As previously reported, there are over 14 potential deccmposition products from this chemical. This past year we developed methods for assaying these chemicals, evaluated the long-term stability of each, and prepared test blocks for evaluating decc*,osjtion in wood. In addition, we have studied the migration of volatile compounds from Vapam and NIT treated blocks under controlled aeration. After 5,000 hours, detectable levesis of NIT, carbon disulfide, and carbon oxysulfide are still present in air surrounding the Douglas-fir blocks. These tests indicate that low levels of volatile chemicals are continuously eninitted from fumigant treated wood. While this poses little difficulty for utility poles, it may pose some hazard for wood in closed spaces. Evaluations will continue until the emission levels decline below detectable limits. In addition to Vapam deccmposition studies, we have also evaluated the decoxrosition, movement and fungitoxicity of NIT under a variety of environmental conditions. In general, wet wood held less NIT, but the degree of control produced was more rapid. These results suggest that dry wood will act as a reseivoir of NIT, which will be released as moisture enters and swells the wood. This effect may provide an excellent long-term decay control strategy. The information from these studies will be used to develop more 111 ecific recaimrndations for fumigant treatment. Cedar Saood Decay Control: This past year we reestablished the field test of promising nei pentachiorophenol replacements, incorporating 26 chemicals into these tests. These saitles will be evaluated after 1 and 2 years to determine efficacy. In addition to the field test, we evaluated 13 new formulations or cinations of formulations in our laboratory screening tests. A nuner of chemicals including Isothiazolone, Amical 48 and a nurrer of quaternary aimnonium compounds appear promising and have been included in the field test. Bolt Hole Decay Prevention: Test established 5 years ago to determine the effectiveness of sprays, liquids or pastes applied to field drilled bolts holes indicate that airanonium bifluoride, Boracol 40, and 10% penta provided greater protection than Polybor or Patox washers. In addition, no evidence of corrosion was associated with any of the treatments. Fumigant treatments below the bolt holes continue to eliminate decay fungi, although samples removed from further down the pole indicate an incoIr)1ete distribution of MIT. These tests will be reevaluated this coming year. Detecting Early Decay and Estimating Residual Strength: We continue to evaluate the use of fluorescent coupled lectins and infra-red spectroscopy for detecting fungi in wood and early decay under controlled laboratory conditions. We have also continued evaluation of longitudinal compression (L) as a measure of ultite wood strength using a series of 27 Ldgepole pine posts. While the dense knot clusters interferred with the analysis, LCS, in combination with other parameters, was a reasonably good predictor of bending strength. These tests will continue with more uniform material. iv In addition to tests of LCS, we have evaluated the ability of small scal e tests to determine the strength of various wood pole connectors. Out results were in close agreement with those obtained using full scale tests aii illustrate the value of using small r1 e tests to develop strength information. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir: We continue to evaluate the data developed in the air-seasoning st1wies. This past year we began to develop information on the effects of various colony sizes on wood strength. This data will help us assign strength values to the colony size data we ha developed frau the air-seasoning study. At present, only Peniophora spp. has been tested, but . carbonica, P. placenta, and Haematostereum sanguinolentuin will also be included. Evaluation of the teinperatures required to eliminate fungi from Douglas-f ir poles also continue. We have ccatpleted 9 test charges which indicate that the penta treatmants involving a Boulton-seasoning cycle result in a ixre than adequate heating of the wood, while steam treants associated with amnniacal copper arsenate are nre variable. We feel that longer heating periods are required for poles greater than 12 inches in diamater, but that the current 6 hour steam period will result in heating of the center to 67 C for over 1 hour in smaller poles. Microfungi in Douglas-fir Poles: We continue to evaluate the effects of nticrofungi on properties of fumigant treated Douglas-fir poles. These tests indicate that prior colonization of fumigant treated wood by Scytalidium or Trichoderma species resulted in lower weight losses by P. placenta and . carbonica. Evaluation of a Cellon treated Douglas-fir laminated beam indicated that V severe penta depletion was associated with virtually all of the surface decay present. This beam had only been in service for 12 years in an extremely dry climate arxl it is unclear why the decay was so rapid. Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1987 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) This seventh annual report outlines our continued progress on each of six objectives. Improved fumigants: We continue to evaluate previously established field tests, which inlicate that chioropicrin continues to protect Douglas-fir poles after 17 years and piling after 12 years. Vorlex treated poles are being gradually recolonized by decay fungi, while the Vapam treated poles appear to have little resistance to decay fungi. The latter poles were retreated last summer and will be used to determine the effectiveness of fumigant retreatment. Solid methylisothiocyanate (NIT) continues to protect Douglasfir poles, although the 20 percent NIT treatment has experienced slightly higher levels of colonization after 9 years. Additional tests to evaluate the effectiveness of gelatin encapsulated MIT or chioropicrin indicate that both chemicals continue to remain effective. In addition, there now appears to be little difference between the levels of control exhibited following addition of varying amounts of water to the poles along with gelatin encapsulated NIT. Closed tube bioassays indicate the chioropicrin remains at fungitoxic levels after 17 years, while no volatile fungitoxins appear to be present in Vapam or Vorlex treated wood. The evaluation of untreated Douglas-fir posts treated with NIT, chloropicrin, or Vapam indicate that fumigants can not ccatletely protect untreated wood in ground contact unless there is sane other type of preservative treated barrier present. Although the NIT treatment provided the best protection, all of the posts experienced some surface decay and termite attack after 10 years. These results appear similar to those found with more recent tests of posts treated with various coLthinations of preservative containing wraps and fuinigants. Evaluation of Mylone and tridipain, two solid chemicals that degrade to produce NIT, initcates that NIT production and fungal control are enhanced by the addition of basic pH buffers; however, only the pH 12 buffer resulted in rapid fungal control. These results Jnitcate that the rate of fumigant release can be tailored to control specific decay problems. We have also investigated the decomposition of Vapam in wood. As previously reported, there are over 14 potential deccmposition products from this chemical. This past year we developed methods for assaying these chemicals, evaluated the long-term stability of each, and prepared test blocks for evaluating decc*,osjtion in wood. In addition, we have studied the migration of volatile compounds from Vapam and NIT treated blocks under controlled aeration. After 5,000 hours, detectable levesis of NIT, carbon disulfide, and carbon oxysulfide are still present in air surrounding the Douglas-fir blocks. These tests indicate that low levels of volatile chemicals are continuously eninitted from fumigant treated wood. While this poses little difficulty for utility poles, it may pose some hazard for wood in closed spaces. Evaluations will continue until the emission levels decline below detectable limits. In addition to Vapam deccmposition studies, we have also evaluated the decoxrosition, movement and fungitoxicity of NIT under a variety of environmental conditions. In general, wet wood held less NIT, but the degree of control produced was more rapid. These results suggest that dry wood will act as a reseivoir of NIT, which will be released as moisture enters and swells the wood. This effect may provide an excellent long-term decay control strategy. The information from these studies will be used to develop more 111 ecific recaimrndations for fumigant treatment. Cedar Saood Decay Control: This past year we reestablished the field test of promising nei pentachiorophenol replacements, incorporating 26 chemicals into these tests. These saitles will be evaluated after 1 and 2 years to determine efficacy. In addition to the field test, we evaluated 13 new formulations or cinations of formulations in our laboratory screening tests. A nuner of chemicals including Isothiazolone, Amical 48 and a nurrer of quaternary aimnonium compounds appear promising and have been included in the field test. Bolt Hole Decay Prevention: Test established 5 years ago to determine the effectiveness of sprays, liquids or pastes applied to field drilled bolts holes indicate that airanonium bifluoride, Boracol 40, and 10% penta provided greater protection than Polybor or Patox washers. In addition, no evidence of corrosion was associated with any of the treatments. Fumigant treatments below the bolt holes continue to eliminate decay fungi, although samples removed from further down the pole indicate an incoIr)1ete distribution of MIT. These tests will be reevaluated this coming year. Detecting Early Decay and Estimating Residual Strength: We continue to evaluate the use of fluorescent coupled lectins and infra-red spectroscopy for detecting fungi in wood and early decay under controlled laboratory conditions. We have also continued evaluation of longitudinal compression (L) as a measure of ultite wood strength using a series of 27 Ldgepole pine posts. While the dense knot clusters interferred with the analysis, LCS, in combination with other parameters, was a reasonably good predictor of bending strength. These tests will continue with more uniform material. iv In addition to tests of LCS, we have evaluated the ability of small scal e tests to determine the strength of various wood pole connectors. Out results were in close agreement with those obtained using full scale tests aii illustrate the value of using small r1 e tests to develop strength information. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir: We continue to evaluate the data developed in the air-seasoning st1wies. This past year we began to develop information on the effects of various colony sizes on wood strength. This data will help us assign strength values to the colony size data we ha developed frau the air-seasoning study. At present, only Peniophora spp. has been tested, but . carbonica, P. placenta, and Haematostereum sanguinolentuin will also be included. Evaluation of the teinperatures required to eliminate fungi from Douglas-f ir poles also continue. We have ccatpleted 9 test charges which indicate that the penta treatmants involving a Boulton-seasoning cycle result in a ixre than adequate heating of the wood, while steam treants associated with amnniacal copper arsenate are nre variable. We feel that longer heating periods are required for poles greater than 12 inches in diamater, but that the current 6 hour steam period will result in heating of the center to 67 C for over 1 hour in smaller poles. Microfungi in Douglas-fir Poles: We continue to evaluate the effects of nticrofungi on properties of fumigant treated Douglas-fir poles. These tests indicate that prior colonization of fumigant treated wood by Scytalidium or Trichoderma species resulted in lower weight losses by P. placenta and . carbonica. Evaluation of a Cellon treated Douglas-fir laminated beam indicated that V severe penta depletion was associated with virtually all of the surface decay present. This beam had only been in service for 12 years in an extremely dry climate arxl it is unclear why the decay was so rapid. Close

• 669. [Article] Quantitative Tools for Monitoring Strategy Evaluation and Assessment of Sea Turtle Populations

  Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, have endangered and threatened populations globally, but several populations show signs of population recovery. In Hawaii, nesting female green turtles have increased ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Quantitative Tools for Monitoring Strategy Evaluation and Assessment of Sea Turtle Populations Author: Piacenza, Susan E. H. Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, have endangered and threatened populations globally, but several populations show signs of population recovery. In Hawaii, nesting female green turtles have increased 5.7% year⁻¹ since 1973, but wide fluctuations in census counts of nesting females make recovery diagnosis difficult. For effective management planning, it is critical to have the best information possible on vital rates, and to determine the best tools and practices for incorporating vital rate information, particularly variability, into population models to assess population size and status. Process and observation errors, compounded by late maturity, obscure the relationship between trends on the nesting beach and the entire population. Using sea turtle nesting beach surveys as a population index for assessment is problematic, yet often pragmatic because this is the only population index that is easily accessible. It is advantageous to use a modelling approach that estimates interannual variability in life history traits, accounts for uncertainty from individual-level variability, and allows for population dynamics to emerge from individual behaviors. To this end, I analyzed a long-term data set of marked green sea turtles to determine the degree of temporal variability in key life history traits. From this analysis, I built an agent-based model (ABM) to form the basis of a new assessment tool -- Monitoring Strategy Evaluation. In Chapter 2, I evaluated annual changes in demographic indicators (DIs) of 3,677 nesting green turtles from a 38-year tagging program in the Hawaiian Islands to determine if key life history traits are changing over time and in response to nester density. I used linear mixed models and multistate open robust design models to estimate several DIs and correlated them with nesting female counts. Mean nester carapace length and breeding probability were highly variable over time, suggesting shifts in age structure that could be due to recruitment. The top-ranked model predicted constant female survival over time. A significant positive relationship between the nesting population and breeding probability was evident, and breeding probability shows promise as an indicator of population recovery. This work contributes to a growing set of studies evaluating sea turtle demography for temporal variability and is the first for Hawaiian green turtles. In Chapter 3, I develop the Green Sea Turtle Agent-Based Model (GSTABM) to evaluate how recovery processes differ across disturbance types. The GSTABM incorporates individually variable age-at-maturity, clutch frequency and clutch size, annually variable breeding probability, environmental stochasticity and density dependence in hatchling production. The GSTABM simulates the process of population impact and recovery and the monitoring process, with observation error, on the nesting beach. The GSTABM captures the emergent patterns of interannual nesting variation, nester recruitment, and realistic population growth rates. Changes in survival rates of the nearshore age-stage classes directly affected adult and nester abundance, population growth rate and nester recruitment more than any of the other input parameters. In simulating 100 years of recovery, experimentally disturbed populations began to increase but did not fully return to pre-disturbance levels in adult and nester abundance, population growth or nester recruitment. In simulations with different levels of monitoring effort, adult abundance was poorly estimated, was influenced by population trajectory and disturbance type, and showed marginal improvements in accuracy with increased detection probability. Estimating recruitment showed improvements with increasing detection levels. In the GSTABM, variability in the nesting beach does not mirror variability in adult abundance. The GSTABM is an important tool to determine relationships with monitoring, population assessment, and the underlying biological processes driving changes in the population, and especially, changes on the nesting beach. In Chapter 4, I develop a new simulation-based tool: Monitoring Strategy Evaluation (MoSE) to determine which data source yields the most useful information for population assessments. The MoSE has three main components: the simulated "true" operating, observation, and estimation models. To explore this first use of MoSE, I apply different treatments of disturbance, sampling, and detection to the virtual "true" population, and then sample the nests or nesters, with observation error, to test if the observation "data" accurately diagnose population status indicators. Based on the observed data, I estimated adult abundance, nester recruitment, and population trend and compare them to the known values. I tested the accuracy of the estimated abundance when annually varying inputs of breeding probability, detection and clutch frequency were used instead of constants. I also explored the improvement of trend accuracy with increased study duration. Disturbance type and severity can have important and persistent effects on the accuracy of population assessments drawn from monitoring rookeries. Accuracy in abundance estimates may be most improved by avoiding clutch frequency bias in sampling and including annually varying inputs in the estimation model. Accuracy of nester recruitment may be most improved by increasing detection level and avoiding age-bias in sampling. The accuracy of estimating population trend is most influenced by the underlying population trajectory, disturbance type and disturbance severity. At least 10 years of monitoring data are necessary to accurately estimate population trend, and longer if juvenile age classes were disturbed and trend estimates occur during the recovery phase. The MoSE is an important tool for sea turtle biologists and conservation managers and allows biologists to make informed decisions regarding the best monitoring strategies to employ for sea turtles. This modeling framework is designed to provide an evaluation of monitoring program effectiveness to assist in planning future programs for sea turtles. Altogether, my research suggests certain life history traits of green sea turtles have important temporal variation that should be accounted for in population models, understanding the relationships between nesting and the total population is essential, and basing population assessments from nesting beach data alone is likely to result in incorrect or biased estimates of status indicators. The quantitative tools employed here can be applied to other sea turtle populations and will improve monitoring, and result in better estimates of current population trends and enhance conservation for all species of sea turtles. Title: Quantitative Tools for Monitoring Strategy Evaluation and Assessment of Sea Turtle Populations Author: Piacenza, Susan E. H. Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, have endangered and threatened populations globally, but several populations show signs of population recovery. In Hawaii, nesting female green turtles have increased 5.7% year⁻¹ since 1973, but wide fluctuations in census counts of nesting females make recovery diagnosis difficult. For effective management planning, it is critical to have the best information possible on vital rates, and to determine the best tools and practices for incorporating vital rate information, particularly variability, into population models to assess population size and status. Process and observation errors, compounded by late maturity, obscure the relationship between trends on the nesting beach and the entire population. Using sea turtle nesting beach surveys as a population index for assessment is problematic, yet often pragmatic because this is the only population index that is easily accessible. It is advantageous to use a modelling approach that estimates interannual variability in life history traits, accounts for uncertainty from individual-level variability, and allows for population dynamics to emerge from individual behaviors. To this end, I analyzed a long-term data set of marked green sea turtles to determine the degree of temporal variability in key life history traits. From this analysis, I built an agent-based model (ABM) to form the basis of a new assessment tool -- Monitoring Strategy Evaluation. In Chapter 2, I evaluated annual changes in demographic indicators (DIs) of 3,677 nesting green turtles from a 38-year tagging program in the Hawaiian Islands to determine if key life history traits are changing over time and in response to nester density. I used linear mixed models and multistate open robust design models to estimate several DIs and correlated them with nesting female counts. Mean nester carapace length and breeding probability were highly variable over time, suggesting shifts in age structure that could be due to recruitment. The top-ranked model predicted constant female survival over time. A significant positive relationship between the nesting population and breeding probability was evident, and breeding probability shows promise as an indicator of population recovery. This work contributes to a growing set of studies evaluating sea turtle demography for temporal variability and is the first for Hawaiian green turtles. In Chapter 3, I develop the Green Sea Turtle Agent-Based Model (GSTABM) to evaluate how recovery processes differ across disturbance types. The GSTABM incorporates individually variable age-at-maturity, clutch frequency and clutch size, annually variable breeding probability, environmental stochasticity and density dependence in hatchling production. The GSTABM simulates the process of population impact and recovery and the monitoring process, with observation error, on the nesting beach. The GSTABM captures the emergent patterns of interannual nesting variation, nester recruitment, and realistic population growth rates. Changes in survival rates of the nearshore age-stage classes directly affected adult and nester abundance, population growth rate and nester recruitment more than any of the other input parameters. In simulating 100 years of recovery, experimentally disturbed populations began to increase but did not fully return to pre-disturbance levels in adult and nester abundance, population growth or nester recruitment. In simulations with different levels of monitoring effort, adult abundance was poorly estimated, was influenced by population trajectory and disturbance type, and showed marginal improvements in accuracy with increased detection probability. Estimating recruitment showed improvements with increasing detection levels. In the GSTABM, variability in the nesting beach does not mirror variability in adult abundance. The GSTABM is an important tool to determine relationships with monitoring, population assessment, and the underlying biological processes driving changes in the population, and especially, changes on the nesting beach. In Chapter 4, I develop a new simulation-based tool: Monitoring Strategy Evaluation (MoSE) to determine which data source yields the most useful information for population assessments. The MoSE has three main components: the simulated "true" operating, observation, and estimation models. To explore this first use of MoSE, I apply different treatments of disturbance, sampling, and detection to the virtual "true" population, and then sample the nests or nesters, with observation error, to test if the observation "data" accurately diagnose population status indicators. Based on the observed data, I estimated adult abundance, nester recruitment, and population trend and compare them to the known values. I tested the accuracy of the estimated abundance when annually varying inputs of breeding probability, detection and clutch frequency were used instead of constants. I also explored the improvement of trend accuracy with increased study duration. Disturbance type and severity can have important and persistent effects on the accuracy of population assessments drawn from monitoring rookeries. Accuracy in abundance estimates may be most improved by avoiding clutch frequency bias in sampling and including annually varying inputs in the estimation model. Accuracy of nester recruitment may be most improved by increasing detection level and avoiding age-bias in sampling. The accuracy of estimating population trend is most influenced by the underlying population trajectory, disturbance type and disturbance severity. At least 10 years of monitoring data are necessary to accurately estimate population trend, and longer if juvenile age classes were disturbed and trend estimates occur during the recovery phase. The MoSE is an important tool for sea turtle biologists and conservation managers and allows biologists to make informed decisions regarding the best monitoring strategies to employ for sea turtles. This modeling framework is designed to provide an evaluation of monitoring program effectiveness to assist in planning future programs for sea turtles. Altogether, my research suggests certain life history traits of green sea turtles have important temporal variation that should be accounted for in population models, understanding the relationships between nesting and the total population is essential, and basing population assessments from nesting beach data alone is likely to result in incorrect or biased estimates of status indicators. The quantitative tools employed here can be applied to other sea turtle populations and will improve monitoring, and result in better estimates of current population trends and enhance conservation for all species of sea turtles. Close

• 670. [Article] Recovery of Wild Coho Salmon In Salmon River Basin, 2008-2010 Report Number: OPSW-ODFW-2011-10

  Abstract -- Hatcheries have been a centerpiece of salmon management in the Pacific Northwest for more than a century but recent evidence of adverse interactions between hatchery and naturally-produced ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recovery of Wild Coho Salmon In Salmon River Basin, 2008-2010 Report Number: OPSW-ODFW-2011-10 Abstract -- Hatcheries have been a centerpiece of salmon management in the Pacific Northwest for more than a century but recent evidence of adverse interactions between hatchery and naturally-produced salmon have resulted in substantial changes in many hatchery programs. In 2007 the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife terminated a 30-year artificial propagation program for coho salmon in the Salmon River basin after a status assessment concluded that wild population viability was threatened by hatchery effects on salmon productivity (Chilcote et al. 2005). Hatchery-reared coho comprised 50-100% of the naturally spawning population in recent years. Low productivity was reflected in a low spawner to recruit ratio, and life-stage specific survival was lower than that of nearby populations. The temporal distribution of adult spawning in the basin was truncated and peaked 1.5 months earlier relative to the pre-hatchery period and adjacent coastal populations. The cessation of hatchery releases into Salmon River not only removed the primary factor believed to limit productivity of the local population, it also constituted a rare management experiment to test whether a naturally-spawning population can recover from a prolonged period of low abundance after interactions with hatchery-produced coho salmon are eliminated. This report summarizes the results of coho population studies at Salmon River for the first three years after the hatchery program was discontinued. The study in Salmon River is timely because ecological interactions between hatchery and wild fish have been implicated in the reduced survival and decreased productivity of wild coho and other salmonid populations (Nickelson 2003, Buhle et al. 2009, Chilcote et al. 2011). Recent studies involving a diversity of salmonid species and watersheds have shown a negative relationship between hatchery spawner abundance and wild population productivity regardless of the duration of hatchery influence (Chilcote et al. 2011). Yet neither the mechanisms of these productivity declines nor their potential reversibility have been investigated. Recent management changes at Salmon River provide an opportunity to experimentally evaluate coho salmon survival and productivity following the elimination of a decades-long hatchery program. The results will provide new insights into the reversibility of hatchery effects and the rate, mechanisms, and trajectory of response by a naturally spawning coho salmon population. Hatchery programs have been shown to change the timing and distribution of naturally spawning adults, but ecological and genetic influences on the spatial structure and life history diversity of juvenile populations are poorly understood. Conventional understanding of the life history of juvenile coho has presumed a relatively fixed pattern of rearing and migration. However, recent studies have found much greater variation in juvenile life history and habitat-use patterns than previously expected (Miller and Sadro 2003, Koski 2009), including evidence that estuaries may play a prominent role in the life histories of some coho salmon populations. A recent study in the Salmon River basin found considerable diversity in the life histories of juvenile Chinook salmon, including extended rearing by fry and other subyearling migrants within the complex network of natural and restored estuarine wetlands (Bottom et al. 2005). Unfortunately, interpretation of juvenile life history variations at Salmon River was confounded by the Chinook hatchery program, which has concentrated spawning activity in the lower river near the hatchery and may directly influence juvenile migration and rearing patterns. Discontinuation of the coho hatchery program at Salmon River provides an opportunity to quantify changes in juvenile life history following the elimination of all hatchery-fish interactions with the naturally spawning population. Such responses may provide important insights into the mechanisms of hatchery influence on wild salmon productivity and population resilience. Our research integrates adult and juvenile life stages, examines linkages to physical habitat conditions in fresh water and the estuary, and describes variability between juvenile performance and adult returns. It also monitors the coho salmon population across habitat types and life history stages to identify population responses at a landscape scale. We will determine productivity and survival at each salmon life stage and monitor the response of the adult population following the cessation of the coho salmon hatchery program. From these indicators, we will determine the potential resiliency of the coho salmon population, and evaluate the biological benefits or tradeoffs of returning the ecosystem to natural salmon production. Our study design encompasses four population phases: (1) pre-hatchery conditions (Mullen 1979), (2) dominance by hatchery-reared spawners (2008), (3) first generation naturally produced juveniles (2009-2011), and (4) second generation naturally produced juveniles (starting in 2012). This research will validate assumptions about factors limiting coho recovery and determine whether recovery actions have been effective. Here, we report on findings from 2008-2010 to address four principal objectives: 1. Quantify life stage specific survival and recruits per spawner ratio of the coho salmon population before and after hatchery coho salmon are removed from Salmon River. 2. Assess whether the Salmon River coho population is limited by capacity and complexity of stream habitat. 3. Describe the diversity of juvenile and adult life histories of coho salmon in the Salmon River basin, and estimate the relative contributions of various juvenile life histories to adult returns. 4. Determine seasonal use of the Salmon River estuary and its tidally-inundated wetlands by juvenile coho salmon. The field sampling that supported the study on coho salmon also captured Chinook salmon and steelhead and cutthroat trout during routine sampling in the watershed and estuary. This report emphasizes coho salmon results, but also summarizes catch, distribution, and migration data for other salmonids to compare densities and abundances in freshwater and the estuary. Additional results for Chinook, steelhead, and cutthroat are presented in Appendix A. See Stein et al. (2011) for more detailed information on life history diversity, migration patterns, habitat use, and abundance of cutthroat trout. Title: Recovery of Wild Coho Salmon In Salmon River Basin, 2008-2010 Report Number: OPSW-ODFW-2011-10 Abstract -- Hatcheries have been a centerpiece of salmon management in the Pacific Northwest for more than a century but recent evidence of adverse interactions between hatchery and naturally-produced salmon have resulted in substantial changes in many hatchery programs. In 2007 the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife terminated a 30-year artificial propagation program for coho salmon in the Salmon River basin after a status assessment concluded that wild population viability was threatened by hatchery effects on salmon productivity (Chilcote et al. 2005). Hatchery-reared coho comprised 50-100% of the naturally spawning population in recent years. Low productivity was reflected in a low spawner to recruit ratio, and life-stage specific survival was lower than that of nearby populations. The temporal distribution of adult spawning in the basin was truncated and peaked 1.5 months earlier relative to the pre-hatchery period and adjacent coastal populations. The cessation of hatchery releases into Salmon River not only removed the primary factor believed to limit productivity of the local population, it also constituted a rare management experiment to test whether a naturally-spawning population can recover from a prolonged period of low abundance after interactions with hatchery-produced coho salmon are eliminated. This report summarizes the results of coho population studies at Salmon River for the first three years after the hatchery program was discontinued. The study in Salmon River is timely because ecological interactions between hatchery and wild fish have been implicated in the reduced survival and decreased productivity of wild coho and other salmonid populations (Nickelson 2003, Buhle et al. 2009, Chilcote et al. 2011). Recent studies involving a diversity of salmonid species and watersheds have shown a negative relationship between hatchery spawner abundance and wild population productivity regardless of the duration of hatchery influence (Chilcote et al. 2011). Yet neither the mechanisms of these productivity declines nor their potential reversibility have been investigated. Recent management changes at Salmon River provide an opportunity to experimentally evaluate coho salmon survival and productivity following the elimination of a decades-long hatchery program. The results will provide new insights into the reversibility of hatchery effects and the rate, mechanisms, and trajectory of response by a naturally spawning coho salmon population. Hatchery programs have been shown to change the timing and distribution of naturally spawning adults, but ecological and genetic influences on the spatial structure and life history diversity of juvenile populations are poorly understood. Conventional understanding of the life history of juvenile coho has presumed a relatively fixed pattern of rearing and migration. However, recent studies have found much greater variation in juvenile life history and habitat-use patterns than previously expected (Miller and Sadro 2003, Koski 2009), including evidence that estuaries may play a prominent role in the life histories of some coho salmon populations. A recent study in the Salmon River basin found considerable diversity in the life histories of juvenile Chinook salmon, including extended rearing by fry and other subyearling migrants within the complex network of natural and restored estuarine wetlands (Bottom et al. 2005). Unfortunately, interpretation of juvenile life history variations at Salmon River was confounded by the Chinook hatchery program, which has concentrated spawning activity in the lower river near the hatchery and may directly influence juvenile migration and rearing patterns. Discontinuation of the coho hatchery program at Salmon River provides an opportunity to quantify changes in juvenile life history following the elimination of all hatchery-fish interactions with the naturally spawning population. Such responses may provide important insights into the mechanisms of hatchery influence on wild salmon productivity and population resilience. Our research integrates adult and juvenile life stages, examines linkages to physical habitat conditions in fresh water and the estuary, and describes variability between juvenile performance and adult returns. It also monitors the coho salmon population across habitat types and life history stages to identify population responses at a landscape scale. We will determine productivity and survival at each salmon life stage and monitor the response of the adult population following the cessation of the coho salmon hatchery program. From these indicators, we will determine the potential resiliency of the coho salmon population, and evaluate the biological benefits or tradeoffs of returning the ecosystem to natural salmon production. Our study design encompasses four population phases: (1) pre-hatchery conditions (Mullen 1979), (2) dominance by hatchery-reared spawners (2008), (3) first generation naturally produced juveniles (2009-2011), and (4) second generation naturally produced juveniles (starting in 2012). This research will validate assumptions about factors limiting coho recovery and determine whether recovery actions have been effective. Here, we report on findings from 2008-2010 to address four principal objectives: 1. Quantify life stage specific survival and recruits per spawner ratio of the coho salmon population before and after hatchery coho salmon are removed from Salmon River. 2. Assess whether the Salmon River coho population is limited by capacity and complexity of stream habitat. 3. Describe the diversity of juvenile and adult life histories of coho salmon in the Salmon River basin, and estimate the relative contributions of various juvenile life histories to adult returns. 4. Determine seasonal use of the Salmon River estuary and its tidally-inundated wetlands by juvenile coho salmon. The field sampling that supported the study on coho salmon also captured Chinook salmon and steelhead and cutthroat trout during routine sampling in the watershed and estuary. This report emphasizes coho salmon results, but also summarizes catch, distribution, and migration data for other salmonids to compare densities and abundances in freshwater and the estuary. Additional results for Chinook, steelhead, and cutthroat are presented in Appendix A. See Stein et al. (2011) for more detailed information on life history diversity, migration patterns, habitat use, and abundance of cutthroat trout. Close

• 671. [Image] Klamath River fish die-off, September 2002 : report on estimate of mortality

  	Klamath River Fish Die-off, September 2002, Mortality Report, FWS, Arcata, CA Summary of Findings This report provides an estimate of the fish mortality that occurred during the September 2002 Klamath ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath River fish die-off, September 2002 : report on estimate of mortality Author: Guillen, George. Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Klamath River Fish Die-off, September 2002, Mortality Report, FWS, Arcata, CA Summary of Findings This report provides an estimate of the fish mortality that occurred during the September 2002 Klamath River die-off. The intent of this report is to provide natural resource agencies and trustees with information describing the magnitude of this event for their consideration in near-term decisions regarding the affected fisheries resources and related assets under their authority. The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), in cooperation with other federal and state agencies and Tribes, will continue to collaborate and evaluate information collected during the die-off. This report describes a conservative assessment, which probably underestimates the total number of fish that died during this event. Findings described in this report include the following: 22 The most accurate estimate of the total number of observable fish that died during the incident is 34,056. 22 Approximately 98.4 percent of the dead fish observed were adult anadromous salmonids 22 Out of 33,527 anadromous salmonids estimated to have succumbed during this event, 97.1 percent (32,533) were fall-run Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 1.8 percent (629) were steelhead, O. mykiss, and 1.0 percent (344) were coho salmon, O. kisutch. Only one coastal cutthroat, O. clarki clarki was found dead during the investigation. 22 Approximately 91.5 percent of the coho salmon, and 38.7 percent of the steelhead observed had marks indicating that they were of hatchery origin. All hatchery coho originated from the Trinity River Hatchery. After accounting for variable tagging and shed rates, the Klamath River Technical Advisory Team (KRTAT) estimated that 7,060 (21.7 percent) Chinook were of hatchery origin. A total of 2,921 (9 percent) Chinook were of Iron Gate (Klamath River) Hatchery origin. A total of 4,139 (12.7 percent) Chinook were of Trinity River Hatchery origin. 22 The KRTAT also estimated that dead Chinook salmon represented 19.2 percent of the total (169,,297) in-river Klamath-Trinity River run. 22 Other dead fish observed during the investigation included sculpins, Cottus spp. (87 fish), speckled dace, Rhinichthys osculus (9 fish), Klamath smallscale sucker, Catostomus rimiculus (311 fish), one American shad, Alosa sapidissima, and one green sturgeon, Acipencer medirostris. ii Klamath River Fish Die-off, September 2002, Mortality Report, FWS, Arcata, CA 22 Throughout the investigation, live adult and juvenile fish of affected and unaffected species were observed in the river. In addition, some species (e.g. American shad, speckled dace, and green sturgeon) did not appear to experience extensive mortality. Almost all (greater than 99 percent) of the dead fish observed were adults or larger species offish. 22 The majority of the recently dead fish examined exhibited one or more outward gross signs of disease including gill necrosis, bacterial growth, sores, bloody vents, and ulcerations. Pathological examinations confirmed that white spot disease and columnaris were the principle immediate causes of death. Additional information collected by the Service and cooperating agencies included a suite of water quality parameters collected during the summer and fall of 2001 and 2002, fish pathology analyses, and related hydrologic information. The Service will provide reports on this additional information after it has received quality assurance review. A more comprehensive report addressing contributing factors associated with causes of the fish die-off will follow. in Title: Klamath River fish die-off, September 2002 : report on estimate of mortality Author: Guillen, George. Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Klamath River Fish Die-off, September 2002, Mortality Report, FWS, Arcata, CA Summary of Findings This report provides an estimate of the fish mortality that occurred during the September 2002 Klamath River die-off. The intent of this report is to provide natural resource agencies and trustees with information describing the magnitude of this event for their consideration in near-term decisions regarding the affected fisheries resources and related assets under their authority. The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), in cooperation with other federal and state agencies and Tribes, will continue to collaborate and evaluate information collected during the die-off. This report describes a conservative assessment, which probably underestimates the total number of fish that died during this event. Findings described in this report include the following: 22 The most accurate estimate of the total number of observable fish that died during the incident is 34,056. 22 Approximately 98.4 percent of the dead fish observed were adult anadromous salmonids 22 Out of 33,527 anadromous salmonids estimated to have succumbed during this event, 97.1 percent (32,533) were fall-run Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 1.8 percent (629) were steelhead, O. mykiss, and 1.0 percent (344) were coho salmon, O. kisutch. Only one coastal cutthroat, O. clarki clarki was found dead during the investigation. 22 Approximately 91.5 percent of the coho salmon, and 38.7 percent of the steelhead observed had marks indicating that they were of hatchery origin. All hatchery coho originated from the Trinity River Hatchery. After accounting for variable tagging and shed rates, the Klamath River Technical Advisory Team (KRTAT) estimated that 7,060 (21.7 percent) Chinook were of hatchery origin. A total of 2,921 (9 percent) Chinook were of Iron Gate (Klamath River) Hatchery origin. A total of 4,139 (12.7 percent) Chinook were of Trinity River Hatchery origin. 22 The KRTAT also estimated that dead Chinook salmon represented 19.2 percent of the total (169,,297) in-river Klamath-Trinity River run. 22 Other dead fish observed during the investigation included sculpins, Cottus spp. (87 fish), speckled dace, Rhinichthys osculus (9 fish), Klamath smallscale sucker, Catostomus rimiculus (311 fish), one American shad, Alosa sapidissima, and one green sturgeon, Acipencer medirostris. ii Klamath River Fish Die-off, September 2002, Mortality Report, FWS, Arcata, CA 22 Throughout the investigation, live adult and juvenile fish of affected and unaffected species were observed in the river. In addition, some species (e.g. American shad, speckled dace, and green sturgeon) did not appear to experience extensive mortality. Almost all (greater than 99 percent) of the dead fish observed were adults or larger species offish. 22 The majority of the recently dead fish examined exhibited one or more outward gross signs of disease including gill necrosis, bacterial growth, sores, bloody vents, and ulcerations. Pathological examinations confirmed that white spot disease and columnaris were the principle immediate causes of death. Additional information collected by the Service and cooperating agencies included a suite of water quality parameters collected during the summer and fall of 2001 and 2002, fish pathology analyses, and related hydrologic information. The Service will provide reports on this additional information after it has received quality assurance review. A more comprehensive report addressing contributing factors associated with causes of the fish die-off will follow. in Close

