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• 1281. [Article] Differences in University Students' Self-Determined Motivation, Perceived Competence, and Physical Activity Behavior at Institutions with Either a Required or an Elective Physical Activity Education Policy

  The overarching premise of this dissertation is to understand how different college and university physical activity education policies affect college and university students. Fundamentally, some American ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Differences in University Students' Self-Determined Motivation, Perceived Competence, and Physical Activity Behavior at Institutions with Either a Required or an Elective Physical Activity Education Policy Author: Kim, MooSong The overarching premise of this dissertation is to understand how different college and university physical activity education policies affect college and university students. Fundamentally, some American colleges and universities require their students to complete a physical activity education requirement whereas others do not. Given the different policy arrangements of college and university physical activity education programs in the American higher education system, it is important to understand how these different physical activity education policies (i.e., required to earn a baccalaureate degree vs. not required to earn a baccalaureate degree) influence students' motivation, competence, reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses, and weekly exercise METs. The first manuscript reviewed the characteristics of physical activity education policies in the American higher education system. The tension between organizational policy and individual autonomy was most apparent. Specifically, having a required physical activity education course policy generally enhanced student accessibility to physical activity education courses and helped to form students' positive physical activity behaviors during the college and university years and post-graduation, whereas having an elective physical activity course policy was most respectful of student autonomy. The second manuscript empirically examined the differences of students' physical activity motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs between an institution with a required physical activity education graduation requirement and one without such a requirement, but which offered an elective physical activity education program to its students. The findings revealed that having a required physical activity education policy allowed for more students with lower self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., amotivation) to access physical activity education courses in comparison to the elective physical activity education policy. This finding was also supported in a second empirical study (see below, "The third manuscript…"), which found that female students enrolling in physical activity education courses under an elective physical education policy were already engaging in physical activity. These findings suggest that having a physical activity education policy might create equal physical activity opportunities for all college and university students. The third manuscript explored students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses and how students' different types of motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs predicted their reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses. The findings suggested that the students' main reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses were to improve their fitness levels and to exercise regularly. There were differences in students' reasons for enrolling on the basis of their self-reported gender and the physical activity education policy arrangement of the institution they were enrolled at. Female’s reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation, weekly exercise METs, and amotivation) verses male's reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation) for were more varied. The female students also had different predictors in terms of their reasons for enrollment according which physical activity education policy they were following. These findings suggest that motivation is multifaceted and influenced by policy, context, and personal factors. On the basis of two empirical studies, it was concluded that having a required physical activity education policy creates equal opportunities for all college and university students to engage in physical activity education courses. More importantly, understandings students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses can add greater depth to creating effective, inclusive, positive, and safe college and university physical activity education courses for all. Title: Differences in University Students' Self-Determined Motivation, Perceived Competence, and Physical Activity Behavior at Institutions with Either a Required or an Elective Physical Activity Education Policy Author: Kim, MooSong The overarching premise of this dissertation is to understand how different college and university physical activity education policies affect college and university students. Fundamentally, some American colleges and universities require their students to complete a physical activity education requirement whereas others do not. Given the different policy arrangements of college and university physical activity education programs in the American higher education system, it is important to understand how these different physical activity education policies (i.e., required to earn a baccalaureate degree vs. not required to earn a baccalaureate degree) influence students' motivation, competence, reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses, and weekly exercise METs. The first manuscript reviewed the characteristics of physical activity education policies in the American higher education system. The tension between organizational policy and individual autonomy was most apparent. Specifically, having a required physical activity education course policy generally enhanced student accessibility to physical activity education courses and helped to form students' positive physical activity behaviors during the college and university years and post-graduation, whereas having an elective physical activity course policy was most respectful of student autonomy. The second manuscript empirically examined the differences of students' physical activity motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs between an institution with a required physical activity education graduation requirement and one without such a requirement, but which offered an elective physical activity education program to its students. The findings revealed that having a required physical activity education policy allowed for more students with lower self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., amotivation) to access physical activity education courses in comparison to the elective physical activity education policy. This finding was also supported in a second empirical study (see below, "The third manuscript…"), which found that female students enrolling in physical activity education courses under an elective physical education policy were already engaging in physical activity. These findings suggest that having a physical activity education policy might create equal physical activity opportunities for all college and university students. The third manuscript explored students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses and how students' different types of motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs predicted their reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses. The findings suggested that the students' main reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses were to improve their fitness levels and to exercise regularly. There were differences in students' reasons for enrolling on the basis of their self-reported gender and the physical activity education policy arrangement of the institution they were enrolled at. Female’s reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation, weekly exercise METs, and amotivation) verses male's reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation) for were more varied. The female students also had different predictors in terms of their reasons for enrollment according which physical activity education policy they were following. These findings suggest that motivation is multifaceted and influenced by policy, context, and personal factors. On the basis of two empirical studies, it was concluded that having a required physical activity education policy creates equal opportunities for all college and university students to engage in physical activity education courses. More importantly, understandings students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses can add greater depth to creating effective, inclusive, positive, and safe college and university physical activity education courses for all. Close

• 1282. [Article] Distribution of bats in Southeast Alaska and selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska

  We conducted capture and acoustic surveys for bats in six areas along a latitudinal gradient in Southeast Alaska from mid-May to September in 2005 and we continued surveys on Prince of Wales Island from ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution of bats in Southeast Alaska and selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska Author: Boland, Julia L. We conducted capture and acoustic surveys for bats in six areas along a latitudinal gradient in Southeast Alaska from mid-May to September in 2005 and we continued surveys on Prince of Wales Island from mid-May to September in 2006. We determined the level of effort required to catch each species and documented ranges in morphology and periods of reproduction. We captured little brown myotis, Myotis lucifugus; California myotis, M. californicus; long-legged myotis, M. volans; and Keen’s myotis, M. keenii, and we acoustically detected and sighted the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans. Capture success varied by species, year, and type of capture site. Our surveys support prior research suggesting that the little brown myotis is the most abundant species in the region, although densities appear to be low relative to other parts of its range. California myotis and Keen’s myotis were captured as far north as Juneau. The long-legged myotis was captured on Wrangell and Prince of Wales Islands and the silver-haired bat was detected on Prince of Wales Island. Prince of Wales Island is the southernmost area we sampled and was the only area where all species were detected. Given low rates of detection, all species appear to occur in low densities in Southeast Alaska. Better understanding of population status and trends and examination of habitat ecology and response to forest management in the region is needed to prioritize conservation strategies. The Keen’s myotis is rare and has one of the most limited distributions of any bat species in North America. Understanding gender-specific roosting ecologies of bats at relevant spatial scales is necessary to effectively evaluate the impact of habitat alteration and prioritize conservation efforts for bats in temperate forests. We examined selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis from mid-May to September, 2006 on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Our objectives were to 1) examine relationships between and determine relative importance of habitat characteristics on selection of day-roosts at three spatial scales and 2) determine if habitat associations for males and females differed at each scale. We tracked 13 females to 62 roosts in trees and 6 males to 24 roosts in trees. Features at each spatial scale appeared to influence selection of day-roosts by female Keen’s myotis, but associations were strongest at the tree scale and trees used as roosts were primarily large in diameter with structural defects and located in old-growth forests. Trees in plots around roosts of females had large mean diameters and these plots had a high abundance of roost-like trees. Roosts were generally located near to roads and streams and surrounded by landscapes with a high abundance of old-growth and riparian habitat. Associations were evident for male Keen’s myotis at each spatial scale, but associations at the landscape scale were strongest. Male Keen’s myotis exhibited flexibility with the types of roosts they chose, but tree roosts were primarily snags in early to intermediate decay surrounded by a high relative abundance of roost-like trees that were closer to roads and further from riparian habitat. Habitat associations differed between males and females at each spatial scale and differences are likely a reflection of higher energetic constraints associated with reproduction for females. Energetic benefits gained from optimal roosting habitat may be critical for successful reproduction by females. Females primarily roosted in old-growth habitat and we suggest that maintaining structural components characteristic of old growth will promote conservation of Keen’s myotis in Southeast Alaska. Title: Distribution of bats in Southeast Alaska and selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska Author: Boland, Julia L. We conducted capture and acoustic surveys for bats in six areas along a latitudinal gradient in Southeast Alaska from mid-May to September in 2005 and we continued surveys on Prince of Wales Island from mid-May to September in 2006. We determined the level of effort required to catch each species and documented ranges in morphology and periods of reproduction. We captured little brown myotis, Myotis lucifugus; California myotis, M. californicus; long-legged myotis, M. volans; and Keen’s myotis, M. keenii, and we acoustically detected and sighted the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans. Capture success varied by species, year, and type of capture site. Our surveys support prior research suggesting that the little brown myotis is the most abundant species in the region, although densities appear to be low relative to other parts of its range. California myotis and Keen’s myotis were captured as far north as Juneau. The long-legged myotis was captured on Wrangell and Prince of Wales Islands and the silver-haired bat was detected on Prince of Wales Island. Prince of Wales Island is the southernmost area we sampled and was the only area where all species were detected. Given low rates of detection, all species appear to occur in low densities in Southeast Alaska. Better understanding of population status and trends and examination of habitat ecology and response to forest management in the region is needed to prioritize conservation strategies. The Keen’s myotis is rare and has one of the most limited distributions of any bat species in North America. Understanding gender-specific roosting ecologies of bats at relevant spatial scales is necessary to effectively evaluate the impact of habitat alteration and prioritize conservation efforts for bats in temperate forests. We examined selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis from mid-May to September, 2006 on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Our objectives were to 1) examine relationships between and determine relative importance of habitat characteristics on selection of day-roosts at three spatial scales and 2) determine if habitat associations for males and females differed at each scale. We tracked 13 females to 62 roosts in trees and 6 males to 24 roosts in trees. Features at each spatial scale appeared to influence selection of day-roosts by female Keen’s myotis, but associations were strongest at the tree scale and trees used as roosts were primarily large in diameter with structural defects and located in old-growth forests. Trees in plots around roosts of females had large mean diameters and these plots had a high abundance of roost-like trees. Roosts were generally located near to roads and streams and surrounded by landscapes with a high abundance of old-growth and riparian habitat. Associations were evident for male Keen’s myotis at each spatial scale, but associations at the landscape scale were strongest. Male Keen’s myotis exhibited flexibility with the types of roosts they chose, but tree roosts were primarily snags in early to intermediate decay surrounded by a high relative abundance of roost-like trees that were closer to roads and further from riparian habitat. Habitat associations differed between males and females at each spatial scale and differences are likely a reflection of higher energetic constraints associated with reproduction for females. Energetic benefits gained from optimal roosting habitat may be critical for successful reproduction by females. Females primarily roosted in old-growth habitat and we suggest that maintaining structural components characteristic of old growth will promote conservation of Keen’s myotis in Southeast Alaska. Close

• 1283. [Article] First impressions of the interiors of hotel lobbies as influences on perceptions of hotels

  The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants can form impressions and make inferences about a hotel based only on the physical environment or design of the hotel lobby. The study investigated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: First impressions of the interiors of hotel lobbies as influences on perceptions of hotels Author: Fidzani, Lily Clara The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants can form impressions and make inferences about a hotel based only on the physical environment or design of the hotel lobby. The study investigated how the interior arrangement, furnishings and other aspects of hotel lobbies influenced participants' first impressions and their inferences about the hotel as a whole. The lobby was selected because this is the first area inside the hotel that consumers see and therefore it is important for creating impressions. The specific objectives of this study were: to determine if the physical environment of the hotel lobbies could influence participants' overall perception of the hotels, to investigate what holistic perception participants reported about the hotels based on the design of their lobbies, and to investigate whether the physical environment of hotel lobbies is important in impression formation and in communicating the image of the hotels. In the present study, impression formation theory provided a theoretical framework for understanding how impressions were formed and how extended inferences were made. The theory provided the basis of understanding how people use physical environment cues to form impressions and make inferences about their environment. The participants of the study consisted of eight (8) males and 43 female undergraduate students enrolled during Spring Term, 2002, at Oregon State University. Instead of experiencing the real situation, participants were shown four (4) pictures of actual hotel lobbies and asked to form their impressions and make their extended inferences about the whole hotels based on the lobbies. The pictures selected showed variation in the interior space and components of the hotel lobbies, such as lighting, ceiling, floor, walls, architectural style, and furniture arrangement. The participants were shown one picture at a time projected on a screen in the front of the room. The order in which the participants saw the pictures was varied with each group to account for order effect. The pictures were shown in the following order; ABCD, DCBA, CADB and BDAC, one group at a time. Each picture was shown for approximately three minutes. After explaining the procedure to the participants, the researcher asked them to record their first impressions and make extended inferences about the hotel by responding to open-ended questions. They wrote statements about the first things that came to their minds when seeing the pictures of the hotel lobbies. Data collection took about 10-15 minutes for each session. The responses from the open-ended questionnaire were content analyzed according to themes that emerged from the responses for each slide. The emergent themes were reported and discussed based on the objectives of the study. Most of the impressions formed were shared by the participants regardless of their class standing, number of times they had stayed in a hotel recently, and their current major. Even though gender comparison was not made due to few male participants, the researcher observed that the males' impressions were more physical, whereas female's impressions were more emotional. That is, the males looked more at the design, available amenities and facilities, whereas females also commented on the friendliness, warmth and coziness of the hotel. When asked to, participants were able to form impressions about the entire hotels based on ambient factors in the lobbies such as lighting and cleanliness, and on design factors such as style and layout, space, color, architecture and other factors. Impressions were also made with regard to social factors, such as clientele and service personnel. Responses about the characteristics of the clientele ranged from families to business people, rich people and others. Participants were able to make inferences about the general atmosphere, cleanliness, type of customer service, available amenities and facilities, price of hotel rooms, possible location of the hotel, clientele, the size and decor of the guest rooms, and comfort and spaciousness, based only on their impressions of the hotel lobbies when prompted. They were also able to attach emotional, economic and physical feelings to their impressions. The findings of the study indicated that the environment of the hotel lobby might be rich in cues that are important in communicating image and suggesting impressions of the hotel. The study concluded that the design of the lobby might very well determine the approach or avoidance behavior of guests and potential guests. The quality of the environmental cues may also be important in communicating the quality and nature of service the hotel offers and the image it intends to portray. Therefore, in order to increase business, the environments of hotel lobbies should be designed to elicit approach behavior from guests or potential guests. Title: First impressions of the interiors of hotel lobbies as influences on perceptions of hotels Author: Fidzani, Lily Clara The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants can form impressions and make inferences about a hotel based only on the physical environment or design of the hotel lobby. The study investigated how the interior arrangement, furnishings and other aspects of hotel lobbies influenced participants' first impressions and their inferences about the hotel as a whole. The lobby was selected because this is the first area inside the hotel that consumers see and therefore it is important for creating impressions. The specific objectives of this study were: to determine if the physical environment of the hotel lobbies could influence participants' overall perception of the hotels, to investigate what holistic perception participants reported about the hotels based on the design of their lobbies, and to investigate whether the physical environment of hotel lobbies is important in impression formation and in communicating the image of the hotels. In the present study, impression formation theory provided a theoretical framework for understanding how impressions were formed and how extended inferences were made. The theory provided the basis of understanding how people use physical environment cues to form impressions and make inferences about their environment. The participants of the study consisted of eight (8) males and 43 female undergraduate students enrolled during Spring Term, 2002, at Oregon State University. Instead of experiencing the real situation, participants were shown four (4) pictures of actual hotel lobbies and asked to form their impressions and make their extended inferences about the whole hotels based on the lobbies. The pictures selected showed variation in the interior space and components of the hotel lobbies, such as lighting, ceiling, floor, walls, architectural style, and furniture arrangement. The participants were shown one picture at a time projected on a screen in the front of the room. The order in which the participants saw the pictures was varied with each group to account for order effect. The pictures were shown in the following order; ABCD, DCBA, CADB and BDAC, one group at a time. Each picture was shown for approximately three minutes. After explaining the procedure to the participants, the researcher asked them to record their first impressions and make extended inferences about the hotel by responding to open-ended questions. They wrote statements about the first things that came to their minds when seeing the pictures of the hotel lobbies. Data collection took about 10-15 minutes for each session. The responses from the open-ended questionnaire were content analyzed according to themes that emerged from the responses for each slide. The emergent themes were reported and discussed based on the objectives of the study. Most of the impressions formed were shared by the participants regardless of their class standing, number of times they had stayed in a hotel recently, and their current major. Even though gender comparison was not made due to few male participants, the researcher observed that the males' impressions were more physical, whereas female's impressions were more emotional. That is, the males looked more at the design, available amenities and facilities, whereas females also commented on the friendliness, warmth and coziness of the hotel. When asked to, participants were able to form impressions about the entire hotels based on ambient factors in the lobbies such as lighting and cleanliness, and on design factors such as style and layout, space, color, architecture and other factors. Impressions were also made with regard to social factors, such as clientele and service personnel. Responses about the characteristics of the clientele ranged from families to business people, rich people and others. Participants were able to make inferences about the general atmosphere, cleanliness, type of customer service, available amenities and facilities, price of hotel rooms, possible location of the hotel, clientele, the size and decor of the guest rooms, and comfort and spaciousness, based only on their impressions of the hotel lobbies when prompted. They were also able to attach emotional, economic and physical feelings to their impressions. The findings of the study indicated that the environment of the hotel lobby might be rich in cues that are important in communicating image and suggesting impressions of the hotel. The study concluded that the design of the lobby might very well determine the approach or avoidance behavior of guests and potential guests. The quality of the environmental cues may also be important in communicating the quality and nature of service the hotel offers and the image it intends to portray. Therefore, in order to increase business, the environments of hotel lobbies should be designed to elicit approach behavior from guests or potential guests. Close

