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• 501. [Article] The ecology of riparian ecosystems of Northeast Oregon : shrub recovery at Meadow Creek and the structure and biomass of headwater Upper Grande Ronde ecosystems

  Riparian ecosystems play numerous and essential roles related to the quality and flow of water, and food/habitat for fish, and varieties of wildlife. Due to lateral and linear linkages throughout the landscape, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The ecology of riparian ecosystems of Northeast Oregon : shrub recovery at Meadow Creek and the structure and biomass of headwater Upper Grande Ronde ecosystems Author: Case, Richard L. Riparian ecosystems play numerous and essential roles related to the quality and flow of water, and food/habitat for fish, and varieties of wildlife. Due to lateral and linear linkages throughout the landscape, these zones influence the integrity of the terrestrial as well as the entire aquatic-riverine ecosystem. Since Euro-American settlement in the West, the structure and condition of many riparian ecosystems has been significantly altered. To provide tools and an ecological perspective related to riparian restoration and management, and to document late 20th century headwater riparian structure and biomass in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, this research project was undertaken. At Meadow Creek, the response of riparian hardwood species to the termination of livestock grazing was quantified. Regression equations were developed to predict shrub biomass. Permanently marked hardwood plants were measured annually to quantify parameters of growth (height, crown area, mainstem diameter, number of stems, biomass). Permanent belt transects on gravel bars were utilized to quantify rates of shrub establishment. Elk/deer-proof exclosures allowed the quantification of the browsing influence of wild ungulates. In 1991, initial shrub heights and densities reflected decades of grazing pressure. Mean heights of515 woody plants (14 species) was 47 cm and densities on gravel bars averaged 10.7 plants/100m². After two seasons without livestock grazing, mean crown volumes of willows (Salix spp.) increased 550% inside of wild ungulate exclosures and 195% outside, black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) 773% inside and 808% outside, and thin-leaf alder (Almis incana) 1046% inside and 198% outside, respectively. Willows were significantly impeded (p<0.Ol) mule deer and Rocky Mountain elk, alder samples were too small to statistically test, and cottonwood was not significantly impeded. However, impacts by deer and elk may be exaggerated due to high densities and the ungulate density-dynamics unique within the 77 km² Starkey Experimental Forest big-game enclosure surrounding the study site. Establishment rates are low at this time, i.e., only 10% of previously suppressed willows produced catkins. Although in transects densities increased by 5 new woody plants/lOOm² (50m of streambank). Other non-anthropogenic factors influencing the recovery of shrubs, included beaver which removed mainstems from 20% of willows, 11% of thin-leaf alder, and 4% of black cottonwood, and active insect defoliation which was noted on 16% of willows, 7% of thin-leaf alder, and 0% of black cottonwood. Crude protein levels measured in willow and alder leaves was relatively high (16.1 to 16.3%) helping to explain their palatability and use by wild and domestic herbivores. Few studies have quantified biomass, structure and composition of headwater riparian ecosystems. Data such as this are important given their dominant roles in ecosystem biodiversity, and aquatic function. To document relatively intact forested headwater ripanan conditions in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, the biomass, structure and composition along six headwater reaches was quantified. Sampling was done using a nested belt transect/plot arrangement along 500 meter reaches. Total aboveground biomass (TAGB) ranged from 203 to 261 Mg/ha, with overstory conifers contributing 101 to 177 Mg/ha. Living understory components (saplings, seedlings, shrubs, and herbs) comprised 5 to 18 Mg/ha (2 to 9% of TAGB), while forest floor detrital accumulations comprised 65 to 101 Mg/ha (29 to 42% of TAGB). Average shade per day for July, 1993 ranged between 53% and 75%, reducing the unshaded solar energy potential of 2390 Mj/day to between 680 and 1280 Mj/day striking each m² of stream surface. This baseline reference information can serve in multi-disciplined research, as well as, be a basis for long term studies of natural systems responding to changing climate and different resource management scenarios. Title: The ecology of riparian ecosystems of Northeast Oregon : shrub recovery at Meadow Creek and the structure and biomass of headwater Upper Grande Ronde ecosystems Author: Case, Richard L. Riparian ecosystems play numerous and essential roles related to the quality and flow of water, and food/habitat for fish, and varieties of wildlife. Due to lateral and linear linkages throughout the landscape, these zones influence the integrity of the terrestrial as well as the entire aquatic-riverine ecosystem. Since Euro-American settlement in the West, the structure and condition of many riparian ecosystems has been significantly altered. To provide tools and an ecological perspective related to riparian restoration and management, and to document late 20th century headwater riparian structure and biomass in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, this research project was undertaken. At Meadow Creek, the response of riparian hardwood species to the termination of livestock grazing was quantified. Regression equations were developed to predict shrub biomass. Permanently marked hardwood plants were measured annually to quantify parameters of growth (height, crown area, mainstem diameter, number of stems, biomass). Permanent belt transects on gravel bars were utilized to quantify rates of shrub establishment. Elk/deer-proof exclosures allowed the quantification of the browsing influence of wild ungulates. In 1991, initial shrub heights and densities reflected decades of grazing pressure. Mean heights of515 woody plants (14 species) was 47 cm and densities on gravel bars averaged 10.7 plants/100m². After two seasons without livestock grazing, mean crown volumes of willows (Salix spp.) increased 550% inside of wild ungulate exclosures and 195% outside, black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) 773% inside and 808% outside, and thin-leaf alder (Almis incana) 1046% inside and 198% outside, respectively. Willows were significantly impeded (p<0.Ol) mule deer and Rocky Mountain elk, alder samples were too small to statistically test, and cottonwood was not significantly impeded. However, impacts by deer and elk may be exaggerated due to high densities and the ungulate density-dynamics unique within the 77 km² Starkey Experimental Forest big-game enclosure surrounding the study site. Establishment rates are low at this time, i.e., only 10% of previously suppressed willows produced catkins. Although in transects densities increased by 5 new woody plants/lOOm² (50m of streambank). Other non-anthropogenic factors influencing the recovery of shrubs, included beaver which removed mainstems from 20% of willows, 11% of thin-leaf alder, and 4% of black cottonwood, and active insect defoliation which was noted on 16% of willows, 7% of thin-leaf alder, and 0% of black cottonwood. Crude protein levels measured in willow and alder leaves was relatively high (16.1 to 16.3%) helping to explain their palatability and use by wild and domestic herbivores. Few studies have quantified biomass, structure and composition of headwater riparian ecosystems. Data such as this are important given their dominant roles in ecosystem biodiversity, and aquatic function. To document relatively intact forested headwater ripanan conditions in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, the biomass, structure and composition along six headwater reaches was quantified. Sampling was done using a nested belt transect/plot arrangement along 500 meter reaches. Total aboveground biomass (TAGB) ranged from 203 to 261 Mg/ha, with overstory conifers contributing 101 to 177 Mg/ha. Living understory components (saplings, seedlings, shrubs, and herbs) comprised 5 to 18 Mg/ha (2 to 9% of TAGB), while forest floor detrital accumulations comprised 65 to 101 Mg/ha (29 to 42% of TAGB). Average shade per day for July, 1993 ranged between 53% and 75%, reducing the unshaded solar energy potential of 2390 Mj/day to between 680 and 1280 Mj/day striking each m² of stream surface. This baseline reference information can serve in multi-disciplined research, as well as, be a basis for long term studies of natural systems responding to changing climate and different resource management scenarios. Close

• 502. [Image] Research information needs on terrestrial vertebrate species of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great basins: research, development, and application database

  	"September 1997"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 24)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Research information needs on terrestrial vertebrate species of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great basins: research, development, and application database Author: Marcot, Bruce G. Year: 1997, 2005, 2004 "September 1997"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 24) Title: Research information needs on terrestrial vertebrate species of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great basins: research, development, and application database Author: Marcot, Bruce G. Year: 1997, 2005, 2004 "September 1997"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 24) Close

• 503. [Article] <i>Wolbachia-</i>Host Interactions and the Implications to Insect Conservation and Management

  Parasitic reproductive endosymbionts are emerging as formidable threats to insect biodiversity. Wolbachia are prevalent maternally inherited intra-cellular bacteria found in >50% of arthropod species. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: <i>Wolbachia-</i>Host Interactions and the Implications to Insect Conservation and Management Author: Truitt, Amy Michelle Year: 2017 Parasitic reproductive endosymbionts are emerging as formidable threats to insect biodiversity. Wolbachia are prevalent maternally inherited intra-cellular bacteria found in >50% of arthropod species. These symbiotic bacteria interact with their hosts in diverse ways, most often they alter host reproduction causing four conditions that all selectively favor infected females: feminization, male killing, parthenogenesis, and cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI). Furthermore, depending on strain-type and host genetic background, Wolbachia are known to affect insect behavior, expand or shift host thermal tolerance ranges, and confer anti-viral protection to their hosts. Because Wolbachia both reside in and are transmitted with host cell cytoplasm, mitochondria and other cytoplasmically inherited genetic elements become linked with the bacteria. Thus, by enhancing their own transmission, Wolbachia-induced phenotypes can lead to mitochondrial selective sweeps, which may have profound impacts on vulnerable and small insect populations. Elucidating the extent to which endosymbionts influence biological and ecological functions is pivotal to making management decisions regarding imperiled insect species. My dissertation investigates biological and ecological impacts of host-endosymbiont interactions by examining Wolbachia infections in three different host systems. First, I used the federally threatened butterfly species Speyeria zerene hippolyta to determine whether the general reproductive success of local populations was affected by the introduction of CI-inducing Wolbachia-infected butterflies through implemented species recovery programs. Next, by characterizing the Wolbachia infections of parasitoids associated with the Eurema butterfly clade, I analyzed whether host-parasitoid interactions provide a path for interspecies horizontal transmission. Finally, I conducted a laboratory experiment using an isogenic Drosophila melanogaster line to determine whether Wolbachia influence host temperature preference. Together, my research examines how the individual level effects of host-endosymbiont interactions can expand into populations, have broader impacts on insect communities, and potentially impede the conservation and management of insects in nature. In chapter one, I screened S. z. hippolyta samples from three extant populations for Wolbachia infection. To examine the impacts of Wolbachia on small populations, I analyzed and compared infected and uninfected S. z. hippolyta reproductive data and showed that, in a population composed of infected and uninfected S. z. hippolyta, uninfected butterflies had reduced reproductive success (GLMM z = -8.067, P < 0.0001). I then developed a single-population demographic theoretical model using these same reproductive data to simulate and analyze different potential dynamics of small populations resulting from population supplementation with uninfected, CI-Wolbachia infected, or combined uninfected and infected butterflies. Analysis of model simulations revealed that supplementation with CI-inducing butterflies significantly suppressed host-population size (ANOVA F5,593 = 3349, PWolbachia-infected individuals (Tukey's post-hoc test P < 0.0001). In addition, supplementation by multiple releases using a combination of 50 infected and 300 uninfected butterflies has a less severe suppression effect, reducing the population by 75.8%, but the reduction occurs 42.6% faster than with the single release of 50 Wolbachia-infected butterflies (Tukey's post-doc test P < 0.0001). Parasitoid-host interactions have emerged as probable ecological relationships to facilitate horizontal transmission of Wolbachia. In chapter two, I addressed horizontal transmission using Eurema butterflies and their associated parasitoids. From four locations in Northern Queensland, Australia, I collected a total of 404 Eurema hecabe butterfly larvae. Twenty-three parasitoids emerged from the larvae of which 21 were Diptera and two were Hymenoptera. I amplified COI loci fragments from each parasitoid for BLAST query searches and found that 20 individual Diptera parasitoids matched to the genus Exorista and one to the genus Senometopia. One of the Hymenoptera parasitoids matched to the genus Microoplitis and the other to the genus Cotesia. To characterize Wolbachia infections, I used Wolbachia Multi Locus Sequencing Technique (MLST) and discovered that all 20 Exorista parasitoids were infected with an identical Wolbachia strain (ST-41), which is the same strain infecting their Eurema hecabe butterfly hosts. Although, further experiments are necessary to definitively determine that ST-41 Wolbachia are incorporated into germline cells of the parasitoids, this is the first study to provide ecological evidence for inter-ordinal Wolbachia transmission between Lepidoptera and Diptera. Furthermore, this discovery exposes the risk of population augmentation programs that move insects, potentially facilitating the spread of Wolbachia between species within a community through the accidental introduction of new Wolbachia-infected parasitoids. Finally, both Wolbachia and their insect hosts are temperature sensitive organisms. Wolbachia’s replication behavior in their hosts is positively-temperature dependent, while environmental variation can have profound effects on insect’s immune function, fitness, and fecundity. In chapter three, I conducted a laboratory experiment using a thermal gradient choice assay and an isogenic Drosophila melanogaster line with four different Wolbachia infection statuses – uninfected, wMel, wMelCS, and wMelPop - to assess whether a relationship existed between Wolbachia infection and host temperature preference. Results from my laboratory experiment revealed that Wolbachia-infected flies preferred cooler temperatures compared to uninfected flies. Moreover, D. melanogaster temperature preferences varied depending on the Wolbachia strain variant with which they were infected; flies infected with the wMel strain had temperature preferences 2°C cooler compared to uninfected flies; flies infected with either wMelCS or wMelPop strains had preferred temperatures 8°C cooler compared to uninfected flies. Wolbachia-associated temperature preference variation within a species can lead to conspecifics occupying different microclimates, genetically adapting to different sets of specific environmental conditions, and may eventually result in ecological and reproductive isolation. While, reproduction isolation is recognized as one of the first stages in speciation, in small populations of endangered and threatened species, the inability to reproduce between conspecifics can drive species to extirpation or extinction. Collectively, the three chapters of my dissertation set precedent for future integration of host-endosymbiont research prior to implementing population supplementation or translocation programs for the conservation of imperiled insects. Title: <i>Wolbachia-</i>Host Interactions and the Implications to Insect Conservation and Management Author: Truitt, Amy Michelle Year: 2017 Parasitic reproductive endosymbionts are emerging as formidable threats to insect biodiversity. Wolbachia are prevalent maternally inherited intra-cellular bacteria found in >50% of arthropod species. These symbiotic bacteria interact with their hosts in diverse ways, most often they alter host reproduction causing four conditions that all selectively favor infected females: feminization, male killing, parthenogenesis, and cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI). Furthermore, depending on strain-type and host genetic background, Wolbachia are known to affect insect behavior, expand or shift host thermal tolerance ranges, and confer anti-viral protection to their hosts. Because Wolbachia both reside in and are transmitted with host cell cytoplasm, mitochondria and other cytoplasmically inherited genetic elements become linked with the bacteria. Thus, by enhancing their own transmission, Wolbachia-induced phenotypes can lead to mitochondrial selective sweeps, which may have profound impacts on vulnerable and small insect populations. Elucidating the extent to which endosymbionts influence biological and ecological functions is pivotal to making management decisions regarding imperiled insect species. My dissertation investigates biological and ecological impacts of host-endosymbiont interactions by examining Wolbachia infections in three different host systems. First, I used the federally threatened butterfly species Speyeria zerene hippolyta to determine whether the general reproductive success of local populations was affected by the introduction of CI-inducing Wolbachia-infected butterflies through implemented species recovery programs. Next, by characterizing the Wolbachia infections of parasitoids associated with the Eurema butterfly clade, I analyzed whether host-parasitoid interactions provide a path for interspecies horizontal transmission. Finally, I conducted a laboratory experiment using an isogenic Drosophila melanogaster line to determine whether Wolbachia influence host temperature preference. Together, my research examines how the individual level effects of host-endosymbiont interactions can expand into populations, have broader impacts on insect communities, and potentially impede the conservation and management of insects in nature. In chapter one, I screened S. z. hippolyta samples from three extant populations for Wolbachia infection. To examine the impacts of Wolbachia on small populations, I analyzed and compared infected and uninfected S. z. hippolyta reproductive data and showed that, in a population composed of infected and uninfected S. z. hippolyta, uninfected butterflies had reduced reproductive success (GLMM z = -8.067, P < 0.0001). I then developed a single-population demographic theoretical model using these same reproductive data to simulate and analyze different potential dynamics of small populations resulting from population supplementation with uninfected, CI-Wolbachia infected, or combined uninfected and infected butterflies. Analysis of model simulations revealed that supplementation with CI-inducing butterflies significantly suppressed host-population size (ANOVA F5,593 = 3349, PWolbachia-infected individuals (Tukey's post-hoc test P < 0.0001). In addition, supplementation by multiple releases using a combination of 50 infected and 300 uninfected butterflies has a less severe suppression effect, reducing the population by 75.8%, but the reduction occurs 42.6% faster than with the single release of 50 Wolbachia-infected butterflies (Tukey's post-doc test P < 0.0001). Parasitoid-host interactions have emerged as probable ecological relationships to facilitate horizontal transmission of Wolbachia. In chapter two, I addressed horizontal transmission using Eurema butterflies and their associated parasitoids. From four locations in Northern Queensland, Australia, I collected a total of 404 Eurema hecabe butterfly larvae. Twenty-three parasitoids emerged from the larvae of which 21 were Diptera and two were Hymenoptera. I amplified COI loci fragments from each parasitoid for BLAST query searches and found that 20 individual Diptera parasitoids matched to the genus Exorista and one to the genus Senometopia. One of the Hymenoptera parasitoids matched to the genus Microoplitis and the other to the genus Cotesia. To characterize Wolbachia infections, I used Wolbachia Multi Locus Sequencing Technique (MLST) and discovered that all 20 Exorista parasitoids were infected with an identical Wolbachia strain (ST-41), which is the same strain infecting their Eurema hecabe butterfly hosts. Although, further experiments are necessary to definitively determine that ST-41 Wolbachia are incorporated into germline cells of the parasitoids, this is the first study to provide ecological evidence for inter-ordinal Wolbachia transmission between Lepidoptera and Diptera. Furthermore, this discovery exposes the risk of population augmentation programs that move insects, potentially facilitating the spread of Wolbachia between species within a community through the accidental introduction of new Wolbachia-infected parasitoids. Finally, both Wolbachia and their insect hosts are temperature sensitive organisms. Wolbachia’s replication behavior in their hosts is positively-temperature dependent, while environmental variation can have profound effects on insect’s immune function, fitness, and fecundity. In chapter three, I conducted a laboratory experiment using a thermal gradient choice assay and an isogenic Drosophila melanogaster line with four different Wolbachia infection statuses – uninfected, wMel, wMelCS, and wMelPop - to assess whether a relationship existed between Wolbachia infection and host temperature preference. Results from my laboratory experiment revealed that Wolbachia-infected flies preferred cooler temperatures compared to uninfected flies. Moreover, D. melanogaster temperature preferences varied depending on the Wolbachia strain variant with which they were infected; flies infected with the wMel strain had temperature preferences 2°C cooler compared to uninfected flies; flies infected with either wMelCS or wMelPop strains had preferred temperatures 8°C cooler compared to uninfected flies. Wolbachia-associated temperature preference variation within a species can lead to conspecifics occupying different microclimates, genetically adapting to different sets of specific environmental conditions, and may eventually result in ecological and reproductive isolation. While, reproduction isolation is recognized as one of the first stages in speciation, in small populations of endangered and threatened species, the inability to reproduce between conspecifics can drive species to extirpation or extinction. Collectively, the three chapters of my dissertation set precedent for future integration of host-endosymbiont research prior to implementing population supplementation or translocation programs for the conservation of imperiled insects. Close