• 672. [Image] Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 1

  	Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 1 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005, 2004 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 1 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005, 2004 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Close

• 673. [Image] Biological assessment of the Klamath Project's continuing operations on southern Oregon/Northern California esu coho salmon and critical habitat for southern Oregon/northern California esu coho salmon

  	The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is the responsible Federal agency for operation of the Klamath Project (Project). Operation of the Project has been the subject of numerous previous consultations ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biological assessment of the Klamath Project's continuing operations on southern Oregon/Northern California esu coho salmon and critical habitat for southern Oregon/northern California esu coho salmon Year: 2001, 2004 The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is the responsible Federal agency for operation of the Klamath Project (Project). Operation of the Project has been the subject of numerous previous consultations with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) and one with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Severe drought conditions in 1992 and 1994 and resultant associated shortages in project water supplies coupled with the 1997 listing of the southern Oregon/northern California (SONCC) coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, as threatened in the Klamath River downstream from the Project led to a review of Reclamation 19s operations. This biological assessment (BA) describes the effects on federally-listed species (i.e., coho salmon) and its designated critical habitat from on-going operation of the project based on historic operations, as described in this BA. The biological opinion (BO) addressing this BA and any subsequent BA amendments will be among the information that will inform the development of alternatives of the long-term operations plan and environmental impact statement (EIS). Reclamation is developing a long-term operations plan and EIS for the Project. The preferred alternative for implementation from the long-term operations plan would be the subject of a separate future ESA consultation. This BA describes the needs of anadromous fish with emphasis on SONCC coho salmon. It was developed using the best available scientific and commercial information on anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Coho salmon were listed as threatened on June 6, 1997 (NMFS 1997). The NMFS published a final rule designating critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon in May, 1999 (NMFS 1999a). Designated critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon encompasses accessible reaches of all rivers (including estuarine areas and tributaries) between the Mattole River in California and the Elk River in Oregon. Critical habitat includes all waterways, substrate, and adjacent riparian zones below longstanding, naturally impassable barriers. The areas upstream from Iron Gate Dam (IGD) (river mile 190) were not proposed critical habitat because areas downstream were considered sufficient for the conservation of the species. Reclamation has not evaluated whether the action that is the subject of this BA is consistent with its trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. There are several important scientific reports and analyses (e.g., Phase II flow study) currently not available to Reclamation concerning threatened coho salmon, their habitat, and water quality as it relates to appropriate river flows that may be necessary to operate the Project consistent with the trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. When this additional information becomes available, Reclamation intends to consider it during the development of the Project operations plans and include it in subsequent consultations with NMFS, as appropriate. Title: Biological assessment of the Klamath Project's continuing operations on southern Oregon/Northern California esu coho salmon and critical habitat for southern Oregon/northern California esu coho salmon Year: 2001, 2004 The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) is the responsible Federal agency for operation of the Klamath Project (Project). Operation of the Project has been the subject of numerous previous consultations with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) and one with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Severe drought conditions in 1992 and 1994 and resultant associated shortages in project water supplies coupled with the 1997 listing of the southern Oregon/northern California (SONCC) coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, as threatened in the Klamath River downstream from the Project led to a review of Reclamation 19s operations. This biological assessment (BA) describes the effects on federally-listed species (i.e., coho salmon) and its designated critical habitat from on-going operation of the project based on historic operations, as described in this BA. The biological opinion (BO) addressing this BA and any subsequent BA amendments will be among the information that will inform the development of alternatives of the long-term operations plan and environmental impact statement (EIS). Reclamation is developing a long-term operations plan and EIS for the Project. The preferred alternative for implementation from the long-term operations plan would be the subject of a separate future ESA consultation. This BA describes the needs of anadromous fish with emphasis on SONCC coho salmon. It was developed using the best available scientific and commercial information on anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Coho salmon were listed as threatened on June 6, 1997 (NMFS 1997). The NMFS published a final rule designating critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon in May, 1999 (NMFS 1999a). Designated critical habitat for SONCC coho salmon encompasses accessible reaches of all rivers (including estuarine areas and tributaries) between the Mattole River in California and the Elk River in Oregon. Critical habitat includes all waterways, substrate, and adjacent riparian zones below longstanding, naturally impassable barriers. The areas upstream from Iron Gate Dam (IGD) (river mile 190) were not proposed critical habitat because areas downstream were considered sufficient for the conservation of the species. Reclamation has not evaluated whether the action that is the subject of this BA is consistent with its trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. There are several important scientific reports and analyses (e.g., Phase II flow study) currently not available to Reclamation concerning threatened coho salmon, their habitat, and water quality as it relates to appropriate river flows that may be necessary to operate the Project consistent with the trust responsibility to Klamath Basin Indian Tribes. When this additional information becomes available, Reclamation intends to consider it during the development of the Project operations plans and include it in subsequent consultations with NMFS, as appropriate. Close

• 674. [Image] Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004

  	CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Close

• 675. [Image] Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan

  	"December 1990"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Close

• 676. [Image] Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide

  	"May 1999"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide Author: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "May 1999" Title: Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide Author: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "May 1999" Close

• 677. [Image] Salmon of the Klamath river, California : 1. The salmon and the fishery of Klamath river. 2. A report on the 1930 catch of king salmon in Klamath river

  	CONTENTS PAGE I. THE SALMON AND THE FISHERY OF KLAMATH RIVER 2695 Introduction 2697 General Characteristics of Klamath River Salmon 2699 Species Other Than King Salmon 26916 The Spring Migration (Immigration) ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Salmon of the Klamath river, California : 1. The salmon and the fishery of Klamath river. 2. A report on the 1930 catch of king salmon in Klamath river Author: Snyder, John Otterbein Year: 1931, 2005 CONTENTS PAGE I. THE SALMON AND THE FISHERY OF KLAMATH RIVER 2695 Introduction 2697 General Characteristics of Klamath River Salmon 2699 Species Other Than King Salmon 26916 The Spring Migration (Immigration) 26918 The Summer Migration (Immigration) 26923 Sex Representation in the Migration 26933 Fish Increase in Average Weight and Size as the Season Advances 26939 Angling for Salmon 26943 Seaward Migration (Emigration) 26944 Obstructions in the River 26950 The Age at Maturity of Klamath King Salmon 26952 Marking Experiments 26967 Experiment in 1916 26968 Experiment in 1918 26968 Experiment in 1919 26968 Experiment in 1920 26968 Experiment in 1922 (Sacramento River) 26971 Experiment in 1922 (Klamath River) 26972 Experiment in 1923-1924 269 143 Ocean Tagging 26980 Depletion 26981 Notes Relating to the Salmon Catch of Klamath River 26988 The Ocean Catch 26992 Age Characteristics of the Ocean Catch 269108 Artificial Propagation in Klamath River 269111 Summary 18 269119 II. A REPORT ON THE 1930 CATCH OF KING SALMON IN KLAMATH RIVER 1823 Title: Salmon of the Klamath river, California : 1. The salmon and the fishery of Klamath river. 2. A report on the 1930 catch of king salmon in Klamath river Author: Snyder, John Otterbein Year: 1931, 2005 CONTENTS PAGE I. THE SALMON AND THE FISHERY OF KLAMATH RIVER 2695 Introduction 2697 General Characteristics of Klamath River Salmon 2699 Species Other Than King Salmon 26916 The Spring Migration (Immigration) 26918 The Summer Migration (Immigration) 26923 Sex Representation in the Migration 26933 Fish Increase in Average Weight and Size as the Season Advances 26939 Angling for Salmon 26943 Seaward Migration (Emigration) 26944 Obstructions in the River 26950 The Age at Maturity of Klamath King Salmon 26952 Marking Experiments 26967 Experiment in 1916 26968 Experiment in 1918 26968 Experiment in 1919 26968 Experiment in 1920 26968 Experiment in 1922 (Sacramento River) 26971 Experiment in 1922 (Klamath River) 26972 Experiment in 1923-1924 269 143 Ocean Tagging 26980 Depletion 26981 Notes Relating to the Salmon Catch of Klamath River 26988 The Ocean Catch 26992 Age Characteristics of the Ocean Catch 269108 Artificial Propagation in Klamath River 269111 Summary 18 269119 II. A REPORT ON THE 1930 CATCH OF KING SALMON IN KLAMATH RIVER 1823 Close

• 678. [Image] Mid-term evaluation of the Klamath River Basin Fisheries Restoration Program

  	"April, 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Mid-term evaluation of the Klamath River Basin Fisheries Restoration Program Year: 1999, 2005 "April, 1999." Title: Mid-term evaluation of the Klamath River Basin Fisheries Restoration Program Year: 1999, 2005 "April, 1999." Close

• 679. [Image] An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2]

  	Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nations National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nations BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nations population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nations National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nations BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nations population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Close

• 680. [Image] Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose suckers and shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999

  	Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose Suckers at Shoreline Spawning Areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Prepared by: Rip S. Shively1 Mark F. Bautista2 Andre E. Kohler2 1 U. S. Geological Survey, Biological ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose suckers and shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Author: Shively, Rip S.; Bautista, Mark F.; Kohler, Andre E. Year: 1999, 2005 Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose Suckers at Shoreline Spawning Areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Prepared by: Rip S. Shively1 Mark F. Bautista2 Andre E. Kohler2 1 U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division Klamath Falls Duty Station 6937 Washburn Way Klamath Falls, OR 97603 2 Johnson Controls World Services Inc. NERC Operation Post Office Box 270308 Fort Collins, CO 80527 Executive Summary In 1999, we sampled Lost River { Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) suckers from 5 April to 17 June at five shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). Trammel nets were set to encompass identified spawning areas and were fished approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after sunset or until 20 or more fish were captured. A total of 808 Lost River and 19 shortnose suckers were captured from Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs, and Cinder Flats. The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%), followed by Ouxy Springs ( 16%), Silver Building Springs ( 12%), and Boulder Springs ( 3%). Males dominated the catch at all sites, but the sex ratios at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs were particularly skewed towards males. We recaptured 32 Lost River suckers that had been tagged during previous years sampling efforts. All of these fish, with the exception of two fish tagged at Ball Point in July, were originally tagged during the spawning season at shoreline spawning areas in UKL. This information provides further evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers exist based on spawning location ( i. e., UKL and Williamson River). We also recaptured 23 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different locations than tagged indicating these fish were moving between spawning areas. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, although the decrease in size was not as dramatic as reported in previous years. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured at shoreline spawning areas in 1999, with a majority sampled after 1 May. Previous data for shortnose suckers at these sites is limited with respect to size, timing of spawning, sex composition, and relative numbers. Continuation of systematic sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas will provide valuable information on the demographics and life history of Lost River and shortnose suckers utilizing these areas. Acknowledgements We thank Anita Baker, Brooke Bechen, Lani Hickey, and Tonya Wiley for assisting with sampling offish at shoreline spawning areas. Mark Buettner and Brian Peck ( U. S. Bureau of Reclamation) provided support during the early phases of our sampling as well as helpful comments on this report. We also appreciate the cooperation and support of Larry Dunsmoor ( Klamath Tribes) for identifying spawning areas, providing logistical support, and for the thoughtful review of this report. Cassandra Watson and Elizabeth Neuman produced finalized versions of tables and figures within this report and their efforts are greatly appreciated. This research was funded by the U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division through the Western Reservoirs Initiative. Introduction Severe water quality problems in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL) have led to critical fisheries concerns for the region. Historically, UKL was eutrophic but has become hypereutrophic ( Goldman and Home 1983) presumably due to land- use practices within the basin ( USFWS 1993). As a result, the algal community has shifted to a monoculture of the blue- green algae Aphanizomemon flos- aquae and massive blooms of this species have been directly related to poor water quality episodes in UKL. The growth and decomposition of dense algal blooms in the lake frequently cause extreme water quality conditions characterized by high pH ( 9- 10.5), widely variable dissolved oxygen ( anoxic to supersaturated), and high ammonia concentrations (> 0.5 mg/ 1 unionized). In addition to water quality problems associated with A. flos- aquae, it is believed the loss of marsh habitat near the lake, timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices within the basin has contributed to hypereutrophic conditions. It is likely that these disturbances have altered the UKL ecosystem substantially enough to contribute to the near monoculture of A. flos- aquae. Investigations in 1913 documented the algal community as a diverse mix of blue- green and diatom communities, however, by the 1950' s A. flos- aquae was dominant ( USFWS 1993). The Lost River sucker ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker ( Chasmistes brevirostris) are endemic to the Upper Klamath Basin of California and Oregon ( Moyle 1976). Declining population trends for both species were noted as early as the mid- 1960' s, however, the severities of the population declines were not evident until the mid- 1980' s. In 1988 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed both Lost River and shortnose suckers as endangered. Suspected reasons for their decline included damming of rivers, dredging and draining of marshes, water diversions, hybridization, competition and predation by exotic species, insularization of habitat, and water quality problems associated with timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices ( USFWS 1993). The U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division ( BRD) has been conducting field investigations on Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL since 1994. The majority of these sampling efforts have focused on catching fish in UKL and the Lower Williamson River. Sampling in the Lower Williamson River focused on developing indices of relative abundance of Lost River and shortnose suckers. In 1999, Oregon State University continued sampling in the Lower Williamson River fishing trammel nets from April to August at four standardized locations. In addition to sampling efforts in the Lower Williamson River, BRD crews conducted periodic sampling at several shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL. This sampling was beneficial because it provided information on species composition, size, and sex ratios of suckers utilizing these areas. However, temporal changes in abundance may have been missed because consistent sampling never occurred throughout the entire spawning season ( Perkins et al, In preparation). Recently, there has been increased concern on the effects of water level management in UKL on spawning suckers. Information is needed on the timing, relative abundance, and distribution of sucker spawning in UKL to make informed decisions with respect to management of lake elevation. In 1999, we conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs and Cinder Flats along the east shore of UKL. In addition, we sampled periodically at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point to determine if suckers were utilizing these areas for spawning. This report summarizes data collected in 1999 on shoreline spawning populations of Lost River and shortnose suckers with emphasis on timing, species composition, sex ratios, and relative abundance. Methods We conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at five locations along the east shore of UKL ( Figure 1). We began sampling at Cinder Flats, Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs in early April with Boulder Springs added to the list of sampling sites on 27 April. In addition to these sites, we periodically sampled at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). We attempted to sample each site twice per week although certain sites were only sampled once per week when catch rates of suckers were low ( i. e., less than 5 fish per evening). Trammel nets were fished for about 4 hours ( approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after dark) or until we captured 20 or more fish. Nets used at individual sites varied in length from 15- 30 m, were 1.8 m tall with two outer panels ( 30cm bar mesh), an inner panel ( 3.8 cm bar mesh), a foam core float line, and a lead core bottom line. Generally, we set 1- 2 nets starting at the shoreline and extending out to encompass the perimeter of the identified spawning area. Nets were checked at approximately 1 hour intervals and captured fish were cut from the inner mesh panel and placed in a mesh cage and processed within 2 hours. Suckers were identified by species and sex, measured to the nearest mm ( fork length), inspected for tags ( both PIT and Floy tags), and examined for physical afflictions ( e. g., presence oiLernaea spp. and lamprey scars). If a sucker did not have a PIT tag, one was inserted with a hypodermic needle along the ventral surface 1- 2 cm anterior of the pelvic girdle. The catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of adult Lost River suckers was calculated for individual sampling locations for each evening sampled. Because identified spawning areas varied in size we used different length trammel nets to encompass the spawning areas. We did not attempt to standardize CPUE based on length of trammel nets used at each location. Results We sampled shoreline spawning areas from 5 April - 17 June capturing a total of 808 Lost River suckers and 19 shortnose suckers from 5 sites ( Table 1). Lost River and shortnose suckers were captured at Sucker Springs, Silver Building Springs, Ouxy Springs, and Cinder Flats, while only Lost River suckers were captured at Boulder Springs. No suckers were captured at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%; Figure 2). Males dominated the catch at all sites and were generally smaller ( mean length = 538 mm) than females captured ( mean length = 596 mm). In particular, sex ratios ( males to females) were most skewed at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs ( Figure 3). Large females (> 650 mm) were captured at most sites, except Boulder Springs, and the size range offish captured over time remained similar with the exception that a fewer large individuals (> 600 mm) were captured in the late sampling period ( 1 May - 17 June) as compared to the early sampling period ( 6- 30 April; Figure 4; Appendix Figure A). The catch of shortnose suckers was limited at all sites sampled. Most ( 12 of 19) of the shortnose suckers were collected at Sucker Springs, with 1- 3 fish captured at Cinder Flats, Ouxy Springs, and Silver Building Springs ( Table 1). We identified 8 males and 8 females during the sampling period and were unable to determine sex for three individuals. The mean size of shortnose suckers was 360 mm ( range 289- 528 mm) similar to data reported by Perkins et al. ( In preparation) from Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs. We observed the highest CPUE of Lost River suckers at Cinder Flats ( mean CPUE= 12.7/ h) followed by Sucker Springs ( mean CPUE= 6.0/ h), Silver Building Springs ( mean CPUE = 2.8/ h), and Ouxy Springs ( mean CPUE= 2.4/ h) ( Figure 5). On three occasions at Cinder Flats, 20 or more suckers were captured within an hour or less resulting in the termination of sampling for the evening. CPUE was calculated for sampling dates at Boulder Springs ( mean CPUE= 1.4/ h), although comparisons with other sites is not applicable because this site was not initially included in systematic sampling efforts. We did not calculate CPUE for shortnose suckers. We captured a total of 32 Lost River and 2 shortnose suckers that were tagged during previous years sampling efforts. The majority ( 96%) of these fish was originally tagged at shoreline locations ( Table 2), which is consistent with historical recapture data ( Appendix Table A). Two Lost River suckers were originally tagged at Ball Point in UKL in July, after the spawning season. In addition, most Lost River suckers were recaptured before 1 May, including 15 fish that were collected at Sucker Springs during two sampling occasions in March ( Figure 6). We also recaptured a total of 21 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different areas than where they were tagged, indicating that some suckers are moving between spawning areas within the season ( Table 3). Discussion Our sampling indicated the spawning period for Lost River suckers lasted from mid- March through the beginning of June at shoreline spawning areas in 1999. The catch of Lost River suckers was dominated by males at all sites sampled, particularly at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported skewed sex ratios at shoreline spawning locations following the fish kills that occurred in UKL from 1995- 1997. However, the ratios we observed were considerably higher than those reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). At this time we are unable to determine the reason for the sex ratios observed. It is possible that males remain longer at the spawning areas than females making them more vulnerable to capture. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) observed spawning acts and reported that males remained near the actual site where spawning occurs while females move onto the spawning site only when ready to spawn. We captured 23 Lost River suckers twice in 1999 and all but one of these fish were males. However, it is difficult to determine if this percentage is due to males remaining at these sites longer than females or a reflection of the existing sex ratios. Another possible explanation could be the large numbers of males in the catch are from the 1991- 1993 year classes and females from these year classes have yet to be recruited into the adult population. The majority of males captured ( 81%) were between 475 - 574 mm. Age and growth information from Lost River suckers collected during the 1996- 1997 fish kills indicate these fish would be between 5- 9 years old ( USGS, BRD, 10 unpublished data). Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported that male Lost River suckers migrating up the Williamson River begin to be recruited into the adult population starting at age 4+, while females did not begin to mature until age 7+ . These data were based on examining length frequency distributions and noting when fish from the 1991 year class, which is presumed to be a strong year class, began showing up in trammel net catches. Fish from the 1991 year class would have been age 8+ in 1999. Buettner and Scoppetone ( 1990) examined opercles from Lost River suckers collected during the 1986 fish kill in UKL and reported that individuals matured between 6- 14 years of age with the peak being 9 years. It is possible that in the next few years more females from the 1991- 93 year classes will be recruited into the adult population spawning at shoreline areas. Our data provides additional evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers may exist based on fidelity to spawning area. Of the 32 suckers we recaptured from previous years sampling efforts, all but two were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. The two fish that were not originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations were captured at Ball Point in July and were not presumed to be spawning in this location. Perkins et al. ( In preparation) reported that of 316 Lost River and 11 shortnose suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas all were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. Continuation of systematic sampling at both shoreline spawning areas and the Williamson and Sprague rivers will continue to provide information on potential separation of spawning populations. The majority of recaptured fish were tagged during the first half of our sampling efforts including 13 fish that were recaptured on 25 March while sampling with Larry Dunsmoor of the Klamath Tribes. Historically, the majority of sampling effort at 11 shoreline spawning locations occurred prior to 1 May, which may explain why most recaptures were collected during the early part of our sampling period. In fiiture years, we plan to continue systematic sampling through June to determine if temporal aspects of spawning remain consistent between years. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, particularly near the end of our sampling period, although the decrease was not as dramatic as reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). It is possible that individual timing of Lost River sucker spawning is affected by size. Scoppettone et al., ( 1986) observed that smaller, younger cui- ui ( Chasmistes cujus) at Pyramid Lake spawned at the end of the spawning season. We believe further investigation is needed to determine if differences in spawning timing among individuals is due to size or related to stock differences. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured in 1999. Sampling continued well into June and was sufficient to detect spawning concentrations of shortnose suckers at these sites. Based on previous sampling conducted at shoreline spawning areas, there appears to be a decreasing trend in the number of shortnose suckers captured at these sites ( Perkins, et al., In preparation). Our sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL represents the first time these areas have been systematically sampled during the spawning season. Continuation of systematic sampling at these areas is important to provide information on species composition, timing and duration of spawning, fidelity to spawning areas, sex ratios, size distribution, and relative abundance. How these 12 population characteristics change over time will also provide important insights into the population stability of Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL. 13 Literature Cited Buettner, M. And G. Scoppettone. 1990. Life history status of catostomids in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. F. W. S. Completion Report. 108 pp. Goldman, C. R. and A. J. Home. 1983. Limnology. McGraw Hill, New York. Moyle, P. B. 1976. Inland fishes of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Perkins, D. L., G. G. Scoppettone, and M. Buettner. In preparation. Reproductive biology and demographics of endangered Lost River and shortnose suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Lost River ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) sucker recovery plan. Portland, Oregon. 108 pp. 14 Table 1. Summary of the shoreline locations sampled in Upper Klamath Lake and the number of Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured in 1999. Sampling Dates Sampled Number of days Number of LRS Number of SNS Location ( range) Sampled Captured Captured Barkley Springs 4/ 5- 4/ 27 4 0 0 11 21 0 19 284 2 4 0 0 20 129 3 19 100 2 Sucker Springs 4/ 5- 6/ 17 20 274 13 Total 808 20 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Modoc Point Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs 4/ 27- 4/ 6- 4/ 13- 4/ 6- 4/ 5- 6/ 17 6/ 17 4/ 21 6/ 17 6/ 17 15 Table 2. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured from previous years sampling efforts at shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Site Originally Captured Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Ball Point Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 1 0 0 4 2 7 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sucker Springs 0 0 1 2 19 0 22 16 Table 3. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline locations in Upper Klamath Lake originally tagged in 1999. Site Originally Captured in 1999 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 3 1 3 1 8 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 1 0 0 3 4 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 1 0 2 Sucker Springs 0 2 0 1 6 9 17 1. Sucker Springs 2. Silver Building Springs 3. Ouxy Springs 4. Cinder Flats 5. Boulder Springs Figure 1. Map of Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes showing major tributaries and shoreline spawning areas sampled in 1999. 18 o I 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 BOULDER SPRINGS 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish Jtt * * * * * * OUXY SPRINGS D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 CINDER FLATS D LRS Unknow n _ r i • LRS Male • i_ r\ o remaie ic No Fish EII1IJ n „ * * * * 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 > SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish D n n p » * * * * * SUCKER SPRINGS ALL AREAS COMBINED • LRS Unknown D LRS Male • LRS Female • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female / / / / / / Figure 2. Summary of the number and sex of Lost River Suckers ( LRS) captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 sampling. LRS unknown refers to captured individuals in which sex could not be determined. 19 70% -, 60% 50% 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% 0% CINDER FLATS _ o_ n= 283 9.1 : 1 8C O in io in om CD o i n 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - BOULDER SPRINGS y n 11 7 6 2 n= 21 9.5: 1 • g si n 8 CD omr o in oo § 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% OUXY SPRINGS om CN oi n co o ini o in in SUCKER SPRINGS 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - n= 129 4.1 : 0 • _ o in CD omh omoo n= 273 3.5: 1 U • - - sC O oi n oi nm om o i n 00 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% - 10% 0% SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS 70% 60% - 50% - 40% 30% 20% 10% - 0% 8 CM ALL SITES 8 CO JL 8 8 i n n= 99 8.1 : 1 • H „ - in in in CD h- 00 n= 805 5.3: 1 _ D • Male • Female 8 C N O O O O O O O O O O O i n o m oin i nin oCDi nCDo i n o i nco Fork length Figure 3. Length frequency histogram of male and female Lost River suckers ( LRS) captured at shore-line spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. The total number of LRS captured in 1999 and ratio of males to females are presented in the upper right hand corner of each graph. 20 E QJ D 160 i 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 A) 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 3/ 18/ 99- 4/ 30/ 99) DMale • Female • male = 457 xM = 541.4 i siaev - jo. y female = 60 xF = 611.9 stdev = 77.2 (—| Qy O ^ D 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 # 4? B) o - I— # $ # C) # # $ # 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 5/ 1/ 99 - 6/ 8/ 99) DMale • Female male = 219 xM = 531.4 5> lUeV — H 1 , , — i remaie = bB xF = 582 8 stdev = 68.1 • y . _ _ # ^ # # # # # # # ^ 1999 SN Length Frequency ( 4/ 30/ 99 - 5/ 30/ 99) 1 U 14 - 12 - 10 s p. A 2 0 - , Dmale • female y y • l i y n male = 8 xM = 363 stdev - 29.7 fpryiolp — ft xF = 357.1 stdev = 35.5 Forklength ( mm) Figure 4. Length frequency for Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Graphs represent A) LRS caught from March 19- April 30, 1999, B) LRS caught from May 1- June 8, 1999, and C) SNS caught from April 30- May 30, 1999 ( all SNS sampling days were combined due to limited SNS numbers). Four LRS with unknown gender were not included in the graph, two were caught before May 1st, and two after May 1st. Three SNS with unknown gender were not included in the graph. 21 BOULDER SPRINGS 20 i 18 16 - I 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CM O) $ § I co o L? 5 LO O) O) O) g> g> g> o r^ •<*• n ^ CN CD CD CD 45 40 - 35 30 25 20 15 10 - 5 0 CINDER FLATS 0 ) 0 ) OO - f - r in in 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C D C D C D 1 sw 20 18 16- 14- 12 - 10 8 6 4 OUXYSPRNGS Jl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) OO 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C N I O C D O) O) O) O) Q < o z: ? z in CD CD 20- 18 - 16 14 - 12 - 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 - 0 - SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS ii , II p l, « u u •———,—— O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CN O) T- CM CM O) O) O) O) O) O) CO O h » - in O) O) O) ill CD CD CD SUCKER SPRINGS ALL SITES Figure 5. Summary of catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of Lost River suckers at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Note change in scale for the Cinder Flats and the All Sites graphs. 22 BOULDER SPRINGS 14 12 10 8 -| 6 4 2 0 n= 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O) CD CO O T - C\| ^ ^ T- CNJ CO CO CO ^" ^" ^" OUXY SPRINGS 1 C D n= 2 14 1 8 4 2^ 0 oo S ^ ^ SUCKER SPRINGS ^ £ j CNJ in in to n= 22 - U-CD CO O j - CM CO 1 C D 14 12 -\ 10 8 -] 6 4 2 - 0 CINDER FLATS n= 7 LJl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) T^ Cr^ N ^? ^ T- 14 12 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 0 SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS Tt x- 00 - CN CN in in in n= 1 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O> CD CO ^ CJ ^ ^ ^ CN co co ^ j- "< t ALL SITES O) O) O) O) O) O) in in in n= 32 I 0 0) in in in Figure 6. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas, Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Recaptured fish were originally tagged betweeen 1988- 1998. 23 Appendix Table A. Summary of recapture data for Lost River Suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Upper Lake Middle Lake Total Cinder Flats 1 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 7 Ouxy Springs 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 7 Sucker Springs 0 0 6 288 4 0 0 0 298 Williamson River 0 0 0 1 6 3 0 0 10 Sprague River 0 0 0 0 1 13 1 0 15 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 Total 1 1 9 300 12 16 3 0 342 Appendix Table B. Summary of recapture data for shortnose suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Lower Lake Middle Lake Total Ouxy Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sucker Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Williamson River 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 Sprague River 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 5 Lower Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 0 1 2 0 5 8 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reeder Road Bridge 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Total 2 0 0 7 5 0 6 20 25 5 2iu5 Appendix Figure A. Summary of the size range of Lost River suckers captured at shoreline sampling areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999, by date sampled. Title: Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose suckers and shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Author: Shively, Rip S.; Bautista, Mark F.; Kohler, Andre E. Year: 1999, 2005 Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose Suckers at Shoreline Spawning Areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Prepared by: Rip S. Shively1 Mark F. Bautista2 Andre E. Kohler2 1 U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division Klamath Falls Duty Station 6937 Washburn Way Klamath Falls, OR 97603 2 Johnson Controls World Services Inc. NERC Operation Post Office Box 270308 Fort Collins, CO 80527 Executive Summary In 1999, we sampled Lost River { Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) suckers from 5 April to 17 June at five shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). Trammel nets were set to encompass identified spawning areas and were fished approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after sunset or until 20 or more fish were captured. A total of 808 Lost River and 19 shortnose suckers were captured from Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs, and Cinder Flats. The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%), followed by Ouxy Springs ( 16%), Silver Building Springs ( 12%), and Boulder Springs ( 3%). Males dominated the catch at all sites, but the sex ratios at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs were particularly skewed towards males. We recaptured 32 Lost River suckers that had been tagged during previous years sampling efforts. All of these fish, with the exception of two fish tagged at Ball Point in July, were originally tagged during the spawning season at shoreline spawning areas in UKL. This information provides further evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers exist based on spawning location ( i. e., UKL and Williamson River). We also recaptured 23 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different locations than tagged indicating these fish were moving between spawning areas. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, although the decrease in size was not as dramatic as reported in previous years. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured at shoreline spawning areas in 1999, with a majority sampled after 1 May. Previous data for shortnose suckers at these sites is limited with respect to size, timing of spawning, sex composition, and relative numbers. Continuation of systematic sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas will provide valuable information on the demographics and life history of Lost River and shortnose suckers utilizing these areas. Acknowledgements We thank Anita Baker, Brooke Bechen, Lani Hickey, and Tonya Wiley for assisting with sampling offish at shoreline spawning areas. Mark Buettner and Brian Peck ( U. S. Bureau of Reclamation) provided support during the early phases of our sampling as well as helpful comments on this report. We also appreciate the cooperation and support of Larry Dunsmoor ( Klamath Tribes) for identifying spawning areas, providing logistical support, and for the thoughtful review of this report. Cassandra Watson and Elizabeth Neuman produced finalized versions of tables and figures within this report and their efforts are greatly appreciated. This research was funded by the U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division through the Western Reservoirs Initiative. Introduction Severe water quality problems in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL) have led to critical fisheries concerns for the region. Historically, UKL was eutrophic but has become hypereutrophic ( Goldman and Home 1983) presumably due to land- use practices within the basin ( USFWS 1993). As a result, the algal community has shifted to a monoculture of the blue- green algae Aphanizomemon flos- aquae and massive blooms of this species have been directly related to poor water quality episodes in UKL. The growth and decomposition of dense algal blooms in the lake frequently cause extreme water quality conditions characterized by high pH ( 9- 10.5), widely variable dissolved oxygen ( anoxic to supersaturated), and high ammonia concentrations (> 0.5 mg/ 1 unionized). In addition to water quality problems associated with A. flos- aquae, it is believed the loss of marsh habitat near the lake, timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices within the basin has contributed to hypereutrophic conditions. It is likely that these disturbances have altered the UKL ecosystem substantially enough to contribute to the near monoculture of A. flos- aquae. Investigations in 1913 documented the algal community as a diverse mix of blue- green and diatom communities, however, by the 1950' s A. flos- aquae was dominant ( USFWS 1993). The Lost River sucker ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker ( Chasmistes brevirostris) are endemic to the Upper Klamath Basin of California and Oregon ( Moyle 1976). Declining population trends for both species were noted as early as the mid- 1960' s, however, the severities of the population declines were not evident until the mid- 1980' s. In 1988 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed both Lost River and shortnose suckers as endangered. Suspected reasons for their decline included damming of rivers, dredging and draining of marshes, water diversions, hybridization, competition and predation by exotic species, insularization of habitat, and water quality problems associated with timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices ( USFWS 1993). The U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division ( BRD) has been conducting field investigations on Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL since 1994. The majority of these sampling efforts have focused on catching fish in UKL and the Lower Williamson River. Sampling in the Lower Williamson River focused on developing indices of relative abundance of Lost River and shortnose suckers. In 1999, Oregon State University continued sampling in the Lower Williamson River fishing trammel nets from April to August at four standardized locations. In addition to sampling efforts in the Lower Williamson River, BRD crews conducted periodic sampling at several shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL. This sampling was beneficial because it provided information on species composition, size, and sex ratios of suckers utilizing these areas. However, temporal changes in abundance may have been missed because consistent sampling never occurred throughout the entire spawning season ( Perkins et al, In preparation). Recently, there has been increased concern on the effects of water level management in UKL on spawning suckers. Information is needed on the timing, relative abundance, and distribution of sucker spawning in UKL to make informed decisions with respect to management of lake elevation. In 1999, we conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs and Cinder Flats along the east shore of UKL. In addition, we sampled periodically at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point to determine if suckers were utilizing these areas for spawning. This report summarizes data collected in 1999 on shoreline spawning populations of Lost River and shortnose suckers with emphasis on timing, species composition, sex ratios, and relative abundance. Methods We conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at five locations along the east shore of UKL ( Figure 1). We began sampling at Cinder Flats, Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs in early April with Boulder Springs added to the list of sampling sites on 27 April. In addition to these sites, we periodically sampled at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). We attempted to sample each site twice per week although certain sites were only sampled once per week when catch rates of suckers were low ( i. e., less than 5 fish per evening). Trammel nets were fished for about 4 hours ( approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after dark) or until we captured 20 or more fish. Nets used at individual sites varied in length from 15- 30 m, were 1.8 m tall with two outer panels ( 30cm bar mesh), an inner panel ( 3.8 cm bar mesh), a foam core float line, and a lead core bottom line. Generally, we set 1- 2 nets starting at the shoreline and extending out to encompass the perimeter of the identified spawning area. Nets were checked at approximately 1 hour intervals and captured fish were cut from the inner mesh panel and placed in a mesh cage and processed within 2 hours. Suckers were identified by species and sex, measured to the nearest mm ( fork length), inspected for tags ( both PIT and Floy tags), and examined for physical afflictions ( e. g., presence oiLernaea spp. and lamprey scars). If a sucker did not have a PIT tag, one was inserted with a hypodermic needle along the ventral surface 1- 2 cm anterior of the pelvic girdle. The catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of adult Lost River suckers was calculated for individual sampling locations for each evening sampled. Because identified spawning areas varied in size we used different length trammel nets to encompass the spawning areas. We did not attempt to standardize CPUE based on length of trammel nets used at each location. Results We sampled shoreline spawning areas from 5 April - 17 June capturing a total of 808 Lost River suckers and 19 shortnose suckers from 5 sites ( Table 1). Lost River and shortnose suckers were captured at Sucker Springs, Silver Building Springs, Ouxy Springs, and Cinder Flats, while only Lost River suckers were captured at Boulder Springs. No suckers were captured at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%; Figure 2). Males dominated the catch at all sites and were generally smaller ( mean length = 538 mm) than females captured ( mean length = 596 mm). In particular, sex ratios ( males to females) were most skewed at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs ( Figure 3). Large females (> 650 mm) were captured at most sites, except Boulder Springs, and the size range offish captured over time remained similar with the exception that a fewer large individuals (> 600 mm) were captured in the late sampling period ( 1 May - 17 June) as compared to the early sampling period ( 6- 30 April; Figure 4; Appendix Figure A). The catch of shortnose suckers was limited at all sites sampled. Most ( 12 of 19) of the shortnose suckers were collected at Sucker Springs, with 1- 3 fish captured at Cinder Flats, Ouxy Springs, and Silver Building Springs ( Table 1). We identified 8 males and 8 females during the sampling period and were unable to determine sex for three individuals. The mean size of shortnose suckers was 360 mm ( range 289- 528 mm) similar to data reported by Perkins et al. ( In preparation) from Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs. We observed the highest CPUE of Lost River suckers at Cinder Flats ( mean CPUE= 12.7/ h) followed by Sucker Springs ( mean CPUE= 6.0/ h), Silver Building Springs ( mean CPUE = 2.8/ h), and Ouxy Springs ( mean CPUE= 2.4/ h) ( Figure 5). On three occasions at Cinder Flats, 20 or more suckers were captured within an hour or less resulting in the termination of sampling for the evening. CPUE was calculated for sampling dates at Boulder Springs ( mean CPUE= 1.4/ h), although comparisons with other sites is not applicable because this site was not initially included in systematic sampling efforts. We did not calculate CPUE for shortnose suckers. We captured a total of 32 Lost River and 2 shortnose suckers that were tagged during previous years sampling efforts. The majority ( 96%) of these fish was originally tagged at shoreline locations ( Table 2), which is consistent with historical recapture data ( Appendix Table A). Two Lost River suckers were originally tagged at Ball Point in UKL in July, after the spawning season. In addition, most Lost River suckers were recaptured before 1 May, including 15 fish that were collected at Sucker Springs during two sampling occasions in March ( Figure 6). We also recaptured a total of 21 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different areas than where they were tagged, indicating that some suckers are moving between spawning areas within the season ( Table 3). Discussion Our sampling indicated the spawning period for Lost River suckers lasted from mid- March through the beginning of June at shoreline spawning areas in 1999. The catch of Lost River suckers was dominated by males at all sites sampled, particularly at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported skewed sex ratios at shoreline spawning locations following the fish kills that occurred in UKL from 1995- 1997. However, the ratios we observed were considerably higher than those reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). At this time we are unable to determine the reason for the sex ratios observed. It is possible that males remain longer at the spawning areas than females making them more vulnerable to capture. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) observed spawning acts and reported that males remained near the actual site where spawning occurs while females move onto the spawning site only when ready to spawn. We captured 23 Lost River suckers twice in 1999 and all but one of these fish were males. However, it is difficult to determine if this percentage is due to males remaining at these sites longer than females or a reflection of the existing sex ratios. Another possible explanation could be the large numbers of males in the catch are from the 1991- 1993 year classes and females from these year classes have yet to be recruited into the adult population. The majority of males captured ( 81%) were between 475 - 574 mm. Age and growth information from Lost River suckers collected during the 1996- 1997 fish kills indicate these fish would be between 5- 9 years old ( USGS, BRD, 10 unpublished data). Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported that male Lost River suckers migrating up the Williamson River begin to be recruited into the adult population starting at age 4+, while females did not begin to mature until age 7+ . These data were based on examining length frequency distributions and noting when fish from the 1991 year class, which is presumed to be a strong year class, began showing up in trammel net catches. Fish from the 1991 year class would have been age 8+ in 1999. Buettner and Scoppetone ( 1990) examined opercles from Lost River suckers collected during the 1986 fish kill in UKL and reported that individuals matured between 6- 14 years of age with the peak being 9 years. It is possible that in the next few years more females from the 1991- 93 year classes will be recruited into the adult population spawning at shoreline areas. Our data provides additional evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers may exist based on fidelity to spawning area. Of the 32 suckers we recaptured from previous years sampling efforts, all but two were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. The two fish that were not originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations were captured at Ball Point in July and were not presumed to be spawning in this location. Perkins et al. ( In preparation) reported that of 316 Lost River and 11 shortnose suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas all were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. Continuation of systematic sampling at both shoreline spawning areas and the Williamson and Sprague rivers will continue to provide information on potential separation of spawning populations. The majority of recaptured fish were tagged during the first half of our sampling efforts including 13 fish that were recaptured on 25 March while sampling with Larry Dunsmoor of the Klamath Tribes. Historically, the majority of sampling effort at 11 shoreline spawning locations occurred prior to 1 May, which may explain why most recaptures were collected during the early part of our sampling period. In fiiture years, we plan to continue systematic sampling through June to determine if temporal aspects of spawning remain consistent between years. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, particularly near the end of our sampling period, although the decrease was not as dramatic as reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). It is possible that individual timing of Lost River sucker spawning is affected by size. Scoppettone et al., ( 1986) observed that smaller, younger cui- ui ( Chasmistes cujus) at Pyramid Lake spawned at the end of the spawning season. We believe further investigation is needed to determine if differences in spawning timing among individuals is due to size or related to stock differences. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured in 1999. Sampling continued well into June and was sufficient to detect spawning concentrations of shortnose suckers at these sites. Based on previous sampling conducted at shoreline spawning areas, there appears to be a decreasing trend in the number of shortnose suckers captured at these sites ( Perkins, et al., In preparation). Our sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL represents the first time these areas have been systematically sampled during the spawning season. Continuation of systematic sampling at these areas is important to provide information on species composition, timing and duration of spawning, fidelity to spawning areas, sex ratios, size distribution, and relative abundance. How these 12 population characteristics change over time will also provide important insights into the population stability of Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL. 13 Literature Cited Buettner, M. And G. Scoppettone. 1990. Life history status of catostomids in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. F. W. S. Completion Report. 108 pp. Goldman, C. R. and A. J. Home. 1983. Limnology. McGraw Hill, New York. Moyle, P. B. 1976. Inland fishes of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Perkins, D. L., G. G. Scoppettone, and M. Buettner. In preparation. Reproductive biology and demographics of endangered Lost River and shortnose suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Lost River ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) sucker recovery plan. Portland, Oregon. 108 pp. 14 Table 1. Summary of the shoreline locations sampled in Upper Klamath Lake and the number of Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured in 1999. Sampling Dates Sampled Number of days Number of LRS Number of SNS Location ( range) Sampled Captured Captured Barkley Springs 4/ 5- 4/ 27 4 0 0 11 21 0 19 284 2 4 0 0 20 129 3 19 100 2 Sucker Springs 4/ 5- 6/ 17 20 274 13 Total 808 20 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Modoc Point Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs 4/ 27- 4/ 6- 4/ 13- 4/ 6- 4/ 5- 6/ 17 6/ 17 4/ 21 6/ 17 6/ 17 15 Table 2. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured from previous years sampling efforts at shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Site Originally Captured Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Ball Point Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 1 0 0 4 2 7 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sucker Springs 0 0 1 2 19 0 22 16 Table 3. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline locations in Upper Klamath Lake originally tagged in 1999. Site Originally Captured in 1999 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 3 1 3 1 8 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 1 0 0 3 4 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 1 0 2 Sucker Springs 0 2 0 1 6 9 17 1. Sucker Springs 2. Silver Building Springs 3. Ouxy Springs 4. Cinder Flats 5. Boulder Springs Figure 1. Map of Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes showing major tributaries and shoreline spawning areas sampled in 1999. 18 o I 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 BOULDER SPRINGS 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish Jtt * * * * * * OUXY SPRINGS D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 CINDER FLATS D LRS Unknow n _ r i • LRS Male • i_ r\ o remaie ic No Fish EII1IJ n „ * * * * 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 > SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish D n n p » * * * * * SUCKER SPRINGS ALL AREAS COMBINED • LRS Unknown D LRS Male • LRS Female • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female / / / / / / Figure 2. Summary of the number and sex of Lost River Suckers ( LRS) captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 sampling. LRS unknown refers to captured individuals in which sex could not be determined. 19 70% -, 60% 50% 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% 0% CINDER FLATS _ o_ n= 283 9.1 : 1 8C O in io in om CD o i n 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - BOULDER SPRINGS y n 11 7 6 2 n= 21 9.5: 1 • g si n 8 CD omr o in oo § 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% OUXY SPRINGS om CN oi n co o ini o in in SUCKER SPRINGS 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - n= 129 4.1 : 0 • _ o in CD omh omoo n= 273 3.5: 1 U • - - sC O oi n oi nm om o i n 00 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% - 10% 0% SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS 70% 60% - 50% - 40% 30% 20% 10% - 0% 8 CM ALL SITES 8 CO JL 8 8 i n n= 99 8.1 : 1 • H „ - in in in CD h- 00 n= 805 5.3: 1 _ D • Male • Female 8 C N O O O O O O O O O O O i n o m oin i nin oCDi nCDo i n o i nco Fork length Figure 3. Length frequency histogram of male and female Lost River suckers ( LRS) captured at shore-line spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. The total number of LRS captured in 1999 and ratio of males to females are presented in the upper right hand corner of each graph. 20 E QJ D 160 i 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 A) 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 3/ 18/ 99- 4/ 30/ 99) DMale • Female • male = 457 xM = 541.4 i siaev - jo. y female = 60 xF = 611.9 stdev = 77.2 (—| Qy O ^ D 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 # 4? B) o - I— # $ # C) # # $ # 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 5/ 1/ 99 - 6/ 8/ 99) DMale • Female male = 219 xM = 531.4 5> lUeV — H 1 , , — i remaie = bB xF = 582 8 stdev = 68.1 • y . _ _ # ^ # # # # # # # ^ 1999 SN Length Frequency ( 4/ 30/ 99 - 5/ 30/ 99) 1 U 14 - 12 - 10 s p. A 2 0 - , Dmale • female y y • l i y n male = 8 xM = 363 stdev - 29.7 fpryiolp — ft xF = 357.1 stdev = 35.5 Forklength ( mm) Figure 4. Length frequency for Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Graphs represent A) LRS caught from March 19- April 30, 1999, B) LRS caught from May 1- June 8, 1999, and C) SNS caught from April 30- May 30, 1999 ( all SNS sampling days were combined due to limited SNS numbers). Four LRS with unknown gender were not included in the graph, two were caught before May 1st, and two after May 1st. Three SNS with unknown gender were not included in the graph. 21 BOULDER SPRINGS 20 i 18 16 - I 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CM O) $ § I co o L? 5 LO O) O) O) g> g> g> o r^ •<*• n ^ CN CD CD CD 45 40 - 35 30 25 20 15 10 - 5 0 CINDER FLATS 0 ) 0 ) OO - f - r in in 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C D C D C D 1 sw 20 18 16- 14- 12 - 10 8 6 4 OUXYSPRNGS Jl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) OO 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C N I O C D O) O) O) O) Q < o z: ? z in CD CD 20- 18 - 16 14 - 12 - 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 - 0 - SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS ii , II p l, « u u •———,—— O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CN O) T- CM CM O) O) O) O) O) O) CO O h » - in O) O) O) ill CD CD CD SUCKER SPRINGS ALL SITES Figure 5. Summary of catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of Lost River suckers at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Note change in scale for the Cinder Flats and the All Sites graphs. 22 BOULDER SPRINGS 14 12 10 8 -| 6 4 2 0 n= 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O) CD CO O T - C\| ^ ^ T- CNJ CO CO CO ^" ^" ^" OUXY SPRINGS 1 C D n= 2 14 1 8 4 2^ 0 oo S ^ ^ SUCKER SPRINGS ^ £ j CNJ in in to n= 22 - U-CD CO O j - CM CO 1 C D 14 12 -\ 10 8 -] 6 4 2 - 0 CINDER FLATS n= 7 LJl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) T^ Cr^ N ^? ^ T- 14 12 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 0 SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS Tt x- 00 - CN CN in in in n= 1 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O> CD CO ^ CJ ^ ^ ^ CN co co ^ j- "< t ALL SITES O) O) O) O) O) O) in in in n= 32 I 0 0) in in in Figure 6. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas, Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Recaptured fish were originally tagged betweeen 1988- 1998. 23 Appendix Table A. Summary of recapture data for Lost River Suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Upper Lake Middle Lake Total Cinder Flats 1 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 7 Ouxy Springs 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 7 Sucker Springs 0 0 6 288 4 0 0 0 298 Williamson River 0 0 0 1 6 3 0 0 10 Sprague River 0 0 0 0 1 13 1 0 15 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 Total 1 1 9 300 12 16 3 0 342 Appendix Table B. Summary of recapture data for shortnose suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Lower Lake Middle Lake Total Ouxy Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sucker Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Williamson River 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 Sprague River 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 5 Lower Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 0 1 2 0 5 8 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reeder Road Bridge 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Total 2 0 0 7 5 0 6 20 25 5 2iu5 Appendix Figure A. Summary of the size range of Lost River suckers captured at shoreline sampling areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999, by date sampled. Close