• 1284. [Article] Lead toxicity at various dosages in Naeemi lambs in Kuwait

  Environmental contamination along roadways with lead from processed petroleum and automotive residues has been reported. Toxicity to the herbivores grazing these areas has not been well studied. Comparison ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lead toxicity at various dosages in Naeemi lambs in Kuwait Author: AL Sabbagh, Tariq Ashour Environmental contamination along roadways with lead from processed petroleum and automotive residues has been reported. Toxicity to the herbivores grazing these areas has not been well studied. Comparison of lead concentrations adjacent to roads in Kuwait and in Oregon, USA was studied. Soil samples were taken from three sites at three different distances from the highway (0, 3 and 10 meters) adjacent to King Fahad Highway in Kuwait and Interstate 5 (I-5), Highway 34 (H-34) and Highway 20 (H-20) in Oregon. Soil was analyzed for lead concentrations. The mean lead concentrations in soil samples along King Fahad Highway were significantly higher (p<0.05) than those along 1-5, H-34 and 14-20 in Oregon [4943.6 ppm (mg/kg) vs 129 ppm, 94.9 and 81.67 ppm respectively]. In a field trial animal toxicity studies were conducted on sheep grazing near roadway in Kuwait and also in a controlled barn studies. Fifty lambs ranging in age from 4 to 9 months and grazing on Kuwait pasture adjacent to the King Fahad Highway were tested for blood lead. Levels were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). Blood lead levels of these lambs ranged from 0.05-1.00 ppm. Only 12% of the tested population exceeded the blood lead above 0.1 ppm (the high normal value). None demonstrated any clinical signs of lead toxicosis. In addition, a controlled feeding trial was conducted with sheep ingesting similar concentrations of lead as were found along the roadways. These sheep were observed for clinical, gross and histopathological changes. Using the intensive lamb production system common in Kuwait, twenty five lambs ranging in age from 2-10 months were orally fed 0, 2, 4, 8 and 16 mg lead acetate/kg body weight/day in a controlled study. Blood lead levels were tested in these lambs at time zero, week two, and then at monthly intervals until the 14th week. All lambs were slaughtered and necropsied with select tissues analyzed for lead concentrations. Levels of lead in the blood were directly related to the daily administrated lead acetate (P<0.05). Neither gender, age nor breed of the sire had any affect on blood lead levels except for the 14th week where blood lead levels of the young lambs significantly exceeded (P<0.05) those in the older lambs with mean values of 0.54 and 0.34 ppm respectively. In general, lead levels in all the tested tissues were directly related to the amount of the daily oral administration of lead acetate. Differences between the tissue levels of lead in the experimental and control lambs (N=25) were statistically significant (P<0.05) in liver, bone and kidney but were not significant in trachea, testis, brain, diaphragm, ovary, lung, muscle, rumen, aorta, spleen, tongue, eye, intestine, heart and esophagus. Lead accumulation was the highest in bone at the lower ingested lead concentrations, but was the highest in the kidney at higher lead dosages. Lead values were significantly greater (P<0.05) in the livers of female lambs compared to those of the male. Bone, liver and kidney of the young lambs had significantly higher (P<0.05) levels of lead than older lambs with means of 19.24, 7.31 and 54.54 compared to 6.34, 3.59 and 21.31 ppm respectively. Gross lesions were not found in any of the 25 necropsied lambs. Histopathological changes of intranuclear inclusion bodies were found in 100% of the kidneys in lambs administered 8 mg/Kg/day and above and in 50% of the livers of the lambs administered the same dosages. Thirty three per cent of lambs administered 2 and 4 mg/kg/day had intranuclear inclusion bodies in their kidney but not in the liver. The controls had no inclusion bodies in any of these matching tissues. No clinical signs of lead toxicosis were observed in any lambs during the 14 weeks of the experiment. The same lamb population was used to compare blood lead levels and the growth performance of lambs (feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion) in relation to different dosages of lead acetate. Although there was a tendency for lambs ingesting the two higher lead doses to eat less feed, gain less weight; and have a lower feed conversion ratio, these differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). The conclusion of these studies reveal some concern. Levels of lead as found near the highways of Kuwait were high enough to cause elevated tissue lead concentrations, particularly in liver and kidney, of lambs grazing adjacent to these highways. These levels cause tissue abnormalities in lambs and could be hazardous to human health eating the internal organs of these lambs. Title: Lead toxicity at various dosages in Naeemi lambs in Kuwait Author: AL Sabbagh, Tariq Ashour Environmental contamination along roadways with lead from processed petroleum and automotive residues has been reported. Toxicity to the herbivores grazing these areas has not been well studied. Comparison of lead concentrations adjacent to roads in Kuwait and in Oregon, USA was studied. Soil samples were taken from three sites at three different distances from the highway (0, 3 and 10 meters) adjacent to King Fahad Highway in Kuwait and Interstate 5 (I-5), Highway 34 (H-34) and Highway 20 (H-20) in Oregon. Soil was analyzed for lead concentrations. The mean lead concentrations in soil samples along King Fahad Highway were significantly higher (p<0.05) than those along 1-5, H-34 and 14-20 in Oregon [4943.6 ppm (mg/kg) vs 129 ppm, 94.9 and 81.67 ppm respectively]. In a field trial animal toxicity studies were conducted on sheep grazing near roadway in Kuwait and also in a controlled barn studies. Fifty lambs ranging in age from 4 to 9 months and grazing on Kuwait pasture adjacent to the King Fahad Highway were tested for blood lead. Levels were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). Blood lead levels of these lambs ranged from 0.05-1.00 ppm. Only 12% of the tested population exceeded the blood lead above 0.1 ppm (the high normal value). None demonstrated any clinical signs of lead toxicosis. In addition, a controlled feeding trial was conducted with sheep ingesting similar concentrations of lead as were found along the roadways. These sheep were observed for clinical, gross and histopathological changes. Using the intensive lamb production system common in Kuwait, twenty five lambs ranging in age from 2-10 months were orally fed 0, 2, 4, 8 and 16 mg lead acetate/kg body weight/day in a controlled study. Blood lead levels were tested in these lambs at time zero, week two, and then at monthly intervals until the 14th week. All lambs were slaughtered and necropsied with select tissues analyzed for lead concentrations. Levels of lead in the blood were directly related to the daily administrated lead acetate (P<0.05). Neither gender, age nor breed of the sire had any affect on blood lead levels except for the 14th week where blood lead levels of the young lambs significantly exceeded (P<0.05) those in the older lambs with mean values of 0.54 and 0.34 ppm respectively. In general, lead levels in all the tested tissues were directly related to the amount of the daily oral administration of lead acetate. Differences between the tissue levels of lead in the experimental and control lambs (N=25) were statistically significant (P<0.05) in liver, bone and kidney but were not significant in trachea, testis, brain, diaphragm, ovary, lung, muscle, rumen, aorta, spleen, tongue, eye, intestine, heart and esophagus. Lead accumulation was the highest in bone at the lower ingested lead concentrations, but was the highest in the kidney at higher lead dosages. Lead values were significantly greater (P<0.05) in the livers of female lambs compared to those of the male. Bone, liver and kidney of the young lambs had significantly higher (P<0.05) levels of lead than older lambs with means of 19.24, 7.31 and 54.54 compared to 6.34, 3.59 and 21.31 ppm respectively. Gross lesions were not found in any of the 25 necropsied lambs. Histopathological changes of intranuclear inclusion bodies were found in 100% of the kidneys in lambs administered 8 mg/Kg/day and above and in 50% of the livers of the lambs administered the same dosages. Thirty three per cent of lambs administered 2 and 4 mg/kg/day had intranuclear inclusion bodies in their kidney but not in the liver. The controls had no inclusion bodies in any of these matching tissues. No clinical signs of lead toxicosis were observed in any lambs during the 14 weeks of the experiment. The same lamb population was used to compare blood lead levels and the growth performance of lambs (feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion) in relation to different dosages of lead acetate. Although there was a tendency for lambs ingesting the two higher lead doses to eat less feed, gain less weight; and have a lower feed conversion ratio, these differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). The conclusion of these studies reveal some concern. Levels of lead as found near the highways of Kuwait were high enough to cause elevated tissue lead concentrations, particularly in liver and kidney, of lambs grazing adjacent to these highways. These levels cause tissue abnormalities in lambs and could be hazardous to human health eating the internal organs of these lambs. Close

• 1285. [Article] Retrospective Analyses of Marine Mammal Strandings on the Oregon Coast

  Every year many marine mammals become stranded on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The deaths of these animals are investigated and recorded by the North West Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Animals ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Retrospective Analyses of Marine Mammal Strandings on the Oregon Coast Author: Rice, Jim, Lohr, Christiane, Engelhard, Jennifer, Duffield, Debbie Every year many marine mammals become stranded on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The deaths of these animals are investigated and recorded by the North West Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Animals or tissues from animals, that are considered fresh enough for histopathology are brought for evaluation to the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory at Oregon State University. The diagnostic records detail the condition of the animal, disease status and cause of death. In this study, data will be collated from the diagnostic records at the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory (VisuaLab database) into an access database, incorporating information from the Marine Mammal Stranding Network as appropriate. Over the last six years, a total of 183 cases have been accessioned into the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory database, involving sea lions, seals, porpoises, dolphins and whales. This data is accessible only via VisuaLab software, which provides limited support for data queries and is scheduled for retirement later this year, making subsequent access even more difficult. Converting this database into an access database will allow future synthesis with the Marine Mammal Stranding Network database and will ensure continued availability of all the data and provide an increased sample size for any future research. Statistical analysis will be undertaken to ascertain the types, frequency, and distribution (e.g. species, age, gender, geography) of diseases and to look for trends in the cause of death marine mammals of the Pacific Northwest The desired outcomes of this project are to obtain an increased knowledge and understanding of what research entails and how it is conducted, to contribute information regarding the health of marine mammal populations of the Pacific Northwest, and to create an accessible, user friendly database for other researchers in this field. Secondary desired outcomes of this project are to assist in marine mammal conservation efforts and to form the basis of future research projects allowing for in depth investigations of specific diseases and trends. Title: Retrospective Analyses of Marine Mammal Strandings on the Oregon Coast Author: Rice, Jim, Lohr, Christiane, Engelhard, Jennifer, Duffield, Debbie Every year many marine mammals become stranded on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The deaths of these animals are investigated and recorded by the North West Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Animals or tissues from animals, that are considered fresh enough for histopathology are brought for evaluation to the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory at Oregon State University. The diagnostic records detail the condition of the animal, disease status and cause of death. In this study, data will be collated from the diagnostic records at the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory (VisuaLab database) into an access database, incorporating information from the Marine Mammal Stranding Network as appropriate. Over the last six years, a total of 183 cases have been accessioned into the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory database, involving sea lions, seals, porpoises, dolphins and whales. This data is accessible only via VisuaLab software, which provides limited support for data queries and is scheduled for retirement later this year, making subsequent access even more difficult. Converting this database into an access database will allow future synthesis with the Marine Mammal Stranding Network database and will ensure continued availability of all the data and provide an increased sample size for any future research. Statistical analysis will be undertaken to ascertain the types, frequency, and distribution (e.g. species, age, gender, geography) of diseases and to look for trends in the cause of death marine mammals of the Pacific Northwest The desired outcomes of this project are to obtain an increased knowledge and understanding of what research entails and how it is conducted, to contribute information regarding the health of marine mammal populations of the Pacific Northwest, and to create an accessible, user friendly database for other researchers in this field. Secondary desired outcomes of this project are to assist in marine mammal conservation efforts and to form the basis of future research projects allowing for in depth investigations of specific diseases and trends. Close

• 1286. [Article] Knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among future teachers

  This study measured knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in a sample of future teachers from the College of Education ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among future teachers Author: Mix, Katherine A. This study measured knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in a sample of future teachers from the College of Education at Oregon State University. The objectives of the study were 1) to determine if students possess accurate knowledge about the two diseases; 2) to measure attitudes toward people with the two diseases; 3) to assess the relationship, if any, between knowledge and attitudes; 4) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes with knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS; and 5) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes in 1990 to data from a similar study conducted in 1984. A convenience sample of 150 students was obtained from undergraduate classes in the College of Education during Spring Term 1990. Subjects completed self-administered questionnaires about either genital herpes or HIV/AIDS during class time. Data were gathered using four instruments: A knowledge test, two attitude measures, and a demographic data questionnaire. Statistical tests used for data analysis were chi square, Pearson's correlation coefficient, Student's t-test, two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and repeated measures ANOVA. The significance level was .05. Knowledge scores on the HIV/AIDS test were quite high (mean score 88% correct), while the mean genital herpes knowledge score was relatively low (62% correct). Attitudes toward people with both genital herpes and HIV/AIDS were relatively accepting, but subjects were significantly more accepting toward people with genital herpes. The least accepting responses toward people with either disease occurred in regard to potentially sexual situations (e.g. dating, marriage). There was no gender difference in attitudes toward people with either disease. Attitudes were more positive in response to a vignette of a college student followed by a questionnaire, compared to responses made to a questionnaire only. Correlations were found between more knowledge and more accepting attitudes about both diseases. Finally, genital herpes knowledge scores were higher (mean score 62% correct) than scores from a similar study of genital herpes conducted in 1984 (mean score 57% correct). Attitudes toward people with genital herpes were more accepting in the 1990 sample than were attitudes in the 1984 sample. All findings reported here are statistically significant. Recommendations for future research and education among future teachers concerning sexually transmitted diseases (STD's) include 1) development of methods to transmit accurate information about STD's by personalizing these diseases and relating them to college students' experiences; 2) a research focus upon attitudes and perceptions about STD's among future teachers, including the issue of homophobia, and how these relate to behavior; and 3) thorough teacher preparation about STD's, focusing on accurate knowledge and impartial attitudes that allow this topic to be addressed effectively in the classroom. Future research among the general college student population should address 1) the relationship between knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and behavior concerning STD's; 2) potential differences in responses made to a vignette followed by a questionnaire, compared to a questionnaire only; 3) students' source(s) of information about STD's, and level of trust in "scientific authority"; 4) possible interactions between religious influence and attitudes about STD's; 5) the existence of a stereotype of HIV/AIDS as a gay, male disease, and how this might affect attitudes and perceptions; 6) differences between males and females in terms of attitudes, especially with regard to homophobia; 7) the effectiveness of personalizing STD education to increase knowledge about and perceived susceptibility to STD's; 8) the interaction between societal values and personal values, and their effect on attitudes about STD's and sexual behavior. Title: Knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among future teachers Author: Mix, Katherine A. This study measured knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in a sample of future teachers from the College of Education at Oregon State University. The objectives of the study were 1) to determine if students possess accurate knowledge about the two diseases; 2) to measure attitudes toward people with the two diseases; 3) to assess the relationship, if any, between knowledge and attitudes; 4) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes with knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS; and 5) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes in 1990 to data from a similar study conducted in 1984. A convenience sample of 150 students was obtained from undergraduate classes in the College of Education during Spring Term 1990. Subjects completed self-administered questionnaires about either genital herpes or HIV/AIDS during class time. Data were gathered using four instruments: A knowledge test, two attitude measures, and a demographic data questionnaire. Statistical tests used for data analysis were chi square, Pearson's correlation coefficient, Student's t-test, two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and repeated measures ANOVA. The significance level was .05. Knowledge scores on the HIV/AIDS test were quite high (mean score 88% correct), while the mean genital herpes knowledge score was relatively low (62% correct). Attitudes toward people with both genital herpes and HIV/AIDS were relatively accepting, but subjects were significantly more accepting toward people with genital herpes. The least accepting responses toward people with either disease occurred in regard to potentially sexual situations (e.g. dating, marriage). There was no gender difference in attitudes toward people with either disease. Attitudes were more positive in response to a vignette of a college student followed by a questionnaire, compared to responses made to a questionnaire only. Correlations were found between more knowledge and more accepting attitudes about both diseases. Finally, genital herpes knowledge scores were higher (mean score 62% correct) than scores from a similar study of genital herpes conducted in 1984 (mean score 57% correct). Attitudes toward people with genital herpes were more accepting in the 1990 sample than were attitudes in the 1984 sample. All findings reported here are statistically significant. Recommendations for future research and education among future teachers concerning sexually transmitted diseases (STD's) include 1) development of methods to transmit accurate information about STD's by personalizing these diseases and relating them to college students' experiences; 2) a research focus upon attitudes and perceptions about STD's among future teachers, including the issue of homophobia, and how these relate to behavior; and 3) thorough teacher preparation about STD's, focusing on accurate knowledge and impartial attitudes that allow this topic to be addressed effectively in the classroom. Future research among the general college student population should address 1) the relationship between knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and behavior concerning STD's; 2) potential differences in responses made to a vignette followed by a questionnaire, compared to a questionnaire only; 3) students' source(s) of information about STD's, and level of trust in "scientific authority"; 4) possible interactions between religious influence and attitudes about STD's; 5) the existence of a stereotype of HIV/AIDS as a gay, male disease, and how this might affect attitudes and perceptions; 6) differences between males and females in terms of attitudes, especially with regard to homophobia; 7) the effectiveness of personalizing STD education to increase knowledge about and perceived susceptibility to STD's; 8) the interaction between societal values and personal values, and their effect on attitudes about STD's and sexual behavior. Close

• 1287. [Article] Effect of sensory properties and health information on consumer acceptance and purchase of colorful fresh market potatoes

  Potato varieties characterized by non-conventional skin and flesh colors (purple, red, yellow) have the potential to revitalize consumer demand for fresh market potatoes because of their unique appearance ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effect of sensory properties and health information on consumer acceptance and purchase of colorful fresh market potatoes Author: Wechsler, Linda J. Potato varieties characterized by non-conventional skin and flesh colors (purple, red, yellow) have the potential to revitalize consumer demand for fresh market potatoes because of their unique appearance and health benefits. Red and purple potatoes contain anthocyanins, which are flavonoids responsible for red, blue, and purple pigments in plants. Yellow potatoes contain carotenoids, which are xanthophylls responsible for orange and yellow pigments in plants. Both anthocyanins and carotenoids are antioxidants that benefit human health. The objective of this thesis research was to investigate consumer acceptance of colorful fresh market potato varieties and to understand the effect of health information on purchase intent. This thesis research was divided into three studies, preceded by a literature review. The literature review summarized research linking raw tuber characteristics to the culinary quality of fresh market potatoes. Specific compounds, genes, and processes affecting potato appearance, flavor, and texture were reviewed. In the first study, consumer attitudes and opinions about colorful fresh market potatoes were investigated using four focus group sessions with a total of 37 participants. Five colorful potato varieties were shown to participants. Purchase intent for each variety was marked on an anchored line scale after: 1) seeing and handling the raw uncut potato, 2) seeing a photo of the raw potato cut in half, 3) seeing a photo of the potato cooked (boiled) and cut in half, and 4) after receiving health information describing antioxidant benefits. Reactions to colorful potato varieties were mixed. Health information had a greater impact on purchase intent than the photos of the raw and cooked potatoes. Purchase intent was also influenced by positive and negative associations with appearance, concerns about genetic engineering, tampering, and chemicals, preparation and presentation considerations, point of sale, family acceptance, and anticipated flavor. In the second study, a consumer acceptance test with 222 participants evaluated six colorful fresh market potato varieties alongside a commonly available variety, the Yukon Gold. Participants rated liking of overall appearance, color, size, and shape for raw uncut potatoes on a 9-point category scale. Participants tasted the potatoes boiled and rated liking of cooked appearance, flavor, and texture on a 9-point category scale. Participant comments describing what they liked and/or disliked about each raw and cooked potato were also captured. For color, yellow and red varieties were accepted over purple varieties. For shape and size, large and round varieties were accepted over small, elongated varieties. Bimodal hedonic score distributions were observed for purple color, small size, and elongated shape. Consumer comments revealed that a uniform raw and cooked appearance, a distinct flavor with no undesirable aftertaste, and a smooth, firm, and consistent texture were all desirable characteristics. In the third study, the effect of health information on purchase intent for colorful fresh market potatoes was investigated. Participants either received no information, a simple statement, or a detailed statement about antioxidants in colorful potatoes. After reading the information, participants rated purchase intent on a 5-point category scale at a low, medium, and high price. The effect of antioxidant information on the probability of purchase for red and purple potatoes was compared to yellow potatoes. The impact of hedonic rating, price, gender, age, education, income, usage frequency, health interest, food interest, and antioxidant knowledge were also investigated. High hedonic ratings and interest in food had a positive effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. High price had a negative effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. Antioxidant information and interest in health had a positive effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. Age had a negative effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. An advanced degree of education had a negative effect on purchase intent for yellow potatoes. Title: Effect of sensory properties and health information on consumer acceptance and purchase of colorful fresh market potatoes Author: Wechsler, Linda J. Potato varieties characterized by non-conventional skin and flesh colors (purple, red, yellow) have the potential to revitalize consumer demand for fresh market potatoes because of their unique appearance and health benefits. Red and purple potatoes contain anthocyanins, which are flavonoids responsible for red, blue, and purple pigments in plants. Yellow potatoes contain carotenoids, which are xanthophylls responsible for orange and yellow pigments in plants. Both anthocyanins and carotenoids are antioxidants that benefit human health. The objective of this thesis research was to investigate consumer acceptance of colorful fresh market potato varieties and to understand the effect of health information on purchase intent. This thesis research was divided into three studies, preceded by a literature review. The literature review summarized research linking raw tuber characteristics to the culinary quality of fresh market potatoes. Specific compounds, genes, and processes affecting potato appearance, flavor, and texture were reviewed. In the first study, consumer attitudes and opinions about colorful fresh market potatoes were investigated using four focus group sessions with a total of 37 participants. Five colorful potato varieties were shown to participants. Purchase intent for each variety was marked on an anchored line scale after: 1) seeing and handling the raw uncut potato, 2) seeing a photo of the raw potato cut in half, 3) seeing a photo of the potato cooked (boiled) and cut in half, and 4) after receiving health information describing antioxidant benefits. Reactions to colorful potato varieties were mixed. Health information had a greater impact on purchase intent than the photos of the raw and cooked potatoes. Purchase intent was also influenced by positive and negative associations with appearance, concerns about genetic engineering, tampering, and chemicals, preparation and presentation considerations, point of sale, family acceptance, and anticipated flavor. In the second study, a consumer acceptance test with 222 participants evaluated six colorful fresh market potato varieties alongside a commonly available variety, the Yukon Gold. Participants rated liking of overall appearance, color, size, and shape for raw uncut potatoes on a 9-point category scale. Participants tasted the potatoes boiled and rated liking of cooked appearance, flavor, and texture on a 9-point category scale. Participant comments describing what they liked and/or disliked about each raw and cooked potato were also captured. For color, yellow and red varieties were accepted over purple varieties. For shape and size, large and round varieties were accepted over small, elongated varieties. Bimodal hedonic score distributions were observed for purple color, small size, and elongated shape. Consumer comments revealed that a uniform raw and cooked appearance, a distinct flavor with no undesirable aftertaste, and a smooth, firm, and consistent texture were all desirable characteristics. In the third study, the effect of health information on purchase intent for colorful fresh market potatoes was investigated. Participants either received no information, a simple statement, or a detailed statement about antioxidants in colorful potatoes. After reading the information, participants rated purchase intent on a 5-point category scale at a low, medium, and high price. The effect of antioxidant information on the probability of purchase for red and purple potatoes was compared to yellow potatoes. The impact of hedonic rating, price, gender, age, education, income, usage frequency, health interest, food interest, and antioxidant knowledge were also investigated. High hedonic ratings and interest in food had a positive effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. High price had a negative effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. Antioxidant information and interest in health had a positive effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. Age had a negative effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. An advanced degree of education had a negative effect on purchase intent for yellow potatoes. Close

• 1288. [Article] Changes in size and age at maturity of Columbia River upriver bright fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) : implications for stock fitness, commercial value, and management