• 504. [Article] Genomic Investigations of Diversity within the Milkweed Genus Asclepias, at Multiple Scales

  At a time when the biodiversity on Earth is being rapidly lost, new technologies and methods in genomic analysis are fortunately allowing scientists to catalog and explore the diversity that remains more ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Genomic Investigations of Diversity within the Milkweed Genus Asclepias, at Multiple Scales Author: Weitemier, Kevin Allen At a time when the biodiversity on Earth is being rapidly lost, new technologies and methods in genomic analysis are fortunately allowing scientists to catalog and explore the diversity that remains more efficiently and precisely. The studies in this dissertation investigate genomic diversity within the milkweed genus, Asclepias, at multiple scales, including diversity found within a single individual, diversity within and among populations in a species, and diversity across the entire genus. These investigations contribute to our understanding of the genomic content and architecture within Asclepias and the Gentianales, patterns of population diversification in the western United States, and the evolutionary history of select loci within Asclepias, with implications across flowering plants. Chapter 2 investigates patterns of polymorphisms among paralogous copies of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) within individual genomes, and presents a bioinformatic pipeline for characterizing polymorphisms among copies of a high-copy locus. Results are presented for intragenomic nrDNA polymorphisms across Asclepias. The 18S-26S portion of the nrDNA cistron of Asclepias syriaca served as a reference for assembly of the region from 124 samples representing 90 species of Asclepias. Reads were mapped back to each individual’s consensus and at each position reads differing from the consensus were tallied using a custom Perl script. Low frequency polymorphisms existed in all individuals (mean = 5.8%). Most nrDNA positions (91%) were polymorphic in at least one individual, with polymorphic sites being less frequent in subunit regions and loops. Highly polymorphic sites existed in each individual, with highest abundance in the “noncoding” ITS regions. Phylogenetic signal was present in the distribution of intragenomic polymorphisms across the genus. Intragenomic polymorphisms in nrDNA are common in Asclepias, being found at higher frequency than any other study to date. The high and variable frequency of polymorphisms across species highlights concerns that phylogenetic applications of nrDNA may be error-prone. The new analytical approach provided in this chapter is applicable to other taxa and other high-copy regions characterized by low coverage genome sequencing (genome skimming). Chapter 3 presents Hyb-Seq, a new method combining target enrichment and genome skimming to allow simultaneous data collection for low-copy nuclear genes and high-copy genomic targets for plant systematics and evolution studies. A program is presented that takes genome and transcriptome assemblies and locates loci likely to be low copy and phylogenetically informative, to be used for probe development and enrichment in sequence libraries. A workflow is presented for processing data, from raw sequence reads to assembled exons and reconstructed trees. Genome and transcriptome assemblies for Asclepias syriaca were used to design enrichment probes for 3385 exons from 768 genes (>1.6 Mbp) followed by Illumina sequencing of enriched libraries. Hyb-Seq of 12 individuals (10 Asclepias species and two related genera) resulted in at least partial assembly of 92.6% of exons and 99.7% of genes and an average assembly length >2 Mbp. Importantly, complete plastomes and nrDNA cistrons were assembled using off-target reads. Phylogenomic analyses demonstrated signal conflict between genomes. The Hyb-Seq approach enables targeted sequencing of thousands of low-copy nuclear exons and flanking regions, as well as genome skimming of high-copy repeats and organellar genomes, to efficiently produce genome-scale data sets for phylogenomics. Chapter 4 presents an assembly of the genome of the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca. It uses principles from Chapter 3 to target SNPs and reconstruct linkage groups, enabling an analysis of chromosomal evolution within Gentianales, the order containing Asclepias. Asclepias syriaca is the first species in Apocynaceae with reconstructions of the nuclear, chloroplast, and mitochondrial genomes, and the first to have linkage group information incorporated into the nuclear assembly. The final assembly of Asclepias syriaca contains 54,266 scaffolds ≥1 kbp, with N50 = 3415 bp, representing 37% (156.6 Mbp) of the estimated 420 Mbp genome. Scaffolds ≥200 bp sum to 229.7 Mbp, with N50 = 1904 bp. A total of 14,474 protein coding genes were identified based on transcript evidence, closely related proteins, and ab initio models, and 95% of genes were annotated based on genes from Coffea canephora and Catharanthus rosea. A large proportion of gene space is represented in the assembly, with 96.7% of Asclepias transcripts, 88.4% of transcripts from the related genus Calotropis, and 90.6% of proteins from Coffea mapping to the assembly. Analyses were performed for three gene families, involved in rubber production, light sensing, and cardenolide production, with the finding that the cardenolide related progesterone 5β-reductase gene family is likely reduced in Asclepias relative to other Apocynaceae. Scaffolds covering 75 Mbp of the Asclepias assembly were grouped into eleven linkage groups. Comparisons of these groups with pseudochromosomes in Coffea found that six chromosome show consistent stability in gene content, while one may have a long history of fragmentation and rearrangement. Finally, in Chapter 5, diversity within a species across its entire range is investigated with a phylogeographic study of the jewel milkweed, Asclepias cryptoceras. This study applies the SNP targets developed from Chapter 4 to populations of A. cryptoceras, asking whether two recognized subspecies are genetically distinct, and searching for the origin of populations that are morphologically intermediate between the two. A total of 54,673 SNPs were found on 7372 contigs, across 96 individuals from ten populations. Principal component analysis and measures of allelic differentiation indicate a clear disjunction between subspecies cryptoceras and davisii (F[subscript ST] = 0.092 between geographic regions). For intermediate populations, estimates of hybrid index below 0.25 and measures of allelic diversity and private alleles, argue against a hybrid origin due to secondary contact, and instead support their origin as stepping stone populations during expansion along a southern corridor from east to west. Title: Genomic Investigations of Diversity within the Milkweed Genus Asclepias, at Multiple Scales Author: Weitemier, Kevin Allen At a time when the biodiversity on Earth is being rapidly lost, new technologies and methods in genomic analysis are fortunately allowing scientists to catalog and explore the diversity that remains more efficiently and precisely. The studies in this dissertation investigate genomic diversity within the milkweed genus, Asclepias, at multiple scales, including diversity found within a single individual, diversity within and among populations in a species, and diversity across the entire genus. These investigations contribute to our understanding of the genomic content and architecture within Asclepias and the Gentianales, patterns of population diversification in the western United States, and the evolutionary history of select loci within Asclepias, with implications across flowering plants. Chapter 2 investigates patterns of polymorphisms among paralogous copies of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) within individual genomes, and presents a bioinformatic pipeline for characterizing polymorphisms among copies of a high-copy locus. Results are presented for intragenomic nrDNA polymorphisms across Asclepias. The 18S-26S portion of the nrDNA cistron of Asclepias syriaca served as a reference for assembly of the region from 124 samples representing 90 species of Asclepias. Reads were mapped back to each individual’s consensus and at each position reads differing from the consensus were tallied using a custom Perl script. Low frequency polymorphisms existed in all individuals (mean = 5.8%). Most nrDNA positions (91%) were polymorphic in at least one individual, with polymorphic sites being less frequent in subunit regions and loops. Highly polymorphic sites existed in each individual, with highest abundance in the “noncoding” ITS regions. Phylogenetic signal was present in the distribution of intragenomic polymorphisms across the genus. Intragenomic polymorphisms in nrDNA are common in Asclepias, being found at higher frequency than any other study to date. The high and variable frequency of polymorphisms across species highlights concerns that phylogenetic applications of nrDNA may be error-prone. The new analytical approach provided in this chapter is applicable to other taxa and other high-copy regions characterized by low coverage genome sequencing (genome skimming). Chapter 3 presents Hyb-Seq, a new method combining target enrichment and genome skimming to allow simultaneous data collection for low-copy nuclear genes and high-copy genomic targets for plant systematics and evolution studies. A program is presented that takes genome and transcriptome assemblies and locates loci likely to be low copy and phylogenetically informative, to be used for probe development and enrichment in sequence libraries. A workflow is presented for processing data, from raw sequence reads to assembled exons and reconstructed trees. Genome and transcriptome assemblies for Asclepias syriaca were used to design enrichment probes for 3385 exons from 768 genes (>1.6 Mbp) followed by Illumina sequencing of enriched libraries. Hyb-Seq of 12 individuals (10 Asclepias species and two related genera) resulted in at least partial assembly of 92.6% of exons and 99.7% of genes and an average assembly length >2 Mbp. Importantly, complete plastomes and nrDNA cistrons were assembled using off-target reads. Phylogenomic analyses demonstrated signal conflict between genomes. The Hyb-Seq approach enables targeted sequencing of thousands of low-copy nuclear exons and flanking regions, as well as genome skimming of high-copy repeats and organellar genomes, to efficiently produce genome-scale data sets for phylogenomics. Chapter 4 presents an assembly of the genome of the common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca. It uses principles from Chapter 3 to target SNPs and reconstruct linkage groups, enabling an analysis of chromosomal evolution within Gentianales, the order containing Asclepias. Asclepias syriaca is the first species in Apocynaceae with reconstructions of the nuclear, chloroplast, and mitochondrial genomes, and the first to have linkage group information incorporated into the nuclear assembly. The final assembly of Asclepias syriaca contains 54,266 scaffolds ≥1 kbp, with N50 = 3415 bp, representing 37% (156.6 Mbp) of the estimated 420 Mbp genome. Scaffolds ≥200 bp sum to 229.7 Mbp, with N50 = 1904 bp. A total of 14,474 protein coding genes were identified based on transcript evidence, closely related proteins, and ab initio models, and 95% of genes were annotated based on genes from Coffea canephora and Catharanthus rosea. A large proportion of gene space is represented in the assembly, with 96.7% of Asclepias transcripts, 88.4% of transcripts from the related genus Calotropis, and 90.6% of proteins from Coffea mapping to the assembly. Analyses were performed for three gene families, involved in rubber production, light sensing, and cardenolide production, with the finding that the cardenolide related progesterone 5β-reductase gene family is likely reduced in Asclepias relative to other Apocynaceae. Scaffolds covering 75 Mbp of the Asclepias assembly were grouped into eleven linkage groups. Comparisons of these groups with pseudochromosomes in Coffea found that six chromosome show consistent stability in gene content, while one may have a long history of fragmentation and rearrangement. Finally, in Chapter 5, diversity within a species across its entire range is investigated with a phylogeographic study of the jewel milkweed, Asclepias cryptoceras. This study applies the SNP targets developed from Chapter 4 to populations of A. cryptoceras, asking whether two recognized subspecies are genetically distinct, and searching for the origin of populations that are morphologically intermediate between the two. A total of 54,673 SNPs were found on 7372 contigs, across 96 individuals from ten populations. Principal component analysis and measures of allelic differentiation indicate a clear disjunction between subspecies cryptoceras and davisii (F[subscript ST] = 0.092 between geographic regions). For intermediate populations, estimates of hybrid index below 0.25 and measures of allelic diversity and private alleles, argue against a hybrid origin due to secondary contact, and instead support their origin as stepping stone populations during expansion along a southern corridor from east to west. Close