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  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Close

• 684. [Image] EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Klamath Consulting Service, Inc Year: 1983, 2006, 2005 SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed. Title: EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Klamath Consulting Service, Inc Year: 1983, 2006, 2005 SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed. Close

• 685. [Image] Effects of water quality on growth of juvenile shortnose suckers, Chasmistes brevirostris (Catostomidae: Cypriniformes), from Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	One chapter of a seven chapter annual report from 1999 examining ecological issues regarding the shortnose and Lost River sucker populations in Upper Klamath Lake and Williamson River.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of water quality on growth of juvenile shortnose suckers, Chasmistes brevirostris (Catostomidae: Cypriniformes), from Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Year: 2000, 2005 One chapter of a seven chapter annual report from 1999 examining ecological issues regarding the shortnose and Lost River sucker populations in Upper Klamath Lake and Williamson River. Title: Effects of water quality on growth of juvenile shortnose suckers, Chasmistes brevirostris (Catostomidae: Cypriniformes), from Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Oregon Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Year: 2000, 2005 One chapter of a seven chapter annual report from 1999 examining ecological issues regarding the shortnose and Lost River sucker populations in Upper Klamath Lake and Williamson River. Close

• 686. [Image] Evaluation of instream fish habitat restoration structures in Klamath River tributaries, 1988/1989

  	Annual Report For Interagency Agreement 14-16-0001-89508 EVALUATION OF INSTREAM FISH HABITAT RESTORATION STRUCTURES IN KLAMATH RIVER TRIBUTARIES 1988/1989 by A.D.Olson and J.R. West USDA-Forest Service, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluation of instream fish habitat restoration structures in Klamath River tributaries, 1988/1989 Author: Olson, A. D. Year: 1989, 2008, 2006 Annual Report For Interagency Agreement 14-16-0001-89508 EVALUATION OF INSTREAM FISH HABITAT RESTORATION STRUCTURES IN KLAMATH RIVER TRIBUTARIES 1988/1989 by A.D.Olson and J.R. West USDA-Forest Service, Klamath National Forest 1312 Fairlane Road, Yreka, CA 96097 ABSTRACT Ten instream fish habitat techniques were evaluated to determine which most effectively restored salmonid spawning and/or rearing conditions. Structure stability was estimated based on how intact each structure remained (by percent) and its age, we then projected useful life for each structure type. Cost in 1989 dollars was used to determine cost per unit habitat area provided. Observed use by spawners was used to estimate total number of redds per structure (over its life). Cost of providing spawning habitat (cost per redd) was calculated by dividing estimated total redds by structure cost. Habitats resulting from instream structures were classified using the modified Bisson method and we determined the influence zone of each structure using physical variables to define habitat area. Structures were biologically sampled using direct underwater observation techniques described by Hankin and Reeves1 (1989). Two person dive teams used a "two-pass" method to enumerate and classify salmonids by species and age-class (0+, 1+ or older juveniles, and adults), noting the presence of other species. Fish use of structure affected habitat (post-modification) was compared to use of habitats like those present prior to structure placement (pre-modification). Comparison of "pre-modification" and "post-modification" fish standing crops resulted in a "net fish difference" which was divided by structure cost, yielding "cost per fish reared11. Boulder weirs, the most expensive structures investigated, did not affect enough surface area to make cost per unit of affected habitat reasonable. Cabled cover logs and digger logs (lowest cost structures) were very cost effective at altering physical habitat condition. We believe cost of physically modifying habitat area is only one factor that is important enough to effect success or failure of a large scale habitat restoration program. Assuming all other factors are of equal weight, lowest cost structures can provide the "best value". Modification prescribed to restore stable spawning habitat needs close scrutiny. We believe it is essential to know how the existing habitat is used by spawners by conducting spawning area use surveys which identify redd location and quantify habitat available during each spawning period. Boulder deflectors were best utilized by Chinook salmon spawners, however chinook spawner use of "traditional" structures (weirs backfilled with gravel) was disappointing. Backfilling of instream structures with suitable gravel is a practice that should be discontinued. Steelhead spawner use of structures which result in "pocket water" type spawning areas were heavily used. This habitat configuration proved most desirable when woody object cover was readily available to the spawners. The highest steelhead spawner use was associated with boulder groups with wood and boulder/rootwad groups. We found rearing structures which provided high habitat and cover diversity received the best response from juvenile fish. We observed fish use over one summer and saw dramatic unpredictable use changes even through this short time period. Fish rearing needs during other seasons may differ substantially from summer needs, therefore, suitability of modified habitat probably also changes. Digger logs, one of the least costly and simplest structures, provided the best increase in fish standing crop (fish/m2) for the lowest cost. We believe digger logs were well used by rearing fish because they are one of the most natural restoration structures investigated. Other structures which were well used (small weirs, deflectors, and boulder groups with attached wood) also seem to closely duplicate naturally productive habitats. Higher velocity habitat types associated with boulder groups with wood, boulder rootwad groups, and boulder deflectors were selected by juvenile steelhead and chinook salmon. Providing overhead cover, especially if it extends into the water where it may also be used as object cover, seemed most valuable for juvenile steelhead and salmon if it was placed in a habitat type which would normally receive high fish use. Placement of object cover in slow velocity areas (pool and glide edges) had questionable value for summer rearing habitat restoration, however we do not know what value these structures may have during colder water high flow periods when fish seek slow velocity, densely-covered habitats. We defined the most cost effective method as one meeting restoration objectives, providing the greatest increase in fish use (per surface area or volume), over the longest time period, for the lowest cost. We rank structures evaluated in this study (from most cost-effective to least cost effective) as follows: Digger Logs, Boulder deflectors, Small Boulder Weirs, Boulder Groups with Woody Cover, Free Boulder Weirs, Large Boulder Weirs, Boulder Groups, Boulder/Rootwad Groups, Boulder/Rootwad Deflectors, Small Boulder Weirs, and Cabled Cover Logs. Title: Evaluation of instream fish habitat restoration structures in Klamath River tributaries, 1988/1989 Author: Olson, A. D. Year: 1989, 2008, 2006 Annual Report For Interagency Agreement 14-16-0001-89508 EVALUATION OF INSTREAM FISH HABITAT RESTORATION STRUCTURES IN KLAMATH RIVER TRIBUTARIES 1988/1989 by A.D.Olson and J.R. West USDA-Forest Service, Klamath National Forest 1312 Fairlane Road, Yreka, CA 96097 ABSTRACT Ten instream fish habitat techniques were evaluated to determine which most effectively restored salmonid spawning and/or rearing conditions. Structure stability was estimated based on how intact each structure remained (by percent) and its age, we then projected useful life for each structure type. Cost in 1989 dollars was used to determine cost per unit habitat area provided. Observed use by spawners was used to estimate total number of redds per structure (over its life). Cost of providing spawning habitat (cost per redd) was calculated by dividing estimated total redds by structure cost. Habitats resulting from instream structures were classified using the modified Bisson method and we determined the influence zone of each structure using physical variables to define habitat area. Structures were biologically sampled using direct underwater observation techniques described by Hankin and Reeves1 (1989). Two person dive teams used a "two-pass" method to enumerate and classify salmonids by species and age-class (0+, 1+ or older juveniles, and adults), noting the presence of other species. Fish use of structure affected habitat (post-modification) was compared to use of habitats like those present prior to structure placement (pre-modification). Comparison of "pre-modification" and "post-modification" fish standing crops resulted in a "net fish difference" which was divided by structure cost, yielding "cost per fish reared11. Boulder weirs, the most expensive structures investigated, did not affect enough surface area to make cost per unit of affected habitat reasonable. Cabled cover logs and digger logs (lowest cost structures) were very cost effective at altering physical habitat condition. We believe cost of physically modifying habitat area is only one factor that is important enough to effect success or failure of a large scale habitat restoration program. Assuming all other factors are of equal weight, lowest cost structures can provide the "best value". Modification prescribed to restore stable spawning habitat needs close scrutiny. We believe it is essential to know how the existing habitat is used by spawners by conducting spawning area use surveys which identify redd location and quantify habitat available during each spawning period. Boulder deflectors were best utilized by Chinook salmon spawners, however chinook spawner use of "traditional" structures (weirs backfilled with gravel) was disappointing. Backfilling of instream structures with suitable gravel is a practice that should be discontinued. Steelhead spawner use of structures which result in "pocket water" type spawning areas were heavily used. This habitat configuration proved most desirable when woody object cover was readily available to the spawners. The highest steelhead spawner use was associated with boulder groups with wood and boulder/rootwad groups. We found rearing structures which provided high habitat and cover diversity received the best response from juvenile fish. We observed fish use over one summer and saw dramatic unpredictable use changes even through this short time period. Fish rearing needs during other seasons may differ substantially from summer needs, therefore, suitability of modified habitat probably also changes. Digger logs, one of the least costly and simplest structures, provided the best increase in fish standing crop (fish/m2) for the lowest cost. We believe digger logs were well used by rearing fish because they are one of the most natural restoration structures investigated. Other structures which were well used (small weirs, deflectors, and boulder groups with attached wood) also seem to closely duplicate naturally productive habitats. Higher velocity habitat types associated with boulder groups with wood, boulder rootwad groups, and boulder deflectors were selected by juvenile steelhead and chinook salmon. Providing overhead cover, especially if it extends into the water where it may also be used as object cover, seemed most valuable for juvenile steelhead and salmon if it was placed in a habitat type which would normally receive high fish use. Placement of object cover in slow velocity areas (pool and glide edges) had questionable value for summer rearing habitat restoration, however we do not know what value these structures may have during colder water high flow periods when fish seek slow velocity, densely-covered habitats. We defined the most cost effective method as one meeting restoration objectives, providing the greatest increase in fish use (per surface area or volume), over the longest time period, for the lowest cost. We rank structures evaluated in this study (from most cost-effective to least cost effective) as follows: Digger Logs, Boulder deflectors, Small Boulder Weirs, Boulder Groups with Woody Cover, Free Boulder Weirs, Large Boulder Weirs, Boulder Groups, Boulder/Rootwad Groups, Boulder/Rootwad Deflectors, Small Boulder Weirs, and Cabled Cover Logs. Close

• 687. [Image] Second annual report on the limnology and water quality monitoring program at Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: final

  	1982-2002; ill.; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Second annual report on the limnology and water quality monitoring program at Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: final Author: United States. Army. Corps of Engineers; in collaboration with National Park Service and Crater Lake National Park Year: 1983, 2008, 2009 1982-2002; ill.; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering Title: Second annual report on the limnology and water quality monitoring program at Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: final Author: United States. Army. Corps of Engineers; in collaboration with National Park Service and Crater Lake National Park Year: 1983, 2008, 2009 1982-2002; ill.; Includes bibliographic references; Issues lack volume numbering Close

• 688. [Article] Conserving energy by safe and environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1985