  The average size and age of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in commercial fisheries along the Pacific Coast of North America have decreased substantially in this century. These declines ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Changes in size and age at maturity of Columbia River upriver bright fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) : implications for stock fitness, commercial value, and management Author: Beaty, Roy E. The average size and age of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in commercial fisheries along the Pacific Coast of North America have decreased substantially in this century. These declines might be caused in part by changes in size and age at maturity within the stocks contributing to those fisheries. Upriver Brights (Brights), a stock of fall chinook salmon in the Columbia River, are one of those stocks. The purposes of this study were to (1) determine if average size and age at maturity of Brights have declined, (2) gain a better understanding of the factors that may contribute to such declines, and (3) describe potential consequences of these changes. Data from in-river fisheries suggest that the average weight of mature Brights returning to the Columbia River has decreased approximately 2.7 kg since the 1910s, an average rate of about 0.1 lb·yr⁻¹ (45 g·yr⁻¹ ). Most of the potential biases in these data tend to make this estimate conservative. Insufficient data were available to describe changes in average age at maturity. There are many potential causes for the decline in average size of mature Brights, including factors that affect very early life stages. Other researchers have determined that size at maturity appears to be highly influenced by inheritance, gender, and growth rate. I describe how maternal size can influence -- through time of spawning, choice of spawning site, and egg size -- the viability of the young, which carry the dam's genes for size. The size-related ability to produce viable offspring may have been changed by modifications in the environment. Very little is known about how changes in the natural environment for spawning, incubation, and rearing may have contributed to a decline in average size at maturity. Artificial propagation and rearing, such as at Priest Rapids Hatchery, seems to produce adult Brights that are smaller, younger, and more likely to be male than their natural counterparts. The net result is that the average hatchery fish may have only about 0.80 of the reproductive potential of the average natural fish. Changes in growth conditions in the ocean probably did not contribute to the change in size, although the ocean fisheries of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia appear to select, in the genetic sense, against large size and old age in Brights. Since 1978, in-river commercial fisheries have caught larger Brights and a higher proportion of females than are found in the escapement of the Priest Rapids Hatchery component of the stock, but the fisheries impact the two sexes differently by taking the larger males and the smaller females. The effect on the natural component may differ because of their apparently larger average size. I found no evidence that larger fish or more females were caught when 8-in. minimum restrictions were in effect on gillnet mesh size relative to periods when mesh size was not restricted. Impounding the mainstem during the last 50+ yr may have removed obstacles to migration (e.g., Celilo Falls) that selected for large size in Brights, but that hypothesis could not be tested. The perserverance of larger and older phenotypes in the Bright stock suggests that countervailing selection -- perhaps during spawning, incubation, and/or early rearing -- may have resisted the effects of a century of size- and age-selective fisheries. That resistance, however, may reduce the productivity of the stock. Declines in average size and age at maturity can have undesireable consequences. Lower average size means less biomass landed and lower commercial value. Lower average fecundity and a diminished ability to reproduce in some environments are also expected. Loss of size and age classes may reduce the ability of the stock to adapt to environmental variations. These results are relevant to several management practices. A holistic approach to fishery management issues is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions based on narrow perspectives. Measuring reproductive potential of the catch and escapement would be superior to the conventional practice of simply counting numbers of fish. Many aspects of artificial propagation can be improved, including broodstock aquisition, mating regimes, and rearing practices. Stock abundance is a major factor in determining the effect of many management practices on the stock. In general, fisheries managers must be mindful that they manage very complex natural systems. Title: Changes in size and age at maturity of Columbia River upriver bright fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) : implications for stock fitness, commercial value, and management Author: Beaty, Roy E. The average size and age of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in commercial fisheries along the Pacific Coast of North America have decreased substantially in this century. These declines might be caused in part by changes in size and age at maturity within the stocks contributing to those fisheries. Upriver Brights (Brights), a stock of fall chinook salmon in the Columbia River, are one of those stocks. The purposes of this study were to (1) determine if average size and age at maturity of Brights have declined, (2) gain a better understanding of the factors that may contribute to such declines, and (3) describe potential consequences of these changes. Data from in-river fisheries suggest that the average weight of mature Brights returning to the Columbia River has decreased approximately 2.7 kg since the 1910s, an average rate of about 0.1 lb·yr⁻¹ (45 g·yr⁻¹ ). Most of the potential biases in these data tend to make this estimate conservative. Insufficient data were available to describe changes in average age at maturity. There are many potential causes for the decline in average size of mature Brights, including factors that affect very early life stages. Other researchers have determined that size at maturity appears to be highly influenced by inheritance, gender, and growth rate. I describe how maternal size can influence -- through time of spawning, choice of spawning site, and egg size -- the viability of the young, which carry the dam's genes for size. The size-related ability to produce viable offspring may have been changed by modifications in the environment. Very little is known about how changes in the natural environment for spawning, incubation, and rearing may have contributed to a decline in average size at maturity. Artificial propagation and rearing, such as at Priest Rapids Hatchery, seems to produce adult Brights that are smaller, younger, and more likely to be male than their natural counterparts. The net result is that the average hatchery fish may have only about 0.80 of the reproductive potential of the average natural fish. Changes in growth conditions in the ocean probably did not contribute to the change in size, although the ocean fisheries of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia appear to select, in the genetic sense, against large size and old age in Brights. Since 1978, in-river commercial fisheries have caught larger Brights and a higher proportion of females than are found in the escapement of the Priest Rapids Hatchery component of the stock, but the fisheries impact the two sexes differently by taking the larger males and the smaller females. The effect on the natural component may differ because of their apparently larger average size. I found no evidence that larger fish or more females were caught when 8-in. minimum restrictions were in effect on gillnet mesh size relative to periods when mesh size was not restricted. Impounding the mainstem during the last 50+ yr may have removed obstacles to migration (e.g., Celilo Falls) that selected for large size in Brights, but that hypothesis could not be tested. The perserverance of larger and older phenotypes in the Bright stock suggests that countervailing selection -- perhaps during spawning, incubation, and/or early rearing -- may have resisted the effects of a century of size- and age-selective fisheries. That resistance, however, may reduce the productivity of the stock. Declines in average size and age at maturity can have undesireable consequences. Lower average size means less biomass landed and lower commercial value. Lower average fecundity and a diminished ability to reproduce in some environments are also expected. Loss of size and age classes may reduce the ability of the stock to adapt to environmental variations. These results are relevant to several management practices. A holistic approach to fishery management issues is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions based on narrow perspectives. Measuring reproductive potential of the catch and escapement would be superior to the conventional practice of simply counting numbers of fish. Many aspects of artificial propagation can be improved, including broodstock aquisition, mating regimes, and rearing practices. Stock abundance is a major factor in determining the effect of many management practices on the stock. In general, fisheries managers must be mindful that they manage very complex natural systems. Close

• 1289. [Article] Inflammation, immune suppression, and iron status in endurance athletes and the effects of antioxidant supplementation

  During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Inflammation, immune suppression, and iron status in endurance athletes and the effects of antioxidant supplementation Author: Hopkins, Dawn Marie Weseli During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised iron stores. This study evaluated inflammation, immune function and iron status in athletes completing a 50K ultramarathon. Twenty-two well-trained distance runners, 11 males and 11 females, were randomized in a double blind manner into--1) those who consumed 300 mg vitamin E and 1000 mg vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) or 2) placebos--for six weeks before and one week following a 50K ultramarathon race. Blood samples were obtained on 13 separate occasions throughout the study: before supplementation, during supplementation, the day before the race, pre-race, mid-race, immediately post-race, 2 hours following the race, and daily for six days following the race. Plasma levels of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were measured using standard clinical assays. Each subject recorded immune function in an activity log and incidence of illness was tabulated as number of days ill. Ferritin was measured by enzyme immunoassay. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and total-iron binding capacity (TIBC) and serum total iron were analyzed by standard procedures. Plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol increased significantly in supplemented subjects (p<0.0001). Although the ultramarathon race elicited an inflammatory response, antioxidant supplementation did not alter the responses of IL-6 and TNF-α, which both increased from pre-race to mid-race, post- and post-2 h (Scheffe post-hoc analysis, p<0.0001) and returned to pre-race concentrations by 1 day after the race. Male supplemented subjects had lower IL-1β concentrations compared to females consuming the supplement or to males consuming the placebo (ANCOVA, gender/time/treatment interaction; p<0.01) at mid-race (p<0.05 females, p<0.005 males), post 1 and 2 days (all p<0.002). Males had significantly higher ferritin levels than the female subjects (ANOVA, p<0.0001); supplementation resulted in lower ferritin concentrations at post-5 days (p<0.02, ANCOVA treatment time interaction, p<0.005). Supplementation did not reduce the days illness among those consuming antioxidants compared to those consuming the placebos. Ferritin not only increases during inflammation, it also is a measure of iron stores. Females had significantly lower levels of iron than the male subjects for each of the iron parameters measured (hemoglobin and hematocrit both p<0.0001, ferritin p<0.001, TIBC p<0.02) excluding serum total iron. The ferritin concentrations measured in the women were indicative of depleted iron stores (<12 μg/l), and antioxidant supplementation increased hematocrit levels in the female subjects (p<0.05). This investigation indicates that female distance runners need to be aware of an increased susceptibility to iron depletion compared to their male counterparts. Antioxidant supplementation improved hematocrit levels (p<0.05) among female runners and may improve iron status among females with depleted stores. Although other investigations have suggested that antioxidant vitamins decrease exercise induced inflammation, no profound benefit of supplementation was found in this investigation though a response similar to the acute phase response was elicited by the ultramarathon race. Improvements in IL-i and ferritin in response to antioxidant supplementation may indicate that the supplementation was beneficial, but more research is needed to draw definitive conclusions. Title: Inflammation, immune suppression, and iron status in endurance athletes and the effects of antioxidant supplementation Author: Hopkins, Dawn Marie Weseli During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised iron stores. This study evaluated inflammation, immune function and iron status in athletes completing a 50K ultramarathon. Twenty-two well-trained distance runners, 11 males and 11 females, were randomized in a double blind manner into--1) those who consumed 300 mg vitamin E and 1000 mg vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) or 2) placebos--for six weeks before and one week following a 50K ultramarathon race. Blood samples were obtained on 13 separate occasions throughout the study: before supplementation, during supplementation, the day before the race, pre-race, mid-race, immediately post-race, 2 hours following the race, and daily for six days following the race. Plasma levels of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were measured using standard clinical assays. Each subject recorded immune function in an activity log and incidence of illness was tabulated as number of days ill. Ferritin was measured by enzyme immunoassay. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and total-iron binding capacity (TIBC) and serum total iron were analyzed by standard procedures. Plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol increased significantly in supplemented subjects (p<0.0001). Although the ultramarathon race elicited an inflammatory response, antioxidant supplementation did not alter the responses of IL-6 and TNF-α, which both increased from pre-race to mid-race, post- and post-2 h (Scheffe post-hoc analysis, p<0.0001) and returned to pre-race concentrations by 1 day after the race. Male supplemented subjects had lower IL-1β concentrations compared to females consuming the supplement or to males consuming the placebo (ANCOVA, gender/time/treatment interaction; p<0.01) at mid-race (p<0.05 females, p<0.005 males), post 1 and 2 days (all p<0.002). Males had significantly higher ferritin levels than the female subjects (ANOVA, p<0.0001); supplementation resulted in lower ferritin concentrations at post-5 days (p<0.02, ANCOVA treatment time interaction, p<0.005). Supplementation did not reduce the days illness among those consuming antioxidants compared to those consuming the placebos. Ferritin not only increases during inflammation, it also is a measure of iron stores. Females had significantly lower levels of iron than the male subjects for each of the iron parameters measured (hemoglobin and hematocrit both p<0.0001, ferritin p<0.001, TIBC p<0.02) excluding serum total iron. The ferritin concentrations measured in the women were indicative of depleted iron stores (<12 μg/l), and antioxidant supplementation increased hematocrit levels in the female subjects (p<0.05). This investigation indicates that female distance runners need to be aware of an increased susceptibility to iron depletion compared to their male counterparts. Antioxidant supplementation improved hematocrit levels (p<0.05) among female runners and may improve iron status among females with depleted stores. Although other investigations have suggested that antioxidant vitamins decrease exercise induced inflammation, no profound benefit of supplementation was found in this investigation though a response similar to the acute phase response was elicited by the ultramarathon race. Improvements in IL-i and ferritin in response to antioxidant supplementation may indicate that the supplementation was beneficial, but more research is needed to draw definitive conclusions. Close

• 1290. [Article] Prostate cancer prevention with broccoli : from cellular to human studies

  Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in American men. Epidemiologic studies suggest that cruciferous vegetable intake may lower the risk for many cancers, including prostate ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Prostate cancer prevention with broccoli : from cellular to human studies Author: Clarke, John D. Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in American men. Epidemiologic studies suggest that cruciferous vegetable intake may lower the risk for many cancers, including prostate and colon. Isothiocyanates (ITC) are phytochemicals derived from cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage that may have health promoting properties. Broccoli and broccoli sprouts are a good source of sulforaphane (SFN), a well studied chemopreventive ITC. SFN is known to inhibit histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity and alter epigenetic endpoints. A key factor in understanding the efficacy of SFN as a chemoprevention agent is to determine the metabolism, distribution and bioavailability of SFN, and the factors that alter these parameters. The present study was undertaken to provide further evidence that SFN can alter HDAC activity, alter prostate cancer cell proliferation, both in vitro and in vivo and expands our understanding of SFN metabolism and tissue distribution. We characterized the effects of SFN in normal (PrEC), benign hyperplasia (BPH1) and cancerous (LnCap and PC3) prostate epithelial cells. We observed that 15 µM SFN differentially induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in BPH1, LnCap and PC3 cells but not PrEC cells. SFN treatment also differentially decreased HDAC activity, and Class I and II HDAC proteins, increased acetylated histone H3 at the promoter for P21, induced p21 expression and increased tubulin acetylation in prostate cancer cells. In PrEC cells, SFN caused only a transient reduction in HDAC activity with no change in any other endpoints tested. Therefore, normal prostate cells were refractory to the cytotoxic and epigenetic effects of SFN. In order for SFN to be an effective chemopreventive agent it must be metabolized and reach target tissues. Nrf2 wild-type and Nrf2 knockout (Nrf2-/-) mice were treated with 5 or 20 µmoles of SFN, and SFN metabolites were detected in all tissues tested at 2 and 6 h in a dose dependent manner. Genotype only had marginal effects at 5 µmoles, whereas, at 20 µmoles the female Nrf2-/- mice had dramatically higher levels. The relative abundance of each metabolite was not strikingly different between genders and genotypes, although different ratios between tissues were observed. In the transgenic adenoma of the mouse prostate model dietary SFN, fed as freeze-dried broccoli sprouts, increased SFN content in the prostate and decreased the severity of prostate cancer at 12 and 28 weeks of age. In humans, the differences in metabolism of isothiocyanates between whole food and broccoli supplements have yet to be determined. Two separate human trials were conducted; the first was a randomized 7 day feeding study where subjects consumed either broccoli sprouts or a broccoli supplement, and the second study was a randomized single dose cross-over study with broccoli sprouts, followed by a washout period, then broccoli supplement. In plasma and urine, the total amounts of SFN and erucin (ERN) metabolites were greater and the peak concentration occurred sooner in subjects who consumed broccoli sprouts. Glutathione-S-transferase pi-1 polymorphisms did not affect ITC metabolism. Interconversion of SFN to ERN was observed. Histone deacetylase activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was inhibited only in subjects who consumed sprouts. In conclusion, these data provide evidence that SFN alters HDAC activity and protein acetylation in cancerous prostate cells but not normal prostate cells. For the first time we show that SFN is bioavailable to many tissues types, including the prostate and are largely found as SFN metabolites not the parent SFN compound. We also show that the bioavailability of ITCs is markedly lower in human subjects who consume a broccoli supplement. Decreased HDAC activity in the peripheral blood of subjects who consumed sprouts indicates that higher ITC plasma concentrations can alter HDAC activity in vivo. Taken together, these data show that SFN is an effective prostate cancer chemopreventive agent that can easily be utilized in the diet from whole food. Title: Prostate cancer prevention with broccoli : from cellular to human studies Author: Clarke, John D. Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in American men. Epidemiologic studies suggest that cruciferous vegetable intake may lower the risk for many cancers, including prostate and colon. Isothiocyanates (ITC) are phytochemicals derived from cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage that may have health promoting properties. Broccoli and broccoli sprouts are a good source of sulforaphane (SFN), a well studied chemopreventive ITC. SFN is known to inhibit histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity and alter epigenetic endpoints. A key factor in understanding the efficacy of SFN as a chemoprevention agent is to determine the metabolism, distribution and bioavailability of SFN, and the factors that alter these parameters. The present study was undertaken to provide further evidence that SFN can alter HDAC activity, alter prostate cancer cell proliferation, both in vitro and in vivo and expands our understanding of SFN metabolism and tissue distribution. We characterized the effects of SFN in normal (PrEC), benign hyperplasia (BPH1) and cancerous (LnCap and PC3) prostate epithelial cells. We observed that 15 µM SFN differentially induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in BPH1, LnCap and PC3 cells but not PrEC cells. SFN treatment also differentially decreased HDAC activity, and Class I and II HDAC proteins, increased acetylated histone H3 at the promoter for P21, induced p21 expression and increased tubulin acetylation in prostate cancer cells. In PrEC cells, SFN caused only a transient reduction in HDAC activity with no change in any other endpoints tested. Therefore, normal prostate cells were refractory to the cytotoxic and epigenetic effects of SFN. In order for SFN to be an effective chemopreventive agent it must be metabolized and reach target tissues. Nrf2 wild-type and Nrf2 knockout (Nrf2-/-) mice were treated with 5 or 20 µmoles of SFN, and SFN metabolites were detected in all tissues tested at 2 and 6 h in a dose dependent manner. Genotype only had marginal effects at 5 µmoles, whereas, at 20 µmoles the female Nrf2-/- mice had dramatically higher levels. The relative abundance of each metabolite was not strikingly different between genders and genotypes, although different ratios between tissues were observed. In the transgenic adenoma of the mouse prostate model dietary SFN, fed as freeze-dried broccoli sprouts, increased SFN content in the prostate and decreased the severity of prostate cancer at 12 and 28 weeks of age. In humans, the differences in metabolism of isothiocyanates between whole food and broccoli supplements have yet to be determined. Two separate human trials were conducted; the first was a randomized 7 day feeding study where subjects consumed either broccoli sprouts or a broccoli supplement, and the second study was a randomized single dose cross-over study with broccoli sprouts, followed by a washout period, then broccoli supplement. In plasma and urine, the total amounts of SFN and erucin (ERN) metabolites were greater and the peak concentration occurred sooner in subjects who consumed broccoli sprouts. Glutathione-S-transferase pi-1 polymorphisms did not affect ITC metabolism. Interconversion of SFN to ERN was observed. Histone deacetylase activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was inhibited only in subjects who consumed sprouts. In conclusion, these data provide evidence that SFN alters HDAC activity and protein acetylation in cancerous prostate cells but not normal prostate cells. For the first time we show that SFN is bioavailable to many tissues types, including the prostate and are largely found as SFN metabolites not the parent SFN compound. We also show that the bioavailability of ITCs is markedly lower in human subjects who consume a broccoli supplement. Decreased HDAC activity in the peripheral blood of subjects who consumed sprouts indicates that higher ITC plasma concentrations can alter HDAC activity in vivo. Taken together, these data show that SFN is an effective prostate cancer chemopreventive agent that can easily be utilized in the diet from whole food. Close

• 1291. [Article] Does Disability Severity Matter? The Daily Lives of Parent Caregivers of Children with Developmental Disabilities