• 505. [Article] Trophic cascades and large mammals in the Yellowstone ecosystem

  Reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in 1995-96 provided a rare opportunity to observe the response of an ecosystem to the return of a top predator, including possible reversal of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Trophic cascades and large mammals in the Yellowstone ecosystem Author: Painter, Luke E. Reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in 1995-96 provided a rare opportunity to observe the response of an ecosystem to the return of a top predator, including possible reversal of decades of decline of aspen, cottonwood, and tall willows suppressed by intensive herbivory on elk winter ranges. To investigate changes in aspen stands in northern Yellowstone since the return of wolves, I compared browsing intensity and heights of young aspen in 87 randomly selected stands in 2012 to similar data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. I also measured the spatial density of elk and bison scat piles as an index to relative population densities, and used annual counts of elk to calculate trends in elk density. In 1998, browsing rates averaged 88%, heights were suppressed, and no tall saplings (≥200 cm) were found in sampling plots. In 2012, browsing rates in 2012 were much lower averaging 44%, and 28% of plots had at least one sapling ≥200 cm, tall enough to escape browsing and therefore more likely to survive to replace dying overstory trees. Heights of young aspen were inversely related to browsing intensity, but not significantly related to leader length, suggesting that differences in height were primarily due to differences in browsing, not factors related to productivity. Aspen recovery was patchy, possibly due in part to locally high elk or bison densities in some parts of the winter range. These results of reduced browsing with increased sapling recruitment were consistent with a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen resulting in a widespread and spatially variable recovery of aspen stands. There was wide variation in browsing intensity and aspen height between sectors of the Yellowstone northern ungulate winter range (northern range). The east sector generally had lower rates of browsing and more stands with tall saplings than the central and west sectors, a pattern that matched recent trends in elk population densities. Only a small minority of stands in the west sector had tall saplings, consistent with higher elk densities in the west. Densities of elk in winter on the northern range recently have been highest in the northwest sector outside the park boundary, where elk benefit from lower wolf densities and milder winters. Aspen stands did not recover at a comparable range-wide elk density when elk were culled in the park in the 1950s and 1960s, suggesting that the influence of wolves may be an important factor in the recent redistribution and reduction of herbivory impacts by elk. To examine the relationship between elk and aspen outside of YNP, I assessed browsing intensity and sapling recruitment in 43 aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest east of the park, compared to data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. As in northern YNP, results were consistent with a trophic cascade with reduced browsing and increased recruitment of aspen saplings, but aspen recovery was patchy. Elk densities were moderate to high in most of the area, suggesting that the partial aspen recovery may involve a behavioral response to predation or other factors resulting in local variation in browsing impacts. Livestock may also have limited aspen recruitment. Recovery of some aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest may provide some of the first evidence of a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen outside of a national park, a trophic cascade possibly weakened by the influence of another large herbivore (cattle). Like cattle, bison in northern Yellowstone may have an effect on woody browse plants. Bison have increased in number and may prevent recovery of some aspen stands in places of high bison density. I also examined browsing impacts of bison on willow and cottonwood in the Lamar Valley. To distinguish the effects of bison from those of elk, I compared browsing at different heights on tall willows, below and above the reach of bison. Because elk were absent from the area in summer when bison were present at high density, I also measured browsing that occurred in the summer. I found high rates of summer browsing, and growth of willows and cottonwoods was suppressed in the Lamar Valley. Above the reach of bison (>100 cm), growth was not suppressed and browsing rates were low, suggesting that these plant species have been released from suppression by elk but bison have compensated for some of the reduction in elk browsing. This study provided the first evidence of significant herbivory by bison of woody browse plants in Yellowstone, and revealed some of the complexity of the Yellowstone food web. In summary, these research results support the hypothesis of a trophic cascade resulting from large carnivore restoration and subsequent changes in elk population densities and distribution. The return of wolves may have combined with other factors such as changes in hunting and land ownership, and increased predation by bears, to result in large-scale shifts in the distribution of elk in northern Yellowstone and greatly reduced elk densities in some areas. If these trends continue, the result may be a new alternative state with lower elk densities, and potential for enhanced biodiversity through reduced herbivory of woody browse species. Title: Trophic cascades and large mammals in the Yellowstone ecosystem Author: Painter, Luke E. Reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in 1995-96 provided a rare opportunity to observe the response of an ecosystem to the return of a top predator, including possible reversal of decades of decline of aspen, cottonwood, and tall willows suppressed by intensive herbivory on elk winter ranges. To investigate changes in aspen stands in northern Yellowstone since the return of wolves, I compared browsing intensity and heights of young aspen in 87 randomly selected stands in 2012 to similar data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. I also measured the spatial density of elk and bison scat piles as an index to relative population densities, and used annual counts of elk to calculate trends in elk density. In 1998, browsing rates averaged 88%, heights were suppressed, and no tall saplings (≥200 cm) were found in sampling plots. In 2012, browsing rates in 2012 were much lower averaging 44%, and 28% of plots had at least one sapling ≥200 cm, tall enough to escape browsing and therefore more likely to survive to replace dying overstory trees. Heights of young aspen were inversely related to browsing intensity, but not significantly related to leader length, suggesting that differences in height were primarily due to differences in browsing, not factors related to productivity. Aspen recovery was patchy, possibly due in part to locally high elk or bison densities in some parts of the winter range. These results of reduced browsing with increased sapling recruitment were consistent with a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen resulting in a widespread and spatially variable recovery of aspen stands. There was wide variation in browsing intensity and aspen height between sectors of the Yellowstone northern ungulate winter range (northern range). The east sector generally had lower rates of browsing and more stands with tall saplings than the central and west sectors, a pattern that matched recent trends in elk population densities. Only a small minority of stands in the west sector had tall saplings, consistent with higher elk densities in the west. Densities of elk in winter on the northern range recently have been highest in the northwest sector outside the park boundary, where elk benefit from lower wolf densities and milder winters. Aspen stands did not recover at a comparable range-wide elk density when elk were culled in the park in the 1950s and 1960s, suggesting that the influence of wolves may be an important factor in the recent redistribution and reduction of herbivory impacts by elk. To examine the relationship between elk and aspen outside of YNP, I assessed browsing intensity and sapling recruitment in 43 aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest east of the park, compared to data collected in the same stands in 1997-98. As in northern YNP, results were consistent with a trophic cascade with reduced browsing and increased recruitment of aspen saplings, but aspen recovery was patchy. Elk densities were moderate to high in most of the area, suggesting that the partial aspen recovery may involve a behavioral response to predation or other factors resulting in local variation in browsing impacts. Livestock may also have limited aspen recruitment. Recovery of some aspen stands in the Shoshone National Forest may provide some of the first evidence of a trophic cascade from wolves to elk to aspen outside of a national park, a trophic cascade possibly weakened by the influence of another large herbivore (cattle). Like cattle, bison in northern Yellowstone may have an effect on woody browse plants. Bison have increased in number and may prevent recovery of some aspen stands in places of high bison density. I also examined browsing impacts of bison on willow and cottonwood in the Lamar Valley. To distinguish the effects of bison from those of elk, I compared browsing at different heights on tall willows, below and above the reach of bison. Because elk were absent from the area in summer when bison were present at high density, I also measured browsing that occurred in the summer. I found high rates of summer browsing, and growth of willows and cottonwoods was suppressed in the Lamar Valley. Above the reach of bison (>100 cm), growth was not suppressed and browsing rates were low, suggesting that these plant species have been released from suppression by elk but bison have compensated for some of the reduction in elk browsing. This study provided the first evidence of significant herbivory by bison of woody browse plants in Yellowstone, and revealed some of the complexity of the Yellowstone food web. In summary, these research results support the hypothesis of a trophic cascade resulting from large carnivore restoration and subsequent changes in elk population densities and distribution. The return of wolves may have combined with other factors such as changes in hunting and land ownership, and increased predation by bears, to result in large-scale shifts in the distribution of elk in northern Yellowstone and greatly reduced elk densities in some areas. If these trends continue, the result may be a new alternative state with lower elk densities, and potential for enhanced biodiversity through reduced herbivory of woody browse species. Close

• 506. [Article] Effects of Altered Habitats and Fishing Practices in Wind and Wave Farms