  This fifth annual Cooperative Pole Research Program report outlines our progress in the six project objectives. Improved Fumigants Sampling of previously established field tests revealed that Vorlex and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by safe and environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1985 Author: Oregon State University, Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products This fifth annual Cooperative Pole Research Program report outlines our progress in the six project objectives. Improved Fumigants Sampling of previously established field tests revealed that Vorlex and Chloropicrin continued to perform well after 15 years, while Vapam was slightly less effective. Solid methylisothiocyanate (MIT) also performed well in the field after 7 years. In additional tests, gelatin encapsulated MIT migrated through Douglas-fir heartwood with addition of moderate quantities of water to degrade the gelatin. However, in the presence of higher quantities of water or no additional water, MIT migration into the wood was slowed. In a previously established test, gelatin encapsulated MIT continues to inhibit reinfestation of poles 3 years after treatment. Pelletized MIT is a new formulation (65% active ingredient) that appears to have some promise. Preliminary tests indicate that up to 95% of the MIT is release in 24 hours, but a small quantity of MIT remains in the pellets after 63 days aeration and may pose a disposal hazard. The solid MIT formulations will permit aboveground applications, increasing the risk that MIT will come in contact with pole hardware. Preliminary tests indicate that MIT had little effect on corrosion of hot dipped, galvanized bolts attached to wood. This suggests that treatment in the crossarm zone with MIT or fumigants that produce MIT should not affect the integrity of attached hardware. i-i In addition to fumigant evaluations, we recently examined an earlier test of groundline treatments with Osmoplastic® and Hollowheart®. After 10 years, these treatments are performing reasonably well, with only a slight rise in the incidence of decay fungi in the past 4 years. We also reevaluated the effectiveness of kerfing for preventing decay and found that this process reduced the depth and width of checks, resulting in a decreased incidence of decay fungi. Kerfing appears to be a valuable method for preventing internal decay at the groundline. Cedar Sapwood Decay Control This past year, the second set of five chemicals applied to control sapwood decay were evaluated after 2 years of exposure. As in earlier evaluations using the Aspergillus bioassay, none of the chemicals approach pentachlorophenol in oil for ability to inhibit sporulation of Aspergillus niger; however, several samples from zones deep in the wood produced a slight zone of effect. This may indicate the presence of a reservoir for long-term protection against decay. Several of the chemicals including Fluor Chrome Arsenic Phenol and Ammoniacal Copper Arsenate (ACA) appear to bind to the wood and may be difficult to detect by the bioassay method. We expect to assess the effectiveness of these treatments using a soil block test. Investigations of the reliability of the Aspergillus bioassay under a variety of conditions indicated that quantity of spores, use of glass or plastic petri dishes, long-term cold storage, and the use of spray inoculum instead of flooding spores had little influence on the bioassay results with pentachiorophenol, Tributyl-tinoxide, or 3 iodo propynyl butylcarbamate; however, incubation temperature did influence assay results. The Aspergillus bioassay is a simple, effective means for estimating residual preservative levels. Bolt Holes Again this year, wood around the unprotected, control bolt holes in pole sections contained such low levels of decay fungi that evaluation of the treated poles will be delayed another year. In addition to the initial bolt hole treatments, we have begun a test to determine if gelatin encapsulated or pelletized MIT can prevent decay development in field-drilled bolt holes. The pole sections used in these tests had already begun to develop decay prior to treatment and will provide an ideal test material. Detecting Decay and Estimatin& Residual Strength of Poles Fluorescent labeled lectins used in our earlier studies detected decay fungi at low weight losses under laboratory conditions. We are currently evaluating this method for detecting fungi in increment cores removed from poles to reduce the need for culturing. Last year we identified a peak that was unique to infrared (IR) spectra of warm water extracts from decayed wood. This past year we attempted to identify the chemical responsible for this peak and found that carbonyl compounds, probably from oxidative lignin degradation, were responsible for the peak. Since brown rot fungi apparently do iv not completely metabolize lignin breakdown products, they accumulate in the decaying wood and can be readily detected by their IR spectra. Strength properties of beams cut front Douglas-fir pole sections, air-seasoned for 3 years significantly decreased although decay fungi could not be uniformly isolated from the beams. In addition, there were gradual declines in work to maximum load and modulus of elasticity, as well as increased Pilodyn pin penetration. These results suggest that some strength losses occurred during air-seasoning; however, the losses were not large and should not endanger pole users. We compared several test methods including the Pilodyn, radial compression tests, longitudinal compression tests, and the pick test for evaluating residual pole strength of the wood surface of Douglas-fir treated with combinations of funtigants or groundline wraps. The results indicate that only the pick test could accurately detect surface damage and illustrate the difficulty of detecting surface damage. This past year we evaluated several sections cut from ACA treated poles stored for a number of years to determine if they were worth salvaging. Static bending tests of beams cut from the ACA treated zone, the treated/untreated boundary, and the inner heartwood revealed ACA treated sapwood had lower MOR and longitudinal compression strength than the other zones. These results represent only a small sample, but they suggest that some strength loss occurs during ACA V treatments. More importantly, the results suggest that we could have reliably predicted beam MOR by testing small plugs removed from the poles. Small beams cut from decaying, pentachlorophenol treated Douglas-fir poles were acoustically tested for residual wood strength, then evaluated to failure in static bending. The acoustic test consisted of sending a pulsed sonic wave into the wood and recording this wave after it passed through the beam. As it moved, the wave was altered by the presence of any wood defects or decay, and these alterations create a "fingerprint" specific for that defect. Preliminary results indicated that signal analysis was highly 2 2 correlated with work to maximum load (r =.82) and MOR (r .88), suggesting that this approach to decay detection may prove more reliable than measuring of sound velocity. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir The results of the initial survey to determine the incidence of decay fungi in poles from widely scattered Pacific Northwest seasoning yards indicated that a variety of fungi were colonizing the wood. While most of these fungi do not pose a serious decay problem, two species, Poria carbonica and Poria placenta, became increasingly abundant with length of air-seasoning. These fungi are also the most conunon decayers of Douglas-fir poles in service. As expected, the number of fungi and the wood volume they occupied increased with seasoning time; however, this incidence varied considerably between yards, especially in poles air-seasoned for vi shorter time periods. In addition to the variation between sites, many of the decay fungi colonizing the wood appear to be monokaryons, indicating that spores landing on the wood are initiating the infestation. The distribution of fungi within the poles indicated that several of the more abundant decay fungi were present in the outer sapwood where they would be eliminated by conventional pressure treatment. The remaining fungi were most abundant in the heartwood but were more concentrated near the pole end. This suggests that exposed end grain was more readily invaded than lateral grain exposed in checks. In addition to identifying the fungi colonizing Douglas-fir, we examined the effects these fungi had on wood strength. Toughness tests indicated the presence of wide variation in decay capability of the isolates. Although there was no consistent pattern, most of the isolates did not cause substantial decay and, of those that did, only . carbonica and P. placenta were sufficiently abundant to have a large influence on wood strength. Due to the prevalence of P. carbonica and P. placenta in the inner heartwood, where they might not be eliminated in a short heating cycle, we evaluated the temperature tolerance of these two fungi in Douglas-fir heartwood blocks. These tests indicated that both fungi were eliminated by exposure to temperatures above 71°C for over 1 hour or 60°C for 2 hours. The results suggest that careful control of temperature during treatment should eliminate decay fungi and that wood treated at ambient temperatures should be heated to kill fungi that become established during air-seasoning. vii This past year was the third and final year of the decay development study. In this study, sterile pole sections have been exposed for 1, 2, or 3 years at widely scattered Pacific Northwest sites, then returned to the laboratory and extensively sampled. We are now in the process of identifying the fungi from the third year poles. In addition to examining poles prior to preservative treatment, we are also evaluating poles treated with waterborne chemicals (ACA or CCA) for the incidence of surface decay. This past year we examined twenty ACA-treated poles from a line installed in 1946. While a variety of fungi were cultured from the wood, none of the poles had evidence of substantial surface deterioration. A study was initiated on the fungal flora of fumigant treated wood because of the potential for fungi developing resistance to low levels of fumigant or the ability to actively degrade the chemical. Both of these developments could shorten fumigant retreatment cycles and increase maintenance costs. We have evaluated poles treated 7 and 15 years ago with fumigants and find markedly reduced fungal flora. Tests are continuing on the fungi isolated, and we hope to assess the effects of these isolates on long-term fumigant effectiveness. Title: Conserving energy by safe and environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1985 Author: Oregon State University, Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products This fifth annual Cooperative Pole Research Program report outlines our progress in the six project objectives. Improved Fumigants Sampling of previously established field tests revealed that Vorlex and Chloropicrin continued to perform well after 15 years, while Vapam was slightly less effective. Solid methylisothiocyanate (MIT) also performed well in the field after 7 years. In additional tests, gelatin encapsulated MIT migrated through Douglas-fir heartwood with addition of moderate quantities of water to degrade the gelatin. However, in the presence of higher quantities of water or no additional water, MIT migration into the wood was slowed. In a previously established test, gelatin encapsulated MIT continues to inhibit reinfestation of poles 3 years after treatment. Pelletized MIT is a new formulation (65% active ingredient) that appears to have some promise. Preliminary tests indicate that up to 95% of the MIT is release in 24 hours, but a small quantity of MIT remains in the pellets after 63 days aeration and may pose a disposal hazard. The solid MIT formulations will permit aboveground applications, increasing the risk that MIT will come in contact with pole hardware. Preliminary tests indicate that MIT had little effect on corrosion of hot dipped, galvanized bolts attached to wood. This suggests that treatment in the crossarm zone with MIT or fumigants that produce MIT should not affect the integrity of attached hardware. i-i In addition to fumigant evaluations, we recently examined an earlier test of groundline treatments with Osmoplastic® and Hollowheart®. After 10 years, these treatments are performing reasonably well, with only a slight rise in the incidence of decay fungi in the past 4 years. We also reevaluated the effectiveness of kerfing for preventing decay and found that this process reduced the depth and width of checks, resulting in a decreased incidence of decay fungi. Kerfing appears to be a valuable method for preventing internal decay at the groundline. Cedar Sapwood Decay Control This past year, the second set of five chemicals applied to control sapwood decay were evaluated after 2 years of exposure. As in earlier evaluations using the Aspergillus bioassay, none of the chemicals approach pentachlorophenol in oil for ability to inhibit sporulation of Aspergillus niger; however, several samples from zones deep in the wood produced a slight zone of effect. This may indicate the presence of a reservoir for long-term protection against decay. Several of the chemicals including Fluor Chrome Arsenic Phenol and Ammoniacal Copper Arsenate (ACA) appear to bind to the wood and may be difficult to detect by the bioassay method. We expect to assess the effectiveness of these treatments using a soil block test. Investigations of the reliability of the Aspergillus bioassay under a variety of conditions indicated that quantity of spores, use of glass or plastic petri dishes, long-term cold storage, and the use of spray inoculum instead of flooding spores had little influence on the bioassay results with pentachiorophenol, Tributyl-tinoxide, or 3 iodo propynyl butylcarbamate; however, incubation temperature did influence assay results. The Aspergillus bioassay is a simple, effective means for estimating residual preservative levels. Bolt Holes Again this year, wood around the unprotected, control bolt holes in pole sections contained such low levels of decay fungi that evaluation of the treated poles will be delayed another year. In addition to the initial bolt hole treatments, we have begun a test to determine if gelatin encapsulated or pelletized MIT can prevent decay development in field-drilled bolt holes. The pole sections used in these tests had already begun to develop decay prior to treatment and will provide an ideal test material. Detecting Decay and Estimatin& Residual Strength of Poles Fluorescent labeled lectins used in our earlier studies detected decay fungi at low weight losses under laboratory conditions. We are currently evaluating this method for detecting fungi in increment cores removed from poles to reduce the need for culturing. Last year we identified a peak that was unique to infrared (IR) spectra of warm water extracts from decayed wood. This past year we attempted to identify the chemical responsible for this peak and found that carbonyl compounds, probably from oxidative lignin degradation, were responsible for the peak. Since brown rot fungi apparently do iv not completely metabolize lignin breakdown products, they accumulate in the decaying wood and can be readily detected by their IR spectra. Strength properties of beams cut front Douglas-fir pole sections, air-seasoned for 3 years significantly decreased although decay fungi could not be uniformly isolated from the beams. In addition, there were gradual declines in work to maximum load and modulus of elasticity, as well as increased Pilodyn pin penetration. These results suggest that some strength losses occurred during air-seasoning; however, the losses were not large and should not endanger pole users. We compared several test methods including the Pilodyn, radial compression tests, longitudinal compression tests, and the pick test for evaluating residual pole strength of the wood surface of Douglas-fir treated with combinations of funtigants or groundline wraps. The results indicate that only the pick test could accurately detect surface damage and illustrate the difficulty of detecting surface damage. This past year we evaluated several sections cut from ACA treated poles stored for a number of years to determine if they were worth salvaging. Static bending tests of beams cut from the ACA treated zone, the treated/untreated boundary, and the inner heartwood revealed ACA treated sapwood had lower MOR and longitudinal compression strength than the other zones. These results represent only a small sample, but they suggest that some strength loss occurs during ACA V treatments. More importantly, the results suggest that we could have reliably predicted beam MOR by testing small plugs removed from the poles. Small beams cut from decaying, pentachlorophenol treated Douglas-fir poles were acoustically tested for residual wood strength, then evaluated to failure in static bending. The acoustic test consisted of sending a pulsed sonic wave into the wood and recording this wave after it passed through the beam. As it moved, the wave was altered by the presence of any wood defects or decay, and these alterations create a "fingerprint" specific for that defect. Preliminary results indicated that signal analysis was highly 2 2 correlated with work to maximum load (r =.82) and MOR (r .88), suggesting that this approach to decay detection may prove more reliable than measuring of sound velocity. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir The results of the initial survey to determine the incidence of decay fungi in poles from widely scattered Pacific Northwest seasoning yards indicated that a variety of fungi were colonizing the wood. While most of these fungi do not pose a serious decay problem, two species, Poria carbonica and Poria placenta, became increasingly abundant with length of air-seasoning. These fungi are also the most conunon decayers of Douglas-fir poles in service. As expected, the number of fungi and the wood volume they occupied increased with seasoning time; however, this incidence varied considerably between yards, especially in poles air-seasoned for vi shorter time periods. In addition to the variation between sites, many of the decay fungi colonizing the wood appear to be monokaryons, indicating that spores landing on the wood are initiating the infestation. The distribution of fungi within the poles indicated that several of the more abundant decay fungi were present in the outer sapwood where they would be eliminated by conventional pressure treatment. The remaining fungi were most abundant in the heartwood but were more concentrated near the pole end. This suggests that exposed end grain was more readily invaded than lateral grain exposed in checks. In addition to identifying the fungi colonizing Douglas-fir, we examined the effects these fungi had on wood strength. Toughness tests indicated the presence of wide variation in decay capability of the isolates. Although there was no consistent pattern, most of the isolates did not cause substantial decay and, of those that did, only . carbonica and P. placenta were sufficiently abundant to have a large influence on wood strength. Due to the prevalence of P. carbonica and P. placenta in the inner heartwood, where they might not be eliminated in a short heating cycle, we evaluated the temperature tolerance of these two fungi in Douglas-fir heartwood blocks. These tests indicated that both fungi were eliminated by exposure to temperatures above 71°C for over 1 hour or 60°C for 2 hours. The results suggest that careful control of temperature during treatment should eliminate decay fungi and that wood treated at ambient temperatures should be heated to kill fungi that become established during air-seasoning. vii This past year was the third and final year of the decay development study. In this study, sterile pole sections have been exposed for 1, 2, or 3 years at widely scattered Pacific Northwest sites, then returned to the laboratory and extensively sampled. We are now in the process of identifying the fungi from the third year poles. In addition to examining poles prior to preservative treatment, we are also evaluating poles treated with waterborne chemicals (ACA or CCA) for the incidence of surface decay. This past year we examined twenty ACA-treated poles from a line installed in 1946. While a variety of fungi were cultured from the wood, none of the poles had evidence of substantial surface deterioration. A study was initiated on the fungal flora of fumigant treated wood because of the potential for fungi developing resistance to low levels of fumigant or the ability to actively degrade the chemical. Both of these developments could shorten fumigant retreatment cycles and increase maintenance costs. We have evaluated poles treated 7 and 15 years ago with fumigants and find markedly reduced fungal flora. Tests are continuing on the fungi isolated, and we hope to assess the effects of these isolates on long-term fumigant effectiveness. Close

• 689. [Image] Water management and endangered species issues in the Klamath Basin : oversight field hearing before the Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Seventh Congress, first session, June 16, 2001 in Klamath Falls, Oregon

  	"Serial no. 107-39."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water management and endangered species issues in the Klamath Basin : oversight field hearing before the Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Seventh Congress, first session, June 16, 2001 in Klamath Falls, Oregon Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 "Serial no. 107-39." Title: Water management and endangered species issues in the Klamath Basin : oversight field hearing before the Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Seventh Congress, first session, June 16, 2001 in Klamath Falls, Oregon Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 "Serial no. 107-39." Close

• 690. [Image] Resolving the Klamath

  	"October 1999"; Cover title
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Resolving the Klamath Year: 1999, 2004 "October 1999"; Cover title Title: Resolving the Klamath Year: 1999, 2004 "October 1999"; Cover title Close

• 691. [Image] Histopathological changes in gills of Lost River suckers (Deltistes luxatus) exposed to elevated ammonia and elevated pH

  	Lease, Hilary M., Histopathological Changes in Gills of Lost River Suckers (Deltistes luxatus) Exposed to Elevated Ammonia and Elevated pH, M.S., Department of Zoology and Physiology, December, 2000. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Histopathological changes in gills of Lost River suckers (Deltistes luxatus) exposed to elevated ammonia and elevated pH Author: Lease, Hilary Marian Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Lease, Hilary M., Histopathological Changes in Gills of Lost River Suckers (Deltistes luxatus) Exposed to Elevated Ammonia and Elevated pH, M.S., Department of Zoology and Physiology, December, 2000. The Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) is a federally listed, endangered fish species endemic to Upper Klamath Lake?a large, shallow hypereutrophic lake in southern Oregon. Sucker population declines in the lake over the past few decades are thought to be partly attributable to extreme water quality conditions, including elevated ammonia concentrations and elevated pH, that occur during summer cyanobacterial blooms. I analyzed structural changes in gills of larval Lost River suckers after they were exposed to elevated pH and elevated ammonia concentrations in chronic toxicity tests conducted in the laboratory. Histopathological changes in sucker lamellae were observed at ammonia concentrations that did not significantly decrease survival, growth, whole-body ion content, or swimming performance. Structural changes that I evaluated included O2 diffusion distance, lamellar thickness, hyperplasic and hypertrophic mucous cells, and infiltration of white blood cells into the lymphatic space. The increases in diffusion distance and lamellar thickness were statistically significant (P < 0.05). These gill changes are indicative of potentially compromised respiratory and ionoregulatory capacity. Because in this species gill structural changes appear to be a more sensitive indicator of stress in eutrophic water quality conditions than are the more traditional sublethal indices, gill histopathology might be useful for monitoring the health of Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake. Title: Histopathological changes in gills of Lost River suckers (Deltistes luxatus) exposed to elevated ammonia and elevated pH Author: Lease, Hilary Marian Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Lease, Hilary M., Histopathological Changes in Gills of Lost River Suckers (Deltistes luxatus) Exposed to Elevated Ammonia and Elevated pH, M.S., Department of Zoology and Physiology, December, 2000. The Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) is a federally listed, endangered fish species endemic to Upper Klamath Lake?a large, shallow hypereutrophic lake in southern Oregon. Sucker population declines in the lake over the past few decades are thought to be partly attributable to extreme water quality conditions, including elevated ammonia concentrations and elevated pH, that occur during summer cyanobacterial blooms. I analyzed structural changes in gills of larval Lost River suckers after they were exposed to elevated pH and elevated ammonia concentrations in chronic toxicity tests conducted in the laboratory. Histopathological changes in sucker lamellae were observed at ammonia concentrations that did not significantly decrease survival, growth, whole-body ion content, or swimming performance. Structural changes that I evaluated included O2 diffusion distance, lamellar thickness, hyperplasic and hypertrophic mucous cells, and infiltration of white blood cells into the lymphatic space. The increases in diffusion distance and lamellar thickness were statistically significant (P < 0.05). These gill changes are indicative of potentially compromised respiratory and ionoregulatory capacity. Because in this species gill structural changes appear to be a more sensitive indicator of stress in eutrophic water quality conditions than are the more traditional sublethal indices, gill histopathology might be useful for monitoring the health of Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake. Close

• 692. [Image] Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway

  	Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway Author: Wilson, Robert Michael Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations. Title: Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway Author: Wilson, Robert Michael Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations. Close

• 693. [Image] The Klamath Project at 100 : conserving our resources, preserving our heritage