  Individuals with disabilities and their parents, even within specific disability diagnoses, have diverse life experiences and trajectories. The current study focuses on parents of individuals with developmental ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Does Disability Severity Matter? The Daily Lives of Parent Caregivers of Children with Developmental Disabilities Author: Fenn, Meghann L. Individuals with disabilities and their parents, even within specific disability diagnoses, have diverse life experiences and trajectories. The current study focuses on parents of individuals with developmental disabilities. Developmental disabilities (DD) are a diverse group of severe chronic conditions evident at birth or acquired during childhood that affect major life activities such as language, mobility, learning, self-help, and independent living; and include conditions such as Down syndrome, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders, and general developmental delays. This study builds on previous literature concerning stress, caregiving, and disability by examining the daily lives, experiences, and wellbeing of parents of children with DD. The majority of health and wellbeing research being done in this area focuses on overall or global wellbeing. Comparatively little research has examined the daily lives, experiences, and wellbeing of these parents, who exist within extremely fluid contexts that change daily. Furthermore, this study also aims to build on previous research by considering the severity of the child’s disability, in order to further contextualize and understand the complex levels of influence within these parents’ daily lives. Using data from the second wave of the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE), the daily diary project of the National Survey of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS), this study examined these topics further by answering three specific research questions; First, to what extent does the association between daily stressors and same-day positive and negative affect differ for parents of children with and without DD? Second, to what extent does the association between daily positive events and same-day positive and negative affect differ for parents of children with and without DD? And lastly, are these associations further moderated by the severity of the child’s disability? A total of 82 participants (Mean Age = 57.4; 59% female, 96% non-Hispanic White, 79% married, Mean Education = 14 years) were identified as parents of children with DD. A sample of 82 individuals who were parents of typically developing children were identified and matched as a comparison group based on: parent gender, parent age, number of children in the household, child age, whether the target child lives with the parent, parent marital status, and parent educational attainment. Participants completed 8 nightly telephone interviews, which included assessments of their daily stressors and positive events, as well as positive and negative affect. Results from the current study found that the daily lives of individuals with disabilities and their parents are diverse and complex. Compared to their matched counterparts, parents of children with DD experienced significantly greater increases in negative affect associated with the experience of daily stressors. In contract, parents of children with DD exhibited comparable increases in daily positive affect associated with the daily positive experiences. With respect to severity of disability, the longevity of the child’s disability diagnosis, the number of comorbid disability diagnoses, and the number of comorbid mental health diagnoses, did selectively moderate daily experience-wellbeing associations, but not in a symmetric fashion across indicators. Taken together, the daily experiences and daily wellbeing of parents caring for a child with a disability cannot be understood and defined merely by knowing their child’s disability status. Parents of children with DD may be vulnerable because of the chronic stress context of caring for a child with a disability, and they show more reactive patterns of daily wellbeing when experiencing daily stressors, however, they also show resiliency in their daily wellbeing when experiencing daily positive events. The current study attempted to better contextualize and understand the daily lives of caregiving parents by moving beyond a binary definition of disability (yes/no a disability is present), and findings suggest that severity of disability is a complex phenomenon in need of continued empirical investigation. Title: Does Disability Severity Matter? The Daily Lives of Parent Caregivers of Children with Developmental Disabilities Author: Fenn, Meghann L. Individuals with disabilities and their parents, even within specific disability diagnoses, have diverse life experiences and trajectories. The current study focuses on parents of individuals with developmental disabilities. Developmental disabilities (DD) are a diverse group of severe chronic conditions evident at birth or acquired during childhood that affect major life activities such as language, mobility, learning, self-help, and independent living; and include conditions such as Down syndrome, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders, and general developmental delays. This study builds on previous literature concerning stress, caregiving, and disability by examining the daily lives, experiences, and wellbeing of parents of children with DD. The majority of health and wellbeing research being done in this area focuses on overall or global wellbeing. Comparatively little research has examined the daily lives, experiences, and wellbeing of these parents, who exist within extremely fluid contexts that change daily. Furthermore, this study also aims to build on previous research by considering the severity of the child’s disability, in order to further contextualize and understand the complex levels of influence within these parents’ daily lives. Using data from the second wave of the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE), the daily diary project of the National Survey of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS), this study examined these topics further by answering three specific research questions; First, to what extent does the association between daily stressors and same-day positive and negative affect differ for parents of children with and without DD? Second, to what extent does the association between daily positive events and same-day positive and negative affect differ for parents of children with and without DD? And lastly, are these associations further moderated by the severity of the child’s disability? A total of 82 participants (Mean Age = 57.4; 59% female, 96% non-Hispanic White, 79% married, Mean Education = 14 years) were identified as parents of children with DD. A sample of 82 individuals who were parents of typically developing children were identified and matched as a comparison group based on: parent gender, parent age, number of children in the household, child age, whether the target child lives with the parent, parent marital status, and parent educational attainment. Participants completed 8 nightly telephone interviews, which included assessments of their daily stressors and positive events, as well as positive and negative affect. Results from the current study found that the daily lives of individuals with disabilities and their parents are diverse and complex. Compared to their matched counterparts, parents of children with DD experienced significantly greater increases in negative affect associated with the experience of daily stressors. In contract, parents of children with DD exhibited comparable increases in daily positive affect associated with the daily positive experiences. With respect to severity of disability, the longevity of the child’s disability diagnosis, the number of comorbid disability diagnoses, and the number of comorbid mental health diagnoses, did selectively moderate daily experience-wellbeing associations, but not in a symmetric fashion across indicators. Taken together, the daily experiences and daily wellbeing of parents caring for a child with a disability cannot be understood and defined merely by knowing their child’s disability status. Parents of children with DD may be vulnerable because of the chronic stress context of caring for a child with a disability, and they show more reactive patterns of daily wellbeing when experiencing daily stressors, however, they also show resiliency in their daily wellbeing when experiencing daily positive events. The current study attempted to better contextualize and understand the daily lives of caregiving parents by moving beyond a binary definition of disability (yes/no a disability is present), and findings suggest that severity of disability is a complex phenomenon in need of continued empirical investigation. Close

• 1292. [Article] A comparative analysis of factors influencing smoking behaviors of college students, 1963-1987

  Cigarette smoking continues to be one of the country's major health concerns. It has been defined as the single largest preventable cause of disease and death in the United States. Although research has ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A comparative analysis of factors influencing smoking behaviors of college students, 1963-1987 Author: Gray, Nancy L. Cigarette smoking continues to be one of the country's major health concerns. It has been defined as the single largest preventable cause of disease and death in the United States. Although research has indicated that overall cigarette consumption has decreased in the nation over the past decades, cigarette smoking remains a significant problem among young people in the United States. This fact, coupled with studies indicating that cigarette smoking increases with age into the early twenties suggests that research should be conducted to determine those variables that encourage smoking behavior of late adolescents and young adults. The purpose of the study was to compare the relationship between selected predisposing factors and subsequent smoking behaviors exhibited in 1963 and 1987 respectively. Assessments of smoking behaviors of college students in Oregon in 1963-64 and 1986-87 were conducted to determine relationships between students smoking behaviors and selected socio-demographic variables. Comparisons were made between the resulting data for students in the 1963-64and 1986-87 studies. Aquestionnaire relating to smoking behavior was developed and administered to 3,786 college students attending introductory personal health classes during the 1963-64 school year at four selected colleges in the state of Oregon. During the 1986-87 school year a modified version of the questionnaire was developed and administered to college students attending introductory personal health classes at three of the same four universities that were utilized in the 1963-64 study. Stepwise logistic regression, chi square and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. Results indicated that there were significantly more smokers in 1963-64 and their daily consumption rates were significantly higher when compared to 1986-87 data. Although a larger percentage of females were smokers in the total population surveyed in 1963-64, there were more female smokers in the population of smokers in 1986-87. Whereas males consumed significantly more cigarettes per day than did females in 1963-64, there was no significant difference between male and female consumption rates in 1986-87. Significant numbers of smokers in 1986-87 started smoking at an earlier age than did smokers in 1963-64. When separating by gender, this was significant for females but not for males. Peer smoking was listed as the number one reason for starting to smoke by more than half of the respondents in 1986-87 as compared to 40% who listed curiosity in 1963-64. Physical reasons were indicated as the main reason for quitting by ex-smokers in 1963-64 and in 1986-87, over one half of the respondents indicated that they quit because of a concern for their physical health. Stepwise logistic regression equations were used to determine the set of variables that best accounted for smoking status in 1963-64 and 1986-87. Results indicated that the variables which predisposed individuals toward subsequent smoking behavior did differ when comparing the two studies. In 1963-64, an individual with the highest probability of smoking was one who had one or more older sisters who smoked, both parents smoked, father was a high school non-graduate and was from an urban setting. The individual with the lowest probability of smoking in 1963-64 had no older sisters who smoked, mother and father did not smoke, father was a high school graduate and lived in a rural setting. In 1986-87, the only variable to significantly increase the probability of an individual smoking was one or more older brothers who smoked. The following data were collected only for the 1986-87 population of students because questions relating to these issues were not included on the 1963-64 questionnaire. Use of alcohol, marijuana and smokeless tobacco by cigarette smokers was not significantly different when compared to non-smokers. Illicit substance use (cocaine, crack, heroin, quaaludes, etc) was significantly different for cigarette smokers and non-smokers. Smokers were more likely to use illicit substances than were non-smokers. The largest number of smokeless tobacco users were males in the 18-19 age category. Use of alcohol, marijuana and other illicit substances were significantly different for smokeless tobacco users than for non-users. Smokeless tobacco users were more likely to consume more alcohol on a weekly basis and use marijuana and illicit substances on an occasional and regular basis than were non-users of smokeless tobacco. Title: A comparative analysis of factors influencing smoking behaviors of college students, 1963-1987 Author: Gray, Nancy L. Cigarette smoking continues to be one of the country's major health concerns. It has been defined as the single largest preventable cause of disease and death in the United States. Although research has indicated that overall cigarette consumption has decreased in the nation over the past decades, cigarette smoking remains a significant problem among young people in the United States. This fact, coupled with studies indicating that cigarette smoking increases with age into the early twenties suggests that research should be conducted to determine those variables that encourage smoking behavior of late adolescents and young adults. The purpose of the study was to compare the relationship between selected predisposing factors and subsequent smoking behaviors exhibited in 1963 and 1987 respectively. Assessments of smoking behaviors of college students in Oregon in 1963-64 and 1986-87 were conducted to determine relationships between students smoking behaviors and selected socio-demographic variables. Comparisons were made between the resulting data for students in the 1963-64and 1986-87 studies. Aquestionnaire relating to smoking behavior was developed and administered to 3,786 college students attending introductory personal health classes during the 1963-64 school year at four selected colleges in the state of Oregon. During the 1986-87 school year a modified version of the questionnaire was developed and administered to college students attending introductory personal health classes at three of the same four universities that were utilized in the 1963-64 study. Stepwise logistic regression, chi square and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. Results indicated that there were significantly more smokers in 1963-64 and their daily consumption rates were significantly higher when compared to 1986-87 data. Although a larger percentage of females were smokers in the total population surveyed in 1963-64, there were more female smokers in the population of smokers in 1986-87. Whereas males consumed significantly more cigarettes per day than did females in 1963-64, there was no significant difference between male and female consumption rates in 1986-87. Significant numbers of smokers in 1986-87 started smoking at an earlier age than did smokers in 1963-64. When separating by gender, this was significant for females but not for males. Peer smoking was listed as the number one reason for starting to smoke by more than half of the respondents in 1986-87 as compared to 40% who listed curiosity in 1963-64. Physical reasons were indicated as the main reason for quitting by ex-smokers in 1963-64 and in 1986-87, over one half of the respondents indicated that they quit because of a concern for their physical health. Stepwise logistic regression equations were used to determine the set of variables that best accounted for smoking status in 1963-64 and 1986-87. Results indicated that the variables which predisposed individuals toward subsequent smoking behavior did differ when comparing the two studies. In 1963-64, an individual with the highest probability of smoking was one who had one or more older sisters who smoked, both parents smoked, father was a high school non-graduate and was from an urban setting. The individual with the lowest probability of smoking in 1963-64 had no older sisters who smoked, mother and father did not smoke, father was a high school graduate and lived in a rural setting. In 1986-87, the only variable to significantly increase the probability of an individual smoking was one or more older brothers who smoked. The following data were collected only for the 1986-87 population of students because questions relating to these issues were not included on the 1963-64 questionnaire. Use of alcohol, marijuana and smokeless tobacco by cigarette smokers was not significantly different when compared to non-smokers. Illicit substance use (cocaine, crack, heroin, quaaludes, etc) was significantly different for cigarette smokers and non-smokers. Smokers were more likely to use illicit substances than were non-smokers. The largest number of smokeless tobacco users were males in the 18-19 age category. Use of alcohol, marijuana and other illicit substances were significantly different for smokeless tobacco users than for non-users. Smokeless tobacco users were more likely to consume more alcohol on a weekly basis and use marijuana and illicit substances on an occasional and regular basis than were non-users of smokeless tobacco. Close

• 1293. [Article] Label-free mass spectrometry-driven methods for elucidating adaptive responses of the hepatic mitochondrial proteome in an alcoholic fatty liver disease model

  Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) continues to be one of the major public health problems in the United States and worldwide. Complicated by factors including gender, polymorphisms of alcohol-metabolizing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Label-free mass spectrometry-driven methods for elucidating adaptive responses of the hepatic mitochondrial proteome in an alcoholic fatty liver disease model Author: Tzeng, Shin-Cheng Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) continues to be one of the major public health problems in the United States and worldwide. Complicated by factors including gender, polymorphisms of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes, immunologic factors, exposures to other substances/drugs, hepatic viral infections, nutritional deficiencies, and obesity, ALD is a complex disease that requires a systematic approach to dissect the mechanisms associated with organ dysfunction. Mechanistic knowledge is necessary to shed light on routes that potentially may lead to effective treatments. Proteomics as a discovery tool that may reveal new targets and pathways that can potentially be exploited for developing new preventive strategies and treatments. The mitochondrion is the pivotal organelle linked to disease progression and to the development of ALD. Studies have shown links between mitochondrial dysfunction and ethanol-induced liver injury, but the underlying mechanisms at the molecular level still remain largely unknown. In the present study we evaluated the capability of two label-free mass-spectrometry-driven approaches (i) the intensity-based MS[superscript E] method, and (ii) a spectral counting-based method that uses data-dependent acquisition (DDA). Initially a single- and a three-protein model system were utilized to evaluate differences in the performance characteristics of the two methods. To examine the performance difference of the two methods for proteome characterization, we measured changes in protein levels as a consequence of chronic alcohol consumption in rat liver mitochondria. Our results revealed that the MS[superscript E] approach had better performance in terms of precision, and dynamic range and resulted in superior accuracy for fold change determinations. The MS[superscript E] approach proved to identify more mitochondrial proteins than the two DDA methods. However, the run-to-run reproducibility of the MS[superscript E] method was lower than was observed for the DDA methods. Despite poor linear correlation between approaches, the outcomes of the proteome characterizations were rather consistent as more than half of the significantly altered proteins detected by the MS[superscript E] method were also revealed by at least one of the DDA methods. Collectively, we concluded that both MSE and DDA approaches provide satisfactory performance with the MS[superscript E] approach outperforming the DDA-based methods with respect to accuracy, linearity and dynamic range. Further, we integrated the label-free LC-MS[superscript E] quantification with bioinformatics and knowledge base to profile alteration of the mitochondrial proteome for unraveling the protective effect of MitoQ, a mitochondrial targeted ubiquinone, on ALD. With carefully maintained stability of the LC-MS system, robust proteome datasets with high technical precision were obtained. By taking advantage of the information-rich quantitative proteomic data, we quantitatively categorized the identified proteins and performed pathway analysis for each category independently. Metabolic pathways and associated proteins were highlighted with the guidance of the systems biology approach. In summary, our results indicated that the pathways enriched in response to MitoQ included acyl-CoA synthases and the carnitine shuttle, ketogenesis, the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The MitoQ-responsive metabolic network suggested that MitoQ up-regulates fatty acid transportation to counteract accumulation of lipids in the fatty liver. For dissecting the mitochondrial proteome, we develop a "targeted" quantitative approach involving label-free mass spectrometry-based quantification, chemoselective labeling, avidin- biotin based affinity enrichment at both protein and peptide level. The approach was applied to mitochondria exposed to 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) for depicting a subset of the mitochondrial proteome susceptible to HNE insult. The utilization of the carbonyl-selective probe, ARP, facilitated labeling of HNE-adducted proteins and enabled avidin affinity enrichment with the biotin moiety. A list of potential protein targets with concentration-dependent response and known HNE modification sites was obtained when combining results from the protein- and peptide-level enrichment workflows. The core list of putative protein targets of HNE adduction may serve as lead for further validation studies towards unraveling the pathogenesis of ALD and emerging treatment modalities using Western blotting or targeted LC-MS methods. Title: Label-free mass spectrometry-driven methods for elucidating adaptive responses of the hepatic mitochondrial proteome in an alcoholic fatty liver disease model Author: Tzeng, Shin-Cheng Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) continues to be one of the major public health problems in the United States and worldwide. Complicated by factors including gender, polymorphisms of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes, immunologic factors, exposures to other substances/drugs, hepatic viral infections, nutritional deficiencies, and obesity, ALD is a complex disease that requires a systematic approach to dissect the mechanisms associated with organ dysfunction. Mechanistic knowledge is necessary to shed light on routes that potentially may lead to effective treatments. Proteomics as a discovery tool that may reveal new targets and pathways that can potentially be exploited for developing new preventive strategies and treatments. The mitochondrion is the pivotal organelle linked to disease progression and to the development of ALD. Studies have shown links between mitochondrial dysfunction and ethanol-induced liver injury, but the underlying mechanisms at the molecular level still remain largely unknown. In the present study we evaluated the capability of two label-free mass-spectrometry-driven approaches (i) the intensity-based MS[superscript E] method, and (ii) a spectral counting-based method that uses data-dependent acquisition (DDA). Initially a single- and a three-protein model system were utilized to evaluate differences in the performance characteristics of the two methods. To examine the performance difference of the two methods for proteome characterization, we measured changes in protein levels as a consequence of chronic alcohol consumption in rat liver mitochondria. Our results revealed that the MS[superscript E] approach had better performance in terms of precision, and dynamic range and resulted in superior accuracy for fold change determinations. The MS[superscript E] approach proved to identify more mitochondrial proteins than the two DDA methods. However, the run-to-run reproducibility of the MS[superscript E] method was lower than was observed for the DDA methods. Despite poor linear correlation between approaches, the outcomes of the proteome characterizations were rather consistent as more than half of the significantly altered proteins detected by the MS[superscript E] method were also revealed by at least one of the DDA methods. Collectively, we concluded that both MSE and DDA approaches provide satisfactory performance with the MS[superscript E] approach outperforming the DDA-based methods with respect to accuracy, linearity and dynamic range. Further, we integrated the label-free LC-MS[superscript E] quantification with bioinformatics and knowledge base to profile alteration of the mitochondrial proteome for unraveling the protective effect of MitoQ, a mitochondrial targeted ubiquinone, on ALD. With carefully maintained stability of the LC-MS system, robust proteome datasets with high technical precision were obtained. By taking advantage of the information-rich quantitative proteomic data, we quantitatively categorized the identified proteins and performed pathway analysis for each category independently. Metabolic pathways and associated proteins were highlighted with the guidance of the systems biology approach. In summary, our results indicated that the pathways enriched in response to MitoQ included acyl-CoA synthases and the carnitine shuttle, ketogenesis, the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The MitoQ-responsive metabolic network suggested that MitoQ up-regulates fatty acid transportation to counteract accumulation of lipids in the fatty liver. For dissecting the mitochondrial proteome, we develop a "targeted" quantitative approach involving label-free mass spectrometry-based quantification, chemoselective labeling, avidin- biotin based affinity enrichment at both protein and peptide level. The approach was applied to mitochondria exposed to 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) for depicting a subset of the mitochondrial proteome susceptible to HNE insult. The utilization of the carbonyl-selective probe, ARP, facilitated labeling of HNE-adducted proteins and enabled avidin affinity enrichment with the biotin moiety. A list of potential protein targets with concentration-dependent response and known HNE modification sites was obtained when combining results from the protein- and peptide-level enrichment workflows. The core list of putative protein targets of HNE adduction may serve as lead for further validation studies towards unraveling the pathogenesis of ALD and emerging treatment modalities using Western blotting or targeted LC-MS methods. Close