  Offshore renewable energy development (ORED) could induce local ecological changes, negatively affecting species of conservation interest. If well planned and coordinated, on the other hand, ORED could ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of Altered Habitats and Fishing Practices in Wind and Wave Farms Author: Wilhelmsson, Dan Offshore renewable energy development (ORED) could induce local ecological changes, negatively affecting species of conservation interest. If well planned and coordinated, on the other hand, ORED could be beneficial to the marine environment in the region of device deployment in several respects. Because of the current scale and pace of offshore renewable energy development, interest is growing in the opportunities offered by the changes in fishing patterns that could result. Trawling, one of the most severe threats to the marine environment, particularly to fish and benthic invertebrate assemblages, will be prohibited or limited inside wind and wave farms. Areas of several square kilometres may therefore, in some important respects, resemble Marine Protected Areas; for areas that were previously trawled this exclusion could lead to average increases in biomass of motile organisms. Primary data from wind and wave farms are still scarce, but results to date from surveys targeting fish assemblages within offshore wind farms in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden basically indicate either increased abundance of some fish species (e.g., sand eels (Ammodytidae), cod (Gadus morhua), whiting (Merlangius merlangus), sole (Solea solea)) or no effect compared to conditions before construction of the wind farm. Effects are likely to be most prominent for species that had been heavily exploited in the area prior to the wind or wave farm establishment. It is believed that a relatively large area of exclusion is required to enhance biodiversity and generate spill-over effects. Construction and deployment of artificial reefs (AR) in coastal waters is practiced worldwide to manage fisheries, mitigate damage to the environment, protect (i.e., from trawling) and facilitate the rehabilitation of certain habitats (e.g., spawning sites) or water bodies, or to increase the recreational value of an area (e.g., by providing opportunities for recreational diving and fishing). Unless animals are deterred by potential disturbances, such as noise, maintenance work, and electromagnetic fields from turbines, it is reasonable to expect offshore wind energy structures, and also foundations of some types of wave energy devices, to function as artificial reef modules and enhance local abundance of marine organisms, including commercially important fish and crustaceans. However, taxon- and age-specific responses of fishes to ARs vary greatly with AR design and position as well as by region and latitude. It can therefore be difficult to predict the structure of fish and crustacean assemblages associated with the submerged parts of wind and wave energy devices, as well as the radius of influence. Nevertheless, relatively recent studies targeting the potential for wind turbines and wave energy foundations to aggregate fish and motile invertebrates in Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark suggest that densities of a number of fish and decapod species increase with proximity to these structures. Another category of artificial habitat is a Fish Aggregation Device (FAD), a floating structure deliberately placed on the surface or suspended in the water column to attract fish and enhance fishing efficiency. FADs are widely used in Asia and the western Indian Ocean. It has been suggested that floating offshore energy devices may function as FADs for pelagic fish, which could provide additional opportunities for fisheries management. Both ARs and FADs can have negative environmental and social effects if not properly planned and/or used. If ARs only aggregate fish from surrounding areas and do not contribute to added production, enhanced fishing efficiency in the AR area may aggravate overfishing if the new circumstances are not managed with caution. Similarly, increasing catchability, the main purpose of an FAD, may exacerbate the problem of overfishing on commercial species that are already at risk. ARs can also give rise to conflicts over user rights among fisher groups, and between recreational divers and fishers. Further, densities of benthic prey items have been shown to decrease with proximity to ARs due to predation by fish residing on the structures. FADs have been suggested as potential “ecological traps,” meaning that their presence could lure fish into remaining near the structures under non-optimal local feeding conditions, affecting physical condition and growth. Artificial structures may also provide habitats suitable for establishment of non-indigenous species; deployment of clusters of artificial structures may facilitate the establishment of new taxa in the recipient region by providing “beach heads” and stepping-stones. Non-indigenous sessile invertebrates have already been recorded at wind farms in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. A range of design and location factors may influence the fish community structure on artificial reefs, such as height, size, inclination, protuberance, surface structure, void space and number of interior hollows, shade effects, distance between modules, isolation, and composition of the surrounding seabed. Research is underway to evaluate species-specific habitat preferences in the design of offshore energy foundations to optimize biomass of desired species, or alternatively, minimize artificial reef effects where desired. For example, in an experiment with wave energy foundations on the west coast of Sweden the potential for enhancing the abundance of associated fish and crustaceans through low-cost manipulations of the structural complexity of foundations was examined. Additional experiments will provide further guidance on the influence of different designs of foundations on commercially important fish and shellfish. This presentation will focus on the potential influence of offshore wind and wave farms on fish and commercially important crustaceans. The uncertainties with regard to positive and negative effects of on benthic and pelagic assemblages and specific species will also be discussed. The presentation will draw on results from a number of field studies and experiments conducted in offshore wind and wave farms, as well as on secondary literature on the influence of differently designed artificial habitats on benthic fauna. Title: Effects of Altered Habitats and Fishing Practices in Wind and Wave Farms Author: Wilhelmsson, Dan Offshore renewable energy development (ORED) could induce local ecological changes, negatively affecting species of conservation interest. If well planned and coordinated, on the other hand, ORED could be beneficial to the marine environment in the region of device deployment in several respects. Because of the current scale and pace of offshore renewable energy development, interest is growing in the opportunities offered by the changes in fishing patterns that could result. Trawling, one of the most severe threats to the marine environment, particularly to fish and benthic invertebrate assemblages, will be prohibited or limited inside wind and wave farms. Areas of several square kilometres may therefore, in some important respects, resemble Marine Protected Areas; for areas that were previously trawled this exclusion could lead to average increases in biomass of motile organisms. Primary data from wind and wave farms are still scarce, but results to date from surveys targeting fish assemblages within offshore wind farms in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden basically indicate either increased abundance of some fish species (e.g., sand eels (Ammodytidae), cod (Gadus morhua), whiting (Merlangius merlangus), sole (Solea solea)) or no effect compared to conditions before construction of the wind farm. Effects are likely to be most prominent for species that had been heavily exploited in the area prior to the wind or wave farm establishment. It is believed that a relatively large area of exclusion is required to enhance biodiversity and generate spill-over effects. Construction and deployment of artificial reefs (AR) in coastal waters is practiced worldwide to manage fisheries, mitigate damage to the environment, protect (i.e., from trawling) and facilitate the rehabilitation of certain habitats (e.g., spawning sites) or water bodies, or to increase the recreational value of an area (e.g., by providing opportunities for recreational diving and fishing). Unless animals are deterred by potential disturbances, such as noise, maintenance work, and electromagnetic fields from turbines, it is reasonable to expect offshore wind energy structures, and also foundations of some types of wave energy devices, to function as artificial reef modules and enhance local abundance of marine organisms, including commercially important fish and crustaceans. However, taxon- and age-specific responses of fishes to ARs vary greatly with AR design and position as well as by region and latitude. It can therefore be difficult to predict the structure of fish and crustacean assemblages associated with the submerged parts of wind and wave energy devices, as well as the radius of influence. Nevertheless, relatively recent studies targeting the potential for wind turbines and wave energy foundations to aggregate fish and motile invertebrates in Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark suggest that densities of a number of fish and decapod species increase with proximity to these structures. Another category of artificial habitat is a Fish Aggregation Device (FAD), a floating structure deliberately placed on the surface or suspended in the water column to attract fish and enhance fishing efficiency. FADs are widely used in Asia and the western Indian Ocean. It has been suggested that floating offshore energy devices may function as FADs for pelagic fish, which could provide additional opportunities for fisheries management. Both ARs and FADs can have negative environmental and social effects if not properly planned and/or used. If ARs only aggregate fish from surrounding areas and do not contribute to added production, enhanced fishing efficiency in the AR area may aggravate overfishing if the new circumstances are not managed with caution. Similarly, increasing catchability, the main purpose of an FAD, may exacerbate the problem of overfishing on commercial species that are already at risk. ARs can also give rise to conflicts over user rights among fisher groups, and between recreational divers and fishers. Further, densities of benthic prey items have been shown to decrease with proximity to ARs due to predation by fish residing on the structures. FADs have been suggested as potential “ecological traps,” meaning that their presence could lure fish into remaining near the structures under non-optimal local feeding conditions, affecting physical condition and growth. Artificial structures may also provide habitats suitable for establishment of non-indigenous species; deployment of clusters of artificial structures may facilitate the establishment of new taxa in the recipient region by providing “beach heads” and stepping-stones. Non-indigenous sessile invertebrates have already been recorded at wind farms in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. A range of design and location factors may influence the fish community structure on artificial reefs, such as height, size, inclination, protuberance, surface structure, void space and number of interior hollows, shade effects, distance between modules, isolation, and composition of the surrounding seabed. Research is underway to evaluate species-specific habitat preferences in the design of offshore energy foundations to optimize biomass of desired species, or alternatively, minimize artificial reef effects where desired. For example, in an experiment with wave energy foundations on the west coast of Sweden the potential for enhancing the abundance of associated fish and crustaceans through low-cost manipulations of the structural complexity of foundations was examined. Additional experiments will provide further guidance on the influence of different designs of foundations on commercially important fish and shellfish. This presentation will focus on the potential influence of offshore wind and wave farms on fish and commercially important crustaceans. The uncertainties with regard to positive and negative effects of on benthic and pelagic assemblages and specific species will also be discussed. The presentation will draw on results from a number of field studies and experiments conducted in offshore wind and wave farms, as well as on secondary literature on the influence of differently designed artificial habitats on benthic fauna. Close

• 507. [Image] Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Close

• 508. [Article] Forest macro-arthropods as potential indicators of ecosystem conditions in Western Idaho : an analysis of community composition, biological diversity, and community structure

  Adaptive ecosystem management is a new paradigm for managing federal forests which requires regular monitoring of ecosystem function and diversity to measure the effects of management. Managers need new ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forest macro-arthropods as potential indicators of ecosystem conditions in Western Idaho : an analysis of community composition, biological diversity, and community structure Author: Ruby, Margaret E. Adaptive ecosystem management is a new paradigm for managing federal forests which requires regular monitoring of ecosystem function and diversity to measure the effects of management. Managers need new strategies and tools to help them assess their progress in maintaining healthy, productive and biologically diverse forests. Biomonitoring of select forest macro-arthropod species can provide useful information on the effects of management on forest biodiversity and ecosystem function. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to inventory the macro-arthropod community and important environmental variables in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area within the Payette National Forest (PNF) in Western Idaho; (2) to compare measures of community composition, diversity, and structure in forest macro-arthropod communities between patches of different sizes and treatment; and (3) to assist PNF managers in their ecosystem management efforts by providing principles to guide the use of macro-arthropods as indicators of changing forest conditions. Transects with pitfall traps were used to collect macro-arthropods at 22 sites in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area during the summer of 1994. Five forest patch types in Abies grandis habitat types were sampled. Intact forest patches of 100 or more hectares, and large patches of 50-100 hectares, ranged in age between 50 and 250 years old with multistoried structure. Small patches up to 10 hectares were remnants or fragments of formerly intact forest isolated by logging. A plantation patch was 15 years old with patchy understory and forb cover. Clearcut patches had little or no overstory, and variable understory, and forb layers. At each transect, soil samples were collected and six environmental descriptor variables were analyzed according to patch treatment and patch size. These site descriptors were: basal area (ft²/acre); percent canopy cover for the overstory, understory; and forb layers; litter depth (cm), and percent soil moisture content. Differences detected using an ANOVA and T-tests are discussed in the Results section. Arthropod community composition, diversity, and structure were described according to relative abundance, and four measures of diversity. They were also described by membership in seventeen orders and/or super-families; ten functional groups; two disperser classes (long or short distance); and three species indicator classes. A total of 5455 macro-arthropod individuals, representing 17 orders and/or super-families and 219 species were collected in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area. While macro-arthropod fauna relative abundance did not vary significantly by treatment (ANOVA p<0.3), it did vary significantly by patch size (ANOVA p<0.03). Fauna relative abundance was 35% greater in clearcut patches than in large patches (T-test p<0.09). Fauna relative abundance in small patches was twice that of intact (T-test p<0.03) and large (T-test p<0.02) patches. Taxonomic diversity (number of genera/taxa) of beetle, ant, and bug taxa differed significantly according to treatment type(each ANOVA p<0.05). For the top four taxa (beetles, ants, spiders, and bugs), taxonomic diversity was highest in the plantation and clearcut patches. Ants and bugs had their highest taxonomic diversity in the plantation patch (separate T-tests p<0.05) while the taxonomic diversity of beetles was highest in clear-cut patches (T-test p<0.05). Beetle and ant taxonomic diversity varied significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p<0.05). For beetles and bugs, small patches were twice as diverse as intact patches (separate T-tests p<0.04) and 1.5 times that of large patches. Ant diversity was similarly distributed amongst the patch sizes, with significant differences between small and intact and between small and large patches (separate T-tests p<0.05). Of the four species diversity measures employed, only two, [alpha] and JK1 (both measures of richness), were found to vary significantly by patch treatment and size. Evenness (E) and the Shannon Diversity Index (H') failed to detect differences in the majority of tests. Fauna [alpha] and JK1 differed significantly by treatment type (each ANOVA p<0.05). Richness in clearcut patches was nearly twice in intact and large patches, followed by plantation and large patches. Fauna [alpha] and JKl also differed significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p <0.001), with small patch fauna twice as rich as that in large and intact patches (separate T-tests p <0.01). Of the top four functional groups, predators were the most abundant and had the highest taxonomic diversity (number of genera/functional group), followed by herbivores, fungivores and parasites. Predators and herbivores showed increasing taxonomic diversity with decreasing patch size, from intact to large to small (ANOVA p< 0.05). Similarly, predators and herbivores exhibited increasing taxonomic diversity with increasing levels of management: from intact and large to plantation and clear-cuts (ANOVA p< 0.05). Predators and herbivores were most numerous in the managed and small patches. Fungivore taxonomic diversity was also highest in the small and managed patches, though neither patch size nor treatment differences were significant (ANOVA p<0.85). Parasite taxonomic diversity differed by patch size with highest generic diversity in the small patches (ANOVA p<0.l) and by treatment type with generic diversity highest in plantations and clearcuts followed in order by large and intact patches (ANOVA p<0.l). Twice as many genera were long distance dispersers as were short distance dispersers. Relative abundance of long distance dispersers varied significantly by patch treatment and patch size (each ANOVA p<0.0l). Long distance dispersers were most numerous in clear-cut patches, followed in order by plantation, small, large, and intact patches. Relative abundance of short distance dispersers was not significantly different between treatment types (ANOVA p<0.20) but was significantly different between patch sizes (ANOVA p<0.0l). Short distance dispersers were most numerous in small patches followed by plantation, large, and intact and least numerous in clearcut patches. An indicator species analysis of 121 Bear Creek and Indian Creek genera (Dufrene and Legendre 1997), revealed sub-groups of species with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" or affiliation for specific patch types. When intact and large patches were pooled and analyzed against all treated patches (plantation and clearcut patches), a list of 36 genera with 75 to 100 percent "perfect affiliation" for intact or large patches was produced (MRPP p<0.05). Small patches had 42 indicators with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" when compared with the pooled intact and large patches (MRPP p<0.l). Conclusions Macro-arthropod community composition, diversity and structure did vary, usually significantly, by patch treatment and size. Useful measures of generic diversity include richness estimators [alpha], [beta], and JK1. Examination of taxonomic diversity was also useful, especially for the more mobile arthropods. Pitfall traps provided copious data on the structure of the community in regards to predators and herbivores. Pitfalls, however, did not provide much information about the status of fungivores and parasites in the various different patches. Another trapping method such as the berlaise funnel, would likely provide more information about those functional groups which are likely operating at a finer scale of resolution than that tested by the pitfall trap. Employing both methods would provide a much better assessment of the community of arthropods living on the forest floor. The indicator species analysis program also provided very useful lists of species which are affiliated with particular patch conditions. Taken together, these measures could be adopted for use by forest managers to allow them to assess and monitor the effects of a management regime on the structure and composition of macro-arthropod communities as part of a comprehensive adaptive management plan. Title: Forest macro-arthropods as potential indicators of ecosystem conditions in Western Idaho : an analysis of community composition, biological diversity, and community structure Author: Ruby, Margaret E. Adaptive ecosystem management is a new paradigm for managing federal forests which requires regular monitoring of ecosystem function and diversity to measure the effects of management. Managers need new strategies and tools to help them assess their progress in maintaining healthy, productive and biologically diverse forests. Biomonitoring of select forest macro-arthropod species can provide useful information on the effects of management on forest biodiversity and ecosystem function. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to inventory the macro-arthropod community and important environmental variables in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area within the Payette National Forest (PNF) in Western Idaho; (2) to compare measures of community composition, diversity, and structure in forest macro-arthropod communities between patches of different sizes and treatment; and (3) to assist PNF managers in their ecosystem management efforts by providing principles to guide the use of macro-arthropods as indicators of changing forest conditions. Transects with pitfall traps were used to collect macro-arthropods at 22 sites in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area during the summer of 1994. Five forest patch types in Abies grandis habitat types were sampled. Intact forest patches of 100 or more hectares, and large patches of 50-100 hectares, ranged in age between 50 and 250 years old with multistoried structure. Small patches up to 10 hectares were remnants or fragments of formerly intact forest isolated by logging. A plantation patch was 15 years old with patchy understory and forb cover. Clearcut patches had little or no overstory, and variable understory, and forb layers. At each transect, soil samples were collected and six environmental descriptor variables were analyzed according to patch treatment and patch size. These site descriptors were: basal area (ft²/acre); percent canopy cover for the overstory, understory; and forb layers; litter depth (cm), and percent soil moisture content. Differences detected using an ANOVA and T-tests are discussed in the Results section. Arthropod community composition, diversity, and structure were described according to relative abundance, and four measures of diversity. They were also described by membership in seventeen orders and/or super-families; ten functional groups; two disperser classes (long or short distance); and three species indicator classes. A total of 5455 macro-arthropod individuals, representing 17 orders and/or super-families and 219 species were collected in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area. While macro-arthropod fauna relative abundance did not vary significantly by treatment (ANOVA p<0.3), it did vary significantly by patch size (ANOVA p<0.03). Fauna relative abundance was 35% greater in clearcut patches than in large patches (T-test p<0.09). Fauna relative abundance in small patches was twice that of intact (T-test p<0.03) and large (T-test p<0.02) patches. Taxonomic diversity (number of genera/taxa) of beetle, ant, and bug taxa differed significantly according to treatment type(each ANOVA p<0.05). For the top four taxa (beetles, ants, spiders, and bugs), taxonomic diversity was highest in the plantation and clearcut patches. Ants and bugs had their highest taxonomic diversity in the plantation patch (separate T-tests p<0.05) while the taxonomic diversity of beetles was highest in clear-cut patches (T-test p<0.05). Beetle and ant taxonomic diversity varied significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p<0.05). For beetles and bugs, small patches were twice as diverse as intact patches (separate T-tests p<0.04) and 1.5 times that of large patches. Ant diversity was similarly distributed amongst the patch sizes, with significant differences between small and intact and between small and large patches (separate T-tests p<0.05). Of the four species diversity measures employed, only two, [alpha] and JK1 (both measures of richness), were found to vary significantly by patch treatment and size. Evenness (E) and the Shannon Diversity Index (H') failed to detect differences in the majority of tests. Fauna [alpha] and JK1 differed significantly by treatment type (each ANOVA p<0.05). Richness in clearcut patches was nearly twice in intact and large patches, followed by plantation and large patches. Fauna [alpha] and JKl also differed significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p <0.001), with small patch fauna twice as rich as that in large and intact patches (separate T-tests p <0.01). Of the top four functional groups, predators were the most abundant and had the highest taxonomic diversity (number of genera/functional group), followed by herbivores, fungivores and parasites. Predators and herbivores showed increasing taxonomic diversity with decreasing patch size, from intact to large to small (ANOVA p< 0.05). Similarly, predators and herbivores exhibited increasing taxonomic diversity with increasing levels of management: from intact and large to plantation and clear-cuts (ANOVA p< 0.05). Predators and herbivores were most numerous in the managed and small patches. Fungivore taxonomic diversity was also highest in the small and managed patches, though neither patch size nor treatment differences were significant (ANOVA p<0.85). Parasite taxonomic diversity differed by patch size with highest generic diversity in the small patches (ANOVA p<0.l) and by treatment type with generic diversity highest in plantations and clearcuts followed in order by large and intact patches (ANOVA p<0.l). Twice as many genera were long distance dispersers as were short distance dispersers. Relative abundance of long distance dispersers varied significantly by patch treatment and patch size (each ANOVA p<0.0l). Long distance dispersers were most numerous in clear-cut patches, followed in order by plantation, small, large, and intact patches. Relative abundance of short distance dispersers was not significantly different between treatment types (ANOVA p<0.20) but was significantly different between patch sizes (ANOVA p<0.0l). Short distance dispersers were most numerous in small patches followed by plantation, large, and intact and least numerous in clearcut patches. An indicator species analysis of 121 Bear Creek and Indian Creek genera (Dufrene and Legendre 1997), revealed sub-groups of species with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" or affiliation for specific patch types. When intact and large patches were pooled and analyzed against all treated patches (plantation and clearcut patches), a list of 36 genera with 75 to 100 percent "perfect affiliation" for intact or large patches was produced (MRPP p<0.05). Small patches had 42 indicators with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" when compared with the pooled intact and large patches (MRPP p<0.l). Conclusions Macro-arthropod community composition, diversity and structure did vary, usually significantly, by patch treatment and size. Useful measures of generic diversity include richness estimators [alpha], [beta], and JK1. Examination of taxonomic diversity was also useful, especially for the more mobile arthropods. Pitfall traps provided copious data on the structure of the community in regards to predators and herbivores. Pitfalls, however, did not provide much information about the status of fungivores and parasites in the various different patches. Another trapping method such as the berlaise funnel, would likely provide more information about those functional groups which are likely operating at a finer scale of resolution than that tested by the pitfall trap. Employing both methods would provide a much better assessment of the community of arthropods living on the forest floor. The indicator species analysis program also provided very useful lists of species which are affiliated with particular patch conditions. Taken together, these measures could be adopted for use by forest managers to allow them to assess and monitor the effects of a management regime on the structure and composition of macro-arthropod communities as part of a comprehensive adaptive management plan. Close