  	The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage 1905- 2005: The First Century of Water for the Klamath Project Grain Truck, Lower Klamath Lake, 2004 Prepared by Dan Keppen, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Klamath Project at 100 : conserving our resources, preserving our heritage Author: Keppen, Dan Year: 2004, 2005 The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage 1905- 2005: The First Century of Water for the Klamath Project Grain Truck, Lower Klamath Lake, 2004 Prepared by Dan Keppen, Executive Director Klamath Water Users Association December 2004 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 ) 1 1 1 I 1 I I I 003E00042195 .... rrj R13E ^ ^ T ^ I l* IILLER DIVERSION DAM MILLER CREEK AND LOST RIVER CHANNEL L. ^ ^ IMPROVEMENTS — FEATURES: Hydrography Canal Drain Dike ) ( Tunnel )—( Flume ) - - ( Siphon Pipeline Drop 9 Pumping Plant Q Irrigation District Pumping Plant H Private Utility Powerplant ik Project Headquarters Project Land Lea3 « Area MAJOR WATER DISTRICTS: Ady Dist. Improv. Co. Enterprise I. D. Horsefly I. D. Klamath Drain. Dist. Klamath I. D. Langell Valley I. D. Malin ID. Midland Dist. Improv. Co. P Canal Mutual Water Co. Pine Grove I. D. Pioneer Dist. Improv. Co. Plevna Dist. Improv. Co. Poe Valley Improv. Dist. Shasta View I. D. Sunnyside I. D. Tulelake I. D. Van Brimmer Ditch Co. Westside Improv. Dist. KLAMATH PROJECT Oregon - California N 0 12 3 4 5 Miles Background of Klamath Water Users Association The original Klamath Water Users Association was organized on March 4, 1905 under Oregon statute and capitalized in the amount of $ 2,000,000. That Association was created by local farmers, livestock producers, businessmen, bankers, attorneys, and community leaders interested in seeing the Klamath Reclamation Project constructed with the least amount of cost and for the lasting benefit of the entire Klamath community. Working in cooperation with Reclamation the stockholders of the Association contracted with the U. S. Secretary of the Interior to assume the responsibility of payment to the United States the cost of the Klamath Project irrigation works on November 3, 1905. The Association was active in bringing in lands to be served by the Project and addressing water right matters of those lands. By the 1950' s much of the construction costs of the project had been reimbursed to the United States, and irrigation districts assumed the contractual obligations for maintaining and operating the Project. The current Klamath Water Users Association ( KWUA) has its origins in the Klamath Water Users Protective Association, bylaws adopted June 22, 1953, organized to address water right and electrical power issues for Klamath Basin irrigators. The Protective Association reformed itself March 16,1993 with amended bylaws, and incorporated in 1994 as the modern Klamath Water Users Association. The KWUA represents private rural and suburban irrigation districts and ditch companies within the Klamath Project, along with private irrigation interests outside the Project in both Oregon and California in the Upper Klamath Basin. The KWUA is governed by an eleven-person board of directors elected from supporting irrigation districts, private irrigation interests, and the business community. The KWUA now represents over 5,000 water users on 1,400 family farms. Klamath Association KWUA's mission statement: To preserve, protect and defend the water and power rights of the landowners of the Klamath Basin while promoting wise management of ecosystem resources. r Table of Contents Page Executive Summary 4 Introduction 5 Overview 7 Pioneers 9 The Reclamation Act 10 The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government 10 Construction Begins 11 Homesteaders 13 The Klamath River Compact 15 The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches 18 New Demands 19 r Sucker Listings 20 Coho Salmon Listing 21 Problems on the East Side 22 2001 Curtailment 24 The Farmers Fight Back 26 Enter President Bush 27 Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In 28 The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies 29 Vindication, Part II 32 " We hate to say we told you so, but...." 33 The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment. 34 Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners 36 Sucker Recovery Planning 36 On- the- Ground Actions 36 Environmental Water Bank 38 EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin 39 Recognition at Last 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach 40 BOR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River 40 Conclusion - The Future 41 Notes 44 Photo Credits 47 " " Executive Summary r The Klamath Project in 2005 marks its 100- year anniversary. This report summarizes the original formation of the Project, describes the enthusiastic response of the local community to the federal water project, and steps through the development of the Project in ensuing decades. The story of the pioneers, early settlers, and homesteaders who helped settle the area - veterans of both world wars - provides a sense of the character possessed by local farmers and ranchers, who had to rely on similar traits to keep their community alive when irrigation supplies were curtailed in 2001. And it explains a very important dynamic of the region, especially in recent years, where local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. The immediate future remains uncertain for Klamath Project irrigators, but their marked propensity for adapting to change will keep local farmers and ranchers in business for another 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, and developing habitat for fish and wildlife. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders beginning over a century ago to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. r A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907. • - r r The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act. " 1905 Petition from Basin residents to the Secretary of the Interior " The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works." Klamath Falls Herald & News Editorial June 20, 2004 " Agriculture plays a vital role in this state } s economy. An economic issue is one thing, for the farmers who need the resource, need the water, to be able to make a living. There fs another piece to this that ys much larger for all Oregon, and that is a cultural issue. The people here are very, very important to the future of this state. " Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, At the A Canal Fish Screen, Klamath Falls, Oregon. April 17, 2003 Introduction The year 2005 marks the one hundred- year birthday of one of the oldest federal water projects in the western United States - the Klamath Irrigation Project. As was painfully made evident in 2001, when Klamath Project supplies were curtailed for the first time in 95 years, the local community and its economy are interwoven with the health of this irrigation project. One hundred years after overwhelming national policy supported its construction, the Klamath Project continues to play a critical role in the local community. " The Klamath Project started out as a good thing, and it remains a good thing", said Tulelake farmer Rob Crawford. " When the Project was created, Klamath Basin people were meeting a national call by doing what they were supposed to do - settle the West. Today, our efforts focus on preserving our heritage, while conserving our resources." r r - r r rr At the beginning of the last century, when the local community learned that the Klamath Project would be developed, an " incredible celebration" ensued, said Paul Simmons, an attorney for the Klamath Water Users Association. " The people of the Klamath Basin basically posed a proposal to the federal government," said Simmons. " They told the government,' if you will be the plumber and the banker, we can do something good for the country.'" The federal government did just that by constructing the irrigation project. Local growers repaid the construction costs in the ensuing decades. Today, thousands of people - family farmers and ranchers, their employees, and agriculture- related businesses - make their living directly from farming and ranching in the Klamath Project. In turn, their activities support the communities of Malin, Merrill, Midland, Bonanza, Tulelake, Newell, and Klamath Falls. And, equally important, their efforts yield high- quality safe food for the country and the world. The last century has been one of massive transformation, vitality, shining hope, and deep despair for the farmers and ranchers served by the Klamath Project. The core reason for the creation of the Klamath Project - to develop water supplies and storage for irrigation uses - has been diminished as new competing demands, intended to satisfy Endangered Species Act ( ESA) and tribal trust conditions, have come on line. As a result, after perceived ESA and tribal trust obligations are met, Klamath Project irrigators and national wildlife refuges essentially get the remaining water. Because very little carryover storage is provided by Klamath Project reservoirs, the farmers now find themselves becoming increasingly reliant on incoming flows to the reservoirs, rather than the stored water that was originally developed to provide them with a reliable summertime irrigation supply. In essence, because of new laws and policies developed in the recent past, the original purpose of the Klamath Project has been somewhat lost in the shuffle. This became glaringly obvious in 2001, when for the first time in 95 years, water supplies to the Klamath Project from Upper Klamath Lake were curtailed before the irrigation season had even begun, to meet conditions set by federal fishery agencies to purportedly prevent harm to three fish species. Three and one- half years after Klamath Irrigation Project ( Project) water deliveries were terminated by the federal government, local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. Project irrigators - who farm on lands straddling the California- Oregon state line - remain apprehensive about the future certainty of water n supplies. However, the strong traits shown by the original Klamath Project settlers - self-independence, creativity, a sense of community - are still apparent, one hundred years later. Without these characteristics, the tragic events of 2001 might have become nothing more than n passing headlines in the local newspaper. Instead, a galvanized community grabbed national media and political attention by forcing the rest of the country to see that things had gone too far. r r Now, Klamath Project irrigators are preparing for the next 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for his products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, developing habitat for fish and wildlife, and improving the symbiotic relationship he has with neighboring national wildlife refuges. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. Overview The irrigable lands of the Klamath Project ( Project) are in south- central Oregon ( 62 percent) and north- central California ( 38 percent). Two main sources supply water for the Project: Upper Klamath Lake and the Klamath River on the Klamath system; and Clear Lake Reservoir, Gerber Reservoir, and Lost River on the Lost River system, are in a closed basin. The total drainage area for the Klamath Project, including the Lost River and the Klamath River watershed above Keno, Oregon is approximately 5,700 square miles. Currently, approximately 225,000 acres, many previously submerged, have been transformed into productive farmland. The crops grown within the Klamath Project area consist of grain, hay, pasture, silage, mint, potatoes, onions, other vegetables, alfalfa, strawberry rootstock, and horseradish. This list of crops represents the majority of planted acreage within the Klamath Project over the last 40 to 50 years. The cropping pattern has varied from year to year, but the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. The Bureau of Reclamation operates Clear Lake Dam, Gerber Dam, and the Lost River Diversion Dam. The Link River Dam is operated by the Pacific Power and Light Company in accordance with Project needs, or more recently also as directed by federal agencies. The Tulelake Irrigation District operates the Anderson- Rose Dam, and the Langell Valley Irrigation District operates the Malone and Miller Diversion Dams. The various irrigation districts operate the canals and pumping plants. The original Klamath Project plan included construction of facilities to divert and distribute water for irrigation of basin lands, including reclamation of Tule and Lower Klamath Lakes, and control of floods in the area. The development of the stored water provided by the Klamath Project allowed for the controlled, beneficial use of water in the Upper Basin. Currently, late summer and fall flows in the Lower Klamath River are augmented with stored water that would not be there, but for the Project. Under pre- Project conditions, natural controls existed below both Upper Klamath Lake and Lake Ewauna which stabilized lake levels except during critical droughts. Those controls were natural reefs of hard earth material in the channel and other channel constrictions. Under these pre- Project conditions, the Klamath River flowed into the Lower Klamath Lake area. A 1906 map titled " Topographic and Drainage Map, Upper and Lower Klamath Project" shows the invert of the Klamath Strait approximately the same level as the Klamath River channel bottom near Keno. In addition, the Lost River terminated at Tule Lake. These flows flooded approximately 183,000 acres within Lower Klamath and Tule Lake. In general, under pre- Project conditions, Klamath River flows downstream of Keno likely occurred after a certain water level was reached in the Klamath River and Lower Klamath Lake. An engineer speaking in the early days of the Project observed that adequate Klamath Project water supplies were not a worry. Rather - something that would be inconceivable today - dealing with too much water was more of a concern at the time: " It contains an irrigation problem, an evaporation problem, a run- off problem, any one of which is difficult in itself but all of which together form a most perplexing whole," said the engineer. " In nearly all reclamation projects water has to be conserved. In this project there is more than enough and the question of disposing of it becomes an important part." 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area r • r r r Pioneers Irrigation development began in areas now served by the Klamath Project in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Various landowners and entrepreneurs utilized water of the Klamath River and its tributaries, and undertook a wide range of visionary activities. Prime farmland, exposed around the edges of old historic Tule Lake as early as 1846 stimulated early settlers' interest in irrigation. Similarly, early settlers beginning in the early 1860s relied on " naturally irrigated" greases and forage in the Lower Klamath area for pasture and hay. The first irrigation ditch was dug by George Nurse and Joseph Conger in the bottom of Linkville Canyon in 1868. In 1878, this ditch was expanded and incorporated into the Linkville Water Ditch Company. Early pioneers Steele and Ankeny pursued a canal to deliver water to land between Klamath Falls and Merrill. Ultimately, the canal system was replaced by the A Canal and its distribution system which, operated by Klamath Irrigation District, continues to serve Project land to this day. t Adams Cut, July 18,1906. Diversion for irrigation of additional agricultural lands in the area now comprising the Klamath Project was initiated in 1882 with construction of an irrigation ditch by the Van Brimmer brothers to the land from White Lake, which was fed by the Klamath River. Private interests further developed this project by constructing the Adams Canal in 1886, which was supplied also from White Lake. Frank Adams, with assistance from the Van Brimmer r rr rr r Brothers, cut a canal through tule roots using hay- knives and a derrick, in order to improve diversion from White Lake. This canal ultimately extended to a length of 22 miles. By 1903, approximately 13,000 acres were irrigated by private interests, with the canal system in progress to deliver much more. After the 1905 authorization of the Klamath Project ( see below), many water rights were acquired to facilitate, and for the benefit of, the Klamath Project enterprise, and other agreements were made with other water right- holders. The Project utilized, extended, expanded and/ or improved previously existing systems, and included construction of other facilities. The Reclamation Act In 1902 Congress enacted the Reclamation Act, which encouraged the settlement of lands in the western states and the development of agricultural economies to feed the nation. The 1902 Act provided for federal financing of irrigation works, with the construction costs to be repaid over time by project water users. In addition, public lands were made available for homesteaders who accepted the responsibility to undertake improvements and pay the water charges. Both the Oregon and California legislatures also enacted laws making state- owned land available for use in the Klamath Project. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government In 1903, the Reclamation Service conducted investigations that led in 1904 to the first withdrawal of land by the Secretary of the Interior for developing a federal irrigation project. J. B. Lippincott, a supervising engineer from Los Angeles - who also played a key role in the City of Los Angeles' securement of Owens Valley water supplies - personally toured the Klamath Basin in June of 1904. l Although private irrigation projects were moving forward by the turn of the century, and some large- scale projects were being planned, most local citizens saw great value in a federally authorized and supported project. In 1905, local residents sent numerous petitions to Washington, D. C. requesting government irrigation assistance. By this time, a private corporation had given notion of its plans to develop water for what would ultimately become virtually the entire Klamath Project. Ironically, after Owens Valley agricultural water rights were secured by the City of Los Angeles, many of the displaced farmers moved to the Klamath Basin for the " reliable" water supplies of the Klamath Project. On their way north, they passed the first Reclamation Project in the West - the Newlands Project, near Reno, Nevada. 10 r r r r r r r " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act," stated one petitioner. In November 1904, F. H. Newell, Chief Engineer of the federal Reclamation Service, told a large audience of enthusiastic farmers in Klamath Falls that, in his judgment, they had " a great irrigation project". Early in 1905, California and Oregon had ceded certain rights in the Upper and Lower Klamath Lakes and Tule Lake to the United States. On May 1, 1904, a board of engineers made a report that served as the basis for authorization of the Project. Congress authorized the use of lands and water in accordance with the State Acts of February 1905. The Secretary of the Interior authorized development of the Project on May 15, 1905, under provisions of the Reclamation Act of 1902. Construction Begins The Interior Secretary's 1905 authorization provided for project works to drain and reclaim lake bed lands of the Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes, to store waters of the Klamath and Lost Rivers, to divert irrigation supplies, and to control flooding of the reclaimed lands. The states of Oregon and California ceded then- submerged land to the federal government for the specific purpose of having the land drained and reclaimed for irrigation use by homesteaders. The Oregon Legislature also authorized the raising and lowering of Upper Klamath Lake in connection with the Project, and allowed the use of the bed of Upper Klamath Lake for storage of water for irrigation. Construction began on the Project in 1906 with the building of the main " A" Canal. Water was first made available May 22, 1907, to the lands now known as the Main Division. 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates 11 r r r r r This initial construction was followed by the completion of Clear Lake Dam in 1910, the Lost River Diversion Dam and many of the distribution structures in 1912, and the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam in 1921. ( In 1970, a public dedication at the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam officially changed the name of the structure to Anderson- Rose Dam.) Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September 1909. Large stone in self- dumping car. A contract executed February 24, 1917, between the California- Oregon Power Company ( now the Pacific Power and Light Company) and the United States authorized the company to construct Link River Dam for the benefit of the Project and for the company's use, and also extended to the water users of the Klamath Project certain preferential power rates. The dam was completed in 1921. The contract was amended and further extended for a 50- year period on April 16, 1956. The Malone Diversion Dam on the Lost River was built in 1923 to divert water to Langell Valley. The Gerber Dam on Miller Creek was completed in 1925, and the Miller Diversion Dam was built in 1924 to divert water released from Gerber Dam. In the Great Depression, continued settlement and leasing and distribution construction resulted in a significant increase, between 1930 and 1939 of the acres receiving water directly from Project facilities. The project work undertaken during this period included the enlargement of the Lost River Diversion Channel. In 1940, construction was begun on Pumping Plant D and the Tule Lake Tunnel. By 1942, these facilities, as well as the P- Canal were completed. In 1943, the Ady pumping plant was placed in operation, and in the next two years, the Straits Drain and pumps were constructed and installed and began operation. 12 r r Homesteaders The story of the homesteaders is a source of great pride in the Klamath Project. As Tule Lake receded according to plan, the lake bottom became suitable for cultivation. The land that ultimately became homesteads was under jurisdiction of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation ( Reclamation). Homesteading and developing more productive agricultural land was the goal of the reclamation project that " reclaimed" the beds of Tule Lake and Lower Klamath Lake to expose more arable land. After Tule Lake was dewatered, a large area of public land became available for agriculture. The government would lease this land to settlers, and in fact leased as much as 50,000 acres in Tule Lake in the 1920s. Over time, most of this land was homesteaded. In 1917,180 people applied for the 37 homestead parcels the Reclamation made available on the drained wetlands and lake beds. Between 1922 and 1937 there were five more homestead offerings and hundreds of homesteaders settled in on the fertile soil of the drained lake bed. Then, World War II curtailed the homesteading process. » rri.. . r i* Ul. r- Xio. 1 wi sat Mi M MM ttw DCCA rru. ilon _ ji « _ jra .... r. r tk. M r « i t » a-. . « *^ J •* 4. MM r* T RTMtNT Or THE X ,. . tie*. . ..< L. » ii tatwJ l u i » T « 11 r ( » T « rnr » ) xfc. ir « « . •" « » ^> « • inS| « Ut !•• « . • TTDHOII. ,.> , ^% laMitk r » u. « . orumtm. _ JBKS!*! « r._: iit_ » « « » i.. bwrlac n i M la t&. MttaJOMI ( 1* nat.. J « a>. aa4 tk* a. t* JKLaUMftULJatiLJlJrt.. . . . . W l t a . is a- S.- ..- M « ri « ia*. t u . ar tka ar. ra* al « » ot af i t kav* a » « . > n » M < aatrr. • M M MMtMl. MMM t . aa n » tn4 » r ua « « . o. rol - • M it. » • « i WMM .. 1927 Homesteader Affidavit In three drawings held in 1946, 1948 and 1949, a total of 216 World War II veterans were awarded homesteads on farmland in the Tule Lake Basin, as a thank you from a grateful nation. The number of applicants was far greater than the number of available homesteads. Veterans and the community gathered to watch the names drawn from a pickle jar. Farm homesteads and crop- producing land were the goals of reclamation, and the Tule Lake Basin became a showcase for reclamation work. 13 " When I arrived to see my homestead there was nothing there, just an expanse of opportunity," recalls Carman. " No roads, no houses, no trees, just bare ground. I then pitched my tent in the corner of my homestead." My wife Eleanor was expecting our second child, but could not join me until later. A tent was not acceptable living quarters for a young woman, a small child and another baby on the way." The settlers formed organizations, elected a school board, and went about creating a society. " When I began my new life as a Tulelake homesteader there were approximately 300 homesteaders, most of them with families," said Carman. " We united and began to build schools, churches and a hospital in Klamath Falls. We started a community. We were living the American dream and our dream was achieved by hard work and dedication, and I must say we could never have done this without our wives." Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By r - The Klamath River Compact The Klamath River Compact ( Compact) is a law of both Oregon and California, consented to by and Act of Congress. In the following decade, a variety of concerns and issues led to the passage of the Compact in 1957. These included: • Differing positions regarding the extent of development that could occur under Klamath Project water rights; 15 • • The related issue of priority of Klamath Project and overall Upper Klamath Basin irrigation development as against other uses, especially generation of hydro- electric power on the mainstem Klamath River; and • Concerns over potential future out- of- basin water exports. The development of the Compact was closely tied to an application for a water right filed by the California Oregon Power Company ( Copco) in 1951. This application anticipated using water at a proposed hydroelectric project on the Klamath River known as " Big Bend No. 2." In turn, this dispute folded in past dealings, agreements and opinions related to the operation of Link River Dam on Upper Klamath Lake. The agreements made between Copco and the Bureau of Reclamation at the time of construction of Link River Dam around 1920 had been controversial. Upper Klamath Basin irrigation interests had three primary concerns: 1. Power development, as an incident of the Project's reclamation purpose, should be undertaken only by the United States; 2. That the agreements threatened Klamath Project water supplies; and 3. The agreements were inconsistent with state legislation authorizing use of Upper Klamath Lake by the United States for storage or reclamation purposes. In 1951, Copco filed an application with the Oregon Hydroelectric Commission ( OHC) for a water right for the proposed Big Bend No. 2 hydroelectric facility. The OHC at that time had authority and jurisdiction over issuance of water rights for hydropower facilities. Copco at the time of filing took the position that water was available for appropriation and Copco was entitled to a right, senior in priority, to any future Upper Klamath Basin irrigation that was not then actually developed. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River. — 16 r r • A. To facilitate and promote the orderly, integrated and comprehensive development, use, conservation and control thereof for various purposes, including, among others: the use of water for domestic purposes; the development of lands by irrigation and other means; the protection and enhancement offish, wildlife, and recreational resources; the use of water for industrial purposes and hydroelectric power production; and the use and control of water for navigation and flood prevention. B. To further intergovernmental cooperation and comity with respect to these resources and programs for their use and development and to remove causes of present and future controversies by providing ( l) for equitable distribution and use of water among the two states and the Federal Government, ( 2) for preferential rights to the use of water after the effective date of this compact for the anticipated ultimate requirements for domestic and irrigation purposes in the Upper Klamath River Basin in Oregon and California, and ( 3) for prescribed relationships between beneficial uses of water as a practicable means of accomplishing such distribution and Copco's application to the OHC, and its parallel application to the Federal Power Commission ( FPC) for a license under the Federal Power Act, were contested and opposed by the Department of the Interior and various agricultural and irrigation interests. The OHC did not act on Copco's application until 1956. The States of California and Oregon appointed commissioners to negotiate an interstate Compact. At the same time, Reclamation and local water users were negotiating a new agreement with Copco for operation of Link River Dam. It appeared that such an agreement might be concluded prior to enactment by the States of a Compact. The draft Copco contract was brought before the Compact negotiating commissioners, who sought to ensure consistency with the Compact being developed. During the course of several meetings of the Compact commissioners, terms were developed which resulted in conditions in the FPC license, the water right certificate, and a new contract for Copco's operating of Link River Dam. After preparation of various drafts, negotiation of the Compact was concluded and the legislatures of Oregon, California, as well as the United States Congress, acted in 1957. The major purposes of this compact are, with respect to the water resources of the Klamath River Basin: The Compact recognized water rights for then- existing and future needs in the Klamath Project service area. It also established a system of priority for new water rights under which Upper Basin irrigation ( up to a specified number of acres) had superior rights over water for power generation, fish or wildlife, or recreation. 17 r r r r r In short, the Klamath Compact provided guidelines to lead the competing interests of the Klamath River watershed towards a more harmonious future. For the next 40 years, the intent of the Compact was essentially fulfilled, until the early 1990s, when new pressures to address endangered fish and tribal trust demands resulted in the reemergence of fractionalized conflict into the Upper Basin. Although it had been seen as a resolution for future disputes, the Compact has been interpreted not to override the Endangered Species Act or tribal trust water rights. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches r Through the 1950s, Reclamation envisioned continued development of the Project that would have doubled its current size by including Butte Valley, California and other areas. The plans were not implemented and the Project acreage has not significantly increased since the end of the 1940s. In the following decades, the delivery system has been improved, bottlenecks eliminated, and relatively small areas have both been brought under irrigation and converted to commercial or residential development. By 1960, due in part to improvements made on Tule Lake dikes, the M Canal, the Lost River Diversion Channel, and installation of new canals in the southern portion of the Tulelake Irrigation District ( TID) service area and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant, the Project provided irrigation service to nearly 216,000 acres. Tulelake, California In the 1960' s, improvements and expansion of certain facilities led to the formation of Klamath Basin Improvement District. The Stukel and Poe Valley Pumping Plants were constructed and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant enlarged. The D, F and G- Canals were also 18 r enlarged. These facilities provided more reliable service to certain lands and also added land to the area that could receive water from Project works. In the 1970' s, Shasta View Irrigation District and Reclamation entered a $ 3.2 million contract for installation of a pressure irrigation system to replace the previous gravity- fed system. The 1972 Project history reported, ".. . the Project provided irrigation and drainage service to 223,661 acres," while the total harvested acreage "... was 193,160, down 2,329 acres from 1971." Also in the 1970' s, the Straits Drain was enlarged. Because of the Klamath Project's design and the interrelated nature of water use within it, including the use of return flows by farmers and the refuge, Project efficiency is very high. A recent assessment of Klamath Project water use efficiency2 implies that a sophisticated seasonal pattern of water use has evolved in the Klamath Project. One must understand that the Klamath Project has developed into a highly effective, highly interconnected form of water management. According to the 1998 Davids study ( see footnote), effective efficiency for the overall Project is 93 percent, making the Klamath Project one of the most efficient in the country3. New Demands For eighty years, Klamath Project irrigation supplies proved sufficient to meet the needs of the area's burgeoning farming and ranching communities. Although there were years where Mother Nature and Klamath Project storage capacity proved insufficient to meet full irrigation demands, the local community managed to stretch thin supplies and make things work. That all changed in the early 1990s, when steadily more restrictive government agency decisions made to meet Endangered Species Act ( ESA) goals began to steadily chip away at the stored water supply originally developed for irrigation. Two sucker species were listed ( 1988) as endangered and coho salmon were listed ( 1997) as threatened under the ESA. Since then, biological opinions rendered by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( for the suckers) and NOAA Fisheries ( for the coho), have increasingly emphasized the reallocation of Project water as the sole means of avoiding jeopardizing these fish. Klamath Project " operations plans" based on these biological opinions also factor in tribal trust obligations, although the nature and extent of such obligations is undefined. 2 " Klamath Project Historical Water Use Analysis", Davids Engineering for U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, October 1998. 3 For example, Tulelake Irrigation District irrigates 62,000 acres of farmland. In the 1990s, the district diverted an average of 131,000 acre- feet of water. Each year, an average of 80,000 acre- feet was pumped out of the district. Consumptive use within the district is considerably less than the amount of water diverted. The reason is the difference from the return flow from other districts and the reuse of water within the Project. 19 r Sucker Listings In the past twelve years, political and regulatory demands have affected activities at the Klamath Project. In 1988, the short nose sucker and the Lost River sucker, two species that live in Upper Klamath Lake, were designated as endangered under the ESA. Biological opinions issued by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) in 1992 and 1994 concerning operation of the Klamath Project identified actions to avoid jeopardy to suckers. When the suckers were listed, there had been no mention whatsoever of reservoir elevations as a factor affecting sucker populations. These operation elevations were adopted by Reclamation. The reservoir elevations pertaining to Upper Klamath Lake generally allowed the Project to operate for its intended purposes. However, the United States District Court of Oregon found that the reservoir elevations pertaining to Clear Lake and Gerber Reservoirs to be arbitrary and capricious, and they were invalidated in a succession of decisions4. The most compelling and prominent reason why the federal government justified listing the two sucker species as " endangered" in 1988 was an apparent abrupt downturn in both populations during the mid- 1980s. To support the decision to list the suckers, the USFWS believed the only significant remaining populations were in Upper Klamath Lake. We now know that the assumptions by the USFWS were in error and the assumed sucker population crisis never materialized. In fact, shortly after listing of the species, the populations demonstrated dramatic increases5. r Just prior to the listing of the suckers in 1988, a sport snag fishery was allowed. Before 1969, the fishery was largely unregulated with no harvest limit; in 1969 a generous bag limit of 10 fish per angler was imposed. During the early to mid- 1980s, despite the belief that the numbers offish were in a state of rapid decline, the State of Oregon still allowed the sport snag fishery. Ultimately, because of increased focus on the status of the sucker populations, Oregon eliminated the fishery in 1987. Some fisheries experts believe that if the USFWS would have properly assessed the known impacts on the suckers caused by the snag fishery and the benefits from ceasing the fishery, it very likely could have affected the ultimate listing decision. " Simply stated, the largely unregulated snag fishery slaughtered the sucker populations," said Dave Vogel, with Natural Resource Scientists, Inc. " Since the fishery was eliminated in 1987, the two sucker populations dramatically rebounded. The threat was removed and the populations increased ten- fold." 4 Bennett v Spear, 520 U. S. 154 ( 1997); 5 F. Jupp. 2d 887 ( D. Or. 1998); Bennett v. Badgely, No. 93- 6075- HO ( April 13, 1999, June 11, 1999). 5 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 20 At the time of the listings in 1988, the Klamath Project was not identified as having known adverse affects on the sucker populations, yet four years after the listing, using limited or no empirical data, the USFWS turned to the Klamath Project as their singular focus. Paradoxically, since the early 1990s, despite new beneficial empirical evidence on the improving status of the species and lack of relationship with Klamath Project operations, the USFWS became ever more centered on Project operations and increased restrictions on irrigators instead of paying attention to more obvious, fundamental problems for the species. This circumstance caused tremendous expense in dollars and time by diverting resources away from other known factors affecting the species. Coho Salmon Listing r A similar circumstance occurred with NOAA Fisheries during and after the coho salmon listing in the lower basin in the late 1990s. It cited the reasons to list coho salmon, excluding Klamath Project operations as a significant factor affecting the species. There are many other documented factors that have affected salmon runs in the Klamath River6. The USFWS in the 1980s described the most important eight factors as " most frequently referred to with regard to recent population declines" of anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Those factors are: " • Over fishing • Logging • Trinity River transbasin diversion Irrigation diversions in lower Klamath tributaries • 1964 flood • 1976- 1977 drought • Sea lion predation • Brown trout predation. However, shortly following the listing, and with no supporting data, NOAA Fisheries chose to center its attention on the Klamath Project as the principal factor affecting coho salmon. In its biological opinions, NOAA Fisheries opined that much higher than historic flow levels, released from the stored water of the Klamath Project, would be needed to protect coho salmon downstream of Iron Gate Dam. Iron Gate Dam is located forty miles away and coho are generally found further downstream and in tributaries. 7 In essence, both agencies adopted a single- minded approach of focusing on Klamath Project operations to artificially create high reservoir levels and high reservoir releases. This puzzling, similar sequence of events has yet to be explained by agency officials. 6 KWUA biologists compiled a comprehensive listing of those factors in March 1997. 7 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 21 r " ~ Commercial harvests of salmon intensified with the development of canning technology. By the early 20th century, habitat destruction combined with commercial harvests had resulted in serious salmon depletion on the Klamath River. Cobb ( 1930) estimated that the peak of the Klamath River salmon runs occurred in 1912, Snyder ( 1931) observed " in 1912 three [ canneries] operated on or near the estuary and the river was heavily fished, no limit being placed on the activities of anyone". Problems on the East Side Irrigation districts on the east side of the Klamath Project felt the first impacts from increased regulatory focus on lake levels in the early 1990s. Langell Valley Irrigation District ( LVID) and Horsefly Irrigation District ( HID) receive water from Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs. Historically, stored water was released from these two reservoirs beginning about April 15 and ending about October 15 each year. These reservoirs are not large, but they provide the essential water supply to an otherwise arid area. In an average year, Clear Lake releases about 36,000 acre- feet of irrigation water, and Gerber releases about 40,000 acre- feet. Clear Lake Reservoir contains populations of both endangered sucker species, and Gerber reservoir hosts one of the species. ESA-" threatened" bald eagles are also known to inhabit the Klamath Project area. In 1991, at the request of the USFWS, Reclamation initiated ESA consultation to assess the impact of the long- term operation of the Klamath Project on the suckers and the bald eagle. In the next year, three biological opinions were rendered by USFWS that imposed minimum levels in Clear Lake to purportedly protect the sucker populations. As a result of the minimum lake levels imposed by the draft biological opinions, and the water lost to evaporation before the USFWS allowed any water releases, the Districts were not able to make their normal irrigation releases during the 1992 water year. Neither district received its first seasonal water delivery until May 15, 1992, a full four weeks later than normal. By 22 r " that date, 12,000 acre- feet of the water that had been stored in Clear Lake in March 1992 had evaporated, an amount that represents about 60% of LVID's total yearly withdrawal from Clear Lake Reservoir. As a result of the minimum lake levels and the evaporation losses, only 2,148 acres of the 16,800 irrigable acres within the LVID received any Klamath Project water at all. The lack of water reduced both acreage farmed and per- acre yields that year. As a result of reduced yields, farm properties lost up to 70% of their assessed values in 1992. The lack of water also hurt the region's cattle ranching operations, because some ranchers could not produce pasture for their cattle. Water users who could afford the extra expense purchased feed to sustain their herds. Others had to cut back substantially on their herds or sell their cattle. Wildlife also suffered as a result of the decision to impose minimum surface levels in the reservoirs. Because the Lost River obtains most of its water from releases from Clear Lake Dam and return flows from agricultural operations, the water levels in the Lost River and its tributaries were exceedingly low in 1992. As a direct result, wildlife relying on Lost River water, including deer, sandhill cranes, hawks, turtles, frogs, ducks, and more, were all noticeably scarce that year. On July 22, 1992, USFWS finally issued its final biological opinion on the long- term operations of the Klamath Project. While the 1992 opinion conceded that " little" was known about Gerber Reservoir's shortnose sucker population, the opinion reported " good numbers" of these fish and noted that the Gerber sucker population appeared to be successfully reproducing, despite the lowered lake levels of the early 1990s. Despite this undisputed evidence, the 1992 biological opinion concluded that continuing to operate the Project, including Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs, in its historic manner was likely to jeopardize the continued existence of both sucker fish species. Reclamation accepted the USFWS recommendations for continued adherence to minimum lake levels, prompting the Districts and two of the individual farmers to sue the federal agencies. Even after the federal district court entered judgment invalidating the jeopardy conclusions, USFWS defied this judgment, and the districts were forced to bring several additional motions to enforce the Court's rulings. At each stage of the legal proceedings, the districts prevailed, based largely on the fact that USFWS had no scientific evidence to justify its actions. When the United States Supreme Court considered the Districts' case against the USFWS, the Court described the purpose of the ESA's science requirement as follows: The obvious purpose of the requirement that each agency " use the best available scientific and commercial data available" is to ensure that the ESA not be implemented haphazardly, on the basis of speculation or surmise. While this no doubt serves to advance the ESA's overall goal -., of species preservation, we think it readily apparent that another objective ( if not indeed the 23 primary one) is to avoid needless economic dislocation produced by agency officials zealously but unintelligently pursuing their environmental objectives. Now, ten years later, HID and LVID enjoy positive relationships with USFWS and Reclamation. However, the problems they suffered in the early 1990s were a harbinger of things to come for other Klamath Project irrigators shortly after the turn of the new century. 2001 Curtailment The net result of increasing restrictions on other Klamath Project water users was fully realized on April 6, 2001, when Reclamation announced its water allocation for the Project after U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Fisheries officials finalized the biological opinions ( BOs) for project operations in a critically dry year. Based on those regulatory actions, Reclamation announced that - for the first time in Project's 95- year history - no water would be available from Upper Klamath Lake to supply Project irrigators. No water for most farmers April 6, 2001 Local Headlines The resulting impacts to the local community were immediate and far- reaching. Even with a later release of a small percentage of needed water over a 30- day period in July and August, thousands of acres of valuable farmland were left without water. In addition to harming those property owners, managers, and workers, also imparted an economic " ripple" effect through the broader community. The wildlife benefits provided by those farms - particularly the food provided for area waterfowl - were also lost with the water. 24 Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls - 2001 The local farming community is still reeling from the April 6, 2001 decision, and severe business losses echoed the hardship endured by farmers and farm employees. As farmers and laborers attempted to deal with the loss of jobs, a year's income, and in some cases the land itself, referrals for mental health counseling increased dramatically. The Tulelake school district lost around 50 students after farm families sold their land and moved on. Students were under stress, understandably confused as to why three species of fish were more important than their lifelong homes. Tragically, one Hispanic family had started out as field workers, and after a lifetime of piecework under the sun had saved enough to buy their own farm. They lost everything as a direct result of the irrigation cutofi . Veteran homesteaders, who fifty years ago were promised reliable water, felt betrayed by the same government, who chose to provide water to fish instead of farmers in 2001. " I want the government to honor the contract that promised me and my heirs water rights forever," said Jess Prosser, a World War II veteran and Tulelake homesteader, in 2001, after water supplies were cut. " This land is our life. Farmers and fish have survived previous drought years when the farmers voluntarily cut back on water consumption. The Klamath Project was designed to withstand drought conditions, and right now there is more than ample water for agriculture and fish. The government took 100% of the water for fish, disregarding farmers, ranchers, families and numerous other species of wildlife in the Klamath Basin. This is a man- made disaster. This will be the end of a way of life and an entire community." 1 " Calamity in Klamath", Blake Hurst. The American Enterprise magazine. October / November 2002, pp 28- 29. 25 Cemeteries Went Dry in 2001 The Farmers Fight Back The local community did not take the decision lying down. Employing the ingenuity and perseverance that allowed them to successfully create brand new communities over the past century, local farmers, ranchers, elected officials and business leaders organized a " bucket brigade" to dramatize their plight, drawing nearly 20,000 sympathizers to the streets of Klamath Falls. A web site and cell phone calling tree were set up, and farmers, who only a year before were working their fields, suddenly became knowledgeable about the media. Civil disobedience, in the form of peaceful protests at the A Canal headgates, drew television crews from throughout the Pacific Northwest. The 2001 Klamath Basin crisis became the topic of front- page coverage and sympathetic editorials in publications like Time magazine, the Los Angeles Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times. Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family, Summer 2001. In part because of the tremendous media and political attention generated by the local community, a congressional field hearing was held in the summer of 2001 at the Klamath County fairgrounds, which drew the largest audience to ever attend such a hearing in the nation's history. Much of the focus was on the decision- making and processes that led to the fishery agencies' recommendation to curtail irrigation supplies. 26 In 2001, a desperate community essentially was looked in the eye and told, " sorry, we know it may hurt, but ' the science' is compelling and requires you to go without water." This was wrong, literally, and as a matter of policy. For whatever reason, the agencies had become too close to, and too much a part of, the side- taking that had come to dominate issues surrounding the Klamath Project. For this reason alone, outside review was needed. Nearly 20,000 marchers support the Klamath Bucket Brigade, May 2001. Prayer / protest at the A Canal headgates, 2001. Elected officials - from county commissioners and supervisors, to state representatives and senators, to U. S. Senators and Representatives, continued the fight, and ultimately, later in 2001, the U. S. Secretary of the Interior, Gale Norton, directed the National Academy of Sciences to conduct an independent peer- review of the agency decision to curtail irrigation supplies. Also, in early 2002, President Bush himself took a personal interest in the plight of the Klamath Project irrigator. Enter President Bush In January 2002, just months after the federal government curtailed Klamath Project irrigation deliveries for the first time in 97 years, Sen. Gordon Smith and Rep. Greg Walden met the president in southern California, boarded Air Force One, and took a slight detour over the Basin on their way to a Portland high school where the Mr. Bush was to deliver a speech. On the flight north, the president was briefed on the 2001 Klamath water crisis. When he entered the gymnasium at Park Rose High School, he opened his speech up with a pledge to help both the farmers and the fish of the Klamath Basin. 27 Compassion: George W. Bush Meets and Greets Klamath Basin Residents in Redmond, Oregon, 2003. In the ensuing two years, President Bush has followed through with his pledge by establishing a Klamath Basin cabinet- level working group, promoting sound and independent peer-reviewed science, and making funding of Klamath River water and environmental projects a priority. Enacted and requested Bush Administration funding in the Klamath River watershed for fiscal years 2003- 2005 exceeds $ 260 million dollars, according to a federal government summary. This includes $ 105 million proposed by the administration for Klamath Basin federal funding in the Fiscal Year 2005 budget. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In The Klamath Water Users Association and others in the community in 2001 strongly advocated for an independent peer review of the 2001 fishery agency biological opinions, the underlying science, and the related overall scientific process. In early 2002, an interim report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released. This represented a critical step towards ensuring proper assessment and maintenance of healthy fish populations. The panel successfully completed an objective, unbiased initial review of the information used by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) and NOAA Fisheries to formulate the agencies' two 2001 Biological Opinions ( BOs). The interim NRC report concluded that there was insufficient scientific evidence used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in 2001 to support changing the recent historical water operations of the Klamath Project. Specifically, the NRC interim report concluded that higher or lower than recent historical lake levels or Klamath 28 rr r rrr r r r River flows were not scientifically justified based on the available information used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. Despite varying interpretations of the data used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in the BOs, it is especially noteworthy that the NRC panel achieved consensus on the Interim Report's conclusions for not just one, but both BOs. The report's conclusions were adequately supported by the available evidence and analyses used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. It was particularly evident that the NRC Committee report was fair and impartial, essential attributes that were sorely lacking in Klamath basin issues to date. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies The release of the NRC Committee's interim report in early 2002 unleashed a barrage of criticism from environmental activists and their allies in academia and government agencies. Two Oregon State University professors, supporters of the high lake level requirements that contributed to the 2001 water curtailment, submitted a formal " rebuttal" of the interim report to a fisheries journal. The " rebuttal" ( so labeled when transmitted by its authors) and other media developments caused the Klamath Project community to fear that the NRC work would be diluted. The local community simply did not have the resources or the networks of contacts to continually counter the anti- Klamath Project messages that were being sent to the public and policymakers, primarily by outside environmental activist organizations. The NRC Committee's interim report triggered what grew to be an extraordinary, and obviously coordinated, attack on the Klamath Project by these interests. Media outlets seemingly relish a good western fight, and many uncritically reprinted a good deal of information that was not fair to Klamath Basin irrigators. The scrutiny on the Klamath Project and the Bush Administration's reliance on the NRC interim report intensified further that fall, when 33,000 salmon died on the lower Klamath River. Immediately after the unfortunate die- off, vocal critics of Project operations and Bush Administration environmental policy used the event to renew attacks on irrigated agriculture in the Klamath Basin. Even though the fish die- off occurred 200 miles downstream from the Project, at a location below the confluence of the main stem Klamath River and the Trinity River, traditional advocates for higher river flows quickly assigned blame to Klamath Project farmers and ranchers. Some of these same interests and others in the environmental community even attempted to directly link the fish die- off to alleged political maneuvering orchestrated by senior policy officials in the Bush Administration. As a result, presidential hopeful Senator John Kerry called on the U. S. Interior Department's Inspector General to look into whether " political pressure from the White House is intimidating staff and influencing policy" in Klamath River management decisions. Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney's report - released in March 2004- found " no evidence of political influence affecting the decisions pertaining to the water in the Klamath Project." 29 r r r r r r Eugene Register- Guard Why the salmon died: Pattern points to Bush administration policies A Register- Guard Editorial A 2002 Editorial Headline Between 2002- 2004, the fish die- off was effectively spun by Klamath Project critics to drive a dizzying array of attacks aimed at the Bush Administration and federal agencies responsible for Klamath Project management. Well- coordinated media coverage surrounding several acts of litigation and proposed federal legislation in the two years since the fish die- off have effectively imprinted the environmentalists' message in the minds of many: • " Fish need water"; • " Klamath Project farmers were denied water in 2001 and no fish died in the Klamath River"; • " Klamath Project farmers received full supplies in 2002, and 33,000 salmon died in the river"; • " The Bush Administration sacrificed fish for the benefit of farmers." The claims discussed above are just a few of the more prominent arguments that Klamath Project critics have employed to justify a series of actions undertaken in the wake of the public release of the interim NRC Committee report, including the following: • Federal legislation that would finalize a controversial and flawed draft Klamath River flow report. • Unsuccessful federal legislation that would restrict the ability of local lease land farmers to grow row crops. • Litigation ( PCFFA v. USBR) that, if successful, would have likely shut down Klamath Project operations in 2003. • Public protests staged by tribal members and environmentalists in Klamath Falls in 2002 and in Sacramento in 2003. 30 Listing of the Klamath River as the third most endangered waterway in the country by American Rivers, a Washington, D. C. - based activist group. An unsuccessful lawsuit filed by environmental groups against NOAA Fisheries to hasten the potential ESA listing of the green sturgeon. The release of an Oregon Natural Resources Council ( ONRC) report, which contends that voluntary buyouts of willing sellers within the Project " remain the most politically responsible, socially just, and economically viable method" to address power and ecological challenges. A subsequent letter sent by ONRC to Project landowners, tempting them with the promise of a buyout that would provide them with 2 '/ z times the fair market value of their land. Numerous editorials, journal articles and magazine stories that clearly accept the arguments made by Project critics. However, others did not jump so quickly on to the " blame game bandwagon." During late summer and early fall of 2002, Dave Vogel, a fisheries biologist with 28 years of experience, conducted a field investigation to assess water temperatures in the main stem Klamath River. - Vogel noted that main stem water temperatures in the Klamath River were measured hourly just prior to and during the fall- run Chinook salmon migration season. He found that water temperatures in the upper Klarnath River downstream of Iron Gate Dam during September 2002 were unsuitable for adult salmon, a finding that was similar to that of previous studies. As expected, a normal seasonal cooling trend at the end of September and early October provided the moderating influence lowering Klamath River temperatures to tolerable levels for salmon. Vogel also found that large numbers of salmon entered the lower Klamath River earlier than usual and were exposed to two dramatic and uncharacteristic cooling and warming conditions causing disease outbreak from warm water and crowded conditions. The combination of these factors was chronically and cumulatively stressful to fish and is probably the most plausible reason for the fish die- off. " In my opinion, the best available scientific data and information indicate that the continued operation and maintenance of historical flows at Iron Gate Dam will not jeopardize coho salmon," said Vogel in March 2003. " Furthermore, in my opinion the operations of Iron Gate Dam during the summer and fall of 2002 did not cause and could not have prevented the fish die- off in the lower Klarnath River." Unfortunately, scant media coverage was afforded to Vogel's findings. Outside of the Upper Basin, the press made no mention of the fact that, despite the die- off, the numbers of fish returning to Iron Gate hatchery on the Klamath River were the third highest in 40 years. The media also largely ignored a similar finding made in October 2003 by the National Research Council Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fish in the Klamath Basin. In its final report, the Committee failed to find a linkage between the operation of the Klamath Project and the fish die- off, and questioned whether changes federal project operations at the time would have prevented it. Clearly, the hard working landowners of the Upper Klamath Basin have been on the receiving end of a cruel and long- distance war being waged by environmental activists who assert that the federal water project - representing only 2 percent of the total land base of the Klamath River watershed, and consuming only 3- 4 percent of the average annual flows to the Pacific Ocean - is somehow responsible for all of the environmental woes of the river system. These advocates are intent on portraying the Klamath Basin as a poster child to help fuel outside efforts that are focused on litigating, legislating and publicly condemning the local community for doing what it has done for 98 of the last 99 years - irrigating farm and ranch land. r r r r These interests know that federal water projects are an easy target of litigation, since federal environmental and clean water laws govern project operations. The lawsuits are often aimed at federal entities - such as the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation and fishery agencies - which, on the surface, give the appearance that the environmental plaintiffs are simply interested in correcting errors made by some non- descript governmental agency. The true intended target of these actions, however, ultimately becomes the landowners and water users who fall under the management jurisdiction of the federal agencies. It is the farmers and ranchers that pay the price of litigation through altered management practices, increased uncertainty, and escalating legal expenses to defend their interests. For the most part, the potentially damaging effects these actions could cause family farmers and ranchers have been deflected. However, local water users are concerned that permanent Klamath River policy will be influenced by misinformation in the future. Vindication, Part II After an 18- month barrage of anti- Klamath Project attacks in the media and courtrooms, the long- awaited final report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released in October 2003. The final NRC report is important to local farmers and ranchers for several key reasons: 1. The report clearly indicated that recovery of endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath Basin cannot be achieved by actions that are exclusively or primarily focused on operation of the Klamath Project. 2. The committee also reconfirmed its findings from the earlier interim report that found no evidence of a causal connection between Upper Klamath Lake water levels and sucker health, or that higher flows on the Klamath River mainstem help coho salmon. 3. The NRC committee did not accept arguments that the operation of the Klamath Project caused the 2002 fish die- off or that changes in the operation of the Project at p the time would have prevented it. 32 r ~ r r Despite the final conclusions, some environmentalists and many in the media continue to maintain the sensational but unsupported position that the Klamath Project was responsible for the 2002 fish mortality that occurred over 200 miles from the Klamath Project. The final NRC report was consistent with what Upper Basin interests have been saying for years: the Klamath Project cannot solely bear the burden for species recovery in this basin. A watershed- wide approach to species recovery - one that addresses all the stressors to fish - is essential to improving the environment and saving the local economy. Local water users shared the NRC report's vision that increased knowledge, improved management, and cohesive community action would promote recovery of the fishes. At the same time, they remained extremely concerned that the " business as usual" approach - regulation of the Klamath Project - would remain the dominant aspect of ESA biological opinions and advocacy of Project opponents. For reasons now clearly evident, the irrigators' original recommendation for an outside technical review of the ESA activities in the Klamath basin by an objective group such as the r National Academy of Sciences back in 1993 ( KWUA 1993) was an important first step. The benefits of an ESA peer review are obvious after reading the NRC's final report. " We are beginning to see signs of progress with ESA activities in the basin," said Dave Vogel, nearly one year after the release of the final NRC Committee report. " However, alarmingly, there are some individuals within the agencies that are in a state of denial over the findings and conclusions of the NRC's report. Despite the NRC's final report, the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries still have too much focus on the Klamath Project and not enough emphasis on a watershed- wide approach." Other experts agree. " We found that the prevailing scientific sentiment in the basin-' More water is better for fish'- was the wrong approach," NRC Committee member Jeffrey Mount told California Farmer magazine in December 2003, two months after the final NRC report was released. " We hate to say we told you so, but...." It is very important to note that many of the most pertinent findings, conclusions, and r recommendations of the NRC Klamath Committee were not new to the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries. Dave Vogel elaborated on this in testimony he provided to the House Resources Committee at a field hearing held in Klamath Falls in June 2004. " The NRC final report advocates a watershed approach, peer review, greater stakeholder involvement, oversight of agency actions, focus on factors other than the Klamath Project 33 r operations, reduction of resource conflicts, and incorporation of the principles of adaptive management toward species recovery," said Vogel. " Over the past decade, local water users and their allies forwarded much of the same and similar technical findings and recommendations to those two agencies, but were mainly ignored. Additionally, the NRC's major conclusion that there is insufficient scientific justification for high reservoir levels and high instream flows was always prominent in water users' technical comments on the agencies' biological opinions during the past decade." r " The NRC Klamath Committee's final report was an outstanding effort and the product must serve as a catalyst to advance balanced natural resource management in the basin," Vogel said. " If federal agencies meaningfully incorporate many of the NRC's principal findings, conclusions, and recommendations, we fully expect positive results to the species recovery and reduced resource conflicts. We should use the momentum of the NRC's final report to guide recovery efforts and watershed improvements. However, if the agencies do not take this pro- active approach, we could again return to the disaster that transpired in 2001." • Dr. Mount agrees. r " For too long, Klamath managers have relied on fixing their problems by turning only one knob- the knob of raising and lowering water levels in Upper Klamath Lake and the river," said Mount, a University of California professor. " They need to take new approaches that support multiple populations offish and healthy ecosystems throughout the watershed," he said. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment The U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's final 10- year Biological Assessment for Klamath Project 2002- 2012 operations properly incorporated the findings of the 2002 interim National Research Council's ( NRC) interim report, and generally captured the essence of the " watershed- wide" philosophy endorsed in the final 2003 NRC report. Unfortunately, the fishery agency biological opinions ( BOs) do not. Despite the so- called ecosystem approach to species recovery advocated by the USFWS and NMFS, their actions in the Klamath basin over the past decade amply demonstrates that the exact opposite took place. They focused on: 1) a single- species approach; and 2) Klamath Project operations. The USFWS opinion continues to perpetuate the questionable assumption that lake level management is the principle mechanism affecting sucker survival in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). The NOAA Fisheries jeopardy decision similarly continues to place high emphasis on downstream flows. The stored water developed for Klamath Project farmers continues to be reallocated to meet the artificial demands set by agency biologists. 34 r The combined - and apparently, unanticipated - impacts placed on the Upper Basin community from the application of the two opinions are unacceptable. On June 25th, 2003, local irrigators were told by Reclamation officials that UKL diversions to the Project would be shut down for a minimum of 5 days - in the middle of the growing season. By day's end, reason prevailed: the agencies backed off their initial request9 and instead, Reclamation notified farmers to continue their efforts to reduce diversions from the lake. This was driven by one apparent agency mission: to avoid dropping UKL one inch below a lake level requirement established by the USFWS. Rancher Gary Wright learns that the Klamath Project would be shut down in the middle of the irrigation season, June 25, 2003. Common sense prevailed, and later in the day, Reclamation rescinded its earlier decision. In addition to the continued uncertainty irrigators face, the opinions are generating new, unanticipated impacts to the community. In the past 40 to 50 years, while the cropping pattern in the Klamath Project has varied from year to year, the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. On the other hand, the 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon established the river flow schedule and an " environmental water bank" - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. The result: stored water that has flowed to farms, ranches and the refuges for nearly 100 years is now sent downstream at such high levels, that groundwater pumped from the Lost River basin is being used to supplement the resulting " coho salmon demand" in the Klamath River. 9 Improved coordination between USFWS managers and their Reclamation counterparts in Klamath Falls and Sacramento was one important reason for the positive corrective action that was taken. 35 It is not the farmers who have imposed new water demands that, in essence, have made groundwater the default supplemental supply to the Klamath Project. It is the opinions of agency fishery biologists who have fundamentally altered how this century- old water project operates, and who have apparently failed to anticipate the resulting impacts to the community. While Reclamation in 2002 sharply disagreed with the findings of both fishery agency biological opinions, it is not yet clear how consultation will be reinitiated to create a new operations plan. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners Since the early 1990s, and particularly in the new millennium, local water users - both within the Klamath Project and those who farm in upstream areas north of Upper Klamath Lake - have taken proactive steps to protect and enhance water supplies, enhance the environment, r and stabilize the agricultural economy. Farmers and ranchers in the Klamath Project have consistently supported restoration actions to improve habitat for the basin's fish and wildlife species. Sucker Recovery Planning KWUA in 1993 published the Initial Ecosystem Restoration Plan - the first ecosystem- based, scientifically valid planning document on Klamath Basin restoration. The plan placed particular emphasis on real, on- the- ground projects to recover endangered species. It was widely recognized as a meaningful assessment of necessary restoration activities. KWUA in 2001 reiterated its previous call with the release of a report entitled Protecting the Beneficial Uses of Upper Klamath Lake: A Plan to Accelerate Recovery of the Lost River and Shortnose Suckers. The 2001 report provided timelines and budgets for dozens of projects that could provide real benefits. Regrettably, until the past three years, there has been failure to effectively implement most of the on- the- ground activities proposed by KWUA. On- the- Ground Actions Local agricultural and business leaders have dedicated thousands of volunteer hours and have spent millions of dollars in the past ten years to participate in processes associated with environmental restoration, Klamath Basin water rights adjudication, dispute resolution, drought- proofing, and water supply enhancement. Most impressive, however, is the multitude of actions undertaken on- the- ground: • Local efforts to assist National Wildlife Refuges ( e. g. " Walking Wetlands") • Ecosystem Enhancement and Sucker Recovery Efforts in the Upper Basin • Fish Passage Improvement Projects • Wildlife Enhancement and Wetland Restoration Efforts • Local Efforts to Improve Water Quality 36 • Power Resource Development • Efforts to Improve Klamath Project Water Supply Reliability and Water Use Efficiency Many of these efforts were driven by an initial desire to implement meaningful restoration actions intended to provide some sort of mitigation " credit" that could be applied towards reducing the burden carried by Klamath Project irrigators to " protect" threatened and endangered fish species. For many years, that credit was not recognized. For example, Federal agencies or non- profit conservation groups have acquired over 25,000 acres of farmland in the Upper Klamath Basin for habitat purposes. Each time the agencies sought additional land, they promised that each acquisition would provide environmental benefits, reducing pressure on the Klamath Project's family farmers and ranchers. Those promises have not materialized, and Project irrigation water still remains the sole regulatory tool used to address federal ESA objectives for endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath River watershed. • TEAMWORK A broad range of partners include U. S. Fish and Wildlife, Bureau of Reclamation. CalOre Wetlands. Tulelake Growers Association, Audubon Society. Tulelake Irrigation District, California Waterfowl Association. University of California. Ducks Unlimited. Klamath Water Users Association. USDA NRCS. Leaseland Advisory Council, and numerous volunteer organizations. A page from the " Refuge" section of the tule- Iake. com website. Environmental Water Bank KWUA in early March 2003 announced it would support, and assist the Department of Interior in the implementation of, a Klamath Project Pilot Environmental Water Bank in 2003 to provide over 50,000 acre- feet of additional water for environmental purposes. Reclamation's 10- year Biological Assessment ( BA) developed in February 2002 proposed an environmental water bank through which willing buyers and sellers will provide additional water supplies for fish and wildlife purposes and to enhance tribal trust resources. The 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon firmly established the river flow schedule and the water bank - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. 37 The coho biological opinion's rigid water bank schedule, which steps up the magnitude of the bank for the first four years, regardless of actual hydrology, is difficult to justify. This type of water bank does not reflect the intent of either the proposal put forth by KWUA in 2002 ( see below), or the original USBR biological assessment, which proposed implementation of a water bank in drier years, not every year. Water users committed to pursue developing a water bank with Reclamation in January 2002. At that time, KWUA was asked by Reclamation to develop a Project- wide water bank to assist with meeting environmental water demands in drier years. KWUA's Water Bank and Supply Enhancement Committee held over 30 meetings in 2002- 03 to develop the 65- page report/ proposal for a long- term water bank, which differs substantially from the pilot water bank proposed by Reclamation this past year. Certainty of water supplies is a key principle imbedded in KWUA's long- term water bank proposal. Local water users insist that, in exchange for voluntary participation in a Project water bank - which would be used to " fund" environmental water needs - 100% of the irrigation demand for remaining Project acreage will be satisfied, season- long. Water users further believe that the water bank cannot be viewed as a stand- alone element. While Reclamation's 2003 and 2004 pilot programs did not closely resemble KWUA's vision for a long- term bank, water users are hopeful that Reclamation and Interior will look to the irrigators' document to complete its 10- year water bank proposal. EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin The federal government in 2003 released $ 7 million in conservation funding to the Klamath Basin. This sum represents a portion of the $ 50 million in funding earmarked for the Basin in the 2002 Farm Bill under the Environmental Quality Incentives Program ( EQIP). KWUA was instrumental in securing these provisions during Farm Bill negotiations. In 2004, Interior Secretary Norton included another $ 12 million for this program in the president's 2005 budget request. The funds provided cost- share payments to farmers and ranchers to employ water conservation measures. Over 800 Klamath Basin landowners have applied to participate in this program, despite the requirement that they pay 25% of the costs. This shows remarkable commitment by local irrigators to do the right thing, despite the fact that many of these landowners are still recovering from the financial impacts of the 2001 water curtailment. Recognition at Last In the past year, local irrigators have finally begun to get the recognition - if not the actual regulatory relief- they deserve for their proactive efforts. To wit: • KWUA was awarded the 2003 " Leadership in Conservation" award by the Oregon Department of Agriculture; • KWUA in 2004 was honored on the steps of the Oregon state capitol for " exemplifying the spirit" of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds; 38 Tulelake Irrigation District in January 2004 received the F. Gordon Johnston award for its innovative canal lining project completed near Newell; and U. S. Secretary of Agriculture Ann Veneman and NRCS chief Bruce Knight in 2004 recognized local rancher Mike Byrne for his leadership in conservation. NRCS Chief Bruce Knight ( left) with 2004 Excellence in Conservation Award winner Mike Byrne. It is clear that local irrigators have not been idle in the past ten years. Their efforts to improve their environment are all the more impressive when one considers that the uncertainty and difficulty associated with keeping their farming operations profitable have not diminished. Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, Congressman Greg Walden and KWUA Executive Director Dan Keppen at the new A Canal Headgates, April 2003. 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach Klamath Project water users in October 2004 enthusiastically greeted the announcement that the states of California and Oregon and the Bush Administration had signed the historic " Klamath River Watershed Coordination Agreement". The agreement - signed by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, and four of President Bush's cabinet level secretaries - underscored the commitment of these parties to solve the fisheries challenges of the Klamath River on a watershed - wide basis. The state- federal Klamath agreement reflects the philosophy embedded in both the Klamath River Basin Compact and the 2003 NRC Klamath report, which confirmed that Klamath Basin issues must be dealt with in an integrated and comprehensive way for a lasting solution of the challenges facing the basin. The NRC committee report makes clear that merely closing the spigot on the Klamath Project will not solve the problems facing Klamath Basin fisheries, and that strategy obviously was disastrous for farming and ranching communities. The coordination agreement recognizes that message and promotes a unified effort that many water users believe is much needed. An important part of this agreement is that it supports the Conservation Implementation Program ( CIP), a work in progress proposed by federal agencies to coordinate management actions in the Klamath River watershed. The CIP would meld a scientific advisory body, local communities, and resource agencies to identify, coordinate and resolve the Basin's critical water quality, water quantity and fish and wildlife restoration challenges. KWUA is working with other producer groups and local government to develop guidelines that make the CIP workable and acceptable to Klamath Basin communities. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River Reclamation in late 2004 finalized a draft study intended to provide a glimpse at how the Klamath River might have looked before the Klamath Project was built. The report shows that- especially in drier years - historic flows in the Klamath River near Keno, Oregon dwindled to a mere trickle. The report provides compelling evidence that supports claims made by local residents for decades - the stored water provided by the Klamath Project may actually provide more flows downriver than what would have flowed before the Project was built. This is primarily due to the developed storage and the fact that farmlands that were once under water now use less water than what was historically lost to consumptive and evaporative use of the former marshes. 40 Ufric; lfftid Kur , Jhm% tr Excerpt from Draft BOR Flow Study 41 Conclusion - The Future To solve the problems of the Klamath River watershed, we need a coordinated management program that spans two states in a watershed that is characterized by a strong federal presence. Competition among stakeholder groups - including four tribes, agricultural water users, and countless environmental groups - is fierce. In order to be successful, we need to better understand the real state of the watershed by developing the facts and best possible information to make the best possible decisions. Collaborations need to replace ideological advocacies; watershed wide approaches need to replace regionalism; and honest exchanges of information need to displace environmental sensationalism. A June 20, 2004 editorial published by the Klamath Falls Herald & News provides an apt glimpse of what the future might bring to the Klamath irrigation community and how the Klamath Water Users Association will address that future: Recently, the Klamath Water Users Association got an award for not using water, which is not a contradiction in terms at all. It's a matter of doing what has to be done to keep farming and ranching alive in the Klamath Basin. The award was from the state of Oregon and recognized the water users' efforts in behalf of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. It was presented to the group in a ceremony on the steps of the Capitol with leaders such as Gov. Ted Kulongoski and the Democratic and Republican leaders of the Legislature participating. The award recognizes a welter of actions in the Basin, some using federal and state dollars and some not, many aimed at making agricultural operations more efficient water users. Some have given agriculture interests heartache, such as the conversion of farmlands to wetlands - the water users cite 24,000 acres in the past decade, equal to more than a tenth of the Klamath Reclamation Project. Nevertheless, it's clear that farmers and ranchers have recognized their predicament given the pressure of the Endangered Species Act and competition for water from Indian tribes upstream and down. Agriculture is in the midst of a struggle that could take decades yet to play out, and its defenders are determined that they will survive. This is a longer- term version of the creativity they showed in 2001, when, faced with imminent ruin, they responded with skill and imagination in a political protest that brought national attention and saved Basin agriculture to fight another day. The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works. ~ 42 Whatever alternate vision exists involves blowing away towns such as Merrill Malin and Tulelake and shriveling the city ofKlamath Falls. It involves throwing lots of people off the land, and itfs not acceptable. This is not the first such award, and won't be the last. It is a signal of a widening recognition in Oregon and the nation that farmers and ranchers will do good things here to make sure that they can continue in their necessary and honorable work. The Klamath Water Users Association, with the talents and support of the community, will continue to address the resource needs of its constituency in a proactive and creative manner. The KWUA has shown itself to be steadfast and able in protecting water users while being receptive to innovative and reasonable solutions. Our irrigating communities, through the continued efforts of the KWUA, will always be persistent and adaptable representatives of our American heritage. The " future".. . bring it on, we can handle it. r Father and daughter ride to the headgates, summer 2001. 43 Notes Information sources used in the preceding report sections are further described below. Overview The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report. Pioneers The Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service 1913 report entitled " History of the Klamath Project. Oregon- California. From May 1, 1903 to December 13, 1912", written by I. S. Voorhees, contains detailed accounting of early irrigation works in the Upper Klamath Basin. Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government *— The Voorhees document, noted above, details this issue. Construction Begins The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Basin Area Office also provided factual data on the Klamath Project. Homesteaders The Journal of the Modoc County Historical Society, No. 18- 1996, focuses exclusively on twentieth century development of the Tule Lake area. Betty Lou Byrne- Shirely's " The Reclamation of Tule Lake" and the February 1947 Reclamation Era article " Gold Mine in the Sky", both included in the Modoc County historical journal, served as sources for the homesteader information. Quotes made by Dave Carman, a World War II veteran Tule Lake homesteader, were pulled from his testimony submitted at a House Resources Committee field hearing in Klamath Falls in June 2004. The Klamath River Compact The source for much of this information regarding development of the Compact comes from the affidavit and testimony of Stephen R. Wee, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project water rights and related issues on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040049, before the Office of Administrative 44 - r Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). The conclusion of this section contains the actual purposes of the Compact, as identified in Article I of that document. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. New Demands Legal documents prepared by the Klamath Water Users Association attorney - Paul Simmons, of Somach, Simmons & Dunn - provide much of the background information regarding the steadily increasing regulations faced by Project irrigators, starting in the 1990s. Specifically, the plaintiffs' memorandum of points and authorities in support of motion for preliminary injunction ( Kandra et al v. United States of America) was relied upon. Also, David Vogel's testimony before the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Resources oversight field hearing in June 2004 provides an excellent treatise on the real reasons for the decline of suckers in the Upper Klamath Basin. The Klamath Water Users Association previously developed the section that assesses stressors to coho salmon during the 1990s. Problems on the East Side This section derives from an excellent letter ( dated July 28, 2004) prepared by Best Best & Krieger on behalf of Horsefly Irrigation District and Langell Valley Irrigation District. The letter was submitted to the U. S. House of Representatives Resources Committee in connection with a congressional field hearing held in Klamath Falls in July 2004. 2001 Curtailment Of the numerous media accounts of the 2001 water cutoff, I believe Blake Hurst's piece " Calamity in Klamath", which originally was published in The American Enterprise magazine in late 2002, is the best. I have borrowed liberally from Mr. Hurst, particularly his assessment of the impacts to the community of Tulelake, California. Jess Prosser's comments were originally printed in Range Magazine in 2001. The Farmers Fight Back The comments regarding the " desperate community" were pulled from an outstanding paper presented by Paul Simmons at the American Bar Association Environmental Section Fall 2004 Meeting. 45 Enter President Bush I was in the audience when President Bush made his speech in Portland. After the president's speech, I met Congressman Greg Walden for the first time; he conveyed to me some of the details of the president's flight over the Klamath Basin earlier in the day. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In This section was derived from press statements developed by KWUA in early 2002. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies Most of this section derives from personal experience, and the latter part was pulled directly from an opinion piece I was asked to write for a Boise, Idaho newspaper at the request of Idaho water users who were also being attacked by some of the same activists engaged in Klamath issues. Vindication, Part II / " We hate to say we told you so, but...." Much of this information originates in Dave Vogel's written testimony that he submitted to the House Resources Committee in June 2004. After more than a decade of professional and sometimes, personal criticism by agency and tribal biologists, the final NRC Report perhaps vindicated Dave Vogel more than anyone else. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment This section was written based on personal experience of the author. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners We refer you to www. kwua. org and a 45- page document entitled Summary of Recent and Proposed Environmental Restoration and Water Conservation Efforts Undertaken by Klamath Water Users and Basin Landowners for further information on this topic. 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach This perspective comes from KWUA assessments and press releases. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River The USBR study is incredibly important, because, for the first time, it provides a numerical modeling assessment of the conditions that likely existed on the Upper Klamath River before Europeans settled the area. Prior to this effort, assertions that flow conditions in the river were likely lower than the present could only be backed up by anecdotal ( albeit accurate) reports and incomplete flow studies. Conclusion - The Future The June 20, 2004 Herald & News editorial on recent water user efforts provided a fitting ending to this report, which is further enhanced by language developed by Steve Kandra, 2004- 05 KWUA President. 46 Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California Photo Credits 1. Cover photo - courtesy of Jacqui Krizo. 2. Map of Klamath Project - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 3. " A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907" - courtesy of Tulelake- Butte Valley _ Fair, Museum of Local History ( TBVF Museum). 4. " 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area" - courtesy of Oregon Water Resources Department. 5. " Adams Cut, July 18, 1906" - courtesy of Tulelake - Butte Valley Fair, Museum of Local History. 6. " 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 7. " Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September, 1909" - courtesy of TBVF Museum. 8. " 1927 Homesteader Affidavit" - courtesy of Somach, Simmons and Dunn 9. " Farm Lottery Article, Life Magazine" - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 10. " The Sign Says it AH" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 11. " Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 12. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River - courtesy of PacifiCorp. 