• 1294. [Article] Bicyclist Compliance at Signalized Intersections

  This project examined cyclist red light running behavior using two data sets. Previous studies of cyclist compliance have investigated the tendencies of cyclists to run red lights on the whole by generalizing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Bicyclist Compliance at Signalized Intersections Author: Thompson, Samson Ray Riley Year: 2015 This project examined cyclist red light running behavior using two data sets. Previous studies of cyclist compliance have investigated the tendencies of cyclists to run red lights on the whole by generalizing different maneuvers to their end outcome, running a red light. This project differentiates between the different types of red light running and focuses on the most egregious case, gap acceptance, which is when a cyclist runs a red light by accepting a gap in opposing traffic. Using video data, a mathematical model of cyclist red light running was developed for gap acceptance. Similar to other studies, this analysis utilized only information about the cyclist, intersection, and scenario that can be outwardly observed. This analysis found that the number of cyclists already waiting at the signal, the presence of a vehicle in the adjacent lane, and female sex were deterrents to red light running. Conversely, certain types of signal phasing, witnessing a violation, and lack of helmet increased the odds that a cyclist would run the red light. Interestingly, while women in general are less likely to run a red light, those who witnessed a violation were even more prone that men who had witnessed a violation to follow suit and run the red light themselves. It is likely that the differing socialization of women and men leads to different effects of witnessing a previous violator. The analysis also confirmed that a small subset of cyclists, similar to that found in the general population, are more prone to traffic violations. These cyclists are more willing to engage in multiple biking-related risk factors that include not wearing a helmet and running red lights. Although the model has definite explanatory power regarding decisions of cyclist compliance, much of the variance in the compliance choices of the sample is left unexplained. This points toward the influence of other, not outwardly observable variables on the decision to run a red light. Analysis of survey data from cyclists further confirms that individual characteristics not visible to the observer interact with intersection, scenario, and visible cyclist characteristics to result in a decision to comply (or not) with a traffic signal. Furthermore, cyclist characteristics, in general, and unobservable individual characteristics, specifically, play a larger role in compliance decisions as the number of compliance-inducing intersection traits (e.g. conflicting traffic volume) decrease. One such unobservable trait is the regard for the law by some cyclists, which becomes a more important determinant of compliance at simpler intersections. Cyclists were also shown to choose non-compliance if they questioned the validity of the red indication for them, as cyclists. The video and survey data have some comparable findings. For instance, the relationship of age to compliance was explored in both data analyses. Age was not found to be a significant predictor of non-compliance in the video data analysis while it was negatively correlated with stated non-compliance for two of the survey intersections. Gender, while having significant effects on non-compliance in the video dataset, did not emerge as an important factor in the stated non-compliance of survey takers. Helmet use had a consistent relationship with compliance between the video and survey datasets. Helmet use was positively associated with compliance in the video data and negatively associated with revealed non-compliance at two of the survey intersections. When coupled with the positive association between normlessness and stated willingness to run a red light, the relationship between helmet use and compliance solidifies the notion that a class of cyclists is more likely to consistently violate signals. It points towards a link between red light running and individuals who do not adhere to social norms and policies as strictly as others. Variables representing cyclists and motorists waiting at the signal were positively related to signal compliance in the video data. While an increased number of cyclists may be a physical deterrent to red light running, part of the influence on compliance that this variable and the variable representing the presence of a vehicle may be due to accountability of cyclists to other road users. This relationship, however, was not revealed in the stated non-compliance data from the survey. Efforts to increase cyclist compliance may not be worth a jurisdiction's resources since nearly 90% of cyclists in the video data were already compliant. If a problem intersection does warrant intervention, different methods of ensuring bicyclist compliance are warranted depending on the intersection characteristics. An alternative solution is to consider the applicability of traffic laws (originally designed for cars) to bicyclists. Creating separation in how laws affect motorists and cyclists might be a better solution for overly simple types of intersections where cyclists have fewer conflicts, better visibility, etc. than motorists. Education or other messaging aimed at cyclists about compliance is another strategy to increase compliance. Since cyclists appear to feel more justified in running red lights at low-volume, simple-looking intersections, it would probably be prudent to target messaging at these types of intersections. Many cyclists are deterred by high-volume and/or complicated looking intersections for safety reasons. Reminding cyclists of the potential dangers at other intersections may be a successful messaging strategy. Alternatively, reminding cyclists that it is still illegal to run a red light even if they feel safe doing so may be prudent. Additionally, messaging about the purpose of infrastructure such as bicycle-specific signals or lights that indicate detection at a signal may convince cyclists that stopping at the signal is in their best interest and that the wait will be minimal and/or warranted. Title: Bicyclist Compliance at Signalized Intersections Author: Thompson, Samson Ray Riley Year: 2015 This project examined cyclist red light running behavior using two data sets. Previous studies of cyclist compliance have investigated the tendencies of cyclists to run red lights on the whole by generalizing different maneuvers to their end outcome, running a red light. This project differentiates between the different types of red light running and focuses on the most egregious case, gap acceptance, which is when a cyclist runs a red light by accepting a gap in opposing traffic. Using video data, a mathematical model of cyclist red light running was developed for gap acceptance. Similar to other studies, this analysis utilized only information about the cyclist, intersection, and scenario that can be outwardly observed. This analysis found that the number of cyclists already waiting at the signal, the presence of a vehicle in the adjacent lane, and female sex were deterrents to red light running. Conversely, certain types of signal phasing, witnessing a violation, and lack of helmet increased the odds that a cyclist would run the red light. Interestingly, while women in general are less likely to run a red light, those who witnessed a violation were even more prone that men who had witnessed a violation to follow suit and run the red light themselves. It is likely that the differing socialization of women and men leads to different effects of witnessing a previous violator. The analysis also confirmed that a small subset of cyclists, similar to that found in the general population, are more prone to traffic violations. These cyclists are more willing to engage in multiple biking-related risk factors that include not wearing a helmet and running red lights. Although the model has definite explanatory power regarding decisions of cyclist compliance, much of the variance in the compliance choices of the sample is left unexplained. This points toward the influence of other, not outwardly observable variables on the decision to run a red light. Analysis of survey data from cyclists further confirms that individual characteristics not visible to the observer interact with intersection, scenario, and visible cyclist characteristics to result in a decision to comply (or not) with a traffic signal. Furthermore, cyclist characteristics, in general, and unobservable individual characteristics, specifically, play a larger role in compliance decisions as the number of compliance-inducing intersection traits (e.g. conflicting traffic volume) decrease. One such unobservable trait is the regard for the law by some cyclists, which becomes a more important determinant of compliance at simpler intersections. Cyclists were also shown to choose non-compliance if they questioned the validity of the red indication for them, as cyclists. The video and survey data have some comparable findings. For instance, the relationship of age to compliance was explored in both data analyses. Age was not found to be a significant predictor of non-compliance in the video data analysis while it was negatively correlated with stated non-compliance for two of the survey intersections. Gender, while having significant effects on non-compliance in the video dataset, did not emerge as an important factor in the stated non-compliance of survey takers. Helmet use had a consistent relationship with compliance between the video and survey datasets. Helmet use was positively associated with compliance in the video data and negatively associated with revealed non-compliance at two of the survey intersections. When coupled with the positive association between normlessness and stated willingness to run a red light, the relationship between helmet use and compliance solidifies the notion that a class of cyclists is more likely to consistently violate signals. It points towards a link between red light running and individuals who do not adhere to social norms and policies as strictly as others. Variables representing cyclists and motorists waiting at the signal were positively related to signal compliance in the video data. While an increased number of cyclists may be a physical deterrent to red light running, part of the influence on compliance that this variable and the variable representing the presence of a vehicle may be due to accountability of cyclists to other road users. This relationship, however, was not revealed in the stated non-compliance data from the survey. Efforts to increase cyclist compliance may not be worth a jurisdiction's resources since nearly 90% of cyclists in the video data were already compliant. If a problem intersection does warrant intervention, different methods of ensuring bicyclist compliance are warranted depending on the intersection characteristics. An alternative solution is to consider the applicability of traffic laws (originally designed for cars) to bicyclists. Creating separation in how laws affect motorists and cyclists might be a better solution for overly simple types of intersections where cyclists have fewer conflicts, better visibility, etc. than motorists. Education or other messaging aimed at cyclists about compliance is another strategy to increase compliance. Since cyclists appear to feel more justified in running red lights at low-volume, simple-looking intersections, it would probably be prudent to target messaging at these types of intersections. Many cyclists are deterred by high-volume and/or complicated looking intersections for safety reasons. Reminding cyclists of the potential dangers at other intersections may be a successful messaging strategy. Alternatively, reminding cyclists that it is still illegal to run a red light even if they feel safe doing so may be prudent. Additionally, messaging about the purpose of infrastructure such as bicycle-specific signals or lights that indicate detection at a signal may convince cyclists that stopping at the signal is in their best interest and that the wait will be minimal and/or warranted. Close

• 1295. [Article] Factors affecting within-season and between-season breeding dispersal of burrowing owls in California

  Dispersal is integral to our understanding of the life history and population biology of many vertebrates, but difficulties in detecting long distance movements have complicated its study. Moreover, studies ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Factors affecting within-season and between-season breeding dispersal of burrowing owls in California Author: Catlin, Daniel H. Dispersal is integral to our understanding of the life history and population biology of many vertebrates, but difficulties in detecting long distance movements have complicated its study. Moreover, studies of factors affecting dispersal are often unable to determine the relative contributions of variables such as nesting success, mate fidelity, and nest site fidelity. I examined the effects of nest depredation on dispersal in comparison to successful nests and nests that failed for other reasons. Additionally, I investigated a suite of biological factors affecting within-season and between-season breeding dispersal by burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia) in California, attempting to partition the effects of these covariates and to deal with long distance detectibility issues. For both types of dispersal, I divided dispersal into two components; dispersal probability and dispersal distance. I used experimental and observational approaches to investigate within-season dispersal in two contrasting environments; a large grassland and an agricultural landscape. I found that the factors affecting dispersal probability and dispersal distance were different, supporting my decision to examine each separately. Of the factors investigated, dispersal probability was influenced most by study area, mate fidelity, and nesting success. The proportion of individuals dispersing tended to be greater for owls that lost their mate due to death or dispersal (60%, 6 of 10) and owls whose nests were depredated (50%, 10 of 20) than for owls that did not lose their mates (33%, 6 of 18) and owls whose nests were successful (17%, 1 of 6), respectively. The results from an experiment where we removed eggs from pairs of owls to simulate nest depredation were consistent with the observational results, suggesting that owls whose nests were depredated may have been more likely to disperse than control owls. The reactions of owls from depredated nests, however, did not appear to differ from those whose nests failed for other reasons. In contrast, owl dispersal distance was most affected by owl gender, and to a lesser degree by study area and nesting success. Dispersal distance was greater for female owls (median = 1575 m, n = 13) than male owls (median = 417 m, n = 11), greater for owls from the grassland area (median= 939 m, n = 9) compared to owls from the agricultural area (median = 829 m, n = 15), and greater for owls whose nests had failed (median = 1018 m, n = 17) than for owls that successfully bred (median 475 m, n = 7). Nest depredation, however, did not appear to increase dispersal distance. The geometric models performed poorly at approximating within-season dispersal distance, indicating that many owls disperse farther than predicted by a "first is best" model. I speculate that the distribution of within-season dispersal distances by burrowing owls is related to the densities of suitable territories and mates, which are more variable than predicted by a geometric model within a breeding season. I used data from band resightings and nesting success (1998-2003) to examine factors related to between-season breeding dispersal by burrowing owls in an agricultural environment. Of the factors investigated, nesting success appeared to have the greatest effect on burrowing owl dispersal. The proportion of individuals dispersing was greater for owls whose nests had failed (68%, 28 of 41) than owls whose nests were successful (27%, 58 of 212). Similarly, dispersal distance was greater for owls whose nest failed (mean = 745 ± 175 m, n = 28) than owls with successful nests (mean = 340 ± 36 m,n = 58). The owls exhibited high rates of nest site and mate fidelity between breeding seasons. There was evidence that previous experience at a breeding site may have reduced dispersal probability and that unpaired owls may have been more likely to disperse and dispersed slightly greater distances than those that retained their mates. Nesting success, however, appeared to be the major factor contributing to burrowing owl breeding dispersal after controlling for nest site and mate fidelity, particularly for male owls. Despite the complexity of the dispersal process, a geometric model provided a reasonably good fit to the distribution of between-season breeding dispersal distances at relatively short distances, but failed to predict a small percentage of long distance dispersals. Geometric models appeared to be a better fit for the distribution of between-season breeding dispersal distances than within-season breeding dispersal distances. Factors affecting within-season dispersal were generally similar to those affecting between-season dispersal. Both within-season and between-season breeding dispersal were affected by nesting success and mate fidelity, but the effects of these factors differed between the two types of breeding dispersal, suggesting that time constraints and competition play a larger role in within-season dispersal than between season dispersal. In addition, both studies supported a difference in dispersal behavior, in which the factors that affected dispersal probability were distinct from those that affected dispersal distance. These results help determine the relative contributions of nesting success, mate fidelity, and nest site fidelity to avian dispersal, offer some evidence that the effects of nest depredation are not distinct from the effects of nest failure in general, and provide further support for the division of dispersal into dispersal probability and dispersal distance. Title: Factors affecting within-season and between-season breeding dispersal of burrowing owls in California Author: Catlin, Daniel H. Dispersal is integral to our understanding of the life history and population biology of many vertebrates, but difficulties in detecting long distance movements have complicated its study. Moreover, studies of factors affecting dispersal are often unable to determine the relative contributions of variables such as nesting success, mate fidelity, and nest site fidelity. I examined the effects of nest depredation on dispersal in comparison to successful nests and nests that failed for other reasons. Additionally, I investigated a suite of biological factors affecting within-season and between-season breeding dispersal by burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia) in California, attempting to partition the effects of these covariates and to deal with long distance detectibility issues. For both types of dispersal, I divided dispersal into two components; dispersal probability and dispersal distance. I used experimental and observational approaches to investigate within-season dispersal in two contrasting environments; a large grassland and an agricultural landscape. I found that the factors affecting dispersal probability and dispersal distance were different, supporting my decision to examine each separately. Of the factors investigated, dispersal probability was influenced most by study area, mate fidelity, and nesting success. The proportion of individuals dispersing tended to be greater for owls that lost their mate due to death or dispersal (60%, 6 of 10) and owls whose nests were depredated (50%, 10 of 20) than for owls that did not lose their mates (33%, 6 of 18) and owls whose nests were successful (17%, 1 of 6), respectively. The results from an experiment where we removed eggs from pairs of owls to simulate nest depredation were consistent with the observational results, suggesting that owls whose nests were depredated may have been more likely to disperse than control owls. The reactions of owls from depredated nests, however, did not appear to differ from those whose nests failed for other reasons. In contrast, owl dispersal distance was most affected by owl gender, and to a lesser degree by study area and nesting success. Dispersal distance was greater for female owls (median = 1575 m, n = 13) than male owls (median = 417 m, n = 11), greater for owls from the grassland area (median= 939 m, n = 9) compared to owls from the agricultural area (median = 829 m, n = 15), and greater for owls whose nests had failed (median = 1018 m, n = 17) than for owls that successfully bred (median 475 m, n = 7). Nest depredation, however, did not appear to increase dispersal distance. The geometric models performed poorly at approximating within-season dispersal distance, indicating that many owls disperse farther than predicted by a "first is best" model. I speculate that the distribution of within-season dispersal distances by burrowing owls is related to the densities of suitable territories and mates, which are more variable than predicted by a geometric model within a breeding season. I used data from band resightings and nesting success (1998-2003) to examine factors related to between-season breeding dispersal by burrowing owls in an agricultural environment. Of the factors investigated, nesting success appeared to have the greatest effect on burrowing owl dispersal. The proportion of individuals dispersing was greater for owls whose nests had failed (68%, 28 of 41) than owls whose nests were successful (27%, 58 of 212). Similarly, dispersal distance was greater for owls whose nest failed (mean = 745 ± 175 m, n = 28) than owls with successful nests (mean = 340 ± 36 m,n = 58). The owls exhibited high rates of nest site and mate fidelity between breeding seasons. There was evidence that previous experience at a breeding site may have reduced dispersal probability and that unpaired owls may have been more likely to disperse and dispersed slightly greater distances than those that retained their mates. Nesting success, however, appeared to be the major factor contributing to burrowing owl breeding dispersal after controlling for nest site and mate fidelity, particularly for male owls. Despite the complexity of the dispersal process, a geometric model provided a reasonably good fit to the distribution of between-season breeding dispersal distances at relatively short distances, but failed to predict a small percentage of long distance dispersals. Geometric models appeared to be a better fit for the distribution of between-season breeding dispersal distances than within-season breeding dispersal distances. Factors affecting within-season dispersal were generally similar to those affecting between-season dispersal. Both within-season and between-season breeding dispersal were affected by nesting success and mate fidelity, but the effects of these factors differed between the two types of breeding dispersal, suggesting that time constraints and competition play a larger role in within-season dispersal than between season dispersal. In addition, both studies supported a difference in dispersal behavior, in which the factors that affected dispersal probability were distinct from those that affected dispersal distance. These results help determine the relative contributions of nesting success, mate fidelity, and nest site fidelity to avian dispersal, offer some evidence that the effects of nest depredation are not distinct from the effects of nest failure in general, and provide further support for the division of dispersal into dispersal probability and dispersal distance. Close

• 1296. [Article] DANCE AS COMMUNICATION: HOW HUMANS COMMUNICATE THROUGH DANCE AND PERCEIVE DANCE AS COMMUNICATION

  58 pages. A thesis presented to the Department of Dance and the Clark Honors College of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Bachelor of Arts, Spring 2016.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: DANCE AS COMMUNICATION: HOW HUMANS COMMUNICATE THROUGH DANCE AND PERCEIVE DANCE AS COMMUNICATION Author: Rounds, Samantha Year: 2016 58 pages. A thesis presented to the Department of Dance and the Clark Honors College of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Bachelor of Arts, Spring 2016. Title: DANCE AS COMMUNICATION: HOW HUMANS COMMUNICATE THROUGH DANCE AND PERCEIVE DANCE AS COMMUNICATION Author: Rounds, Samantha Year: 2016 58 pages. A thesis presented to the Department of Dance and the Clark Honors College of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degree of Bachelor of Arts, Spring 2016. Close

• 1297. [Article] Assessing equity in health system finance and health care utilization : the case of Chile, and a model to measure health care access

  Chile has experienced great success in terms of economic growth in the last decades. This growing economy brings changes in the Chilean health care system. Its health care system was primarily funded by ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Assessing equity in health system finance and health care utilization : the case of Chile, and a model to measure health care access Author: Nunez Mondaca, Alicia Lorena Chile has experienced great success in terms of economic growth in the last decades. This growing economy brings changes in the Chilean health care system. Its health care system was primarily funded by state sources until 1981, when a major reform was introduced that established new rules for the health insurance market. Since then, Chile has a public-private mixed health care system, both in financing and delivery of services. Citizens can choose for coverage between the Public National Health Insurance and the Private Health Insurance system. However, these systems have a common funding source coming from the mandatory contribution of employees, equivalent to 7% of their taxable income with an approximate limit of US$2,800 dollars. One of the more important Chilean health reforms towards the establishment of social guarantees was effective on July 2005, when the Regime of Explicit Health Guarantees, also known as Plan AUGE became effective. Plan AUGE is a health program that benefits all Chileans without discrimination of age, gender, economic status, health care, or place of residence. This plan includes the 69 diseases with higher impact on Chilean population in its different stages, but with feasibility of effective treatments. Changes in the health care system and its last reform brought questions about their impact on the distribution of health care services throughout country. Is Chile moving towards a better and more equitable health care system? The main purpose of this thesis is to investigate equity in health system finance and health care utilization as well as to explore alternative measurement of access to health care in Chile. The first two manuscripts examine equity issues in Chile. The purpose of the first one is to assess equity in health system finance in Chile, accounting for all finance sources. While equity in health system finance has been well studied in OECD countries, there are still few published empirical studies on Latin American health care systems, where there tends to be a wider gap in income-wealth distribution among states. This gap may increase the financial burden for people in the lower spectrum of income groups, which is the main concern in the first manuscript. It will focus on identifying policy variables that may contribute to more equitable distribution of the financial burden in health care. The equity principle we adopt for this study is the ability to pay principle. Based on this, we explore factors that contribute to inequities in the health care system finance and issues about who bears the heavier burden of out-of pocket (OOP) payment, progressivity of OOP payment, and the redistributive effect of OOP payment for health care as a source of finance in the Chilean health care system. Our analysis is based on data from the National Socioeconomic Survey (CASEN), and the 2006 National Survey on Satisfaction and OOP payments. Results from this study provide comprehensive understanding of the financial burden of health care in Chile. This study identified evidence of inequity, in spite of the progressivity of the health care system. Furthermore, our assessment of equity in health system finance identified relevant policy variables such as education, insurance system, and method of payment that should be taken into consideration in the ongoing debates and research in improving the Chilean system. Such findings will also benefit other Latin American countries that are concerned about equity in health system finance. The purpose of the second manuscript was to assess equity in health care utilization in Chile. Secondary data analyses from the National Socioeconomic Survey (CASEN) were performed to estimate the impact of different factors including AUGE in the utilization of health care services. We used a two-part model for the analysis of frequency of health care use in the country. Four other separate two-part models were also specified to estimate the frequency of use of preventive services, general practitioner services, specialty care and emergency care. An assessment of horizontal equity was also included. Results suggest the presence of pro-rich inequities in the use of medical care. The estimation of the two-part model found key factors affecting utilization of health care services such as education and the implementation of the AUGE program. These findings provide timely evidence to policy-makers to understand the current distribution and equity of health care utilization, and to strengthen availability of health services accordingly. The third manuscript was motivated by the previous findings. Its purpose was to explore an alternative measurement for health care access. The majority of studies nowadays use a single proxy to estimate access: the use of health care services. However, we saw many limitations on this approach since it only considers people that are already using the system and ignores those that are not. The final manuscript proposed a model to estimate access to health care services based on communitarian claims. The model identified barriers to health care access as well as the preferences of the community for priority settings. Title: Assessing equity in health system finance and health care utilization : the case of Chile, and a model to measure health care access Author: Nunez Mondaca, Alicia Lorena Chile has experienced great success in terms of economic growth in the last decades. This growing economy brings changes in the Chilean health care system. Its health care system was primarily funded by state sources until 1981, when a major reform was introduced that established new rules for the health insurance market. Since then, Chile has a public-private mixed health care system, both in financing and delivery of services. Citizens can choose for coverage between the Public National Health Insurance and the Private Health Insurance system. However, these systems have a common funding source coming from the mandatory contribution of employees, equivalent to 7% of their taxable income with an approximate limit of US$2,800 dollars. One of the more important Chilean health reforms towards the establishment of social guarantees was effective on July 2005, when the Regime of Explicit Health Guarantees, also known as Plan AUGE became effective. Plan AUGE is a health program that benefits all Chileans without discrimination of age, gender, economic status, health care, or place of residence. This plan includes the 69 diseases with higher impact on Chilean population in its different stages, but with feasibility of effective treatments. Changes in the health care system and its last reform brought questions about their impact on the distribution of health care services throughout country. Is Chile moving towards a better and more equitable health care system? The main purpose of this thesis is to investigate equity in health system finance and health care utilization as well as to explore alternative measurement of access to health care in Chile. The first two manuscripts examine equity issues in Chile. The purpose of the first one is to assess equity in health system finance in Chile, accounting for all finance sources. While equity in health system finance has been well studied in OECD countries, there are still few published empirical studies on Latin American health care systems, where there tends to be a wider gap in income-wealth distribution among states. This gap may increase the financial burden for people in the lower spectrum of income groups, which is the main concern in the first manuscript. It will focus on identifying policy variables that may contribute to more equitable distribution of the financial burden in health care. The equity principle we adopt for this study is the ability to pay principle. Based on this, we explore factors that contribute to inequities in the health care system finance and issues about who bears the heavier burden of out-of pocket (OOP) payment, progressivity of OOP payment, and the redistributive effect of OOP payment for health care as a source of finance in the Chilean health care system. Our analysis is based on data from the National Socioeconomic Survey (CASEN), and the 2006 National Survey on Satisfaction and OOP payments. Results from this study provide comprehensive understanding of the financial burden of health care in Chile. This study identified evidence of inequity, in spite of the progressivity of the health care system. Furthermore, our assessment of equity in health system finance identified relevant policy variables such as education, insurance system, and method of payment that should be taken into consideration in the ongoing debates and research in improving the Chilean system. Such findings will also benefit other Latin American countries that are concerned about equity in health system finance. The purpose of the second manuscript was to assess equity in health care utilization in Chile. Secondary data analyses from the National Socioeconomic Survey (CASEN) were performed to estimate the impact of different factors including AUGE in the utilization of health care services. We used a two-part model for the analysis of frequency of health care use in the country. Four other separate two-part models were also specified to estimate the frequency of use of preventive services, general practitioner services, specialty care and emergency care. An assessment of horizontal equity was also included. Results suggest the presence of pro-rich inequities in the use of medical care. The estimation of the two-part model found key factors affecting utilization of health care services such as education and the implementation of the AUGE program. These findings provide timely evidence to policy-makers to understand the current distribution and equity of health care utilization, and to strengthen availability of health services accordingly. The third manuscript was motivated by the previous findings. Its purpose was to explore an alternative measurement for health care access. The majority of studies nowadays use a single proxy to estimate access: the use of health care services. However, we saw many limitations on this approach since it only considers people that are already using the system and ignores those that are not. The final manuscript proposed a model to estimate access to health care services based on communitarian claims. The model identified barriers to health care access as well as the preferences of the community for priority settings. Close