• 509. [Article] Patterns of tree establishment and vegetation composition in relation to climate and topography of a subalpine meadow landscape, Jefferson Park, Oregon, USA

  The forest alpine tundra ecotone (FTE, also known as alpine treeline or subalpine parkland), is a conspicuous feature of mountain landscapes throughout the world. Climate change-driven increases in temperature ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Patterns of tree establishment and vegetation composition in relation to climate and topography of a subalpine meadow landscape, Jefferson Park, Oregon, USA Author: Zald, Harold Samuel James The forest alpine tundra ecotone (FTE, also known as alpine treeline or subalpine parkland), is a conspicuous feature of mountain landscapes throughout the world. Climate change-driven increases in temperature are believed to result in FTE movement and tree invasion of subalpine meadows, which have been documented throughout the Northern Hemisphere across a wide range of geographic locations, climatic regimes, forest types, land use histories, and disturbance regimes. Climate-driven FTE movement may have numerous ecological effects such as: positive temperature feedbacks, increased net primary productivity and carbon storage, and declines of plant populations and species. The magnitude of these ecological effects is highly uncertain, but will be largely determined by the rates and spatial extent of FTE movement and meadow invasion. FTE movement and meadow invasion are often considered at global or regional spatial scales in relation to climate, yet they are fundamentally driven by tree regeneration processes that are influenced by a variety of climatic and biophysical factors at micro site, landscape, and regional scales. Much of the research on the FTE has not taken a landscape approach incorporating multi-scale processes. For example, species distribution models used to project climate change effects on future species distributions and plant biodiversity in mountainous landscapes rely on species distribution data that is often sparse and incomplete across FTE landscapes. This dissertation attempts to overcome many of the limitations in FTE research by taking a landscape approach to develop a greater understanding of past spatiotemporal patterns of tree invasion, current spatial patterns of vegetation composition and structure, and potential future patterns of climate-driven tree invasion in the FTE. The setting for this research is Jefferson Park, a 260 ha subalpine parkland landscape in the Oregon High Cascades, USA. This study uses field plots, remotely sensed imagery, airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), and simulation modeling to: 1) predictively map current fine-scale species distributions, vegetation structure, and tree ages; 2) reconstruct patterns of tree invasion over the last fifty years in subalpine meadows in relation to climatic conditions, landforms, microtopography, and seed dispersal limitations; and 3) develop a statistical model that projects future patterns of tree invasion into subalpine meadows under different climate scenarios in Jefferson Park. In chapter two, I generated fine-scale spatially-explicit predictions of current vegetation composition, structure, and tree ages in the Jefferson Park study area. Objectives of this chapter were threefold: 1) to characterize spatial patterns of tree ages, vegetation composition, and vegetation structure in a FTE landscape in the Oregon Cascades using predictive mapping; 2) determine how vegetation composition and structure were associated with gradients of environmental factors derived from multispectral satellite imagery and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data; and 3) determine if predictive mapping characterizations of tree age, vegetation composition, and vegetation structure were improved by the inclusion of LiDAR data. Predictive mapping of vegetation attributes was accomplished using gradient analysis with nearest neighbor imputation; integrating field plots, multispectral SPOT 5 satellite imagery, and LiDAR data. Vegetation composition was best described by SPOT 5 imagery and LiDAR-derived topography, while vegetation structure was best described by LiDAR-derived vegetation heights. Predictions of species occurrence were most accurate for tree species, moderate for shrub species and vegetation groups, and highly variable for graminoid species. Tree age, which was the most accurately predicted vegetation structure variable, indicates the study area was largely un-forested in 1600, gradually invaded by trees from 1600 to the 1920's, and rapidly invaded from the 1920's to 1980. Predictive mapping of vegetation structure variables such as basal area and stand density were subject to large amounts of error, possibly resulting from scale incompatibilities between vegetation patterns and plot size, and/or heterogeneous FTE landscapes where forest structure does not develop along consistent trajectories with stand age. This study suggests integrating multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR data, and field plots can accurately predict fine-scale spatial characterizations of species distributions and tree invasion in the FTE. This study also indicates that sample design can influence spatial patterns of model uncertainty, which needs to be considered if predictive mapping of vegetation and sensitive ecosystems is a component of inventory and monitoring programs. In chapter three, I focused on quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of subalpine parkland tree invasion in Jefferson Park over the past five decades in relation multi-scale climatic and biophysical controls. LiDAR data provided previously unavailable fine-scale spatial characterizations of microtopography and vegetation structure. I utilized LiDAR, georeferenced field plots, and tree establishment reconstructions to quantify spatiotemporal patterns of tree invasion in relation to late season snow persistence, landform types, fine-scale topographic variability, distances from potential seed sources, and climate variation within 130 ha of the subalpine parkland landscape of Jefferson Park. Tree occurrence (i.e. tree presence in 2 m plots and grid cells) occurred in 7.75% of study area meadows in 1950 and increased to 34.7% in 2007. Landform types and finer-scale patterns of topography and vegetation structure influenced summer snow depth, which influenced temporal and spatial patterns of tree establishment. Tree invasion rates were higher on debris flow landforms, which had lower summer snow depth than glacial landforms, suggesting potentially rapid treeline responses to disturbance events. Tree invasion rates were strongly associated with reduced annual snow fall on glacial landforms, but not on debris flows. Tree establishment was spatially constrained to micro sites with high topographic positions and close proximity to overstory canopy, site conditions associated with low summer snow depth. Seed source limitations placed an additional species-specific spatial constraint on where trees invaded meadows. Climate and topography had an interactive effect, with trees establishing on higher topographic positions during both high snow/low temperature and low snow/high temperature periods, but had greater than expected establishment on lower topographic positions during low snow/high temperature periods. Within the context of larger landform types, topography and proximity to overstory trees constrained where trees established in the meadows, even during climate periods with higher temperatures and lower snowfall. Results of this study suggest large scale climate-driven models of vegetation change may overestimate treeline movement and meadow invasion, because they do not account for biophysical controls limiting tree establishment at multiple spatial scales. In chapter four, I used field data and analyses from chapter 3 to parameterize a spatially and temporally explicit statistical model of fine-scale tree invasion within 130 ha of the Jefferson Park study area. The model incorporated both the climatic and biophysical controls found in chapter 3 to influence tree invasion. The model was used in two ways: (1) to spatially project patterns of tree invasion from 1950 to 2007 in response to historical climate; and (2) to project future tree invasion of the study area from 2007 to 2064 under six different annual snowfall scenarios. Modeling addressed the following questions: (1) Can fine-scale (2 m pixel size) patterns of historical tree invasion be accurately predicted? (2) How sensitive is future tree invasion (and therefore meadow persistence) to different future snowfall scenarios? (3) Are non-climatic factors such as landforms and biotic interactions associated with different spatial patterns of tree invasion? From 1950 to 2007, simulated historical meadow area declined from 82% to 65% of the study area. Model outputs of historical area, spatial distributions, and spatial clustering of tree invasion generally agreed with independent validation, and suggest biotic interactions due to young tree establishment facilitation are important on glacial landforms but not debris flows. Simulations of future scenarios indicated meadow declined to 36 to 43% of the study area by 2064. Projected meadow area declined with reduced annual snow fall, but not under prolonged high and low snow fall periods. Meadows persisted under all future scenarios in 2064. This model suggests subalpine meadows may significantly decline under climate warming, but will still persist in 2064. Micro sites and recruitment limitation may be equally or more important factors than climate change in influencing subalpine landscape change, suggesting local high-elevation persistence of subalpine meadows under future climate warming. Title: Patterns of tree establishment and vegetation composition in relation to climate and topography of a subalpine meadow landscape, Jefferson Park, Oregon, USA Author: Zald, Harold Samuel James The forest alpine tundra ecotone (FTE, also known as alpine treeline or subalpine parkland), is a conspicuous feature of mountain landscapes throughout the world. Climate change-driven increases in temperature are believed to result in FTE movement and tree invasion of subalpine meadows, which have been documented throughout the Northern Hemisphere across a wide range of geographic locations, climatic regimes, forest types, land use histories, and disturbance regimes. Climate-driven FTE movement may have numerous ecological effects such as: positive temperature feedbacks, increased net primary productivity and carbon storage, and declines of plant populations and species. The magnitude of these ecological effects is highly uncertain, but will be largely determined by the rates and spatial extent of FTE movement and meadow invasion. FTE movement and meadow invasion are often considered at global or regional spatial scales in relation to climate, yet they are fundamentally driven by tree regeneration processes that are influenced by a variety of climatic and biophysical factors at micro site, landscape, and regional scales. Much of the research on the FTE has not taken a landscape approach incorporating multi-scale processes. For example, species distribution models used to project climate change effects on future species distributions and plant biodiversity in mountainous landscapes rely on species distribution data that is often sparse and incomplete across FTE landscapes. This dissertation attempts to overcome many of the limitations in FTE research by taking a landscape approach to develop a greater understanding of past spatiotemporal patterns of tree invasion, current spatial patterns of vegetation composition and structure, and potential future patterns of climate-driven tree invasion in the FTE. The setting for this research is Jefferson Park, a 260 ha subalpine parkland landscape in the Oregon High Cascades, USA. This study uses field plots, remotely sensed imagery, airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), and simulation modeling to: 1) predictively map current fine-scale species distributions, vegetation structure, and tree ages; 2) reconstruct patterns of tree invasion over the last fifty years in subalpine meadows in relation to climatic conditions, landforms, microtopography, and seed dispersal limitations; and 3) develop a statistical model that projects future patterns of tree invasion into subalpine meadows under different climate scenarios in Jefferson Park. In chapter two, I generated fine-scale spatially-explicit predictions of current vegetation composition, structure, and tree ages in the Jefferson Park study area. Objectives of this chapter were threefold: 1) to characterize spatial patterns of tree ages, vegetation composition, and vegetation structure in a FTE landscape in the Oregon Cascades using predictive mapping; 2) determine how vegetation composition and structure were associated with gradients of environmental factors derived from multispectral satellite imagery and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data; and 3) determine if predictive mapping characterizations of tree age, vegetation composition, and vegetation structure were improved by the inclusion of LiDAR data. Predictive mapping of vegetation attributes was accomplished using gradient analysis with nearest neighbor imputation; integrating field plots, multispectral SPOT 5 satellite imagery, and LiDAR data. Vegetation composition was best described by SPOT 5 imagery and LiDAR-derived topography, while vegetation structure was best described by LiDAR-derived vegetation heights. Predictions of species occurrence were most accurate for tree species, moderate for shrub species and vegetation groups, and highly variable for graminoid species. Tree age, which was the most accurately predicted vegetation structure variable, indicates the study area was largely un-forested in 1600, gradually invaded by trees from 1600 to the 1920's, and rapidly invaded from the 1920's to 1980. Predictive mapping of vegetation structure variables such as basal area and stand density were subject to large amounts of error, possibly resulting from scale incompatibilities between vegetation patterns and plot size, and/or heterogeneous FTE landscapes where forest structure does not develop along consistent trajectories with stand age. This study suggests integrating multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR data, and field plots can accurately predict fine-scale spatial characterizations of species distributions and tree invasion in the FTE. This study also indicates that sample design can influence spatial patterns of model uncertainty, which needs to be considered if predictive mapping of vegetation and sensitive ecosystems is a component of inventory and monitoring programs. In chapter three, I focused on quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of subalpine parkland tree invasion in Jefferson Park over the past five decades in relation multi-scale climatic and biophysical controls. LiDAR data provided previously unavailable fine-scale spatial characterizations of microtopography and vegetation structure. I utilized LiDAR, georeferenced field plots, and tree establishment reconstructions to quantify spatiotemporal patterns of tree invasion in relation to late season snow persistence, landform types, fine-scale topographic variability, distances from potential seed sources, and climate variation within 130 ha of the subalpine parkland landscape of Jefferson Park. Tree occurrence (i.e. tree presence in 2 m plots and grid cells) occurred in 7.75% of study area meadows in 1950 and increased to 34.7% in 2007. Landform types and finer-scale patterns of topography and vegetation structure influenced summer snow depth, which influenced temporal and spatial patterns of tree establishment. Tree invasion rates were higher on debris flow landforms, which had lower summer snow depth than glacial landforms, suggesting potentially rapid treeline responses to disturbance events. Tree invasion rates were strongly associated with reduced annual snow fall on glacial landforms, but not on debris flows. Tree establishment was spatially constrained to micro sites with high topographic positions and close proximity to overstory canopy, site conditions associated with low summer snow depth. Seed source limitations placed an additional species-specific spatial constraint on where trees invaded meadows. Climate and topography had an interactive effect, with trees establishing on higher topographic positions during both high snow/low temperature and low snow/high temperature periods, but had greater than expected establishment on lower topographic positions during low snow/high temperature periods. Within the context of larger landform types, topography and proximity to overstory trees constrained where trees established in the meadows, even during climate periods with higher temperatures and lower snowfall. Results of this study suggest large scale climate-driven models of vegetation change may overestimate treeline movement and meadow invasion, because they do not account for biophysical controls limiting tree establishment at multiple spatial scales. In chapter four, I used field data and analyses from chapter 3 to parameterize a spatially and temporally explicit statistical model of fine-scale tree invasion within 130 ha of the Jefferson Park study area. The model incorporated both the climatic and biophysical controls found in chapter 3 to influence tree invasion. The model was used in two ways: (1) to spatially project patterns of tree invasion from 1950 to 2007 in response to historical climate; and (2) to project future tree invasion of the study area from 2007 to 2064 under six different annual snowfall scenarios. Modeling addressed the following questions: (1) Can fine-scale (2 m pixel size) patterns of historical tree invasion be accurately predicted? (2) How sensitive is future tree invasion (and therefore meadow persistence) to different future snowfall scenarios? (3) Are non-climatic factors such as landforms and biotic interactions associated with different spatial patterns of tree invasion? From 1950 to 2007, simulated historical meadow area declined from 82% to 65% of the study area. Model outputs of historical area, spatial distributions, and spatial clustering of tree invasion generally agreed with independent validation, and suggest biotic interactions due to young tree establishment facilitation are important on glacial landforms but not debris flows. Simulations of future scenarios indicated meadow declined to 36 to 43% of the study area by 2064. Projected meadow area declined with reduced annual snow fall, but not under prolonged high and low snow fall periods. Meadows persisted under all future scenarios in 2064. This model suggests subalpine meadows may significantly decline under climate warming, but will still persist in 2064. Micro sites and recruitment limitation may be equally or more important factors than climate change in influencing subalpine landscape change, suggesting local high-elevation persistence of subalpine meadows under future climate warming. Close