13. " Tulelake, California" - courtesy of Rob Crawford r l4. " Del Norte Salmon Cannery" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 15. " April 6, 2004 Headlines" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 16. " Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 17. " Cemeteries went Dry in 2001" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 18. " Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 19. Klamath Bucket Brigade - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 20. Prayer / Protest at Headgates - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 21. President Bush Photo courtesy of Rob Crawford _ 22. Tulelake Rancher Gary Wright, June 2003 - courtesy of Pat Ratliff 23. Walking Wetlands photo - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson. 24. Bruce Knight and Mike Byrne - courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture 25. Gov. Kulongoski, Rep. Walden, and Dan Keppen at the A Canal, 2003 - Courtesy of Pat Ratliff 26. Undepleted Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River - U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 27. " Father and Daughter Ride to the Headgates" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 28. " Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California" - courtesy of Scott Harding Photography r — 47 Title: The Klamath Project at 100 : conserving our resources, preserving our heritage Author: Keppen, Dan Year: 2004, 2005 The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage 1905- 2005: The First Century of Water for the Klamath Project Grain Truck, Lower Klamath Lake, 2004 Prepared by Dan Keppen, Executive Director Klamath Water Users Association December 2004 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 ) 1 1 1 I 1 I I I 003E00042195 .... rrj R13E ^ ^ T ^ I l* IILLER DIVERSION DAM MILLER CREEK AND LOST RIVER CHANNEL L. ^ ^ IMPROVEMENTS — FEATURES: Hydrography Canal Drain Dike ) ( Tunnel )—( Flume ) - - ( Siphon Pipeline Drop 9 Pumping Plant Q Irrigation District Pumping Plant H Private Utility Powerplant ik Project Headquarters Project Land Lea3 « Area MAJOR WATER DISTRICTS: Ady Dist. Improv. Co. Enterprise I. D. Horsefly I. D. Klamath Drain. Dist. Klamath I. D. Langell Valley I. D. Malin ID. Midland Dist. Improv. Co. P Canal Mutual Water Co. Pine Grove I. D. Pioneer Dist. Improv. Co. Plevna Dist. Improv. Co. Poe Valley Improv. Dist. Shasta View I. D. Sunnyside I. D. Tulelake I. D. Van Brimmer Ditch Co. Westside Improv. Dist. KLAMATH PROJECT Oregon - California N 0 12 3 4 5 Miles Background of Klamath Water Users Association The original Klamath Water Users Association was organized on March 4, 1905 under Oregon statute and capitalized in the amount of $ 2,000,000. That Association was created by local farmers, livestock producers, businessmen, bankers, attorneys, and community leaders interested in seeing the Klamath Reclamation Project constructed with the least amount of cost and for the lasting benefit of the entire Klamath community. Working in cooperation with Reclamation the stockholders of the Association contracted with the U. S. Secretary of the Interior to assume the responsibility of payment to the United States the cost of the Klamath Project irrigation works on November 3, 1905. The Association was active in bringing in lands to be served by the Project and addressing water right matters of those lands. By the 1950' s much of the construction costs of the project had been reimbursed to the United States, and irrigation districts assumed the contractual obligations for maintaining and operating the Project. The current Klamath Water Users Association ( KWUA) has its origins in the Klamath Water Users Protective Association, bylaws adopted June 22, 1953, organized to address water right and electrical power issues for Klamath Basin irrigators. The Protective Association reformed itself March 16,1993 with amended bylaws, and incorporated in 1994 as the modern Klamath Water Users Association. The KWUA represents private rural and suburban irrigation districts and ditch companies within the Klamath Project, along with private irrigation interests outside the Project in both Oregon and California in the Upper Klamath Basin. The KWUA is governed by an eleven-person board of directors elected from supporting irrigation districts, private irrigation interests, and the business community. The KWUA now represents over 5,000 water users on 1,400 family farms. Klamath Association KWUA's mission statement: To preserve, protect and defend the water and power rights of the landowners of the Klamath Basin while promoting wise management of ecosystem resources. r Table of Contents Page Executive Summary 4 Introduction 5 Overview 7 Pioneers 9 The Reclamation Act 10 The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government 10 Construction Begins 11 Homesteaders 13 The Klamath River Compact 15 The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches 18 New Demands 19 r Sucker Listings 20 Coho Salmon Listing 21 Problems on the East Side 22 2001 Curtailment 24 The Farmers Fight Back 26 Enter President Bush 27 Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In 28 The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies 29 Vindication, Part II 32 " We hate to say we told you so, but...." 33 The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment. 34 Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners 36 Sucker Recovery Planning 36 On- the- Ground Actions 36 Environmental Water Bank 38 EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin 39 Recognition at Last 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach 40 BOR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River 40 Conclusion - The Future 41 Notes 44 Photo Credits 47 " " Executive Summary r The Klamath Project in 2005 marks its 100- year anniversary. This report summarizes the original formation of the Project, describes the enthusiastic response of the local community to the federal water project, and steps through the development of the Project in ensuing decades. The story of the pioneers, early settlers, and homesteaders who helped settle the area - veterans of both world wars - provides a sense of the character possessed by local farmers and ranchers, who had to rely on similar traits to keep their community alive when irrigation supplies were curtailed in 2001. And it explains a very important dynamic of the region, especially in recent years, where local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. The immediate future remains uncertain for Klamath Project irrigators, but their marked propensity for adapting to change will keep local farmers and ranchers in business for another 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, and developing habitat for fish and wildlife. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders beginning over a century ago to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. r A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907. • - r r The Klamath Project at 100: Conserving our Resources, Preserving our Heritage " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act. " 1905 Petition from Basin residents to the Secretary of the Interior " The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works." Klamath Falls Herald & News Editorial June 20, 2004 " Agriculture plays a vital role in this state } s economy. An economic issue is one thing, for the farmers who need the resource, need the water, to be able to make a living. There fs another piece to this that ys much larger for all Oregon, and that is a cultural issue. The people here are very, very important to the future of this state. " Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, At the A Canal Fish Screen, Klamath Falls, Oregon. April 17, 2003 Introduction The year 2005 marks the one hundred- year birthday of one of the oldest federal water projects in the western United States - the Klamath Irrigation Project. As was painfully made evident in 2001, when Klamath Project supplies were curtailed for the first time in 95 years, the local community and its economy are interwoven with the health of this irrigation project. One hundred years after overwhelming national policy supported its construction, the Klamath Project continues to play a critical role in the local community. " The Klamath Project started out as a good thing, and it remains a good thing", said Tulelake farmer Rob Crawford. " When the Project was created, Klamath Basin people were meeting a national call by doing what they were supposed to do - settle the West. Today, our efforts focus on preserving our heritage, while conserving our resources." r r - r r rr At the beginning of the last century, when the local community learned that the Klamath Project would be developed, an " incredible celebration" ensued, said Paul Simmons, an attorney for the Klamath Water Users Association. " The people of the Klamath Basin basically posed a proposal to the federal government," said Simmons. " They told the government,' if you will be the plumber and the banker, we can do something good for the country.'" The federal government did just that by constructing the irrigation project. Local growers repaid the construction costs in the ensuing decades. Today, thousands of people - family farmers and ranchers, their employees, and agriculture- related businesses - make their living directly from farming and ranching in the Klamath Project. In turn, their activities support the communities of Malin, Merrill, Midland, Bonanza, Tulelake, Newell, and Klamath Falls. And, equally important, their efforts yield high- quality safe food for the country and the world. The last century has been one of massive transformation, vitality, shining hope, and deep despair for the farmers and ranchers served by the Klamath Project. The core reason for the creation of the Klamath Project - to develop water supplies and storage for irrigation uses - has been diminished as new competing demands, intended to satisfy Endangered Species Act ( ESA) and tribal trust conditions, have come on line. As a result, after perceived ESA and tribal trust obligations are met, Klamath Project irrigators and national wildlife refuges essentially get the remaining water. Because very little carryover storage is provided by Klamath Project reservoirs, the farmers now find themselves becoming increasingly reliant on incoming flows to the reservoirs, rather than the stored water that was originally developed to provide them with a reliable summertime irrigation supply. In essence, because of new laws and policies developed in the recent past, the original purpose of the Klamath Project has been somewhat lost in the shuffle. This became glaringly obvious in 2001, when for the first time in 95 years, water supplies to the Klamath Project from Upper Klamath Lake were curtailed before the irrigation season had even begun, to meet conditions set by federal fishery agencies to purportedly prevent harm to three fish species. Three and one- half years after Klamath Irrigation Project ( Project) water deliveries were terminated by the federal government, local water users are attempting to proactively address water supply challenges while at the same time trying to stave off a furious round of attacks launched by environmental activists. Project irrigators - who farm on lands straddling the California- Oregon state line - remain apprehensive about the future certainty of water n supplies. However, the strong traits shown by the original Klamath Project settlers - self-independence, creativity, a sense of community - are still apparent, one hundred years later. Without these characteristics, the tragic events of 2001 might have become nothing more than n passing headlines in the local newspaper. Instead, a galvanized community grabbed national media and political attention by forcing the rest of the country to see that things had gone too far. r r Now, Klamath Project irrigators are preparing for the next 100 years. In order to deal with the uncertain water situation, and facing higher power costs in 2006, the 21st century Klamath Project irrigator is adapting, by developing new market niches for his products, creating innovative approaches to energy use, conserving and marketing water, developing habitat for fish and wildlife, and improving the symbiotic relationship he has with neighboring national wildlife refuges. The same abilities shown by pioneers and veteran homesteaders to carve out new communities from the wilderness will now be employed to conserve resources and preserve their remarkable and uniquely American heritage. Overview The irrigable lands of the Klamath Project ( Project) are in south- central Oregon ( 62 percent) and north- central California ( 38 percent). Two main sources supply water for the Project: Upper Klamath Lake and the Klamath River on the Klamath system; and Clear Lake Reservoir, Gerber Reservoir, and Lost River on the Lost River system, are in a closed basin. The total drainage area for the Klamath Project, including the Lost River and the Klamath River watershed above Keno, Oregon is approximately 5,700 square miles. Currently, approximately 225,000 acres, many previously submerged, have been transformed into productive farmland. The crops grown within the Klamath Project area consist of grain, hay, pasture, silage, mint, potatoes, onions, other vegetables, alfalfa, strawberry rootstock, and horseradish. This list of crops represents the majority of planted acreage within the Klamath Project over the last 40 to 50 years. The cropping pattern has varied from year to year, but the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. The Bureau of Reclamation operates Clear Lake Dam, Gerber Dam, and the Lost River Diversion Dam. The Link River Dam is operated by the Pacific Power and Light Company in accordance with Project needs, or more recently also as directed by federal agencies. The Tulelake Irrigation District operates the Anderson- Rose Dam, and the Langell Valley Irrigation District operates the Malone and Miller Diversion Dams. The various irrigation districts operate the canals and pumping plants. The original Klamath Project plan included construction of facilities to divert and distribute water for irrigation of basin lands, including reclamation of Tule and Lower Klamath Lakes, and control of floods in the area. The development of the stored water provided by the Klamath Project allowed for the controlled, beneficial use of water in the Upper Basin. Currently, late summer and fall flows in the Lower Klamath River are augmented with stored water that would not be there, but for the Project. Under pre- Project conditions, natural controls existed below both Upper Klamath Lake and Lake Ewauna which stabilized lake levels except during critical droughts. Those controls were natural reefs of hard earth material in the channel and other channel constrictions. Under these pre- Project conditions, the Klamath River flowed into the Lower Klamath Lake area. A 1906 map titled " Topographic and Drainage Map, Upper and Lower Klamath Project" shows the invert of the Klamath Strait approximately the same level as the Klamath River channel bottom near Keno. In addition, the Lost River terminated at Tule Lake. These flows flooded approximately 183,000 acres within Lower Klamath and Tule Lake. In general, under pre- Project conditions, Klamath River flows downstream of Keno likely occurred after a certain water level was reached in the Klamath River and Lower Klamath Lake. An engineer speaking in the early days of the Project observed that adequate Klamath Project water supplies were not a worry. Rather - something that would be inconceivable today - dealing with too much water was more of a concern at the time: " It contains an irrigation problem, an evaporation problem, a run- off problem, any one of which is difficult in itself but all of which together form a most perplexing whole," said the engineer. " In nearly all reclamation projects water has to be conserved. In this project there is more than enough and the question of disposing of it becomes an important part." 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area r • r r r Pioneers Irrigation development began in areas now served by the Klamath Project in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Various landowners and entrepreneurs utilized water of the Klamath River and its tributaries, and undertook a wide range of visionary activities. Prime farmland, exposed around the edges of old historic Tule Lake as early as 1846 stimulated early settlers' interest in irrigation. Similarly, early settlers beginning in the early 1860s relied on " naturally irrigated" greases and forage in the Lower Klamath area for pasture and hay. The first irrigation ditch was dug by George Nurse and Joseph Conger in the bottom of Linkville Canyon in 1868. In 1878, this ditch was expanded and incorporated into the Linkville Water Ditch Company. Early pioneers Steele and Ankeny pursued a canal to deliver water to land between Klamath Falls and Merrill. Ultimately, the canal system was replaced by the A Canal and its distribution system which, operated by Klamath Irrigation District, continues to serve Project land to this day. t Adams Cut, July 18,1906. Diversion for irrigation of additional agricultural lands in the area now comprising the Klamath Project was initiated in 1882 with construction of an irrigation ditch by the Van Brimmer brothers to the land from White Lake, which was fed by the Klamath River. Private interests further developed this project by constructing the Adams Canal in 1886, which was supplied also from White Lake. Frank Adams, with assistance from the Van Brimmer r rr rr r Brothers, cut a canal through tule roots using hay- knives and a derrick, in order to improve diversion from White Lake. This canal ultimately extended to a length of 22 miles. By 1903, approximately 13,000 acres were irrigated by private interests, with the canal system in progress to deliver much more. After the 1905 authorization of the Klamath Project ( see below), many water rights were acquired to facilitate, and for the benefit of, the Klamath Project enterprise, and other agreements were made with other water right- holders. The Project utilized, extended, expanded and/ or improved previously existing systems, and included construction of other facilities. The Reclamation Act In 1902 Congress enacted the Reclamation Act, which encouraged the settlement of lands in the western states and the development of agricultural economies to feed the nation. The 1902 Act provided for federal financing of irrigation works, with the construction costs to be repaid over time by project water users. In addition, public lands were made available for homesteaders who accepted the responsibility to undertake improvements and pay the water charges. Both the Oregon and California legislatures also enacted laws making state- owned land available for use in the Klamath Project. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government In 1903, the Reclamation Service conducted investigations that led in 1904 to the first withdrawal of land by the Secretary of the Interior for developing a federal irrigation project. J. B. Lippincott, a supervising engineer from Los Angeles - who also played a key role in the City of Los Angeles' securement of Owens Valley water supplies - personally toured the Klamath Basin in June of 1904. l Although private irrigation projects were moving forward by the turn of the century, and some large- scale projects were being planned, most local citizens saw great value in a federally authorized and supported project. In 1905, local residents sent numerous petitions to Washington, D. C. requesting government irrigation assistance. By this time, a private corporation had given notion of its plans to develop water for what would ultimately become virtually the entire Klamath Project. Ironically, after Owens Valley agricultural water rights were secured by the City of Los Angeles, many of the displaced farmers moved to the Klamath Basin for the " reliable" water supplies of the Klamath Project. On their way north, they passed the first Reclamation Project in the West - the Newlands Project, near Reno, Nevada. 10 r r r r r r r " We desire to impress upon your mind the fact that 99% of the people in the Klamath Basin are a unit, and are clamoring for the assistance which might be rendered by the Government under the Reclamation Act," stated one petitioner. In November 1904, F. H. Newell, Chief Engineer of the federal Reclamation Service, told a large audience of enthusiastic farmers in Klamath Falls that, in his judgment, they had " a great irrigation project". Early in 1905, California and Oregon had ceded certain rights in the Upper and Lower Klamath Lakes and Tule Lake to the United States. On May 1, 1904, a board of engineers made a report that served as the basis for authorization of the Project. Congress authorized the use of lands and water in accordance with the State Acts of February 1905. The Secretary of the Interior authorized development of the Project on May 15, 1905, under provisions of the Reclamation Act of 1902. Construction Begins The Interior Secretary's 1905 authorization provided for project works to drain and reclaim lake bed lands of the Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes, to store waters of the Klamath and Lost Rivers, to divert irrigation supplies, and to control flooding of the reclaimed lands. The states of Oregon and California ceded then- submerged land to the federal government for the specific purpose of having the land drained and reclaimed for irrigation use by homesteaders. The Oregon Legislature also authorized the raising and lowering of Upper Klamath Lake in connection with the Project, and allowed the use of the bed of Upper Klamath Lake for storage of water for irrigation. Construction began on the Project in 1906 with the building of the main " A" Canal. Water was first made available May 22, 1907, to the lands now known as the Main Division. 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates 11 r r r r r This initial construction was followed by the completion of Clear Lake Dam in 1910, the Lost River Diversion Dam and many of the distribution structures in 1912, and the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam in 1921. ( In 1970, a public dedication at the Lower Lost River Diversion Dam officially changed the name of the structure to Anderson- Rose Dam.) Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September 1909. Large stone in self- dumping car. A contract executed February 24, 1917, between the California- Oregon Power Company ( now the Pacific Power and Light Company) and the United States authorized the company to construct Link River Dam for the benefit of the Project and for the company's use, and also extended to the water users of the Klamath Project certain preferential power rates. The dam was completed in 1921. The contract was amended and further extended for a 50- year period on April 16, 1956. The Malone Diversion Dam on the Lost River was built in 1923 to divert water to Langell Valley. The Gerber Dam on Miller Creek was completed in 1925, and the Miller Diversion Dam was built in 1924 to divert water released from Gerber Dam. In the Great Depression, continued settlement and leasing and distribution construction resulted in a significant increase, between 1930 and 1939 of the acres receiving water directly from Project facilities. The project work undertaken during this period included the enlargement of the Lost River Diversion Channel. In 1940, construction was begun on Pumping Plant D and the Tule Lake Tunnel. By 1942, these facilities, as well as the P- Canal were completed. In 1943, the Ady pumping plant was placed in operation, and in the next two years, the Straits Drain and pumps were constructed and installed and began operation. 12 r r Homesteaders The story of the homesteaders is a source of great pride in the Klamath Project. As Tule Lake receded according to plan, the lake bottom became suitable for cultivation. The land that ultimately became homesteads was under jurisdiction of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation ( Reclamation). Homesteading and developing more productive agricultural land was the goal of the reclamation project that " reclaimed" the beds of Tule Lake and Lower Klamath Lake to expose more arable land. After Tule Lake was dewatered, a large area of public land became available for agriculture. The government would lease this land to settlers, and in fact leased as much as 50,000 acres in Tule Lake in the 1920s. Over time, most of this land was homesteaded. In 1917,180 people applied for the 37 homestead parcels the Reclamation made available on the drained wetlands and lake beds. Between 1922 and 1937 there were five more homestead offerings and hundreds of homesteaders settled in on the fertile soil of the drained lake bed. Then, World War II curtailed the homesteading process. » rri.. . r i* Ul. r- Xio. 1 wi sat Mi M MM ttw DCCA rru. ilon _ ji « _ jra .... r. r tk. M r « i t » a-. . « *^ J •* 4. MM r* T RTMtNT Or THE X ,. . tie*. . ..< L. » ii tatwJ l u i » T « 11 r ( » T « rnr » ) xfc. ir « « . •" « » ^> « • inS| « Ut !•• « . • TTDHOII. ,.> , ^% laMitk r » u. « . orumtm. _ JBKS!*! « r._: iit_ » « « » i.. bwrlac n i M la t&. MttaJOMI ( 1* nat.. J « a>. aa4 tk* a. t* JKLaUMftULJatiLJlJrt.. . . . . W l t a . is a- S.- ..- M « ri « ia*. t u . ar tka ar. ra* al « » ot af i t kav* a » « . > n » M < aatrr. • M M MMtMl. MMM t . aa n » tn4 » r ua « « . o. rol - • M it. » • « i WMM .. 1927 Homesteader Affidavit In three drawings held in 1946, 1948 and 1949, a total of 216 World War II veterans were awarded homesteads on farmland in the Tule Lake Basin, as a thank you from a grateful nation. The number of applicants was far greater than the number of available homesteads. Veterans and the community gathered to watch the names drawn from a pickle jar. Farm homesteads and crop- producing land were the goals of reclamation, and the Tule Lake Basin became a showcase for reclamation work. 13 " When I arrived to see my homestead there was nothing there, just an expanse of opportunity," recalls Carman. " No roads, no houses, no trees, just bare ground. I then pitched my tent in the corner of my homestead." My wife Eleanor was expecting our second child, but could not join me until later. A tent was not acceptable living quarters for a young woman, a small child and another baby on the way." The settlers formed organizations, elected a school board, and went about creating a society. " When I began my new life as a Tulelake homesteader there were approximately 300 homesteaders, most of them with families," said Carman. " We united and began to build schools, churches and a hospital in Klamath Falls. We started a community. We were living the American dream and our dream was achieved by hard work and dedication, and I must say we could never have done this without our wives." Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By r - The Klamath River Compact The Klamath River Compact ( Compact) is a law of both Oregon and California, consented to by and Act of Congress. In the following decade, a variety of concerns and issues led to the passage of the Compact in 1957. These included: • Differing positions regarding the extent of development that could occur under Klamath Project water rights; 15 • • The related issue of priority of Klamath Project and overall Upper Klamath Basin irrigation development as against other uses, especially generation of hydro- electric power on the mainstem Klamath River; and • Concerns over potential future out- of- basin water exports. The development of the Compact was closely tied to an application for a water right filed by the California Oregon Power Company ( Copco) in 1951. This application anticipated using water at a proposed hydroelectric project on the Klamath River known as " Big Bend No. 2." In turn, this dispute folded in past dealings, agreements and opinions related to the operation of Link River Dam on Upper Klamath Lake. The agreements made between Copco and the Bureau of Reclamation at the time of construction of Link River Dam around 1920 had been controversial. Upper Klamath Basin irrigation interests had three primary concerns: 1. Power development, as an incident of the Project's reclamation purpose, should be undertaken only by the United States; 2. That the agreements threatened Klamath Project water supplies; and 3. The agreements were inconsistent with state legislation authorizing use of Upper Klamath Lake by the United States for storage or reclamation purposes. In 1951, Copco filed an application with the Oregon Hydroelectric Commission ( OHC) for a water right for the proposed Big Bend No. 2 hydroelectric facility. The OHC at that time had authority and jurisdiction over issuance of water rights for hydropower facilities. Copco at the time of filing took the position that water was available for appropriation and Copco was entitled to a right, senior in priority, to any future Upper Klamath Basin irrigation that was not then actually developed. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River. — 16 r r • A. To facilitate and promote the orderly, integrated and comprehensive development, use, conservation and control thereof for various purposes, including, among others: the use of water for domestic purposes; the development of lands by irrigation and other means; the protection and enhancement offish, wildlife, and recreational resources; the use of water for industrial purposes and hydroelectric power production; and the use and control of water for navigation and flood prevention. B. To further intergovernmental cooperation and comity with respect to these resources and programs for their use and development and to remove causes of present and future controversies by providing ( l) for equitable distribution and use of water among the two states and the Federal Government, ( 2) for preferential rights to the use of water after the effective date of this compact for the anticipated ultimate requirements for domestic and irrigation purposes in the Upper Klamath River Basin in Oregon and California, and ( 3) for prescribed relationships between beneficial uses of water as a practicable means of accomplishing such distribution and Copco's application to the OHC, and its parallel application to the Federal Power Commission ( FPC) for a license under the Federal Power Act, were contested and opposed by the Department of the Interior and various agricultural and irrigation interests. The OHC did not act on Copco's application until 1956. The States of California and Oregon appointed commissioners to negotiate an interstate Compact. At the same time, Reclamation and local water users were negotiating a new agreement with Copco for operation of Link River Dam. It appeared that such an agreement might be concluded prior to enactment by the States of a Compact. The draft Copco contract was brought before the Compact negotiating commissioners, who sought to ensure consistency with the Compact being developed. During the course of several meetings of the Compact commissioners, terms were developed which resulted in conditions in the FPC license, the water right certificate, and a new contract for Copco's operating of Link River Dam. After preparation of various drafts, negotiation of the Compact was concluded and the legislatures of Oregon, California, as well as the United States Congress, acted in 1957. The major purposes of this compact are, with respect to the water resources of the Klamath River Basin: The Compact recognized water rights for then- existing and future needs in the Klamath Project service area. It also established a system of priority for new water rights under which Upper Basin irrigation ( up to a specified number of acres) had superior rights over water for power generation, fish or wildlife, or recreation. 17 r r r r r In short, the Klamath Compact provided guidelines to lead the competing interests of the Klamath River watershed towards a more harmonious future. For the next 40 years, the intent of the Compact was essentially fulfilled, until the early 1990s, when new pressures to address endangered fish and tribal trust demands resulted in the reemergence of fractionalized conflict into the Upper Basin. Although it had been seen as a resolution for future disputes, the Compact has been interpreted not to override the Endangered Species Act or tribal trust water rights. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches r Through the 1950s, Reclamation envisioned continued development of the Project that would have doubled its current size by including Butte Valley, California and other areas. The plans were not implemented and the Project acreage has not significantly increased since the end of the 1940s. In the following decades, the delivery system has been improved, bottlenecks eliminated, and relatively small areas have both been brought under irrigation and converted to commercial or residential development. By 1960, due in part to improvements made on Tule Lake dikes, the M Canal, the Lost River Diversion Channel, and installation of new canals in the southern portion of the Tulelake Irrigation District ( TID) service area and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant, the Project provided irrigation service to nearly 216,000 acres. Tulelake, California In the 1960' s, improvements and expansion of certain facilities led to the formation of Klamath Basin Improvement District. The Stukel and Poe Valley Pumping Plants were constructed and the Miller Hill Pumping Plant enlarged. The D, F and G- Canals were also 18 r enlarged. These facilities provided more reliable service to certain lands and also added land to the area that could receive water from Project works. In the 1970' s, Shasta View Irrigation District and Reclamation entered a $ 3.2 million contract for installation of a pressure irrigation system to replace the previous gravity- fed system. The 1972 Project history reported, ".. . the Project provided irrigation and drainage service to 223,661 acres," while the total harvested acreage "... was 193,160, down 2,329 acres from 1971." Also in the 1970' s, the Straits Drain was enlarged. Because of the Klamath Project's design and the interrelated nature of water use within it, including the use of return flows by farmers and the refuge, Project efficiency is very high. A recent assessment of Klamath Project water use efficiency2 implies that a sophisticated seasonal pattern of water use has evolved in the Klamath Project. One must understand that the Klamath Project has developed into a highly effective, highly interconnected form of water management. According to the 1998 Davids study ( see footnote), effective efficiency for the overall Project is 93 percent, making the Klamath Project one of the most efficient in the country3. New Demands For eighty years, Klamath Project irrigation supplies proved sufficient to meet the needs of the area's burgeoning farming and ranching communities. Although there were years where Mother Nature and Klamath Project storage capacity proved insufficient to meet full irrigation demands, the local community managed to stretch thin supplies and make things work. That all changed in the early 1990s, when steadily more restrictive government agency decisions made to meet Endangered Species Act ( ESA) goals began to steadily chip away at the stored water supply originally developed for irrigation. Two sucker species were listed ( 1988) as endangered and coho salmon were listed ( 1997) as threatened under the ESA. Since then, biological opinions rendered by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( for the suckers) and NOAA Fisheries ( for the coho), have increasingly emphasized the reallocation of Project water as the sole means of avoiding jeopardizing these fish. Klamath Project " operations plans" based on these biological opinions also factor in tribal trust obligations, although the nature and extent of such obligations is undefined. 2 " Klamath Project Historical Water Use Analysis", Davids Engineering for U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, October 1998. 3 For example, Tulelake Irrigation District irrigates 62,000 acres of farmland. In the 1990s, the district diverted an average of 131,000 acre- feet of water. Each year, an average of 80,000 acre- feet was pumped out of the district. Consumptive use within the district is considerably less than the amount of water diverted. The reason is the difference from the return flow from other districts and the reuse of water within the Project. 19 r Sucker Listings In the past twelve years, political and regulatory demands have affected activities at the Klamath Project. In 1988, the short nose sucker and the Lost River sucker, two species that live in Upper Klamath Lake, were designated as endangered under the ESA. Biological opinions issued by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) in 1992 and 1994 concerning operation of the Klamath Project identified actions to avoid jeopardy to suckers. When the suckers were listed, there had been no mention whatsoever of reservoir elevations as a factor affecting sucker populations. These operation elevations were adopted by Reclamation. The reservoir elevations pertaining to Upper Klamath Lake generally allowed the Project to operate for its intended purposes. However, the United States District Court of Oregon found that the reservoir elevations pertaining to Clear Lake and Gerber Reservoirs to be arbitrary and capricious, and they were invalidated in a succession of decisions4. The most compelling and prominent reason why the federal government justified listing the two sucker species as " endangered" in 1988 was an apparent abrupt downturn in both populations during the mid- 1980s. To support the decision to list the suckers, the USFWS believed the only significant remaining populations were in Upper Klamath Lake. We now know that the assumptions by the USFWS were in error and the assumed sucker population crisis never materialized. In fact, shortly after listing of the species, the populations demonstrated dramatic increases5. r Just prior to the listing of the suckers in 1988, a sport snag fishery was allowed. Before 1969, the fishery was largely unregulated with no harvest limit; in 1969 a generous bag limit of 10 fish per angler was imposed. During the early to mid- 1980s, despite the belief that the numbers offish were in a state of rapid decline, the State of Oregon still allowed the sport snag fishery. Ultimately, because of increased focus on the status of the sucker populations, Oregon eliminated the fishery in 1987. Some fisheries experts believe that if the USFWS would have properly assessed the known impacts on the suckers caused by the snag fishery and the benefits from ceasing the fishery, it very likely could have affected the ultimate listing decision. " Simply stated, the largely unregulated snag fishery slaughtered the sucker populations," said Dave Vogel, with Natural Resource Scientists, Inc. " Since the fishery was eliminated in 1987, the two sucker populations dramatically rebounded. The threat was removed and the populations increased ten- fold." 4 Bennett v Spear, 520 U. S. 154 ( 1997); 5 F. Jupp. 2d 887 ( D. Or. 1998); Bennett v. Badgely, No. 93- 6075- HO ( April 13, 1999, June 11, 1999). 5 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 20 At the time of the listings in 1988, the Klamath Project was not identified as having known adverse affects on the sucker populations, yet four years after the listing, using limited or no empirical data, the USFWS turned to the Klamath Project as their singular focus. Paradoxically, since the early 1990s, despite new beneficial empirical evidence on the improving status of the species and lack of relationship with Klamath Project operations, the USFWS became ever more centered on Project operations and increased restrictions on irrigators instead of paying attention to more obvious, fundamental problems for the species. This circumstance caused tremendous expense in dollars and time by diverting resources away from other known factors affecting the species. Coho Salmon Listing r A similar circumstance occurred with NOAA Fisheries during and after the coho salmon listing in the lower basin in the late 1990s. It cited the reasons to list coho salmon, excluding Klamath Project operations as a significant factor affecting the species. There are many other documented factors that have affected salmon runs in the Klamath River6. The USFWS in the 1980s described the most important eight factors as " most frequently referred to with regard to recent population declines" of anadromous fish in the Klamath River. Those factors are: " • Over fishing • Logging • Trinity River transbasin diversion Irrigation diversions in lower Klamath tributaries • 1964 flood • 1976- 1977 drought • Sea lion predation • Brown trout predation. However, shortly following the listing, and with no supporting data, NOAA Fisheries chose to center its attention on the Klamath Project as the principal factor affecting coho salmon. In its biological opinions, NOAA Fisheries opined that much higher than historic flow levels, released from the stored water of the Klamath Project, would be needed to protect coho salmon downstream of Iron Gate Dam. Iron Gate Dam is located forty miles away and coho are generally found further downstream and in tributaries. 7 In essence, both agencies adopted a single- minded approach of focusing on Klamath Project operations to artificially create high reservoir levels and high reservoir releases. This puzzling, similar sequence of events has yet to be explained by agency officials. 6 KWUA biologists compiled a comprehensive listing of those factors in March 1997. 7 Vogel, David, 2004. Testimony Before the Committee on Resources ( Subcommittee on Water and Power), United States House of Representatives. Oversight Field Hearing on The Endangered Species Act 30 Years Later: The Klamath Project. 21 r " ~ Commercial harvests of salmon intensified with the development of canning technology. By the early 20th century, habitat destruction combined with commercial harvests had resulted in serious salmon depletion on the Klamath River. Cobb ( 1930) estimated that the peak of the Klamath River salmon runs occurred in 1912, Snyder ( 1931) observed " in 1912 three [ canneries] operated on or near the estuary and the river was heavily fished, no limit being placed on the activities of anyone". Problems on the East Side Irrigation districts on the east side of the Klamath Project felt the first impacts from increased regulatory focus on lake levels in the early 1990s. Langell Valley Irrigation District ( LVID) and Horsefly Irrigation District ( HID) receive water from Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs. Historically, stored water was released from these two reservoirs beginning about April 15 and ending about October 15 each year. These reservoirs are not large, but they provide the essential water supply to an otherwise arid area. In an average year, Clear Lake releases about 36,000 acre- feet of irrigation water, and Gerber releases about 40,000 acre- feet. Clear Lake Reservoir contains populations of both endangered sucker species, and Gerber reservoir hosts one of the species. ESA-" threatened" bald eagles are also known to inhabit the Klamath Project area. In 1991, at the request of the USFWS, Reclamation initiated ESA consultation to assess the impact of the long- term operation of the Klamath Project on the suckers and the bald eagle. In the next year, three biological opinions were rendered by USFWS that imposed minimum levels in Clear Lake to purportedly protect the sucker populations. As a result of the minimum lake levels imposed by the draft biological opinions, and the water lost to evaporation before the USFWS allowed any water releases, the Districts were not able to make their normal irrigation releases during the 1992 water year. Neither district received its first seasonal water delivery until May 15, 1992, a full four weeks later than normal. By 22 r " that date, 12,000 acre- feet of the water that had been stored in Clear Lake in March 1992 had evaporated, an amount that represents about 60% of LVID's total yearly withdrawal from Clear Lake Reservoir. As a result of the minimum lake levels and the evaporation losses, only 2,148 acres of the 16,800 irrigable acres within the LVID received any Klamath Project water at all. The lack of water reduced both acreage farmed and per- acre yields that year. As a result of reduced yields, farm properties lost up to 70% of their assessed values in 1992. The lack of water also hurt the region's cattle ranching operations, because some ranchers could not produce pasture for their cattle. Water users who could afford the extra expense purchased feed to sustain their herds. Others had to cut back substantially on their herds or sell their cattle. Wildlife also suffered as a result of the decision to impose minimum surface levels in the reservoirs. Because the Lost River obtains most of its water from releases from Clear Lake Dam and return flows from agricultural operations, the water levels in the Lost River and its tributaries were exceedingly low in 1992. As a direct result, wildlife relying on Lost River water, including deer, sandhill cranes, hawks, turtles, frogs, ducks, and more, were all noticeably scarce that year. On July 22, 1992, USFWS finally issued its final biological opinion on the long- term operations of the Klamath Project. While the 1992 opinion conceded that " little" was known about Gerber Reservoir's shortnose sucker population, the opinion reported " good numbers" of these fish and noted that the Gerber sucker population appeared to be successfully reproducing, despite the lowered lake levels of the early 1990s. Despite this undisputed evidence, the 1992 biological opinion concluded that continuing to operate the Project, including Clear Lake and Gerber reservoirs, in its historic manner was likely to jeopardize the continued existence of both sucker fish species. Reclamation accepted the USFWS recommendations for continued adherence to minimum lake levels, prompting the Districts and two of the individual farmers to sue the federal agencies. Even after the federal district court entered judgment invalidating the jeopardy conclusions, USFWS defied this judgment, and the districts were forced to bring several additional motions to enforce the Court's rulings. At each stage of the legal proceedings, the districts prevailed, based largely on the fact that USFWS had no scientific evidence to justify its actions. When the United States Supreme Court considered the Districts' case against the USFWS, the Court described the purpose of the ESA's science requirement as follows: The obvious purpose of the requirement that each agency " use the best available scientific and commercial data available" is to ensure that the ESA not be implemented haphazardly, on the basis of speculation or surmise. While this no doubt serves to advance the ESA's overall goal -., of species preservation, we think it readily apparent that another objective ( if not indeed the 23 primary one) is to avoid needless economic dislocation produced by agency officials zealously but unintelligently pursuing their environmental objectives. Now, ten years later, HID and LVID enjoy positive relationships with USFWS and Reclamation. However, the problems they suffered in the early 1990s were a harbinger of things to come for other Klamath Project irrigators shortly after the turn of the new century. 2001 Curtailment The net result of increasing restrictions on other Klamath Project water users was fully realized on April 6, 2001, when Reclamation announced its water allocation for the Project after U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Fisheries officials finalized the biological opinions ( BOs) for project operations in a critically dry year. Based on those regulatory actions, Reclamation announced that - for the first time in Project's 95- year history - no water would be available from Upper Klamath Lake to supply Project irrigators. No water for most farmers April 6, 2001 Local Headlines The resulting impacts to the local community were immediate and far- reaching. Even with a later release of a small percentage of needed water over a 30- day period in July and August, thousands of acres of valuable farmland were left without water. In addition to harming those property owners, managers, and workers, also imparted an economic " ripple" effect through the broader community. The wildlife benefits provided by those farms - particularly the food provided for area waterfowl - were also lost with the water. 24 Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls - 2001 The local farming community is still reeling from the April 6, 2001 decision, and severe business losses echoed the hardship endured by farmers and farm employees. As farmers and laborers attempted to deal with the loss of jobs, a year's income, and in some cases the land itself, referrals for mental health counseling increased dramatically. The Tulelake school district lost around 50 students after farm families sold their land and moved on. Students were under stress, understandably confused as to why three species of fish were more important than their lifelong homes. Tragically, one Hispanic family had started out as field workers, and after a lifetime of piecework under the sun had saved enough to buy their own farm. They lost everything as a direct result of the irrigation cutofi . Veteran homesteaders, who fifty years ago were promised reliable water, felt betrayed by the same government, who chose to provide water to fish instead of farmers in 2001. " I want the government to honor the contract that promised me and my heirs water rights forever," said Jess Prosser, a World War II veteran and Tulelake homesteader, in 2001, after water supplies were cut. " This land is our life. Farmers and fish have survived previous drought years when the farmers voluntarily cut back on water consumption. The Klamath Project was designed to withstand drought conditions, and right now there is more than ample water for agriculture and fish. The government took 100% of the water for fish, disregarding farmers, ranchers, families and numerous other species of wildlife in the Klamath Basin. This is a man- made disaster. This will be the end of a way of life and an entire community." 1 " Calamity in Klamath", Blake Hurst. The American Enterprise magazine. October / November 2002, pp 28- 29. 25 Cemeteries Went Dry in 2001 The Farmers Fight Back The local community did not take the decision lying down. Employing the ingenuity and perseverance that allowed them to successfully create brand new communities over the past century, local farmers, ranchers, elected officials and business leaders organized a " bucket brigade" to dramatize their plight, drawing nearly 20,000 sympathizers to the streets of Klamath Falls. A web site and cell phone calling tree were set up, and farmers, who only a year before were working their fields, suddenly became knowledgeable about the media. Civil disobedience, in the form of peaceful protests at the A Canal headgates, drew television crews from throughout the Pacific Northwest. The 2001 Klamath Basin crisis became the topic of front- page coverage and sympathetic editorials in publications like Time magazine, the Los Angeles Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the New York Times. Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family, Summer 2001. In part because of the tremendous media and political attention generated by the local community, a congressional field hearing was held in the summer of 2001 at the Klamath County fairgrounds, which drew the largest audience to ever attend such a hearing in the nation's history. Much of the focus was on the decision- making and processes that led to the fishery agencies' recommendation to curtail irrigation supplies. 26 In 2001, a desperate community essentially was looked in the eye and told, " sorry, we know it may hurt, but ' the science' is compelling and requires you to go without water." This was wrong, literally, and as a matter of policy. For whatever reason, the agencies had become too close to, and too much a part of, the side- taking that had come to dominate issues surrounding the Klamath Project. For this reason alone, outside review was needed. Nearly 20,000 marchers support the Klamath Bucket Brigade, May 2001. Prayer / protest at the A Canal headgates, 2001. Elected officials - from county commissioners and supervisors, to state representatives and senators, to U. S. Senators and Representatives, continued the fight, and ultimately, later in 2001, the U. S. Secretary of the Interior, Gale Norton, directed the National Academy of Sciences to conduct an independent peer- review of the agency decision to curtail irrigation supplies. Also, in early 2002, President Bush himself took a personal interest in the plight of the Klamath Project irrigator. Enter President Bush In January 2002, just months after the federal government curtailed Klamath Project irrigation deliveries for the first time in 97 years, Sen. Gordon Smith and Rep. Greg Walden met the president in southern California, boarded Air Force One, and took a slight detour over the Basin on their way to a Portland high school where the Mr. Bush was to deliver a speech. On the flight north, the president was briefed on the 2001 Klamath water crisis. When he entered the gymnasium at Park Rose High School, he opened his speech up with a pledge to help both the farmers and the fish of the Klamath Basin. 27 Compassion: George W. Bush Meets and Greets Klamath Basin Residents in Redmond, Oregon, 2003. In the ensuing two years, President Bush has followed through with his pledge by establishing a Klamath Basin cabinet- level working group, promoting sound and independent peer-reviewed science, and making funding of Klamath River water and environmental projects a priority. Enacted and requested Bush Administration funding in the Klamath River watershed for fiscal years 2003- 2005 exceeds $ 260 million dollars, according to a federal government summary. This includes $ 105 million proposed by the administration for Klamath Basin federal funding in the Fiscal Year 2005 budget. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In The Klamath Water Users Association and others in the community in 2001 strongly advocated for an independent peer review of the 2001 fishery agency biological opinions, the underlying science, and the related overall scientific process. In early 2002, an interim report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released. This represented a critical step towards ensuring proper assessment and maintenance of healthy fish populations. The panel successfully completed an objective, unbiased initial review of the information used by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS) and NOAA Fisheries to formulate the agencies' two 2001 Biological Opinions ( BOs). The interim NRC report concluded that there was insufficient scientific evidence used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in 2001 to support changing the recent historical water operations of the Klamath Project. Specifically, the NRC interim report concluded that higher or lower than recent historical lake levels or Klamath 28 rr r rrr r r r River flows were not scientifically justified based on the available information used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. Despite varying interpretations of the data used by the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries in the BOs, it is especially noteworthy that the NRC panel achieved consensus on the Interim Report's conclusions for not just one, but both BOs. The report's conclusions were adequately supported by the available evidence and analyses used by USFWS and NOAA Fisheries. It was particularly evident that the NRC Committee report was fair and impartial, essential attributes that were sorely lacking in Klamath basin issues to date. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies The release of the NRC Committee's interim report in early 2002 unleashed a barrage of criticism from environmental activists and their allies in academia and government agencies. Two Oregon State University professors, supporters of the high lake level requirements that contributed to the 2001 water curtailment, submitted a formal " rebuttal" of the interim report to a fisheries journal. The " rebuttal" ( so labeled when transmitted by its authors) and other media developments caused the Klamath Project community to fear that the NRC work would be diluted. The local community simply did not have the resources or the networks of contacts to continually counter the anti- Klamath Project messages that were being sent to the public and policymakers, primarily by outside environmental activist organizations. The NRC Committee's interim report triggered what grew to be an extraordinary, and obviously coordinated, attack on the Klamath Project by these interests. Media outlets seemingly relish a good western fight, and many uncritically reprinted a good deal of information that was not fair to Klamath Basin irrigators. The scrutiny on the Klamath Project and the Bush Administration's reliance on the NRC interim report intensified further that fall, when 33,000 salmon died on the lower Klamath River. Immediately after the unfortunate die- off, vocal critics of Project operations and Bush Administration environmental policy used the event to renew attacks on irrigated agriculture in the Klamath Basin. Even though the fish die- off occurred 200 miles downstream from the Project, at a location below the confluence of the main stem Klamath River and the Trinity River, traditional advocates for higher river flows quickly assigned blame to Klamath Project farmers and ranchers. Some of these same interests and others in the environmental community even attempted to directly link the fish die- off to alleged political maneuvering orchestrated by senior policy officials in the Bush Administration. As a result, presidential hopeful Senator John Kerry called on the U. S. Interior Department's Inspector General to look into whether " political pressure from the White House is intimidating staff and influencing policy" in Klamath River management decisions. Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney's report - released in March 2004- found " no evidence of political influence affecting the decisions pertaining to the water in the Klamath Project." 29 r r r r r r Eugene Register- Guard Why the salmon died: Pattern points to Bush administration policies A Register- Guard Editorial A 2002 Editorial Headline Between 2002- 2004, the fish die- off was effectively spun by Klamath Project critics to drive a dizzying array of attacks aimed at the Bush Administration and federal agencies responsible for Klamath Project management. Well- coordinated media coverage surrounding several acts of litigation and proposed federal legislation in the two years since the fish die- off have effectively imprinted the environmentalists' message in the minds of many: • " Fish need water"; • " Klamath Project farmers were denied water in 2001 and no fish died in the Klamath River"; • " Klamath Project farmers received full supplies in 2002, and 33,000 salmon died in the river"; • " The Bush Administration sacrificed fish for the benefit of farmers." The claims discussed above are just a few of the more prominent arguments that Klamath Project critics have employed to justify a series of actions undertaken in the wake of the public release of the interim NRC Committee report, including the following: • Federal legislation that would finalize a controversial and flawed draft Klamath River flow report. • Unsuccessful federal legislation that would restrict the ability of local lease land farmers to grow row crops. • Litigation ( PCFFA v. USBR) that, if successful, would have likely shut down Klamath Project operations in 2003. • Public protests staged by tribal members and environmentalists in Klamath Falls in 2002 and in Sacramento in 2003. 30 Listing of the Klamath River as the third most endangered waterway in the country by American Rivers, a Washington, D. C. - based activist group. An unsuccessful lawsuit filed by environmental groups against NOAA Fisheries to hasten the potential ESA listing of the green sturgeon. The release of an Oregon Natural Resources Council ( ONRC) report, which contends that voluntary buyouts of willing sellers within the Project " remain the most politically responsible, socially just, and economically viable method" to address power and ecological challenges. A subsequent letter sent by ONRC to Project landowners, tempting them with the promise of a buyout that would provide them with 2 '/ z times the fair market value of their land. Numerous editorials, journal articles and magazine stories that clearly accept the arguments made by Project critics. However, others did not jump so quickly on to the " blame game bandwagon." During late summer and early fall of 2002, Dave Vogel, a fisheries biologist with 28 years of experience, conducted a field investigation to assess water temperatures in the main stem Klamath River. - Vogel noted that main stem water temperatures in the Klamath River were measured hourly just prior to and during the fall- run Chinook salmon migration season. He found that water temperatures in the upper Klarnath River downstream of Iron Gate Dam during September 2002 were unsuitable for adult salmon, a finding that was similar to that of previous studies. As expected, a normal seasonal cooling trend at the end of September and early October provided the moderating influence lowering Klamath River temperatures to tolerable levels for salmon. Vogel also found that large numbers of salmon entered the lower Klamath River earlier than usual and were exposed to two dramatic and uncharacteristic cooling and warming conditions causing disease outbreak from warm water and crowded conditions. The combination of these factors was chronically and cumulatively stressful to fish and is probably the most plausible reason for the fish die- off. " In my opinion, the best available scientific data and information indicate that the continued operation and maintenance of historical flows at Iron Gate Dam will not jeopardize coho salmon," said Vogel in March 2003. " Furthermore, in my opinion the operations of Iron Gate Dam during the summer and fall of 2002 did not cause and could not have prevented the fish die- off in the lower Klarnath River." Unfortunately, scant media coverage was afforded to Vogel's findings. Outside of the Upper Basin, the press made no mention of the fact that, despite the die- off, the numbers of fish returning to Iron Gate hatchery on the Klamath River were the third highest in 40 years. The media also largely ignored a similar finding made in October 2003 by the National Research Council Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fish in the Klamath Basin. In its final report, the Committee failed to find a linkage between the operation of the Klamath Project and the fish die- off, and questioned whether changes federal project operations at the time would have prevented it. Clearly, the hard working landowners of the Upper Klamath Basin have been on the receiving end of a cruel and long- distance war being waged by environmental activists who assert that the federal water project - representing only 2 percent of the total land base of the Klamath River watershed, and consuming only 3- 4 percent of the average annual flows to the Pacific Ocean - is somehow responsible for all of the environmental woes of the river system. These advocates are intent on portraying the Klamath Basin as a poster child to help fuel outside efforts that are focused on litigating, legislating and publicly condemning the local community for doing what it has done for 98 of the last 99 years - irrigating farm and ranch land. r r r r These interests know that federal water projects are an easy target of litigation, since federal environmental and clean water laws govern project operations. The lawsuits are often aimed at federal entities - such as the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation and fishery agencies - which, on the surface, give the appearance that the environmental plaintiffs are simply interested in correcting errors made by some non- descript governmental agency. The true intended target of these actions, however, ultimately becomes the landowners and water users who fall under the management jurisdiction of the federal agencies. It is the farmers and ranchers that pay the price of litigation through altered management practices, increased uncertainty, and escalating legal expenses to defend their interests. For the most part, the potentially damaging effects these actions could cause family farmers and ranchers have been deflected. However, local water users are concerned that permanent Klamath River policy will be influenced by misinformation in the future. Vindication, Part II After an 18- month barrage of anti- Klamath Project attacks in the media and courtrooms, the long- awaited final report from the National Research Council ( NRC) Committee on Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath Basin was released in October 2003. The final NRC report is important to local farmers and ranchers for several key reasons: 1. The report clearly indicated that recovery of endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath Basin cannot be achieved by actions that are exclusively or primarily focused on operation of the Klamath Project. 2. The committee also reconfirmed its findings from the earlier interim report that found no evidence of a causal connection between Upper Klamath Lake water levels and sucker health, or that higher flows on the Klamath River mainstem help coho salmon. 3. The NRC committee did not accept arguments that the operation of the Klamath Project caused the 2002 fish die- off or that changes in the operation of the Project at p the time would have prevented it. 32 r ~ r r Despite the final conclusions, some environmentalists and many in the media continue to maintain the sensational but unsupported position that the Klamath Project was responsible for the 2002 fish mortality that occurred over 200 miles from the Klamath Project. The final NRC report was consistent with what Upper Basin interests have been saying for years: the Klamath Project cannot solely bear the burden for species recovery in this basin. A watershed- wide approach to species recovery - one that addresses all the stressors to fish - is essential to improving the environment and saving the local economy. Local water users shared the NRC report's vision that increased knowledge, improved management, and cohesive community action would promote recovery of the fishes. At the same time, they remained extremely concerned that the " business as usual" approach - regulation of the Klamath Project - would remain the dominant aspect of ESA biological opinions and advocacy of Project opponents. For reasons now clearly evident, the irrigators' original recommendation for an outside technical review of the ESA activities in the Klamath basin by an objective group such as the r National Academy of Sciences back in 1993 ( KWUA 1993) was an important first step. The benefits of an ESA peer review are obvious after reading the NRC's final report. " We are beginning to see signs of progress with ESA activities in the basin," said Dave Vogel, nearly one year after the release of the final NRC Committee report. " However, alarmingly, there are some individuals within the agencies that are in a state of denial over the findings and conclusions of the NRC's report. Despite the NRC's final report, the USFWS and NOAA Fisheries still have too much focus on the Klamath Project and not enough emphasis on a watershed- wide approach." Other experts agree. " We found that the prevailing scientific sentiment in the basin-' More water is better for fish'- was the wrong approach," NRC Committee member Jeffrey Mount told California Farmer magazine in December 2003, two months after the final NRC report was released. " We hate to say we told you so, but...." It is very important to note that many of the most pertinent findings, conclusions, and r recommendations of the NRC Klamath Committee were not new to the USFWS or NOAA Fisheries. Dave Vogel elaborated on this in testimony he provided to the House Resources Committee at a field hearing held in Klamath Falls in June 2004. " The NRC final report advocates a watershed approach, peer review, greater stakeholder involvement, oversight of agency actions, focus on factors other than the Klamath Project 33 r operations, reduction of resource conflicts, and incorporation of the principles of adaptive management toward species recovery," said Vogel. " Over the past decade, local water users and their allies forwarded much of the same and similar technical findings and recommendations to those two agencies, but were mainly ignored. Additionally, the NRC's major conclusion that there is insufficient scientific justification for high reservoir levels and high instream flows was always prominent in water users' technical comments on the agencies' biological opinions during the past decade." r " The NRC Klamath Committee's final report was an outstanding effort and the product must serve as a catalyst to advance balanced natural resource management in the basin," Vogel said. " If federal agencies meaningfully incorporate many of the NRC's principal findings, conclusions, and recommendations, we fully expect positive results to the species recovery and reduced resource conflicts. We should use the momentum of the NRC's final report to guide recovery efforts and watershed improvements. However, if the agencies do not take this pro- active approach, we could again return to the disaster that transpired in 2001." • Dr. Mount agrees. r " For too long, Klamath managers have relied on fixing their problems by turning only one knob- the knob of raising and lowering water levels in Upper Klamath Lake and the river," said Mount, a University of California professor. " They need to take new approaches that support multiple populations offish and healthy ecosystems throughout the watershed," he said. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment The U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's final 10- year Biological Assessment for Klamath Project 2002- 2012 operations properly incorporated the findings of the 2002 interim National Research Council's ( NRC) interim report, and generally captured the essence of the " watershed- wide" philosophy endorsed in the final 2003 NRC report. Unfortunately, the fishery agency biological opinions ( BOs) do not. Despite the so- called ecosystem approach to species recovery advocated by the USFWS and NMFS, their actions in the Klamath basin over the past decade amply demonstrates that the exact opposite took place. They focused on: 1) a single- species approach; and 2) Klamath Project operations. The USFWS opinion continues to perpetuate the questionable assumption that lake level management is the principle mechanism affecting sucker survival in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). The NOAA Fisheries jeopardy decision similarly continues to place high emphasis on downstream flows. The stored water developed for Klamath Project farmers continues to be reallocated to meet the artificial demands set by agency biologists. 34 r The combined - and apparently, unanticipated - impacts placed on the Upper Basin community from the application of the two opinions are unacceptable. On June 25th, 2003, local irrigators were told by Reclamation officials that UKL diversions to the Project would be shut down for a minimum of 5 days - in the middle of the growing season. By day's end, reason prevailed: the agencies backed off their initial request9 and instead, Reclamation notified farmers to continue their efforts to reduce diversions from the lake. This was driven by one apparent agency mission: to avoid dropping UKL one inch below a lake level requirement established by the USFWS. Rancher Gary Wright learns that the Klamath Project would be shut down in the middle of the irrigation season, June 25, 2003. Common sense prevailed, and later in the day, Reclamation rescinded its earlier decision. In addition to the continued uncertainty irrigators face, the opinions are generating new, unanticipated impacts to the community. In the past 40 to 50 years, while the cropping pattern in the Klamath Project has varied from year to year, the overall planted acreage has remained consistent. On the other hand, the 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon established the river flow schedule and an " environmental water bank" - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. The result: stored water that has flowed to farms, ranches and the refuges for nearly 100 years is now sent downstream at such high levels, that groundwater pumped from the Lost River basin is being used to supplement the resulting " coho salmon demand" in the Klamath River. 9 Improved coordination between USFWS managers and their Reclamation counterparts in Klamath Falls and Sacramento was one important reason for the positive corrective action that was taken. 35 It is not the farmers who have imposed new water demands that, in essence, have made groundwater the default supplemental supply to the Klamath Project. It is the opinions of agency fishery biologists who have fundamentally altered how this century- old water project operates, and who have apparently failed to anticipate the resulting impacts to the community. While Reclamation in 2002 sharply disagreed with the findings of both fishery agency biological opinions, it is not yet clear how consultation will be reinitiated to create a new operations plan. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners Since the early 1990s, and particularly in the new millennium, local water users - both within the Klamath Project and those who farm in upstream areas north of Upper Klamath Lake - have taken proactive steps to protect and enhance water supplies, enhance the environment, r and stabilize the agricultural economy. Farmers and ranchers in the Klamath Project have consistently supported restoration actions to improve habitat for the basin's fish and wildlife species. Sucker Recovery Planning KWUA in 1993 published the Initial Ecosystem Restoration Plan - the first ecosystem- based, scientifically valid planning document on Klamath Basin restoration. The plan placed particular emphasis on real, on- the- ground projects to recover endangered species. It was widely recognized as a meaningful assessment of necessary restoration activities. KWUA in 2001 reiterated its previous call with the release of a report entitled Protecting the Beneficial Uses of Upper Klamath Lake: A Plan to Accelerate Recovery of the Lost River and Shortnose Suckers. The 2001 report provided timelines and budgets for dozens of projects that could provide real benefits. Regrettably, until the past three years, there has been failure to effectively implement most of the on- the- ground activities proposed by KWUA. On- the- Ground Actions Local agricultural and business leaders have dedicated thousands of volunteer hours and have spent millions of dollars in the past ten years to participate in processes associated with environmental restoration, Klamath Basin water rights adjudication, dispute resolution, drought- proofing, and water supply enhancement. Most impressive, however, is the multitude of actions undertaken on- the- ground: • Local efforts to assist National Wildlife Refuges ( e. g. " Walking Wetlands") • Ecosystem Enhancement and Sucker Recovery Efforts in the Upper Basin • Fish Passage Improvement Projects • Wildlife Enhancement and Wetland Restoration Efforts • Local Efforts to Improve Water Quality 36 • Power Resource Development • Efforts to Improve Klamath Project Water Supply Reliability and Water Use Efficiency Many of these efforts were driven by an initial desire to implement meaningful restoration actions intended to provide some sort of mitigation " credit" that could be applied towards reducing the burden carried by Klamath Project irrigators to " protect" threatened and endangered fish species. For many years, that credit was not recognized. For example, Federal agencies or non- profit conservation groups have acquired over 25,000 acres of farmland in the Upper Klamath Basin for habitat purposes. Each time the agencies sought additional land, they promised that each acquisition would provide environmental benefits, reducing pressure on the Klamath Project's family farmers and ranchers. Those promises have not materialized, and Project irrigation water still remains the sole regulatory tool used to address federal ESA objectives for endangered suckers and threatened coho salmon in the Klamath River watershed. • TEAMWORK A broad range of partners include U. S. Fish and Wildlife, Bureau of Reclamation. CalOre Wetlands. Tulelake Growers Association, Audubon Society. Tulelake Irrigation District, California Waterfowl Association. University of California. Ducks Unlimited. Klamath Water Users Association. USDA NRCS. Leaseland Advisory Council, and numerous volunteer organizations. A page from the " Refuge" section of the tule- Iake. com website. Environmental Water Bank KWUA in early March 2003 announced it would support, and assist the Department of Interior in the implementation of, a Klamath Project Pilot Environmental Water Bank in 2003 to provide over 50,000 acre- feet of additional water for environmental purposes. Reclamation's 10- year Biological Assessment ( BA) developed in February 2002 proposed an environmental water bank through which willing buyers and sellers will provide additional water supplies for fish and wildlife purposes and to enhance tribal trust resources. The 2002- 2012 biological opinion created by NOAA Fisheries for coho salmon firmly established the river flow schedule and the water bank - which ratchets up to 100,000 acre- feet in 2005, regardless of actual hydrologic conditions - that is the primary source of new demand for water in the Klamath River watershed. 37 The coho biological opinion's rigid water bank schedule, which steps up the magnitude of the bank for the first four years, regardless of actual hydrology, is difficult to justify. This type of water bank does not reflect the intent of either the proposal put forth by KWUA in 2002 ( see below), or the original USBR biological assessment, which proposed implementation of a water bank in drier years, not every year. Water users committed to pursue developing a water bank with Reclamation in January 2002. At that time, KWUA was asked by Reclamation to develop a Project- wide water bank to assist with meeting environmental water demands in drier years. KWUA's Water Bank and Supply Enhancement Committee held over 30 meetings in 2002- 03 to develop the 65- page report/ proposal for a long- term water bank, which differs substantially from the pilot water bank proposed by Reclamation this past year. Certainty of water supplies is a key principle imbedded in KWUA's long- term water bank proposal. Local water users insist that, in exchange for voluntary participation in a Project water bank - which would be used to " fund" environmental water needs - 100% of the irrigation demand for remaining Project acreage will be satisfied, season- long. Water users further believe that the water bank cannot be viewed as a stand- alone element. While Reclamation's 2003 and 2004 pilot programs did not closely resemble KWUA's vision for a long- term bank, water users are hopeful that Reclamation and Interior will look to the irrigators' document to complete its 10- year water bank proposal. EQIP Funding in Klamath Basin The federal government in 2003 released $ 7 million in conservation funding to the Klamath Basin. This sum represents a portion of the $ 50 million in funding earmarked for the Basin in the 2002 Farm Bill under the Environmental Quality Incentives Program ( EQIP). KWUA was instrumental in securing these provisions during Farm Bill negotiations. In 2004, Interior Secretary Norton included another $ 12 million for this program in the president's 2005 budget request. The funds provided cost- share payments to farmers and ranchers to employ water conservation measures. Over 800 Klamath Basin landowners have applied to participate in this program, despite the requirement that they pay 25% of the costs. This shows remarkable commitment by local irrigators to do the right thing, despite the fact that many of these landowners are still recovering from the financial impacts of the 2001 water curtailment. Recognition at Last In the past year, local irrigators have finally begun to get the recognition - if not the actual regulatory relief- they deserve for their proactive efforts. To wit: • KWUA was awarded the 2003 " Leadership in Conservation" award by the Oregon Department of Agriculture; • KWUA in 2004 was honored on the steps of the Oregon state capitol for " exemplifying the spirit" of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds; 38 Tulelake Irrigation District in January 2004 received the F. Gordon Johnston award for its innovative canal lining project completed near Newell; and U. S. Secretary of Agriculture Ann Veneman and NRCS chief Bruce Knight in 2004 recognized local rancher Mike Byrne for his leadership in conservation. NRCS Chief Bruce Knight ( left) with 2004 Excellence in Conservation Award winner Mike Byrne. It is clear that local irrigators have not been idle in the past ten years. Their efforts to improve their environment are all the more impressive when one considers that the uncertainty and difficulty associated with keeping their farming operations profitable have not diminished. Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, Congressman Greg Walden and KWUA Executive Director Dan Keppen at the new A Canal Headgates, April 2003. 39 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach Klamath Project water users in October 2004 enthusiastically greeted the announcement that the states of California and Oregon and the Bush Administration had signed the historic " Klamath River Watershed Coordination Agreement". The agreement - signed by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski, and four of President Bush's cabinet level secretaries - underscored the commitment of these parties to solve the fisheries challenges of the Klamath River on a watershed - wide basis. The state- federal Klamath agreement reflects the philosophy embedded in both the Klamath River Basin Compact and the 2003 NRC Klamath report, which confirmed that Klamath Basin issues must be dealt with in an integrated and comprehensive way for a lasting solution of the challenges facing the basin. The NRC committee report makes clear that merely closing the spigot on the Klamath Project will not solve the problems facing Klamath Basin fisheries, and that strategy obviously was disastrous for farming and ranching communities. The coordination agreement recognizes that message and promotes a unified effort that many water users believe is much needed. An important part of this agreement is that it supports the Conservation Implementation Program ( CIP), a work in progress proposed by federal agencies to coordinate management actions in the Klamath River watershed. The CIP would meld a scientific advisory body, local communities, and resource agencies to identify, coordinate and resolve the Basin's critical water quality, water quantity and fish and wildlife restoration challenges. KWUA is working with other producer groups and local government to develop guidelines that make the CIP workable and acceptable to Klamath Basin communities. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River Reclamation in late 2004 finalized a draft study intended to provide a glimpse at how the Klamath River might have looked before the Klamath Project was built. The report shows that- especially in drier years - historic flows in the Klamath River near Keno, Oregon dwindled to a mere trickle. The report provides compelling evidence that supports claims made by local residents for decades - the stored water provided by the Klamath Project may actually provide more flows downriver than what would have flowed before the Project was built. This is primarily due to the developed storage and the fact that farmlands that were once under water now use less water than what was historically lost to consumptive and evaporative use of the former marshes. 40 Ufric; lfftid Kur , Jhm% tr Excerpt from Draft BOR Flow Study 41 Conclusion - The Future To solve the problems of the Klamath River watershed, we need a coordinated management program that spans two states in a watershed that is characterized by a strong federal presence. Competition among stakeholder groups - including four tribes, agricultural water users, and countless environmental groups - is fierce. In order to be successful, we need to better understand the real state of the watershed by developing the facts and best possible information to make the best possible decisions. Collaborations need to replace ideological advocacies; watershed wide approaches need to replace regionalism; and honest exchanges of information need to displace environmental sensationalism. A June 20, 2004 editorial published by the Klamath Falls Herald & News provides an apt glimpse of what the future might bring to the Klamath irrigation community and how the Klamath Water Users Association will address that future: Recently, the Klamath Water Users Association got an award for not using water, which is not a contradiction in terms at all. It's a matter of doing what has to be done to keep farming and ranching alive in the Klamath Basin. The award was from the state of Oregon and recognized the water users' efforts in behalf of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. It was presented to the group in a ceremony on the steps of the Capitol with leaders such as Gov. Ted Kulongoski and the Democratic and Republican leaders of the Legislature participating. The award recognizes a welter of actions in the Basin, some using federal and state dollars and some not, many aimed at making agricultural operations more efficient water users. Some have given agriculture interests heartache, such as the conversion of farmlands to wetlands - the water users cite 24,000 acres in the past decade, equal to more than a tenth of the Klamath Reclamation Project. Nevertheless, it's clear that farmers and ranchers have recognized their predicament given the pressure of the Endangered Species Act and competition for water from Indian tribes upstream and down. Agriculture is in the midst of a struggle that could take decades yet to play out, and its defenders are determined that they will survive. This is a longer- term version of the creativity they showed in 2001, when, faced with imminent ruin, they responded with skill and imagination in a political protest that brought national attention and saved Basin agriculture to fight another day. The vision of the Klamath Basin as a place for human habitation must include agriculture, and an agricultural sector of sufficient size to be economically viable. This place ought to have an urban center and a scattering of pleasant small towns - and in between green fields with dancing water from irrigation works. ~ 42 Whatever alternate vision exists involves blowing away towns such as Merrill Malin and Tulelake and shriveling the city ofKlamath Falls. It involves throwing lots of people off the land, and itfs not acceptable. This is not the first such award, and won't be the last. It is a signal of a widening recognition in Oregon and the nation that farmers and ranchers will do good things here to make sure that they can continue in their necessary and honorable work. The Klamath Water Users Association, with the talents and support of the community, will continue to address the resource needs of its constituency in a proactive and creative manner. The KWUA has shown itself to be steadfast and able in protecting water users while being receptive to innovative and reasonable solutions. Our irrigating communities, through the continued efforts of the KWUA, will always be persistent and adaptable representatives of our American heritage. The " future".. . bring it on, we can handle it. r Father and daughter ride to the headgates, summer 2001. 43 Notes Information sources used in the preceding report sections are further described below. Overview The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report. Pioneers The Department of the Interior, United States Reclamation Service 1913 report entitled " History of the Klamath Project. Oregon- California. From May 1, 1903 to December 13, 1912", written by I. S. Voorhees, contains detailed accounting of early irrigation works in the Upper Klamath Basin. Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Klamath Basin Calls in the United States Government *— The Voorhees document, noted above, details this issue. Construction Begins The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. The Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Basin Area Office also provided factual data on the Klamath Project. Homesteaders The Journal of the Modoc County Historical Society, No. 18- 1996, focuses exclusively on twentieth century development of the Tule Lake area. Betty Lou Byrne- Shirely's " The Reclamation of Tule Lake" and the February 1947 Reclamation Era article " Gold Mine in the Sky", both included in the Modoc County historical journal, served as sources for the homesteader information. Quotes made by Dave Carman, a World War II veteran Tule Lake homesteader, were pulled from his testimony submitted at a House Resources Committee field hearing in Klamath Falls in June 2004. The Klamath River Compact The source for much of this information regarding development of the Compact comes from the affidavit and testimony of Stephen R. Wee, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project water rights and related issues on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040049, before the Office of Administrative 44 - r Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). The conclusion of this section contains the actual purposes of the Compact, as identified in Article I of that document. The Klamath Project's Finishing Touches The source for much of this information comes from the Klamath Water Users Association 2003 Water Bank report, the Voorhees report, and the affidavit and testimony of Rebecca Meta Bunse, who in 2004 prepared a detailed historic summary of Klamath Project development on behalf of Klamath Project irrigators for the Klamath River adjudication process. ( Reference No. 003E00040050, before the Office of Administrative Hearings, State of Oregon, for the Water Resources Department). Paul Simmons of Somach Simmons and Dunn also made significant contributions based on research he and his staff conducted on behalf of Klamath Project water users in the State of Oregon Klamath River adjudication process. New Demands Legal documents prepared by the Klamath Water Users Association attorney - Paul Simmons, of Somach, Simmons & Dunn - provide much of the background information regarding the steadily increasing regulations faced by Project irrigators, starting in the 1990s. Specifically, the plaintiffs' memorandum of points and authorities in support of motion for preliminary injunction ( Kandra et al v. United States of America) was relied upon. Also, David Vogel's testimony before the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Resources oversight field hearing in June 2004 provides an excellent treatise on the real reasons for the decline of suckers in the Upper Klamath Basin. The Klamath Water Users Association previously developed the section that assesses stressors to coho salmon during the 1990s. Problems on the East Side This section derives from an excellent letter ( dated July 28, 2004) prepared by Best Best & Krieger on behalf of Horsefly Irrigation District and Langell Valley Irrigation District. The letter was submitted to the U. S. House of Representatives Resources Committee in connection with a congressional field hearing held in Klamath Falls in July 2004. 2001 Curtailment Of the numerous media accounts of the 2001 water cutoff, I believe Blake Hurst's piece " Calamity in Klamath", which originally was published in The American Enterprise magazine in late 2002, is the best. I have borrowed liberally from Mr. Hurst, particularly his assessment of the impacts to the community of Tulelake, California. Jess Prosser's comments were originally printed in Range Magazine in 2001. The Farmers Fight Back The comments regarding the " desperate community" were pulled from an outstanding paper presented by Paul Simmons at the American Bar Association Environmental Section Fall 2004 Meeting. 45 Enter President Bush I was in the audience when President Bush made his speech in Portland. After the president's speech, I met Congressman Greg Walden for the first time; he conveyed to me some of the details of the president's flight over the Klamath Basin earlier in the day. Vindication: The National Research Council Steps In This section was derived from press statements developed by KWUA in early 2002. The Assault on the Klamath Project Intensifies Most of this section derives from personal experience, and the latter part was pulled directly from an opinion piece I was asked to write for a Boise, Idaho newspaper at the request of Idaho water users who were also being attacked by some of the same activists engaged in Klamath issues. Vindication, Part II / " We hate to say we told you so, but...." Much of this information originates in Dave Vogel's written testimony that he submitted to the House Resources Committee in June 2004. After more than a decade of professional and sometimes, personal criticism by agency and tribal biologists, the final NRC Report perhaps vindicated Dave Vogel more than anyone else. The Klamath Project Regulatory Regime: 3 Years After the Curtailment This section was written based on personal experience of the author. Proactive Efforts of Upper Basin Landowners We refer you to www. kwua. org and a 45- page document entitled Summary of Recent and Proposed Environmental Restoration and Water Conservation Efforts Undertaken by Klamath Water Users and Basin Landowners for further information on this topic. 50 Years After the Compact - Back to the Watershed- Wide Approach This perspective comes from KWUA assessments and press releases. USBR Study on Pre- Project Flow Conditions on Upper Klamath River The USBR study is incredibly important, because, for the first time, it provides a numerical modeling assessment of the conditions that likely existed on the Upper Klamath River before Europeans settled the area. Prior to this effort, assertions that flow conditions in the river were likely lower than the present could only be backed up by anecdotal ( albeit accurate) reports and incomplete flow studies. Conclusion - The Future The June 20, 2004 Herald & News editorial on recent water user efforts provided a fitting ending to this report, which is further enhanced by language developed by Steve Kandra, 2004- 05 KWUA President. 46 Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California Photo Credits 1. Cover photo - courtesy of Jacqui Krizo. 2. Map of Klamath Project - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 3. " A load of produce from the Klamath Fair, October 1907" - courtesy of Tulelake- Butte Valley _ Fair, Museum of Local History ( TBVF Museum). 4. " 1906 Map of Pre- Project Area" - courtesy of Oregon Water Resources Department. 5. " Adams Cut, July 18, 1906" - courtesy of Tulelake - Butte Valley Fair, Museum of Local History. 6. " 1907 Completion of the A Canal Headgates" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 7. " Constructing Clear Lake Dam, September, 1909" - courtesy of TBVF Museum. 8. " 1927 Homesteader Affidavit" - courtesy of Somach, Simmons and Dunn 9. " Farm Lottery Article, Life Magazine" - courtesy of Bureau of Reclamation. 10. " The Sign Says it AH" - courtesy of U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 11. " Homesteaders: Robinsons in 2001 Remember Days Gone By" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 12. J. C. Boyle Dam on the Klamath River - courtesy of PacifiCorp. 13. " Tulelake, California" - courtesy of Rob Crawford r l4. " Del Norte Salmon Cannery" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 15. " April 6, 2004 Headlines" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 16. " Kliewer Family in Dry Fields South of Klamath Falls" - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson 17. " Cemeteries went Dry in 2001" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 18. " Time Magazine Captures Rob Crawford & Family" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 19. Klamath Bucket Brigade - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 20. Prayer / Protest at Headgates - courtesy of Klamath Relief Fund. 21. President Bush Photo courtesy of Rob Crawford _ 22. Tulelake Rancher Gary Wright, June 2003 - courtesy of Pat Ratliff 23. Walking Wetlands photo - courtesy of Anders Tomlinson. 24. Bruce Knight and Mike Byrne - courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture 25. Gov. Kulongoski, Rep. Walden, and Dan Keppen at the A Canal, 2003 - Courtesy of Pat Ratliff 26. Undepleted Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River - U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. 27. " Father and Daughter Ride to the Headgates" - courtesy of Rob Crawford 28. " Lower Klamath Lake National Wildlife Refuge, California" - courtesy of Scott Harding Photography r — 47 Close