• 1298. [Article] Implications of cougar prey selection and demography on population dynamics of elk in northeast Oregon

  Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni; hereafter elk) populations in northeast Oregon have declined in the past 10 to 20 years. Concurrent with these ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Implications of cougar prey selection and demography on population dynamics of elk in northeast Oregon Author: Clark, Darren A. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni; hereafter elk) populations in northeast Oregon have declined in the past 10 to 20 years. Concurrent with these declines, cougar (Puma concolor) populations have apparently increased, leading to speculation that predation by cougars may be responsible for declining ungulate populations. However, empirical data on cougar diets, kill rates, and prey selection are lacking to support this speculation. Furthermore, the common assumption that cougar populations have increased in northeast Oregon may not be well founded because cougar populations in other areas within the Pacific Northwest region have declined in recent years. My primary research objectives were to (1) estimate kill rates and prey selection by cougars in northeast Oregon, (2) document causes of mortality and estimate survival rates for cougars, (3) estimate population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon and simulate the effects of hypothetical lethal control efforts on the cougar population, and (4) investigate the relative influence of top-down, bottom-up, and climatic factors for limiting population growth rates of elk in northeast Oregon. Results from my research will help guide cougar and elk management in northeast Oregon and provide a framework for assessing relative effects of top-down, bottom-up, and abiotic factors on population growth rates of ungulates in this and other areas. I implemented a 3-year study in northeast Oregon to investigate diets, kill rates, and prey selection of cougars in a multiple-prey system to better understand mechanisms by which cougars may influence ungulate populations. During my research, 25 adult cougars were captured and fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars to identify kill sites. I monitored predation sequences of these cougars for 7,642 days and located the remains of 1,213 prey items killed by cougars. Cougars killed ungulates at an average rate of 1.03 per week (95% CI = 0.92 – 1.14); however, ungulate kill rates were variable and influenced by the season and demographic classification of cougars. Cougars killed ungulates 1.55 (95% CI = 1.47 – 1.66) times more frequently during summer (May-Oct) than during winter (Nov-Apr), but killed similar amounts of ungulate biomass (8.05 kg/day; 95% CI = 6.74 – 9.35) throughout the year. Cougars killed ungulates more frequently in summer because juvenile ungulates comprised most of the diet and were smaller on average than ungulate prey killed in winter. Female cougars with kittens killed more frequently (kills/day) than males or solitary females. After accounting for the additional biomass of kittens in cougar family groups, male cougars killed on average more biomass of ungulate prey per day than did females (R = 0.41, P < 0.001), and female cougars killed more biomass of prey per day as a function of the number and age of their kittens (R = 0.60, P < 0.001). Patterns of prey selection were influenced by season and demographic classification of cougars. Female cougars selected elk calves during summer and deer fawns during winter. In contrast, male cougars selected elk calves and yearling elk during summer and elk calves during winter. My results strongly supported the hypothesis that cougar predation is influenced by season, gender, and reproductive status of the cougar and these patterns in cougar predation may be generalizable among ecosystems. The observed selection for juvenile elk and deer suggested a possible mechanism by which cougars could negatively affect population growth rates of ungulates. I investigated survival and documented causes of mortality for radio-collared cougars at 3 study areas in Oregon during 1989 – 2011. Mortality due to hunter harvest was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Catherine Creek study area and the study area combining Wenaha, Sled Springs, and Mt. Emily Wildlife Management Units (WSM study area) in northeast Oregon. In contrast, natural mortality was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Jackson Creek study area in southwest Oregon. Annual survival rates of adult males were lowest at Catherine Creek when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs (Ŝ = 0.57), but increased following the prohibition of this hunting practice (Ŝ = 0.86). This latter survival rate was similar to those observed at Jackson Creek (Ŝ = 0.78) and WSM (Ŝ = 0.82). Regardless of whether hunting of cougars with dogs was permitted, annual survival rates of adult females were similar among study areas (Catherine Creek Ŝ = 0.86; WSM Ŝ = 0.85; Jackson Creek Ŝ = 0.85). I did not document an effect of age on cougar survival rates in the Catherine Creek study area, which I attributed to selective harvest of prime-aged, male cougars when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs. In contrast, I observed an effect of age on annual survival in both the WSM and Jackson Creek study areas. These results indicate that sub-adult males had significantly lower survival rates than sub-adult females, but survival rates of males and females were similar by age 4 or 5 years. My results suggest that survival rates of cougars in areas where hunting cougars with dogs is illegal should be substantially higher than areas where use of dogs is legal. I used estimates of cougar vital rates from empirical data collected in northeast Oregon to parameterize a Leslie projection matrix model to estimate deterministic and stochastic population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon when hunting cougars with dogs was legal (1989 - 1994) and illegal (2002 - 2011). A model cougar population in northeast Oregon that was hunted with dogs increased at a mean stochastic growth rate of 21% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.21). Similarly, I found that a model cougar population that was subjected to hunting without dogs increased at a rate of 17% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.17). Given that hunting cougars with dogs typically results in increased harvest and reduced survival rates of cougars, it was unexpected that the cougar population subjected to hunting with dogs was increasing at a faster rate than one that was not hunted with dogs. However, cougar populations in Oregon were subjected to low harvest rates when hunting cougars with dogs was legal and harvest was male biased. This resulted in high survival rates of female cougars and correspondingly high population growth rates. The Oregon Cougar Management Plan allows the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife to administratively reduce cougar populations to benefit ungulate populations, reduce human-cougar conflicts, and limit livestock depredation. Consequently, I was interested in modeling the effects of a hypothetical lethal control effort on a local cougar population. Using empirically-derived vital rates and a deterministic Leslie matrix model, I found that the proportion of the cougar population that would need to be removed annually to achieve a 50% population reduction within 3 years was 28% assuming a closed population, and 48% assuming maximum immigration rates into the population. Using a stochastic Leslie matrix model, I also determined that the model cougar population would likely return to its pre-removal size in 6 years assuming a closed population, and 2 years assuming maximum immigration rates. These model results indicate that current management practices and harvest regulations, combined with short-term, intensive, and localized population reductions, are unlikely to negatively affect the short-term viability of cougar populations in northeast Oregon. However, at this time, it is not known if intensive lethal control efforts funded by state agencies will be cost-effective (i.e., increased sales of tags to hunt deer and elk will offset the costs of control efforts). Further research is needed to investigate the cost-effectiveness of cougar control efforts in Oregon. I developed a Leslie matrix population model, parameterized with empirically-derived vital rates for elk in northeast Oregon, to investigate the relative influence on elk population growth rates of (1) survival and pregnancy, and (2) top-down, bottom-up, and climatic variables. I then estimated the effect of varying the strength of top-down factors on growth rates of elk populations. Growth rates of the model elk population were most sensitive to changes in adult female survival, but due to the inherent empirical variation in juvenile survival rates explained the overwhelming majority of variation in model population growth rates (r² = 0.92). Harvest of female elk had a strong negative effect on model population growth rates of elk (r² = 0.63). An index of cougar density was inversely related to population growth rates of elk in my model (r² = 0.38). A delay in mean date of birth was associated with reduced juvenile survival, but this had a minimal effect on population growth rates in my model (r² = 0.06). Climatic variables, which were used as surrogates for nutritional condition of females, had minimal effects on population growth rates. Likewise, elk density had almost no effect on population growth rates (r² = 0.002). The results of my model provided a novel finding that cougars can be a strong limiting factor on elk populations. Wildlife managers should consider the potential top-down effects of cougars and other predators as a limiting factor on elk populations. Title: Implications of cougar prey selection and demography on population dynamics of elk in northeast Oregon Author: Clark, Darren A. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni; hereafter elk) populations in northeast Oregon have declined in the past 10 to 20 years. Concurrent with these declines, cougar (Puma concolor) populations have apparently increased, leading to speculation that predation by cougars may be responsible for declining ungulate populations. However, empirical data on cougar diets, kill rates, and prey selection are lacking to support this speculation. Furthermore, the common assumption that cougar populations have increased in northeast Oregon may not be well founded because cougar populations in other areas within the Pacific Northwest region have declined in recent years. My primary research objectives were to (1) estimate kill rates and prey selection by cougars in northeast Oregon, (2) document causes of mortality and estimate survival rates for cougars, (3) estimate population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon and simulate the effects of hypothetical lethal control efforts on the cougar population, and (4) investigate the relative influence of top-down, bottom-up, and climatic factors for limiting population growth rates of elk in northeast Oregon. Results from my research will help guide cougar and elk management in northeast Oregon and provide a framework for assessing relative effects of top-down, bottom-up, and abiotic factors on population growth rates of ungulates in this and other areas. I implemented a 3-year study in northeast Oregon to investigate diets, kill rates, and prey selection of cougars in a multiple-prey system to better understand mechanisms by which cougars may influence ungulate populations. During my research, 25 adult cougars were captured and fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars to identify kill sites. I monitored predation sequences of these cougars for 7,642 days and located the remains of 1,213 prey items killed by cougars. Cougars killed ungulates at an average rate of 1.03 per week (95% CI = 0.92 – 1.14); however, ungulate kill rates were variable and influenced by the season and demographic classification of cougars. Cougars killed ungulates 1.55 (95% CI = 1.47 – 1.66) times more frequently during summer (May-Oct) than during winter (Nov-Apr), but killed similar amounts of ungulate biomass (8.05 kg/day; 95% CI = 6.74 – 9.35) throughout the year. Cougars killed ungulates more frequently in summer because juvenile ungulates comprised most of the diet and were smaller on average than ungulate prey killed in winter. Female cougars with kittens killed more frequently (kills/day) than males or solitary females. After accounting for the additional biomass of kittens in cougar family groups, male cougars killed on average more biomass of ungulate prey per day than did females (R = 0.41, P < 0.001), and female cougars killed more biomass of prey per day as a function of the number and age of their kittens (R = 0.60, P < 0.001). Patterns of prey selection were influenced by season and demographic classification of cougars. Female cougars selected elk calves during summer and deer fawns during winter. In contrast, male cougars selected elk calves and yearling elk during summer and elk calves during winter. My results strongly supported the hypothesis that cougar predation is influenced by season, gender, and reproductive status of the cougar and these patterns in cougar predation may be generalizable among ecosystems. The observed selection for juvenile elk and deer suggested a possible mechanism by which cougars could negatively affect population growth rates of ungulates. I investigated survival and documented causes of mortality for radio-collared cougars at 3 study areas in Oregon during 1989 – 2011. Mortality due to hunter harvest was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Catherine Creek study area and the study area combining Wenaha, Sled Springs, and Mt. Emily Wildlife Management Units (WSM study area) in northeast Oregon. In contrast, natural mortality was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Jackson Creek study area in southwest Oregon. Annual survival rates of adult males were lowest at Catherine Creek when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs (Ŝ = 0.57), but increased following the prohibition of this hunting practice (Ŝ = 0.86). This latter survival rate was similar to those observed at Jackson Creek (Ŝ = 0.78) and WSM (Ŝ = 0.82). Regardless of whether hunting of cougars with dogs was permitted, annual survival rates of adult females were similar among study areas (Catherine Creek Ŝ = 0.86; WSM Ŝ = 0.85; Jackson Creek Ŝ = 0.85). I did not document an effect of age on cougar survival rates in the Catherine Creek study area, which I attributed to selective harvest of prime-aged, male cougars when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs. In contrast, I observed an effect of age on annual survival in both the WSM and Jackson Creek study areas. These results indicate that sub-adult males had significantly lower survival rates than sub-adult females, but survival rates of males and females were similar by age 4 or 5 years. My results suggest that survival rates of cougars in areas where hunting cougars with dogs is illegal should be substantially higher than areas where use of dogs is legal. I used estimates of cougar vital rates from empirical data collected in northeast Oregon to parameterize a Leslie projection matrix model to estimate deterministic and stochastic population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon when hunting cougars with dogs was legal (1989 - 1994) and illegal (2002 - 2011). A model cougar population in northeast Oregon that was hunted with dogs increased at a mean stochastic growth rate of 21% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.21). Similarly, I found that a model cougar population that was subjected to hunting without dogs increased at a rate of 17% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.17). Given that hunting cougars with dogs typically results in increased harvest and reduced survival rates of cougars, it was unexpected that the cougar population subjected to hunting with dogs was increasing at a faster rate than one that was not hunted with dogs. However, cougar populations in Oregon were subjected to low harvest rates when hunting cougars with dogs was legal and harvest was male biased. This resulted in high survival rates of female cougars and correspondingly high population growth rates. The Oregon Cougar Management Plan allows the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife to administratively reduce cougar populations to benefit ungulate populations, reduce human-cougar conflicts, and limit livestock depredation. Consequently, I was interested in modeling the effects of a hypothetical lethal control effort on a local cougar population. Using empirically-derived vital rates and a deterministic Leslie matrix model, I found that the proportion of the cougar population that would need to be removed annually to achieve a 50% population reduction within 3 years was 28% assuming a closed population, and 48% assuming maximum immigration rates into the population. Using a stochastic Leslie matrix model, I also determined that the model cougar population would likely return to its pre-removal size in 6 years assuming a closed population, and 2 years assuming maximum immigration rates. These model results indicate that current management practices and harvest regulations, combined with short-term, intensive, and localized population reductions, are unlikely to negatively affect the short-term viability of cougar populations in northeast Oregon. However, at this time, it is not known if intensive lethal control efforts funded by state agencies will be cost-effective (i.e., increased sales of tags to hunt deer and elk will offset the costs of control efforts). Further research is needed to investigate the cost-effectiveness of cougar control efforts in Oregon. I developed a Leslie matrix population model, parameterized with empirically-derived vital rates for elk in northeast Oregon, to investigate the relative influence on elk population growth rates of (1) survival and pregnancy, and (2) top-down, bottom-up, and climatic variables. I then estimated the effect of varying the strength of top-down factors on growth rates of elk populations. Growth rates of the model elk population were most sensitive to changes in adult female survival, but due to the inherent empirical variation in juvenile survival rates explained the overwhelming majority of variation in model population growth rates (r² = 0.92). Harvest of female elk had a strong negative effect on model population growth rates of elk (r² = 0.63). An index of cougar density was inversely related to population growth rates of elk in my model (r² = 0.38). A delay in mean date of birth was associated with reduced juvenile survival, but this had a minimal effect on population growth rates in my model (r² = 0.06). Climatic variables, which were used as surrogates for nutritional condition of females, had minimal effects on population growth rates. Likewise, elk density had almost no effect on population growth rates (r² = 0.002). The results of my model provided a novel finding that cougars can be a strong limiting factor on elk populations. Wildlife managers should consider the potential top-down effects of cougars and other predators as a limiting factor on elk populations. Close

• 1299. [Image] Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose suckers and shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999