• 510. [Image] A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl

  	ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl Author: Thomas, Jack Ward Year: 1990, 2010 ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references Title: A conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl Author: Thomas, Jack Ward Year: 1990, 2010 ill., maps; Shipping list no.: 90-263-P; "May 1990."; Includes bibliographical references Close

• 511. [Image] An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2]

  	Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nations National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nations BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nations population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nations National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nations BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nations population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Close

• 512. [Image] An examination of the Klamath Basin crisis : restructuring the discourse within an identity-based framework

  	Thesis (B.A.) -- Whitman College, 2002; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An examination of the Klamath Basin crisis : restructuring the discourse within an identity-based framework Author: Dornsife, Alison M. Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 Thesis (B.A.) -- Whitman College, 2002; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83) Title: An examination of the Klamath Basin crisis : restructuring the discourse within an identity-based framework Author: Dornsife, Alison M. Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 Thesis (B.A.) -- Whitman College, 2002; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-83) Close

• 513. [Image] Review of the hatchery measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds. Part I, Consistency of the Oregon plan with recommendations from recent scientific review panels

  	"December 10, 1998."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Review of the hatchery measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds. Part I, Consistency of the Oregon plan with recommendations from recent scientific review panels Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 10, 1998." Title: Review of the hatchery measures in the Oregon plan for salmon and watersheds. Part I, Consistency of the Oregon plan with recommendations from recent scientific review panels Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1998, 2005 "December 10, 1998." Close

• 514. [Image] Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T., tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Year: 1996, 2005, 2000 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T., tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-382. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 303 p. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed. The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment.) The Integrated Scientific Assessment for Ecosystem Management for the Interior Columbia Basin links landscape, aquatic, terrestrial, social, and economic characterizations to describe biophysical and social systems. Integration was achieved through a framework built around six goals for ecosystem management and three different views of the future. These goals are: maintain evolutionary and ecological processes; manage for multiple ecological domains and evolutionary timeframes; maintain viable populations of native and desired non-native species; encourage social and economic resiliency; manage for places with definable values; and, manage to maintain a variety of ecosystem goods, services, and conditions that society wants. Ratings of relative ecological integrity and socioeconomic resiliency were used to make broad statements about ecosystem conditions in the Basin. Currently in the Basin high integrity and resiliency are found on 16 and 20 percent of the area, respectively. Low integrity and resiliency are found on 60 and 68 percent of the area. Different approaches to management can alter the risks to the assets of people living in the Basin and to the ecosystem itself. Continuation of current management leads to increasing risks while management approaches focusing on reserves or restoration result in trends that mostly stabilize or reduce risks. Even where ecological integrity is projected to improve with the application of active management, population increases and the pressures of expanding demands on resources may cause increasing trends in risk. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, management and goals; ecological integrity; socio-economic resiliency; risk management Title: Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Year: 1996, 2005, 2000 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T., tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-382. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 303 p. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed. The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment.) The Integrated Scientific Assessment for Ecosystem Management for the Interior Columbia Basin links landscape, aquatic, terrestrial, social, and economic characterizations to describe biophysical and social systems. Integration was achieved through a framework built around six goals for ecosystem management and three different views of the future. These goals are: maintain evolutionary and ecological processes; manage for multiple ecological domains and evolutionary timeframes; maintain viable populations of native and desired non-native species; encourage social and economic resiliency; manage for places with definable values; and, manage to maintain a variety of ecosystem goods, services, and conditions that society wants. Ratings of relative ecological integrity and socioeconomic resiliency were used to make broad statements about ecosystem conditions in the Basin. Currently in the Basin high integrity and resiliency are found on 16 and 20 percent of the area, respectively. Low integrity and resiliency are found on 60 and 68 percent of the area. Different approaches to management can alter the risks to the assets of people living in the Basin and to the ecosystem itself. Continuation of current management leads to increasing risks while management approaches focusing on reserves or restoration result in trends that mostly stabilize or reduce risks. Even where ecological integrity is projected to improve with the application of active management, population increases and the pressures of expanding demands on resources may cause increasing trends in risk. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, management and goals; ecological integrity; socio-economic resiliency; risk management Close

• 515. [Image] A framework for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T.; Quigley, Thomas M., tech. eds. 1996. A framework for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia Basin including portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A framework for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Year: 1996, 2005 Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T.; Quigley, Thomas M., tech. eds. 1996. A framework for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia Basin including portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-374. Portland, OR; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p. A framework for ecosystem management is proposed. This framework assumes the purpose of ecosystem management is to maintain the integrity of ecosystems over time and space. It is based on four ecosystem principles: ecosystems are dynamic, can be viewed as hierarchies with temporal and spatial dimensions, have limits, and are relatively unpredictable. This approach recognizes that people are part of ecosystems and that stewardship must be able to resolve tough challenges including how to meet multiple demands with finite resources. The framework describes a general planning model for ecosystem management that has four iterative steps: monitoring, assessment, decision-making, and implementation. Since ecosystems cross jurisdictional lines, the implementation of the framework depends on partnerships among land managers, the scientific community, and stakeholders. It proposes that decision-making be based on information provided by the best available science and the most appropriate technologies for land management. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, ecosystem principles, ecosystem management, planning models, management goals, risk analysis. Title: A framework for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Year: 1996, 2005 Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T.; Quigley, Thomas M., tech. eds. 1996. A framework for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia Basin including portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-374. Portland, OR; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p. A framework for ecosystem management is proposed. This framework assumes the purpose of ecosystem management is to maintain the integrity of ecosystems over time and space. It is based on four ecosystem principles: ecosystems are dynamic, can be viewed as hierarchies with temporal and spatial dimensions, have limits, and are relatively unpredictable. This approach recognizes that people are part of ecosystems and that stewardship must be able to resolve tough challenges including how to meet multiple demands with finite resources. The framework describes a general planning model for ecosystem management that has four iterative steps: monitoring, assessment, decision-making, and implementation. Since ecosystems cross jurisdictional lines, the implementation of the framework depends on partnerships among land managers, the scientific community, and stakeholders. It proposes that decision-making be based on information provided by the best available science and the most appropriate technologies for land management. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, ecosystem principles, ecosystem management, planning models, management goals, risk analysis. Close

• 516. [Image] Making the ESA work better: implementing the 10 point plan - and beyond

  	19p.; ill.; Cover title; "June 1997"; "Reprint September 1998"; [Washington, D.C.]: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1999
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Making the ESA work better: implementing the 10 point plan - and beyond Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 19p.; ill.; Cover title; "June 1997"; "Reprint September 1998"; [Washington, D.C.]: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1999 Title: Making the ESA work better: implementing the 10 point plan - and beyond Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 19p.; ill.; Cover title; "June 1997"; "Reprint September 1998"; [Washington, D.C.]: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1999 Close

• 517. [Image] A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest

  	Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Close

• 518. [Image] Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and Northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	Abstract Marcot, Bruce G.; Wales, Barbara C; Demmer, Rick. 2003. Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and Northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: Marcot, Bruce G. Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract Marcot, Bruce G.; Wales, Barbara C; Demmer, Rick. 2003. Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-583. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 304 p. Current range distribution maps are presented for 14 invertebrate, 26 amphibian, 26 reptile, 339 bird, and 125 mammal species and selected subspecies (530 total taxa) of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins in the United States. Also presented are maps of historical ranges of 3 bird and 10 mammal species, and 6 maps of natural areas designated by federal agencies and other organizations. The species range maps were derived from a variety of publications and from expert review and unpublished data, and thus differ in degree of accuracy and resolution. The species maps are available in computer versions and are indexed herein by common and scientific names. Keywords: Maps, species range, species distribution, wildlife, invertebrates, arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, bats, biodiversity, endemism, natural areas, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Title: Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and Northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: Marcot, Bruce G. Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract Marcot, Bruce G.; Wales, Barbara C; Demmer, Rick. 2003. Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-583. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 304 p. Current range distribution maps are presented for 14 invertebrate, 26 amphibian, 26 reptile, 339 bird, and 125 mammal species and selected subspecies (530 total taxa) of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins in the United States. Also presented are maps of historical ranges of 3 bird and 10 mammal species, and 6 maps of natural areas designated by federal agencies and other organizations. The species range maps were derived from a variety of publications and from expert review and unpublished data, and thus differ in degree of accuracy and resolution. The species maps are available in computer versions and are indexed herein by common and scientific names. Keywords: Maps, species range, species distribution, wildlife, invertebrates, arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, bats, biodiversity, endemism, natural areas, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Close