• 694. [Image] Anomalies of larval and juvenile shortnose and Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	Abstract-Larval and juvenile shortnose {Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River (Deltistes luxatus) suckers from Upper Klamath Lake, OR, were examined to determine anomaly rates for fins, eyes, spinal ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Anomalies of larval and juvenile shortnose and Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Plunkett, Steven R.; Snyder-Conn, Elaine Year: 2000, 2005 Abstract-Larval and juvenile shortnose {Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River (Deltistes luxatus) suckers from Upper Klamath Lake, OR, were examined to determine anomaly rates for fins, eyes, spinal column, vertebrae, and osteocranium, and their possible associations with water quality and pesticides. X-rays of 1,550 fish and 1,395 matching specimens, collected in 1993, were ranked on the severity of anomalies. One or more anomalies were observed in 15.9% of shortnose suckers and 8.2% of Lost River suckers. Anomaly rates exceeding 1.0%, greater than rates expected from high water quality systems, were observed for lordosis and scoliosis, and abnormalities of the vertebrae, opercula, and pectoral and pelvic fins in shortnose suckers, and abnormalities of vertebrae and opercula in Lost River suckers. The highest rates of anomalies were in vertebrae, pelvic fins, and opercula in shortnose suckers, and opercula and vertebrae in Lost River suckers. Shortnose suckers exhibited higher rates than Lost River suckers for almost all anomalies. Particular anomaly rates differed significantly among sites. There were also substantially more anomalies found in larvae and small juveniles than in larger juveniles. Based on the high anomaly rates observed in this study, it is possible that 0-aged sucker cohorts in Upper Klamath Lake are far more vulnerable to mortality. Title: Anomalies of larval and juvenile shortnose and Lost River suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Plunkett, Steven R.; Snyder-Conn, Elaine Year: 2000, 2005 Abstract-Larval and juvenile shortnose {Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River (Deltistes luxatus) suckers from Upper Klamath Lake, OR, were examined to determine anomaly rates for fins, eyes, spinal column, vertebrae, and osteocranium, and their possible associations with water quality and pesticides. X-rays of 1,550 fish and 1,395 matching specimens, collected in 1993, were ranked on the severity of anomalies. One or more anomalies were observed in 15.9% of shortnose suckers and 8.2% of Lost River suckers. Anomaly rates exceeding 1.0%, greater than rates expected from high water quality systems, were observed for lordosis and scoliosis, and abnormalities of the vertebrae, opercula, and pectoral and pelvic fins in shortnose suckers, and abnormalities of vertebrae and opercula in Lost River suckers. The highest rates of anomalies were in vertebrae, pelvic fins, and opercula in shortnose suckers, and opercula and vertebrae in Lost River suckers. Shortnose suckers exhibited higher rates than Lost River suckers for almost all anomalies. Particular anomaly rates differed significantly among sites. There were also substantially more anomalies found in larvae and small juveniles than in larger juveniles. Based on the high anomaly rates observed in this study, it is possible that 0-aged sucker cohorts in Upper Klamath Lake are far more vulnerable to mortality. Close