  	Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose Suckers at Shoreline Spawning Areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Prepared by: Rip S. Shively1 Mark F. Bautista2 Andre E. Kohler2 1 U. S. Geological Survey, Biological ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose suckers and shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Author: Shively, Rip S.; Bautista, Mark F.; Kohler, Andre E. Year: 1999, 2005 Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose Suckers at Shoreline Spawning Areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Prepared by: Rip S. Shively1 Mark F. Bautista2 Andre E. Kohler2 1 U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division Klamath Falls Duty Station 6937 Washburn Way Klamath Falls, OR 97603 2 Johnson Controls World Services Inc. NERC Operation Post Office Box 270308 Fort Collins, CO 80527 Executive Summary In 1999, we sampled Lost River { Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) suckers from 5 April to 17 June at five shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). Trammel nets were set to encompass identified spawning areas and were fished approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after sunset or until 20 or more fish were captured. A total of 808 Lost River and 19 shortnose suckers were captured from Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs, and Cinder Flats. The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%), followed by Ouxy Springs ( 16%), Silver Building Springs ( 12%), and Boulder Springs ( 3%). Males dominated the catch at all sites, but the sex ratios at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs were particularly skewed towards males. We recaptured 32 Lost River suckers that had been tagged during previous years sampling efforts. All of these fish, with the exception of two fish tagged at Ball Point in July, were originally tagged during the spawning season at shoreline spawning areas in UKL. This information provides further evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers exist based on spawning location ( i. e., UKL and Williamson River). We also recaptured 23 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different locations than tagged indicating these fish were moving between spawning areas. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, although the decrease in size was not as dramatic as reported in previous years. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured at shoreline spawning areas in 1999, with a majority sampled after 1 May. Previous data for shortnose suckers at these sites is limited with respect to size, timing of spawning, sex composition, and relative numbers. Continuation of systematic sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas will provide valuable information on the demographics and life history of Lost River and shortnose suckers utilizing these areas. Acknowledgements We thank Anita Baker, Brooke Bechen, Lani Hickey, and Tonya Wiley for assisting with sampling offish at shoreline spawning areas. Mark Buettner and Brian Peck ( U. S. Bureau of Reclamation) provided support during the early phases of our sampling as well as helpful comments on this report. We also appreciate the cooperation and support of Larry Dunsmoor ( Klamath Tribes) for identifying spawning areas, providing logistical support, and for the thoughtful review of this report. Cassandra Watson and Elizabeth Neuman produced finalized versions of tables and figures within this report and their efforts are greatly appreciated. This research was funded by the U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division through the Western Reservoirs Initiative. Introduction Severe water quality problems in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL) have led to critical fisheries concerns for the region. Historically, UKL was eutrophic but has become hypereutrophic ( Goldman and Home 1983) presumably due to land- use practices within the basin ( USFWS 1993). As a result, the algal community has shifted to a monoculture of the blue- green algae Aphanizomemon flos- aquae and massive blooms of this species have been directly related to poor water quality episodes in UKL. The growth and decomposition of dense algal blooms in the lake frequently cause extreme water quality conditions characterized by high pH ( 9- 10.5), widely variable dissolved oxygen ( anoxic to supersaturated), and high ammonia concentrations (> 0.5 mg/ 1 unionized). In addition to water quality problems associated with A. flos- aquae, it is believed the loss of marsh habitat near the lake, timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices within the basin has contributed to hypereutrophic conditions. It is likely that these disturbances have altered the UKL ecosystem substantially enough to contribute to the near monoculture of A. flos- aquae. Investigations in 1913 documented the algal community as a diverse mix of blue- green and diatom communities, however, by the 1950' s A. flos- aquae was dominant ( USFWS 1993). The Lost River sucker ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker ( Chasmistes brevirostris) are endemic to the Upper Klamath Basin of California and Oregon ( Moyle 1976). Declining population trends for both species were noted as early as the mid- 1960' s, however, the severities of the population declines were not evident until the mid- 1980' s. In 1988 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed both Lost River and shortnose suckers as endangered. Suspected reasons for their decline included damming of rivers, dredging and draining of marshes, water diversions, hybridization, competition and predation by exotic species, insularization of habitat, and water quality problems associated with timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices ( USFWS 1993). The U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division ( BRD) has been conducting field investigations on Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL since 1994. The majority of these sampling efforts have focused on catching fish in UKL and the Lower Williamson River. Sampling in the Lower Williamson River focused on developing indices of relative abundance of Lost River and shortnose suckers. In 1999, Oregon State University continued sampling in the Lower Williamson River fishing trammel nets from April to August at four standardized locations. In addition to sampling efforts in the Lower Williamson River, BRD crews conducted periodic sampling at several shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL. This sampling was beneficial because it provided information on species composition, size, and sex ratios of suckers utilizing these areas. However, temporal changes in abundance may have been missed because consistent sampling never occurred throughout the entire spawning season ( Perkins et al, In preparation). Recently, there has been increased concern on the effects of water level management in UKL on spawning suckers. Information is needed on the timing, relative abundance, and distribution of sucker spawning in UKL to make informed decisions with respect to management of lake elevation. In 1999, we conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs and Cinder Flats along the east shore of UKL. In addition, we sampled periodically at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point to determine if suckers were utilizing these areas for spawning. This report summarizes data collected in 1999 on shoreline spawning populations of Lost River and shortnose suckers with emphasis on timing, species composition, sex ratios, and relative abundance. Methods We conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at five locations along the east shore of UKL ( Figure 1). We began sampling at Cinder Flats, Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs in early April with Boulder Springs added to the list of sampling sites on 27 April. In addition to these sites, we periodically sampled at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). We attempted to sample each site twice per week although certain sites were only sampled once per week when catch rates of suckers were low ( i. e., less than 5 fish per evening). Trammel nets were fished for about 4 hours ( approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after dark) or until we captured 20 or more fish. Nets used at individual sites varied in length from 15- 30 m, were 1.8 m tall with two outer panels ( 30cm bar mesh), an inner panel ( 3.8 cm bar mesh), a foam core float line, and a lead core bottom line. Generally, we set 1- 2 nets starting at the shoreline and extending out to encompass the perimeter of the identified spawning area. Nets were checked at approximately 1 hour intervals and captured fish were cut from the inner mesh panel and placed in a mesh cage and processed within 2 hours. Suckers were identified by species and sex, measured to the nearest mm ( fork length), inspected for tags ( both PIT and Floy tags), and examined for physical afflictions ( e. g., presence oiLernaea spp. and lamprey scars). If a sucker did not have a PIT tag, one was inserted with a hypodermic needle along the ventral surface 1- 2 cm anterior of the pelvic girdle. The catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of adult Lost River suckers was calculated for individual sampling locations for each evening sampled. Because identified spawning areas varied in size we used different length trammel nets to encompass the spawning areas. We did not attempt to standardize CPUE based on length of trammel nets used at each location. Results We sampled shoreline spawning areas from 5 April - 17 June capturing a total of 808 Lost River suckers and 19 shortnose suckers from 5 sites ( Table 1). Lost River and shortnose suckers were captured at Sucker Springs, Silver Building Springs, Ouxy Springs, and Cinder Flats, while only Lost River suckers were captured at Boulder Springs. No suckers were captured at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%; Figure 2). Males dominated the catch at all sites and were generally smaller ( mean length = 538 mm) than females captured ( mean length = 596 mm). In particular, sex ratios ( males to females) were most skewed at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs ( Figure 3). Large females (> 650 mm) were captured at most sites, except Boulder Springs, and the size range offish captured over time remained similar with the exception that a fewer large individuals (> 600 mm) were captured in the late sampling period ( 1 May - 17 June) as compared to the early sampling period ( 6- 30 April; Figure 4; Appendix Figure A). The catch of shortnose suckers was limited at all sites sampled. Most ( 12 of 19) of the shortnose suckers were collected at Sucker Springs, with 1- 3 fish captured at Cinder Flats, Ouxy Springs, and Silver Building Springs ( Table 1). We identified 8 males and 8 females during the sampling period and were unable to determine sex for three individuals. The mean size of shortnose suckers was 360 mm ( range 289- 528 mm) similar to data reported by Perkins et al. ( In preparation) from Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs. We observed the highest CPUE of Lost River suckers at Cinder Flats ( mean CPUE= 12.7/ h) followed by Sucker Springs ( mean CPUE= 6.0/ h), Silver Building Springs ( mean CPUE = 2.8/ h), and Ouxy Springs ( mean CPUE= 2.4/ h) ( Figure 5). On three occasions at Cinder Flats, 20 or more suckers were captured within an hour or less resulting in the termination of sampling for the evening. CPUE was calculated for sampling dates at Boulder Springs ( mean CPUE= 1.4/ h), although comparisons with other sites is not applicable because this site was not initially included in systematic sampling efforts. We did not calculate CPUE for shortnose suckers. We captured a total of 32 Lost River and 2 shortnose suckers that were tagged during previous years sampling efforts. The majority ( 96%) of these fish was originally tagged at shoreline locations ( Table 2), which is consistent with historical recapture data ( Appendix Table A). Two Lost River suckers were originally tagged at Ball Point in UKL in July, after the spawning season. In addition, most Lost River suckers were recaptured before 1 May, including 15 fish that were collected at Sucker Springs during two sampling occasions in March ( Figure 6). We also recaptured a total of 21 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different areas than where they were tagged, indicating that some suckers are moving between spawning areas within the season ( Table 3). Discussion Our sampling indicated the spawning period for Lost River suckers lasted from mid- March through the beginning of June at shoreline spawning areas in 1999. The catch of Lost River suckers was dominated by males at all sites sampled, particularly at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported skewed sex ratios at shoreline spawning locations following the fish kills that occurred in UKL from 1995- 1997. However, the ratios we observed were considerably higher than those reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). At this time we are unable to determine the reason for the sex ratios observed. It is possible that males remain longer at the spawning areas than females making them more vulnerable to capture. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) observed spawning acts and reported that males remained near the actual site where spawning occurs while females move onto the spawning site only when ready to spawn. We captured 23 Lost River suckers twice in 1999 and all but one of these fish were males. However, it is difficult to determine if this percentage is due to males remaining at these sites longer than females or a reflection of the existing sex ratios. Another possible explanation could be the large numbers of males in the catch are from the 1991- 1993 year classes and females from these year classes have yet to be recruited into the adult population. The majority of males captured ( 81%) were between 475 - 574 mm. Age and growth information from Lost River suckers collected during the 1996- 1997 fish kills indicate these fish would be between 5- 9 years old ( USGS, BRD, 10 unpublished data). Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported that male Lost River suckers migrating up the Williamson River begin to be recruited into the adult population starting at age 4+, while females did not begin to mature until age 7+ . These data were based on examining length frequency distributions and noting when fish from the 1991 year class, which is presumed to be a strong year class, began showing up in trammel net catches. Fish from the 1991 year class would have been age 8+ in 1999. Buettner and Scoppetone ( 1990) examined opercles from Lost River suckers collected during the 1986 fish kill in UKL and reported that individuals matured between 6- 14 years of age with the peak being 9 years. It is possible that in the next few years more females from the 1991- 93 year classes will be recruited into the adult population spawning at shoreline areas. Our data provides additional evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers may exist based on fidelity to spawning area. Of the 32 suckers we recaptured from previous years sampling efforts, all but two were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. The two fish that were not originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations were captured at Ball Point in July and were not presumed to be spawning in this location. Perkins et al. ( In preparation) reported that of 316 Lost River and 11 shortnose suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas all were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. Continuation of systematic sampling at both shoreline spawning areas and the Williamson and Sprague rivers will continue to provide information on potential separation of spawning populations. The majority of recaptured fish were tagged during the first half of our sampling efforts including 13 fish that were recaptured on 25 March while sampling with Larry Dunsmoor of the Klamath Tribes. Historically, the majority of sampling effort at 11 shoreline spawning locations occurred prior to 1 May, which may explain why most recaptures were collected during the early part of our sampling period. In fiiture years, we plan to continue systematic sampling through June to determine if temporal aspects of spawning remain consistent between years. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, particularly near the end of our sampling period, although the decrease was not as dramatic as reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). It is possible that individual timing of Lost River sucker spawning is affected by size. Scoppettone et al., ( 1986) observed that smaller, younger cui- ui ( Chasmistes cujus) at Pyramid Lake spawned at the end of the spawning season. We believe further investigation is needed to determine if differences in spawning timing among individuals is due to size or related to stock differences. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured in 1999. Sampling continued well into June and was sufficient to detect spawning concentrations of shortnose suckers at these sites. Based on previous sampling conducted at shoreline spawning areas, there appears to be a decreasing trend in the number of shortnose suckers captured at these sites ( Perkins, et al., In preparation). Our sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL represents the first time these areas have been systematically sampled during the spawning season. Continuation of systematic sampling at these areas is important to provide information on species composition, timing and duration of spawning, fidelity to spawning areas, sex ratios, size distribution, and relative abundance. How these 12 population characteristics change over time will also provide important insights into the population stability of Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL. 13 Literature Cited Buettner, M. And G. Scoppettone. 1990. Life history status of catostomids in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. F. W. S. Completion Report. 108 pp. Goldman, C. R. and A. J. Home. 1983. Limnology. McGraw Hill, New York. Moyle, P. B. 1976. Inland fishes of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Perkins, D. L., G. G. Scoppettone, and M. Buettner. In preparation. Reproductive biology and demographics of endangered Lost River and shortnose suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Lost River ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) sucker recovery plan. Portland, Oregon. 108 pp. 14 Table 1. Summary of the shoreline locations sampled in Upper Klamath Lake and the number of Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured in 1999. Sampling Dates Sampled Number of days Number of LRS Number of SNS Location ( range) Sampled Captured Captured Barkley Springs 4/ 5- 4/ 27 4 0 0 11 21 0 19 284 2 4 0 0 20 129 3 19 100 2 Sucker Springs 4/ 5- 6/ 17 20 274 13 Total 808 20 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Modoc Point Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs 4/ 27- 4/ 6- 4/ 13- 4/ 6- 4/ 5- 6/ 17 6/ 17 4/ 21 6/ 17 6/ 17 15 Table 2. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured from previous years sampling efforts at shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Site Originally Captured Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Ball Point Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 1 0 0 4 2 7 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sucker Springs 0 0 1 2 19 0 22 16 Table 3. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline locations in Upper Klamath Lake originally tagged in 1999. Site Originally Captured in 1999 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 3 1 3 1 8 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 1 0 0 3 4 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 1 0 2 Sucker Springs 0 2 0 1 6 9 17 1. Sucker Springs 2. Silver Building Springs 3. Ouxy Springs 4. Cinder Flats 5. Boulder Springs Figure 1. Map of Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes showing major tributaries and shoreline spawning areas sampled in 1999. 18 o I 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 BOULDER SPRINGS 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish Jtt * * * * * * OUXY SPRINGS D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 CINDER FLATS D LRS Unknow n _ r i • LRS Male • i_ r\ o remaie ic No Fish EII1IJ n „ * * * * 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 > SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish D n n p » * * * * * SUCKER SPRINGS ALL AREAS COMBINED • LRS Unknown D LRS Male • LRS Female • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female / / / / / / Figure 2. Summary of the number and sex of Lost River Suckers ( LRS) captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 sampling. LRS unknown refers to captured individuals in which sex could not be determined. 19 70% -, 60% 50% 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% 0% CINDER FLATS _ o_ n= 283 9.1 : 1 8C O in io in om CD o i n 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - BOULDER SPRINGS y n 11 7 6 2 n= 21 9.5: 1 • g si n 8 CD omr o in oo § 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% OUXY SPRINGS om CN oi n co o ini o in in SUCKER SPRINGS 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - n= 129 4.1 : 0 • _ o in CD omh omoo n= 273 3.5: 1 U • - - sC O oi n oi nm om o i n 00 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% - 10% 0% SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS 70% 60% - 50% - 40% 30% 20% 10% - 0% 8 CM ALL SITES 8 CO JL 8 8 i n n= 99 8.1 : 1 • H „ - in in in CD h- 00 n= 805 5.3: 1 _ D • Male • Female 8 C N O O O O O O O O O O O i n o m oin i nin oCDi nCDo i n o i nco Fork length Figure 3. Length frequency histogram of male and female Lost River suckers ( LRS) captured at shore-line spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. The total number of LRS captured in 1999 and ratio of males to females are presented in the upper right hand corner of each graph. 20 E QJ D 160 i 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 A) 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 3/ 18/ 99- 4/ 30/ 99) DMale • Female • male = 457 xM = 541.4 i siaev - jo. y female = 60 xF = 611.9 stdev = 77.2 (—| Qy O ^ D 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 # 4? B) o - I— # $ # C) # # $ # 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 5/ 1/ 99 - 6/ 8/ 99) DMale • Female male = 219 xM = 531.4 5> lUeV — H 1 , , — i remaie = bB xF = 582 8 stdev = 68.1 • y . _ _ # ^ # # # # # # # ^ 1999 SN Length Frequency ( 4/ 30/ 99 - 5/ 30/ 99) 1 U 14 - 12 - 10 s p. A 2 0 - , Dmale • female y y • l i y n male = 8 xM = 363 stdev - 29.7 fpryiolp — ft xF = 357.1 stdev = 35.5 Forklength ( mm) Figure 4. Length frequency for Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Graphs represent A) LRS caught from March 19- April 30, 1999, B) LRS caught from May 1- June 8, 1999, and C) SNS caught from April 30- May 30, 1999 ( all SNS sampling days were combined due to limited SNS numbers). Four LRS with unknown gender were not included in the graph, two were caught before May 1st, and two after May 1st. Three SNS with unknown gender were not included in the graph. 21 BOULDER SPRINGS 20 i 18 16 - I 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CM O) $ § I co o L? 5 LO O) O) O) g> g> g> o r^ •<*• n ^ CN CD CD CD 45 40 - 35 30 25 20 15 10 - 5 0 CINDER FLATS 0 ) 0 ) OO - f - r in in 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C D C D C D 1 sw 20 18 16- 14- 12 - 10 8 6 4 OUXYSPRNGS Jl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) OO 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C N I O C D O) O) O) O) Q < o z: ? z in CD CD 20- 18 - 16 14 - 12 - 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 - 0 - SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS ii , II p l, « u u •———,—— O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CN O) T- CM CM O) O) O) O) O) O) CO O h » - in O) O) O) ill CD CD CD SUCKER SPRINGS ALL SITES Figure 5. Summary of catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of Lost River suckers at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Note change in scale for the Cinder Flats and the All Sites graphs. 22 BOULDER SPRINGS 14 12 10 8 -| 6 4 2 0 n= 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O) CD CO O T - C\| ^ ^ T- CNJ CO CO CO ^" ^" ^" OUXY SPRINGS 1 C D n= 2 14 1 8 4 2^ 0 oo S ^ ^ SUCKER SPRINGS ^ £ j CNJ in in to n= 22 - U-CD CO O j - CM CO 1 C D 14 12 -\ 10 8 -] 6 4 2 - 0 CINDER FLATS n= 7 LJl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) T^ Cr^ N ^? ^ T- 14 12 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 0 SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS Tt x- 00 - CN CN in in in n= 1 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O> CD CO ^ CJ ^ ^ ^ CN co co ^ j- "< t ALL SITES O) O) O) O) O) O) in in in n= 32 I 0 0) in in in Figure 6. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas, Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Recaptured fish were originally tagged betweeen 1988- 1998. 23 Appendix Table A. Summary of recapture data for Lost River Suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Upper Lake Middle Lake Total Cinder Flats 1 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 7 Ouxy Springs 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 7 Sucker Springs 0 0 6 288 4 0 0 0 298 Williamson River 0 0 0 1 6 3 0 0 10 Sprague River 0 0 0 0 1 13 1 0 15 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 Total 1 1 9 300 12 16 3 0 342 Appendix Table B. Summary of recapture data for shortnose suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Lower Lake Middle Lake Total Ouxy Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sucker Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Williamson River 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 Sprague River 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 5 Lower Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 0 1 2 0 5 8 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reeder Road Bridge 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Total 2 0 0 7 5 0 6 20 25 5 2iu5 Appendix Figure A. Summary of the size range of Lost River suckers captured at shoreline sampling areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999, by date sampled. Title: Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose suckers and shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Author: Shively, Rip S.; Bautista, Mark F.; Kohler, Andre E. Year: 1999, 2005 Monitoring of Lost River and Shortnose Suckers at Shoreline Spawning Areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 Prepared by: Rip S. Shively1 Mark F. Bautista2 Andre E. Kohler2 1 U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division Klamath Falls Duty Station 6937 Washburn Way Klamath Falls, OR 97603 2 Johnson Controls World Services Inc. NERC Operation Post Office Box 270308 Fort Collins, CO 80527 Executive Summary In 1999, we sampled Lost River { Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) suckers from 5 April to 17 June at five shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL). Trammel nets were set to encompass identified spawning areas and were fished approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after sunset or until 20 or more fish were captured. A total of 808 Lost River and 19 shortnose suckers were captured from Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs, and Cinder Flats. The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%), followed by Ouxy Springs ( 16%), Silver Building Springs ( 12%), and Boulder Springs ( 3%). Males dominated the catch at all sites, but the sex ratios at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs were particularly skewed towards males. We recaptured 32 Lost River suckers that had been tagged during previous years sampling efforts. All of these fish, with the exception of two fish tagged at Ball Point in July, were originally tagged during the spawning season at shoreline spawning areas in UKL. This information provides further evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers exist based on spawning location ( i. e., UKL and Williamson River). We also recaptured 23 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different locations than tagged indicating these fish were moving between spawning areas. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, although the decrease in size was not as dramatic as reported in previous years. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured at shoreline spawning areas in 1999, with a majority sampled after 1 May. Previous data for shortnose suckers at these sites is limited with respect to size, timing of spawning, sex composition, and relative numbers. Continuation of systematic sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas will provide valuable information on the demographics and life history of Lost River and shortnose suckers utilizing these areas. Acknowledgements We thank Anita Baker, Brooke Bechen, Lani Hickey, and Tonya Wiley for assisting with sampling offish at shoreline spawning areas. Mark Buettner and Brian Peck ( U. S. Bureau of Reclamation) provided support during the early phases of our sampling as well as helpful comments on this report. We also appreciate the cooperation and support of Larry Dunsmoor ( Klamath Tribes) for identifying spawning areas, providing logistical support, and for the thoughtful review of this report. Cassandra Watson and Elizabeth Neuman produced finalized versions of tables and figures within this report and their efforts are greatly appreciated. This research was funded by the U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division through the Western Reservoirs Initiative. Introduction Severe water quality problems in Upper Klamath Lake ( UKL) have led to critical fisheries concerns for the region. Historically, UKL was eutrophic but has become hypereutrophic ( Goldman and Home 1983) presumably due to land- use practices within the basin ( USFWS 1993). As a result, the algal community has shifted to a monoculture of the blue- green algae Aphanizomemon flos- aquae and massive blooms of this species have been directly related to poor water quality episodes in UKL. The growth and decomposition of dense algal blooms in the lake frequently cause extreme water quality conditions characterized by high pH ( 9- 10.5), widely variable dissolved oxygen ( anoxic to supersaturated), and high ammonia concentrations (> 0.5 mg/ 1 unionized). In addition to water quality problems associated with A. flos- aquae, it is believed the loss of marsh habitat near the lake, timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices within the basin has contributed to hypereutrophic conditions. It is likely that these disturbances have altered the UKL ecosystem substantially enough to contribute to the near monoculture of A. flos- aquae. Investigations in 1913 documented the algal community as a diverse mix of blue- green and diatom communities, however, by the 1950' s A. flos- aquae was dominant ( USFWS 1993). The Lost River sucker ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker ( Chasmistes brevirostris) are endemic to the Upper Klamath Basin of California and Oregon ( Moyle 1976). Declining population trends for both species were noted as early as the mid- 1960' s, however, the severities of the population declines were not evident until the mid- 1980' s. In 1988 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed both Lost River and shortnose suckers as endangered. Suspected reasons for their decline included damming of rivers, dredging and draining of marshes, water diversions, hybridization, competition and predation by exotic species, insularization of habitat, and water quality problems associated with timber harvest, removal of riparian vegetation, livestock grazing, and agricultural practices ( USFWS 1993). The U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division ( BRD) has been conducting field investigations on Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL since 1994. The majority of these sampling efforts have focused on catching fish in UKL and the Lower Williamson River. Sampling in the Lower Williamson River focused on developing indices of relative abundance of Lost River and shortnose suckers. In 1999, Oregon State University continued sampling in the Lower Williamson River fishing trammel nets from April to August at four standardized locations. In addition to sampling efforts in the Lower Williamson River, BRD crews conducted periodic sampling at several shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL. This sampling was beneficial because it provided information on species composition, size, and sex ratios of suckers utilizing these areas. However, temporal changes in abundance may have been missed because consistent sampling never occurred throughout the entire spawning season ( Perkins et al, In preparation). Recently, there has been increased concern on the effects of water level management in UKL on spawning suckers. Information is needed on the timing, relative abundance, and distribution of sucker spawning in UKL to make informed decisions with respect to management of lake elevation. In 1999, we conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at Sucker, Silver Building, Ouxy, and Boulder springs and Cinder Flats along the east shore of UKL. In addition, we sampled periodically at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point to determine if suckers were utilizing these areas for spawning. This report summarizes data collected in 1999 on shoreline spawning populations of Lost River and shortnose suckers with emphasis on timing, species composition, sex ratios, and relative abundance. Methods We conducted systematic trammel netting surveys at five locations along the east shore of UKL ( Figure 1). We began sampling at Cinder Flats, Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs in early April with Boulder Springs added to the list of sampling sites on 27 April. In addition to these sites, we periodically sampled at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). We attempted to sample each site twice per week although certain sites were only sampled once per week when catch rates of suckers were low ( i. e., less than 5 fish per evening). Trammel nets were fished for about 4 hours ( approximately 1- 1.5 hours before sunset until 3 hours after dark) or until we captured 20 or more fish. Nets used at individual sites varied in length from 15- 30 m, were 1.8 m tall with two outer panels ( 30cm bar mesh), an inner panel ( 3.8 cm bar mesh), a foam core float line, and a lead core bottom line. Generally, we set 1- 2 nets starting at the shoreline and extending out to encompass the perimeter of the identified spawning area. Nets were checked at approximately 1 hour intervals and captured fish were cut from the inner mesh panel and placed in a mesh cage and processed within 2 hours. Suckers were identified by species and sex, measured to the nearest mm ( fork length), inspected for tags ( both PIT and Floy tags), and examined for physical afflictions ( e. g., presence oiLernaea spp. and lamprey scars). If a sucker did not have a PIT tag, one was inserted with a hypodermic needle along the ventral surface 1- 2 cm anterior of the pelvic girdle. The catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of adult Lost River suckers was calculated for individual sampling locations for each evening sampled. Because identified spawning areas varied in size we used different length trammel nets to encompass the spawning areas. We did not attempt to standardize CPUE based on length of trammel nets used at each location. Results We sampled shoreline spawning areas from 5 April - 17 June capturing a total of 808 Lost River suckers and 19 shortnose suckers from 5 sites ( Table 1). Lost River and shortnose suckers were captured at Sucker Springs, Silver Building Springs, Ouxy Springs, and Cinder Flats, while only Lost River suckers were captured at Boulder Springs. No suckers were captured at Barkley Springs and Modoc Point ( Table 1). The majority of Lost River suckers were captured at Cinder Flats ( 35%) and Sucker Springs ( 34%; Figure 2). Males dominated the catch at all sites and were generally smaller ( mean length = 538 mm) than females captured ( mean length = 596 mm). In particular, sex ratios ( males to females) were most skewed at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs ( Figure 3). Large females (> 650 mm) were captured at most sites, except Boulder Springs, and the size range offish captured over time remained similar with the exception that a fewer large individuals (> 600 mm) were captured in the late sampling period ( 1 May - 17 June) as compared to the early sampling period ( 6- 30 April; Figure 4; Appendix Figure A). The catch of shortnose suckers was limited at all sites sampled. Most ( 12 of 19) of the shortnose suckers were collected at Sucker Springs, with 1- 3 fish captured at Cinder Flats, Ouxy Springs, and Silver Building Springs ( Table 1). We identified 8 males and 8 females during the sampling period and were unable to determine sex for three individuals. The mean size of shortnose suckers was 360 mm ( range 289- 528 mm) similar to data reported by Perkins et al. ( In preparation) from Sucker, Silver Building, and Ouxy springs. We observed the highest CPUE of Lost River suckers at Cinder Flats ( mean CPUE= 12.7/ h) followed by Sucker Springs ( mean CPUE= 6.0/ h), Silver Building Springs ( mean CPUE = 2.8/ h), and Ouxy Springs ( mean CPUE= 2.4/ h) ( Figure 5). On three occasions at Cinder Flats, 20 or more suckers were captured within an hour or less resulting in the termination of sampling for the evening. CPUE was calculated for sampling dates at Boulder Springs ( mean CPUE= 1.4/ h), although comparisons with other sites is not applicable because this site was not initially included in systematic sampling efforts. We did not calculate CPUE for shortnose suckers. We captured a total of 32 Lost River and 2 shortnose suckers that were tagged during previous years sampling efforts. The majority ( 96%) of these fish was originally tagged at shoreline locations ( Table 2), which is consistent with historical recapture data ( Appendix Table A). Two Lost River suckers were originally tagged at Ball Point in UKL in July, after the spawning season. In addition, most Lost River suckers were recaptured before 1 May, including 15 fish that were collected at Sucker Springs during two sampling occasions in March ( Figure 6). We also recaptured a total of 21 Lost River suckers that were tagged in 1999 at shoreline spawning areas. Approximately half of these fish were recaptured at different areas than where they were tagged, indicating that some suckers are moving between spawning areas within the season ( Table 3). Discussion Our sampling indicated the spawning period for Lost River suckers lasted from mid- March through the beginning of June at shoreline spawning areas in 1999. The catch of Lost River suckers was dominated by males at all sites sampled, particularly at Cinder Flats and Silver Building Springs. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported skewed sex ratios at shoreline spawning locations following the fish kills that occurred in UKL from 1995- 1997. However, the ratios we observed were considerably higher than those reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). At this time we are unable to determine the reason for the sex ratios observed. It is possible that males remain longer at the spawning areas than females making them more vulnerable to capture. Perkins et al., ( In preparation) observed spawning acts and reported that males remained near the actual site where spawning occurs while females move onto the spawning site only when ready to spawn. We captured 23 Lost River suckers twice in 1999 and all but one of these fish were males. However, it is difficult to determine if this percentage is due to males remaining at these sites longer than females or a reflection of the existing sex ratios. Another possible explanation could be the large numbers of males in the catch are from the 1991- 1993 year classes and females from these year classes have yet to be recruited into the adult population. The majority of males captured ( 81%) were between 475 - 574 mm. Age and growth information from Lost River suckers collected during the 1996- 1997 fish kills indicate these fish would be between 5- 9 years old ( USGS, BRD, 10 unpublished data). Perkins et al., ( In preparation) reported that male Lost River suckers migrating up the Williamson River begin to be recruited into the adult population starting at age 4+, while females did not begin to mature until age 7+ . These data were based on examining length frequency distributions and noting when fish from the 1991 year class, which is presumed to be a strong year class, began showing up in trammel net catches. Fish from the 1991 year class would have been age 8+ in 1999. Buettner and Scoppetone ( 1990) examined opercles from Lost River suckers collected during the 1986 fish kill in UKL and reported that individuals matured between 6- 14 years of age with the peak being 9 years. It is possible that in the next few years more females from the 1991- 93 year classes will be recruited into the adult population spawning at shoreline areas. Our data provides additional evidence that distinct stocks of Lost River suckers may exist based on fidelity to spawning area. Of the 32 suckers we recaptured from previous years sampling efforts, all but two were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. The two fish that were not originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations were captured at Ball Point in July and were not presumed to be spawning in this location. Perkins et al. ( In preparation) reported that of 316 Lost River and 11 shortnose suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas all were originally tagged at shoreline spawning locations. Continuation of systematic sampling at both shoreline spawning areas and the Williamson and Sprague rivers will continue to provide information on potential separation of spawning populations. The majority of recaptured fish were tagged during the first half of our sampling efforts including 13 fish that were recaptured on 25 March while sampling with Larry Dunsmoor of the Klamath Tribes. Historically, the majority of sampling effort at 11 shoreline spawning locations occurred prior to 1 May, which may explain why most recaptures were collected during the early part of our sampling period. In fiiture years, we plan to continue systematic sampling through June to determine if temporal aspects of spawning remain consistent between years. The size offish captured at shoreline spawning areas decreased as the spawning season progressed, particularly near the end of our sampling period, although the decrease was not as dramatic as reported by Perkins et al., ( In preparation). It is possible that individual timing of Lost River sucker spawning is affected by size. Scoppettone et al., ( 1986) observed that smaller, younger cui- ui ( Chasmistes cujus) at Pyramid Lake spawned at the end of the spawning season. We believe further investigation is needed to determine if differences in spawning timing among individuals is due to size or related to stock differences. A limited number of shortnose suckers were captured in 1999. Sampling continued well into June and was sufficient to detect spawning concentrations of shortnose suckers at these sites. Based on previous sampling conducted at shoreline spawning areas, there appears to be a decreasing trend in the number of shortnose suckers captured at these sites ( Perkins, et al., In preparation). Our sampling efforts at shoreline spawning areas on the east side of UKL represents the first time these areas have been systematically sampled during the spawning season. Continuation of systematic sampling at these areas is important to provide information on species composition, timing and duration of spawning, fidelity to spawning areas, sex ratios, size distribution, and relative abundance. How these 12 population characteristics change over time will also provide important insights into the population stability of Lost River and shortnose suckers in UKL. 13 Literature Cited Buettner, M. And G. Scoppettone. 1990. Life history status of catostomids in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. F. W. S. Completion Report. 108 pp. Goldman, C. R. and A. J. Home. 1983. Limnology. McGraw Hill, New York. Moyle, P. B. 1976. Inland fishes of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Perkins, D. L., G. G. Scoppettone, and M. Buettner. In preparation. Reproductive biology and demographics of endangered Lost River and shortnose suckers in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Lost River ( Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose ( Chasmistes brevirostris) sucker recovery plan. Portland, Oregon. 108 pp. 14 Table 1. Summary of the shoreline locations sampled in Upper Klamath Lake and the number of Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured in 1999. Sampling Dates Sampled Number of days Number of LRS Number of SNS Location ( range) Sampled Captured Captured Barkley Springs 4/ 5- 4/ 27 4 0 0 11 21 0 19 284 2 4 0 0 20 129 3 19 100 2 Sucker Springs 4/ 5- 6/ 17 20 274 13 Total 808 20 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Modoc Point Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs 4/ 27- 4/ 6- 4/ 13- 4/ 6- 4/ 5- 6/ 17 6/ 17 4/ 21 6/ 17 6/ 17 15 Table 2. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured from previous years sampling efforts at shoreline spawning locations in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Site Originally Captured Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Ball Point Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 1 0 0 4 2 7 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sucker Springs 0 0 1 2 19 0 22 16 Table 3. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline locations in Upper Klamath Lake originally tagged in 1999. Site Originally Captured in 1999 Boulder Springs Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Total Boulder Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 Site Cinder Flats 0 3 1 3 1 8 Recaptured Ouxy Springs 0 1 0 0 3 4 in 1999 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 1 0 2 Sucker Springs 0 2 0 1 6 9 17 1. Sucker Springs 2. Silver Building Springs 3. Ouxy Springs 4. Cinder Flats 5. Boulder Springs Figure 1. Map of Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes showing major tributaries and shoreline spawning areas sampled in 1999. 18 o I 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 BOULDER SPRINGS 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish Jtt * * * * * * OUXY SPRINGS D LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 CINDER FLATS D LRS Unknow n _ r i • LRS Male • i_ r\ o remaie ic No Fish EII1IJ n „ * * * * 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 > SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female * No Fish D n n p » * * * * * SUCKER SPRINGS ALL AREAS COMBINED • LRS Unknown D LRS Male • LRS Female • LRS Unknow n • LRS Male • LRS Female / / / / / / Figure 2. Summary of the number and sex of Lost River Suckers ( LRS) captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999 sampling. LRS unknown refers to captured individuals in which sex could not be determined. 19 70% -, 60% 50% 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% 0% CINDER FLATS _ o_ n= 283 9.1 : 1 8C O in io in om CD o i n 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - BOULDER SPRINGS y n 11 7 6 2 n= 21 9.5: 1 • g si n 8 CD omr o in oo § 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% OUXY SPRINGS om CN oi n co o ini o in in SUCKER SPRINGS 70% -, 60% - 50% - 40% - 30% - 20% - 10% - 0% - n= 129 4.1 : 0 • _ o in CD omh omoo n= 273 3.5: 1 U • - - sC O oi n oi nm om o i n 00 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% - 10% 0% SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS 70% 60% - 50% - 40% 30% 20% 10% - 0% 8 CM ALL SITES 8 CO JL 8 8 i n n= 99 8.1 : 1 • H „ - in in in CD h- 00 n= 805 5.3: 1 _ D • Male • Female 8 C N O O O O O O O O O O O i n o m oin i nin oCDi nCDo i n o i nco Fork length Figure 3. Length frequency histogram of male and female Lost River suckers ( LRS) captured at shore-line spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. The total number of LRS captured in 1999 and ratio of males to females are presented in the upper right hand corner of each graph. 20 E QJ D 160 i 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 A) 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 3/ 18/ 99- 4/ 30/ 99) DMale • Female • male = 457 xM = 541.4 i siaev - jo. y female = 60 xF = 611.9 stdev = 77.2 (—| Qy O ^ D 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 # 4? B) o - I— # $ # C) # # $ # 1999 LR Length Frequency ( 5/ 1/ 99 - 6/ 8/ 99) DMale • Female male = 219 xM = 531.4 5> lUeV — H 1 , , — i remaie = bB xF = 582 8 stdev = 68.1 • y . _ _ # ^ # # # # # # # ^ 1999 SN Length Frequency ( 4/ 30/ 99 - 5/ 30/ 99) 1 U 14 - 12 - 10 s p. A 2 0 - , Dmale • female y y • l i y n male = 8 xM = 363 stdev - 29.7 fpryiolp — ft xF = 357.1 stdev = 35.5 Forklength ( mm) Figure 4. Length frequency for Lost River ( LRS) and shortnose ( SNS) suckers captured at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Graphs represent A) LRS caught from March 19- April 30, 1999, B) LRS caught from May 1- June 8, 1999, and C) SNS caught from April 30- May 30, 1999 ( all SNS sampling days were combined due to limited SNS numbers). Four LRS with unknown gender were not included in the graph, two were caught before May 1st, and two after May 1st. Three SNS with unknown gender were not included in the graph. 21 BOULDER SPRINGS 20 i 18 16 - I 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CM O) $ § I co o L? 5 LO O) O) O) g> g> g> o r^ •<*• n ^ CN CD CD CD 45 40 - 35 30 25 20 15 10 - 5 0 CINDER FLATS 0 ) 0 ) OO - f - r in in 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C D C D C D 1 sw 20 18 16- 14- 12 - 10 8 6 4 OUXYSPRNGS Jl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) OO 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) C N I O C D O) O) O) O) Q < o z: ? z in CD CD 20- 18 - 16 14 - 12 - 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 - 0 - SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS ii , II p l, « u u •———,—— O) O) O) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) in CN O) T- CM CM O) O) O) O) O) O) CO O h » - in O) O) O) ill CD CD CD SUCKER SPRINGS ALL SITES Figure 5. Summary of catch per unit effort ( CPUE) of Lost River suckers at shoreline spawning areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Note change in scale for the Cinder Flats and the All Sites graphs. 22 BOULDER SPRINGS 14 12 10 8 -| 6 4 2 0 n= 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O) CD CO O T - C\| ^ ^ T- CNJ CO CO CO ^" ^" ^" OUXY SPRINGS 1 C D n= 2 14 1 8 4 2^ 0 oo S ^ ^ SUCKER SPRINGS ^ £ j CNJ in in to n= 22 - U-CD CO O j - CM CO 1 C D 14 12 -\ 10 8 -] 6 4 2 - 0 CINDER FLATS n= 7 LJl 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) T^ Cr^ N ^? ^ T- 14 12 10 - 8 6 4 - 2 0 SILVER BUILDING SPRINGS Tt x- 00 - CN CN in in in n= 1 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) O) CD CN O> CD CO ^ CJ ^ ^ ^ CN co co ^ j- "< t ALL SITES O) O) O) O) O) O) in in in n= 32 I 0 0) in in in Figure 6. Summary of the number of Lost River suckers recaptured at shoreline spawning areas, Upper Klamath Lake, 1999. Recaptured fish were originally tagged betweeen 1988- 1998. 23 Appendix Table A. Summary of recapture data for Lost River Suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Cinder Flats Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Upper Lake Middle Lake Total Cinder Flats 1 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 7 Ouxy Springs 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 7 Sucker Springs 0 0 6 288 4 0 0 0 298 Williamson River 0 0 0 1 6 3 0 0 10 Sprague River 0 0 0 0 1 13 1 0 15 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 Total 1 1 9 300 12 16 3 0 342 Appendix Table B. Summary of recapture data for shortnose suckers in the Upper Klamath Lake Basin from 1985- 1999. Sampling was generally conducted from March- July of each year, although the emphasis in sampling was during the spawning period. Recapture data includes fish that were tagged with Floy and PIT tags. Site Last Recaptured Site Originally Captured Ouxy Springs Silver Bldg. Springs Sucker Springs Williamson River Sprague River Lower Lake Middle Lake Total Ouxy Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Silver Bldg. Springs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sucker Springs 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Williamson River 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 Sprague River 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 5 Lower Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Middle Lake 0 0 0 1 2 0 5 8 Upper Lake 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reeder Road Bridge 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Total 2 0 0 7 5 0 6 20 25 5 2iu5 Appendix Figure A. Summary of the size range of Lost River suckers captured at shoreline sampling areas in Upper Klamath Lake, 1999, by date sampled. Close