• 519. [Image] Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3

  	Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Close

• 520. [Image] Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues

  	Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues Author: Kostow, Kathryn Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure because different species tend to look very similar through most of their life cycle, and they have not been well-studied in Oregon. Lampreys occur in the Columbia Basin, including the lower Snake River, along the Oregon coast, in the upper Klamath Basin, and in Goose Lake Basin in southeastern Oregon. They all begin life in fresh water where juveniles burrow into silt and filter feed on algae. As some species approach adulthood they migrate to the ocean or to lakes where they briefly become ecto-parasites, feeding on other live fishes by attaching to them with sucker disc mouths. Other species remain non-parasitic. In addition to some enigmatic species identities, we generally have very little information about the detailed distributions, life histories and basic biology of lampreys. Lampreys became a conservation concern in the early 1990s when tribal co-managers and some Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) staff noted that populations of Pacific Lampreys, Lampetra tridentata, were apparently declining to perilously low numbers. Pacific Lampreys were listed as an Oregon State sensitive species in 1993 and were given further legal protected status by the state in 1997 (OAR 635-044-0130). Lamprey status is difficult to assess for several reasons: 1) Most observations of lampreys in fresh water are of juveniles and it is difficult to tell the various species apart, even to the extent that the various species are currently clearly designated; 2) Data on lamprey is only collected incidental to monitoring of salmonids. The design and efficiency of the data collection effort is not always adequate for lampreys; and 3) We have very few historic data sets for lampreys. Therefore we often cannot determine how the abundances and distributions we see now compare with those in the past. The limited data that we have suggests that lampreys have declined through many parts of their ranges. The most precipitous declines appear to be in the upper Columbia and Snake basins where we have some historic data from mainstem dam counts. Pacific Lampreys have declined to only about 200 adults annually passing the Snake River dams. We also have evidence of declines of Pacific Lampreys in the lower Columbia and on the Oregon coast, although our data is quite limited. We have little to no information about any of the other species of lampreys. We are not even sure whether some of the recognized species, like the River Lamprey (L. ayresi), is still present in Oregon. This paper concludes with a Problem Analysis for Oregon lampreys. Our biggest problem is poor information, ranging from not knowing basic species identity to having inefficient or no systematic monitoring of lamprey abundance and distribution. ODFW continued an annual harvest on Pacific Lamprey in the Willamette Basin in 2001, but we lack the necessary information to assess the affects of the harvest on the population. Major habitat problems that affect lampreys include upstream passage over artificial barriers, a need for lamprey-friendly screening of water diversions, and urban and agricultural development of low-gradient flood plain habitats. Title: Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues Author: Kostow, Kathryn Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure because different species tend to look very similar through most of their life cycle, and they have not been well-studied in Oregon. Lampreys occur in the Columbia Basin, including the lower Snake River, along the Oregon coast, in the upper Klamath Basin, and in Goose Lake Basin in southeastern Oregon. They all begin life in fresh water where juveniles burrow into silt and filter feed on algae. As some species approach adulthood they migrate to the ocean or to lakes where they briefly become ecto-parasites, feeding on other live fishes by attaching to them with sucker disc mouths. Other species remain non-parasitic. In addition to some enigmatic species identities, we generally have very little information about the detailed distributions, life histories and basic biology of lampreys. Lampreys became a conservation concern in the early 1990s when tribal co-managers and some Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) staff noted that populations of Pacific Lampreys, Lampetra tridentata, were apparently declining to perilously low numbers. Pacific Lampreys were listed as an Oregon State sensitive species in 1993 and were given further legal protected status by the state in 1997 (OAR 635-044-0130). Lamprey status is difficult to assess for several reasons: 1) Most observations of lampreys in fresh water are of juveniles and it is difficult to tell the various species apart, even to the extent that the various species are currently clearly designated; 2) Data on lamprey is only collected incidental to monitoring of salmonids. The design and efficiency of the data collection effort is not always adequate for lampreys; and 3) We have very few historic data sets for lampreys. Therefore we often cannot determine how the abundances and distributions we see now compare with those in the past. The limited data that we have suggests that lampreys have declined through many parts of their ranges. The most precipitous declines appear to be in the upper Columbia and Snake basins where we have some historic data from mainstem dam counts. Pacific Lampreys have declined to only about 200 adults annually passing the Snake River dams. We also have evidence of declines of Pacific Lampreys in the lower Columbia and on the Oregon coast, although our data is quite limited. We have little to no information about any of the other species of lampreys. We are not even sure whether some of the recognized species, like the River Lamprey (L. ayresi), is still present in Oregon. This paper concludes with a Problem Analysis for Oregon lampreys. Our biggest problem is poor information, ranging from not knowing basic species identity to having inefficient or no systematic monitoring of lamprey abundance and distribution. ODFW continued an annual harvest on Pacific Lamprey in the Willamette Basin in 2001, but we lack the necessary information to assess the affects of the harvest on the population. Major habitat problems that affect lampreys include upstream passage over artificial barriers, a need for lamprey-friendly screening of water diversions, and urban and agricultural development of low-gradient flood plain habitats. Close

• 521. [Image] Implementation of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Report to the House Committee on Resources)

  	I. Executive Summary There is increasing recognition from most quarters that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) needs to be improved. Exactly what those improvements should be is less uniform. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Implementation of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Report to the House Committee on Resources) Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources Year: 2005, 2007 I. Executive Summary There is increasing recognition from most quarters that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) needs to be improved. Exactly what those improvements should be is less uniform. This report examines the implementation of selected aspects of the endangered species program relying predominately on information provided by the primary implementing agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and offers some recommendations for possible improvements to the program. Debate over the ESA has traditionally been highly polarized. For example, compensating landowners for takings or reductions in property value has been opposed by some who argue updating the law to address this is not necessary. While consensus on other issues such as the need for increasing conservation incentives and the role states play in endangered species conservation has begun to emerge, one of the most debated aspects of ESA implementation continues to be whether the ESA is effectively conserving endangered and threatened species. While there have been significant strides in conserving individual species such as the whooping crane, red-cockaded woodpecker and gray wolf, few species have been delisted (removed from the endangered list) or downlisted (changed in status from endangered to threatened) because of successful ESA conservation efforts. Some argue that the number of recovered species is an unfair measure, asserting that the three decades the ESA has been in existence is an insufficient amount of time for the lengthy process of species recovery and point to listed species that have not gone extinct as evidence the ESA 'saves' species. From the opposing perspective, while recovery to the point of delisting may require a substantial amount of time for many species, after three decades more progress should be demonstrable through species that have recovered and been delisted. Even if a species has increased in numbers or distribution or the threats facing the species have been reduced, if it has not been delisted on the basis of recovery, the ESA's prohibitions and regulations remain applicable and the ESA should not be a 'one way street.' Of 40 total species removed from the list, 10 domestic species were delisted because of "recovery". Of 33 reclassified species, 10 domestic downlistings (a change from endangered to threatened status) reflected a reduced threat assessment which also allowed more flexibility in management. The FWS's most recent report to Congress (Fiscal years 2001-2002) shows that 77 percent of listed species fall in the 0 to 25 percent recovery achieved bracket and 2 percent fall in the 76 to 100 percent recovery achieved bracket. 39 percent of the FWS managed species are of uncertain status. Of those with an assessed trend, at one end of the spectrum are 3 percent possibly extinct, 1 percent occurring only in captivity and 21 percent declining and at the other end are 30 percent stable and 6 percent improving. These assessments however are subjective. Additionally, the assessment that a species is improving or stable may reflect, for example, a reduction in perceived threats or corrections to inaccurate threat assessments that stemmed from erroneous data rather than actual changes in species' trends that are demonstrated by improved numbers, distribution or other such measurements. Consequently, a meaningful assessment of conservation trends under the ESA using these data is not possible. The data used to list a number of species has been subsequently determined to be erroneous and species that likely do not merit classification as endangered or threatened remain listed. This can consume resources that could be directed to species that do merit listing. The assignment of recovery priorities appears highly skewed and the recovery priority for some species seems questionable. A meaningful distinction between endangered status and threatened status has been blurred as has been the framework for the mechanism of critical habitat. Expenditure reporting has improved but presents an incomplete picture of financial resources dedicated to endangered species. Workloads for litigation regarding activities such as consultation and listing under the ESA's complex structure compete for resources that could otherwise be directed at recovery efforts. The demands associated with ESA Section 4 determinations in combination with the pace of species listings and delistings, the number of possible future additions to the list and the economic impact of listings likely indicate that the current program is not sustainable. Title: Implementation of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Report to the House Committee on Resources) Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources Year: 2005, 2007 I. Executive Summary There is increasing recognition from most quarters that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) needs to be improved. Exactly what those improvements should be is less uniform. This report examines the implementation of selected aspects of the endangered species program relying predominately on information provided by the primary implementing agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and offers some recommendations for possible improvements to the program. Debate over the ESA has traditionally been highly polarized. For example, compensating landowners for takings or reductions in property value has been opposed by some who argue updating the law to address this is not necessary. While consensus on other issues such as the need for increasing conservation incentives and the role states play in endangered species conservation has begun to emerge, one of the most debated aspects of ESA implementation continues to be whether the ESA is effectively conserving endangered and threatened species. While there have been significant strides in conserving individual species such as the whooping crane, red-cockaded woodpecker and gray wolf, few species have been delisted (removed from the endangered list) or downlisted (changed in status from endangered to threatened) because of successful ESA conservation efforts. Some argue that the number of recovered species is an unfair measure, asserting that the three decades the ESA has been in existence is an insufficient amount of time for the lengthy process of species recovery and point to listed species that have not gone extinct as evidence the ESA 'saves' species. From the opposing perspective, while recovery to the point of delisting may require a substantial amount of time for many species, after three decades more progress should be demonstrable through species that have recovered and been delisted. Even if a species has increased in numbers or distribution or the threats facing the species have been reduced, if it has not been delisted on the basis of recovery, the ESA's prohibitions and regulations remain applicable and the ESA should not be a 'one way street.' Of 40 total species removed from the list, 10 domestic species were delisted because of "recovery". Of 33 reclassified species, 10 domestic downlistings (a change from endangered to threatened status) reflected a reduced threat assessment which also allowed more flexibility in management. The FWS's most recent report to Congress (Fiscal years 2001-2002) shows that 77 percent of listed species fall in the 0 to 25 percent recovery achieved bracket and 2 percent fall in the 76 to 100 percent recovery achieved bracket. 39 percent of the FWS managed species are of uncertain status. Of those with an assessed trend, at one end of the spectrum are 3 percent possibly extinct, 1 percent occurring only in captivity and 21 percent declining and at the other end are 30 percent stable and 6 percent improving. These assessments however are subjective. Additionally, the assessment that a species is improving or stable may reflect, for example, a reduction in perceived threats or corrections to inaccurate threat assessments that stemmed from erroneous data rather than actual changes in species' trends that are demonstrated by improved numbers, distribution or other such measurements. Consequently, a meaningful assessment of conservation trends under the ESA using these data is not possible. The data used to list a number of species has been subsequently determined to be erroneous and species that likely do not merit classification as endangered or threatened remain listed. This can consume resources that could be directed to species that do merit listing. The assignment of recovery priorities appears highly skewed and the recovery priority for some species seems questionable. A meaningful distinction between endangered status and threatened status has been blurred as has been the framework for the mechanism of critical habitat. Expenditure reporting has improved but presents an incomplete picture of financial resources dedicated to endangered species. Workloads for litigation regarding activities such as consultation and listing under the ESA's complex structure compete for resources that could otherwise be directed at recovery efforts. The demands associated with ESA Section 4 determinations in combination with the pace of species listings and delistings, the number of possible future additions to the list and the economic impact of listings likely indicate that the current program is not sustainable. Close

• 522. [Image] An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1]

  	Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nation's National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nation's BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nation's population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nation's National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nation's BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nation's population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Close

• 523. [Image] A strategy for achieving healthy watersheds in Oregon

  	"January 2001."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A strategy for achieving healthy watersheds in Oregon Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2001, 2004 "January 2001." Title: A strategy for achieving healthy watersheds in Oregon Author: Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 2001, 2004 "January 2001." Close

• 524. [Image] The South Portal Project : creating a sense of arrival

  	"Holistic planning for Lake Ewauna & the south entry to the City of Klamath Falls"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The South Portal Project : creating a sense of arrival Author: Carpenter Design, Inc. Year: 2005 "Holistic planning for Lake Ewauna & the south entry to the City of Klamath Falls" Title: The South Portal Project : creating a sense of arrival Author: Carpenter Design, Inc. Year: 2005 "Holistic planning for Lake Ewauna & the south entry to the City of Klamath Falls" Close