• 695. [Image] Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin

  	"January 2003."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin Author: Meiners, Roger E; Kosnik, Lea-Rachel D., 1972- Year: 2003, 2007, 2005 "January 2003."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28) Title: Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin Author: Meiners, Roger E; Kosnik, Lea-Rachel D., 1972- Year: 2003, 2007, 2005 "January 2003."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28) Close

• 696. [Image] Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds biennial report, 2005-2007

  	The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Biennial Report 2005-2007. This is the sixth report on the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The report provides an update on the accomplishments and continuing ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds biennial report, 2005-2007 Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2006, 2007 The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Biennial Report 2005-2007. This is the sixth report on the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The report provides an update on the accomplishments and continuing efforts of people throughout Oregon to improve and protect clean water and recover and maintain healthy populations offish and wildlife in our watersheds. The Oregon Plan is unique because it engages communities in the restoration and long-term stewardship of their watersheds. This extraordinary effort encourages local partnerships and voluntary actions to improve the conditions of our watersheds. Over the years, these actions have made Oregon a national leader in local cooperative conservation. This report collects project and condition data, voluntary private lands restoration information, and agency program accomplishments under the Oregon Plan. Consistent with the past two reports, this document continues to provide specific data on each of the state's fifteen reporting basins. A new element to this report is the inclusion of stories about the people, partnerships, and on-the-ground projects that are benefiting watersheds and communities across the state. Thanks to the many Oregon Plan partners who contributed to this report. Thomas M. Byler Executive Director Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Title: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds biennial report, 2005-2007 Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2006, 2007 The Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Biennial Report 2005-2007. This is the sixth report on the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. The report provides an update on the accomplishments and continuing efforts of people throughout Oregon to improve and protect clean water and recover and maintain healthy populations offish and wildlife in our watersheds. The Oregon Plan is unique because it engages communities in the restoration and long-term stewardship of their watersheds. This extraordinary effort encourages local partnerships and voluntary actions to improve the conditions of our watersheds. Over the years, these actions have made Oregon a national leader in local cooperative conservation. This report collects project and condition data, voluntary private lands restoration information, and agency program accomplishments under the Oregon Plan. Consistent with the past two reports, this document continues to provide specific data on each of the state's fifteen reporting basins. A new element to this report is the inclusion of stories about the people, partnerships, and on-the-ground projects that are benefiting watersheds and communities across the state. Thanks to the many Oregon Plan partners who contributed to this report. Thomas M. Byler Executive Director Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Close

• 697. [Image] Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy

  	Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy Author: United States. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; United States. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Managemen Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest Plan. Projects needed to achieve Northwest Forest Plan goals have been delayed or stopped due to misapplication of certain passages in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The agencies are responding to the underlying need for increased agency success planning and implementing projects, to the extent that the current wording has hindered the agencies ability to follow Northwest Forest Plan principles and achieve its goals. The goals of the Northwest Forest Plan cannot be achieved without project implementation. Three alternatives are considered in the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, No Action, the Proposed Action, and Alternative A. No Action would not change existing language within the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The Proposed Action and Alternative A would make l Title: Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy Author: United States. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; United States. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Managemen Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest Plan. Projects needed to achieve Northwest Forest Plan goals have been delayed or stopped due to misapplication of certain passages in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The agencies are responding to the underlying need for increased agency success planning and implementing projects, to the extent that the current wording has hindered the agencies ability to follow Northwest Forest Plan principles and achieve its goals. The goals of the Northwest Forest Plan cannot be achieved without project implementation. Three alternatives are considered in the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, No Action, the Proposed Action, and Alternative A. No Action would not change existing language within the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The Proposed Action and Alternative A would make l Close

• 698. [Image] Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005

  	iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Close

• 699. [Image] Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3

  	Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Close

• 700. [Image] Western water resource issues

  	CRS issue brief; "Updated May 19, 2005."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Western water resource issues Author: Cody, Betsy A.; Sheikh, Pervaze A. Year: 2005 CRS issue brief; "Updated May 19, 2005." Title: Western water resource issues Author: Cody, Betsy A.; Sheikh, Pervaze A. Year: 2005 CRS issue brief; "Updated May 19, 2005." Close