• 1300. [Image] Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues

  	Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues Author: Kostow, Kathryn Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure because different species tend to look very similar through most of their life cycle, and they have not been well-studied in Oregon. Lampreys occur in the Columbia Basin, including the lower Snake River, along the Oregon coast, in the upper Klamath Basin, and in Goose Lake Basin in southeastern Oregon. They all begin life in fresh water where juveniles burrow into silt and filter feed on algae. As some species approach adulthood they migrate to the ocean or to lakes where they briefly become ecto-parasites, feeding on other live fishes by attaching to them with sucker disc mouths. Other species remain non-parasitic. In addition to some enigmatic species identities, we generally have very little information about the detailed distributions, life histories and basic biology of lampreys. Lampreys became a conservation concern in the early 1990s when tribal co-managers and some Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) staff noted that populations of Pacific Lampreys, Lampetra tridentata, were apparently declining to perilously low numbers. Pacific Lampreys were listed as an Oregon State sensitive species in 1993 and were given further legal protected status by the state in 1997 (OAR 635-044-0130). Lamprey status is difficult to assess for several reasons: 1) Most observations of lampreys in fresh water are of juveniles and it is difficult to tell the various species apart, even to the extent that the various species are currently clearly designated; 2) Data on lamprey is only collected incidental to monitoring of salmonids. The design and efficiency of the data collection effort is not always adequate for lampreys; and 3) We have very few historic data sets for lampreys. Therefore we often cannot determine how the abundances and distributions we see now compare with those in the past. The limited data that we have suggests that lampreys have declined through many parts of their ranges. The most precipitous declines appear to be in the upper Columbia and Snake basins where we have some historic data from mainstem dam counts. Pacific Lampreys have declined to only about 200 adults annually passing the Snake River dams. We also have evidence of declines of Pacific Lampreys in the lower Columbia and on the Oregon coast, although our data is quite limited. We have little to no information about any of the other species of lampreys. We are not even sure whether some of the recognized species, like the River Lamprey (L. ayresi), is still present in Oregon. This paper concludes with a Problem Analysis for Oregon lampreys. Our biggest problem is poor information, ranging from not knowing basic species identity to having inefficient or no systematic monitoring of lamprey abundance and distribution. ODFW continued an annual harvest on Pacific Lamprey in the Willamette Basin in 2001, but we lack the necessary information to assess the affects of the harvest on the population. Major habitat problems that affect lampreys include upstream passage over artificial barriers, a need for lamprey-friendly screening of water diversions, and urban and agricultural development of low-gradient flood plain habitats. Title: Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues Author: Kostow, Kathryn Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure because different species tend to look very similar through most of their life cycle, and they have not been well-studied in Oregon. Lampreys occur in the Columbia Basin, including the lower Snake River, along the Oregon coast, in the upper Klamath Basin, and in Goose Lake Basin in southeastern Oregon. They all begin life in fresh water where juveniles burrow into silt and filter feed on algae. As some species approach adulthood they migrate to the ocean or to lakes where they briefly become ecto-parasites, feeding on other live fishes by attaching to them with sucker disc mouths. Other species remain non-parasitic. In addition to some enigmatic species identities, we generally have very little information about the detailed distributions, life histories and basic biology of lampreys. Lampreys became a conservation concern in the early 1990s when tribal co-managers and some Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) staff noted that populations of Pacific Lampreys, Lampetra tridentata, were apparently declining to perilously low numbers. Pacific Lampreys were listed as an Oregon State sensitive species in 1993 and were given further legal protected status by the state in 1997 (OAR 635-044-0130). Lamprey status is difficult to assess for several reasons: 1) Most observations of lampreys in fresh water are of juveniles and it is difficult to tell the various species apart, even to the extent that the various species are currently clearly designated; 2) Data on lamprey is only collected incidental to monitoring of salmonids. The design and efficiency of the data collection effort is not always adequate for lampreys; and 3) We have very few historic data sets for lampreys. Therefore we often cannot determine how the abundances and distributions we see now compare with those in the past. The limited data that we have suggests that lampreys have declined through many parts of their ranges. The most precipitous declines appear to be in the upper Columbia and Snake basins where we have some historic data from mainstem dam counts. Pacific Lampreys have declined to only about 200 adults annually passing the Snake River dams. We also have evidence of declines of Pacific Lampreys in the lower Columbia and on the Oregon coast, although our data is quite limited. We have little to no information about any of the other species of lampreys. We are not even sure whether some of the recognized species, like the River Lamprey (L. ayresi), is still present in Oregon. This paper concludes with a Problem Analysis for Oregon lampreys. Our biggest problem is poor information, ranging from not knowing basic species identity to having inefficient or no systematic monitoring of lamprey abundance and distribution. ODFW continued an annual harvest on Pacific Lamprey in the Willamette Basin in 2001, but we lack the necessary information to assess the affects of the harvest on the population. Major habitat problems that affect lampreys include upstream passage over artificial barriers, a need for lamprey-friendly screening of water diversions, and urban and agricultural development of low-gradient flood plain habitats. Close