• 525. [Image] Endangered species: difficult choices

  	IB10072 08-26-04 Endangered Species: Difficult Choices SUMMARY The 108th Congress is considering various proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). Major issues in recent years ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Endangered species: difficult choices Author: Buck, Eugene H; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Baldwin, Pamela Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 IB10072 08-26-04 Endangered Species: Difficult Choices SUMMARY The 108th Congress is considering various proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). Major issues in recent years have included changing the role of science in decision-making, changing the role of critical habitat, reducing conflicts with Department of Defense activities, incorporating further protection for property owners, and increasing protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated including significant changes to ESA regulations made during the Clinton Administration in the law itself. The ESA has been one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and non-federal lands and resources. Under the ESA, certain species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) are listed as "endangered" or "threatened" according to assessments of their risk of extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid its recovery and protect its habitat. The ESA may also be controversial because dwindling species are usually harbingers of resource scarcity: the most common cause of listing species is habitat loss. Recent efforts in the House would modify ESA provisions that designate critical habitat, and that provide for scientific peer review. The authorization for spending under the ESA expired on October 1, 1992. The prohibitions and requirements of the ESA remain in force, even in the absence of an authorization, and funds have been appropriated to imple- ment the administrative provisions of the ESA in each subsequent fiscal year. In the 108th Congress, two bills (H.R. 1662 and H.R. 2933) have been reported that would, respectively, address issues concerning scientific peer review and critical habitat. These bills may be brought to the House floor in September. Earlier, P.L. 108-108 (Interior appropriations) provided $265 million for FY2004 for programs related to endangered species. P.L. 108-136 (Defense authorization) included an ESA amendment to direct that critical habitat not be designated on military lands under certain conditions when Integrated Natural Resources Management Plans are in effect. P.L. 108-137 (Energy and Water appropriations) prohibited use of FY2004 or earlier funds to reduce water deliveries under existing contracts for ESA compliance for the silvery minnow on the Middle Rio Grande River unless water is obtained from a willing seller or lessor. The act also established an executive committee to oversee the Collaborative Program associated with this situation. P.L. 108-148 (Healthy Forests Act) authorized hazardous fuels reduction projects on BLM and national forest lands including those containing listed species habitat; directed establishment of a healthy forests reserve program to promote recovery of listed species; and directed the Secretary of the Interior to provide assurances to landowners whose enrollment in the healthy forests reserve program results in new conservation benefits for ESA-listed species. Title: Endangered species: difficult choices Author: Buck, Eugene H; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Baldwin, Pamela Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 IB10072 08-26-04 Endangered Species: Difficult Choices SUMMARY The 108th Congress is considering various proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). Major issues in recent years have included changing the role of science in decision-making, changing the role of critical habitat, reducing conflicts with Department of Defense activities, incorporating further protection for property owners, and increasing protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated including significant changes to ESA regulations made during the Clinton Administration in the law itself. The ESA has been one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and non-federal lands and resources. Under the ESA, certain species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) are listed as "endangered" or "threatened" according to assessments of their risk of extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid its recovery and protect its habitat. The ESA may also be controversial because dwindling species are usually harbingers of resource scarcity: the most common cause of listing species is habitat loss. Recent efforts in the House would modify ESA provisions that designate critical habitat, and that provide for scientific peer review. The authorization for spending under the ESA expired on October 1, 1992. The prohibitions and requirements of the ESA remain in force, even in the absence of an authorization, and funds have been appropriated to imple- ment the administrative provisions of the ESA in each subsequent fiscal year. In the 108th Congress, two bills (H.R. 1662 and H.R. 2933) have been reported that would, respectively, address issues concerning scientific peer review and critical habitat. These bills may be brought to the House floor in September. Earlier, P.L. 108-108 (Interior appropriations) provided $265 million for FY2004 for programs related to endangered species. P.L. 108-136 (Defense authorization) included an ESA amendment to direct that critical habitat not be designated on military lands under certain conditions when Integrated Natural Resources Management Plans are in effect. P.L. 108-137 (Energy and Water appropriations) prohibited use of FY2004 or earlier funds to reduce water deliveries under existing contracts for ESA compliance for the silvery minnow on the Middle Rio Grande River unless water is obtained from a willing seller or lessor. The act also established an executive committee to oversee the Collaborative Program associated with this situation. P.L. 108-148 (Healthy Forests Act) authorized hazardous fuels reduction projects on BLM and national forest lands including those containing listed species habitat; directed establishment of a healthy forests reserve program to promote recovery of listed species; and directed the Secretary of the Interior to provide assurances to landowners whose enrollment in the healthy forests reserve program results in new conservation benefits for ESA-listed species. Close

• 526. [Image] The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress conflicting values and difficult choices

  	IB10144 04-22-05 The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices SUMMARY The 109th Congress is likely to consider various proposals to amend the ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress conflicting values and difficult choices Author: Buck, Eugene H Year: 2006, 2008, 2005 IB10144 04-22-05 The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices SUMMARY The 109th Congress is likely to consider various proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; P.L. 93-205; 16 U.S.C. ??1531-1543 ). Major issues in recent years have included changing the role of science in decision-making, modifying critical habitat procedures, reducing conflicts with Department of Defense activities, incorporating further protection and incentives for property owners, and increasing protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated enacting as law some ESA regulations promulgated during the Clinton Administration. The ESA has been one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and non-federal lands and resources. Under the ESA, species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) can be listed as endangered or threatened according to assessments of their risk of extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid its recovery and protect its habitat. The ESA may also be controversial because dwindling species are usually harbingers of broader ecosystem decline: the most common cause of listing species is habitat loss. The authorization for spending under the ESA expired on October 1, 1992. The prohibitions and requirements of the ESA remain in force, even in the absence of an authorization, and funds have been appropriated to implement the administrative provisions of the ESA in each subsequent fiscal year. In the 108th Congress, two bills were reported by the House Committee on Resources, but not enacted, that would have amended the ESA to modify scientific peer review and critical habitat procedures. Interior appropriations measures funded Fish and Wildlife Service programs related to endangered species (P.L. 108-108 provided $265 million for FY2004; P.L. 108-447 provided $262 million for FY2005). P.L. 108-136 (Defense authorization) included an ESA amendment to direct that critical habitat not be designated on military lands under certain conditions when Integrated Natural Resources Management Plans are in effect. P.L. 108-137 (Energy and Water appropriations) prohibited use of FY2004 or earlier funds to reduce water deliveries under existing contracts for ESA compliance for the silvery minnow on the Middle Rio Grande River unless water is obtained from a willing seller or lessor; this prohibition appears to have been made permanent by ?205 of Div. C of P.L. 108-447. P.L. 108-148 (Healthy Forests Act) authorized hazardous fuels reduction projects on BLM and national forest lands, including those containing habitat for listed species; directed establishment of a healthy forests reserve program to promote recovery of listed species; and directed the Secretary of the Interior to provide property rights assurances to landowners enrolled in the healthy forests reserve program. Congressional Research Service ? The Library of Congress CRS Title: The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress conflicting values and difficult choices Author: Buck, Eugene H Year: 2006, 2008, 2005 IB10144 04-22-05 The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices SUMMARY The 109th Congress is likely to consider various proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; P.L. 93-205; 16 U.S.C. ??1531-1543 ). Major issues in recent years have included changing the role of science in decision-making, modifying critical habitat procedures, reducing conflicts with Department of Defense activities, incorporating further protection and incentives for property owners, and increasing protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated enacting as law some ESA regulations promulgated during the Clinton Administration. The ESA has been one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and non-federal lands and resources. Under the ESA, species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) can be listed as endangered or threatened according to assessments of their risk of extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid its recovery and protect its habitat. The ESA may also be controversial because dwindling species are usually harbingers of broader ecosystem decline: the most common cause of listing species is habitat loss. The authorization for spending under the ESA expired on October 1, 1992. The prohibitions and requirements of the ESA remain in force, even in the absence of an authorization, and funds have been appropriated to implement the administrative provisions of the ESA in each subsequent fiscal year. In the 108th Congress, two bills were reported by the House Committee on Resources, but not enacted, that would have amended the ESA to modify scientific peer review and critical habitat procedures. Interior appropriations measures funded Fish and Wildlife Service programs related to endangered species (P.L. 108-108 provided $265 million for FY2004; P.L. 108-447 provided $262 million for FY2005). P.L. 108-136 (Defense authorization) included an ESA amendment to direct that critical habitat not be designated on military lands under certain conditions when Integrated Natural Resources Management Plans are in effect. P.L. 108-137 (Energy and Water appropriations) prohibited use of FY2004 or earlier funds to reduce water deliveries under existing contracts for ESA compliance for the silvery minnow on the Middle Rio Grande River unless water is obtained from a willing seller or lessor; this prohibition appears to have been made permanent by ?205 of Div. C of P.L. 108-447. P.L. 108-148 (Healthy Forests Act) authorized hazardous fuels reduction projects on BLM and national forest lands, including those containing habitat for listed species; directed establishment of a healthy forests reserve program to promote recovery of listed species; and directed the Secretary of the Interior to provide property rights assurances to landowners enrolled in the healthy forests reserve program. Congressional Research Service ? The Library of Congress CRS Close

• 527. [Image] Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway

  	Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway Author: Wilson, Robert Michael Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations. Title: Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway Author: Wilson, Robert Michael Year: 2003, 2005, 2004 Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations. Close

• 528. [Image] Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy

  	Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy Author: United States. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; United States. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Managemen Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest Plan. Projects needed to achieve Northwest Forest Plan goals have been delayed or stopped due to misapplication of certain passages in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The agencies are responding to the underlying need for increased agency success planning and implementing projects, to the extent that the current wording has hindered the agencies ability to follow Northwest Forest Plan principles and achieve its goals. The goals of the Northwest Forest Plan cannot be achieved without project implementation. Three alternatives are considered in the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, No Action, the Proposed Action, and Alternative A. No Action would not change existing language within the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The Proposed Action and Alternative A would make l Title: Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy Author: United States. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; United States. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Managemen Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest Plan. Projects needed to achieve Northwest Forest Plan goals have been delayed or stopped due to misapplication of certain passages in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The agencies are responding to the underlying need for increased agency success planning and implementing projects, to the extent that the current wording has hindered the agencies ability to follow Northwest Forest Plan principles and achieve its goals. The goals of the Northwest Forest Plan cannot be achieved without project implementation. Three alternatives are considered in the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, No Action, the Proposed Action, and Alternative A. No Action would not change existing language within the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The Proposed Action and Alternative A would make l Close

• 529. [Image] Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission

  	"February 2004."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "February 2004." Title: Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "February 2004." Close

• 530. [Image] Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998

  	ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998 Author: Campbell, S. G Year: 2001, 2007, 2005 ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs. Title: Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998 Author: Campbell, S. G Year: 2001, 2007, 2005 ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs. Close

• 531. [Image] Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft

  	Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office Year: 1994, 2004 Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35) Title: Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office Year: 1994, 2004 Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35) Close

• 532. [Image] The Oregon conservation strategy

  	v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Close

• 533. [Image] Annual program summary 2004

  	Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Table of Contents ANNUAL PROGRAM SUMMARY 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Summary of Accomplishments 3 3.0 Budget and Employment 6 4.0 Land ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Annual program summary 2004 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office District Year: 2005 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Table of Contents ANNUAL PROGRAM SUMMARY 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Summary of Accomplishments 3 3.0 Budget and Employment 6 4.0 Land Use Allocations within the Klamath Falls Resource Area 6 Late-Successional Reserves and Assessments 8 Matrix 8 5.0 Aquatic Conservation Strategy 9 Riparian Reserves 9 Watershed Analysis and Key Watersheds 9 Watershed Restoration 10 Roads 10 Riparian Habitat Enhancement 10 Stream Restoration 11 6.0 Air Quality 11 7.0 Water and Soils 11 Water - Project Implementation 11 Soils - Project Implementation 12 Water - Inventory and Monitoring 12 Soils -Inventory and Monitoring 13 State-listed Clean Water Act 303d Streams 13 RMP Best Management Practices 13 8.0 Terrestrial Species and Habitat Management 14 Survey and Manage Species 14 Threatened/Endangered Species 14 Northern Spotted Owl 14 Bald Eagle 14 Special Status Species-Animals 15 Peregrine Falcon 15 Yellow Rails 15 Bats 15 Northern Goshawk 15 Oregon Spotted Frog 15 Sage Grouse 16 vii Klamath Falls Resource Area Mollusks 16 Great Gray Owl 16 Special Status Species - Plants 16 Other Species of Concern 17 Neotropical Migratory Landbirds 17 Terrestrial Habitat Management 17 Nest Sites, Activity Centers, and Rookeries 17 Big Game Habitat 19 9.0 Aquatic Species and Habitat Management 19 Threatened/Endangered Species 19 Lost River and Shortnose Suckers 19 Bull Trout 20 Endangered Species Act Consultation 20 Aquatic Habitat Restoration 20 Klamath River Hydroelectric Facility Relicensing 21 10.0 Pathogen, Disease, and Pest Management 21 11.0 Weed Management 22 Inventories 22 Control 22 12.0 Special Areas/Management 23 Wild and Scenic Rivers 23 Wilderness 23 Areas of Critical Environmental Concern 23 Tunnel Creek Special Botanical Area 24 Klamath Canyon ACEC 24 Old Baldy Research Natural Area 24 Wood River Wetland ACEC 24 Environmental Education Areas 25 13.0 Cultural Resources 26 14.0 Visual Resources 26 15.0 Rural Interface Areas 26 16.0 Socioeconomic Conditions 27 Jobs-in-the-Woods 28 17.0 Environmental Justice 30 18.0 Recreation 30 Recreation Pipeline Restoration Funds 30 Recreation Projects 31 viii Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Recreation Fee Demonstration Project 31 Status of Recreation Plans 32 Volunteer Activities 32 Tourism 33 19.0 Forest Management and Timber Resources 33 Silvicultural Prescriptions 33 Timber Sale Planning 34 FY 2004 Timber Sale Accomplishments 34 Status of Sold & Awarded Klamath Falls RMP Timber Sales 35 Forest Development Activities 39 Stewardship Contracting 42 20.0 Special Forest Products 42 21.0 Energy and Minerals 43 22.0 Land Tenure Adjustments 44 23.0 Access and Rights-of-Way 45 24.0 Transportation and Roads 45 25.0 Hazardous Materials 46 26.0 Wildfire/Fuels Management 46 27.0 Law Enforcement 47 28.0 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 48 Fiscal Year 2004 Summary 49 Fiscal Years 1996-2004 Summary 50 Wild Horse Management 51 29.0 Cadastral Survey 52 30.0 Education and Outreach 52 31.0 Research 56 32.0 Coordination and Consultation 58 Federal Agencies 58 State of Oregon 58 Counties 59 Cities 59 Tribes 59 IX Klamath Falls Resource Area Watershed Councils 59 Chartered Advisory Groups 60 Other Local Coordination and Cooperation 61 33.0 National Environmental Policy Act Analysis and Documentation 63 NEPA documentation 63 Klamath Falls Resource Area Environmental Documentation 63 Protests and Appeals 63 34.0 Plan Evaluations 64 Third Year Evaluation 64 Eighth Year Evaluation 64 35.0 Plan Maintenance 65 36.0 Plan Amendments 72 Plan Revision 76 MONITORING REPORT Introduction 79 All Land Use Allocations 83 Late-Successional Reserves 86 Matrix 88 Riparian Reserves 92 Air Quality 95 Water and Soils 96 Terrestrial Species Habitat 101 Special Status and SEIS Special Attention Species Habitat 106 Aquatic Species Habitat 110 Noxious Weeds 112 Special Areas 113 Wild and Scenic Rivers 115 Cultural Resources Including American Indian Values 116 Visual Resources 118 Rural Interface Areas 119 Socioeconomic Conditions 120 Recreation 121 Forest Management and Timber Resources 121 Special Forest/Natural Products 122 Wildfire / Fuels Management 124 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 124 GLOSSARY/ACRONYMS 129 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 List of Tables Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments 4 Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments (Cont.).5 Table 3.1 - Resource Area Budget Fiscal Year 2004 6 Table 4.1 - Land Use Allocation 8 Table 5.1 - Watershed Analysis Schedule 10 Table 5.2-Watershed Analysis Status Fiscal Year 2004 10 Table 6.1 -Air Quality Management Fiscal Year 2004 11 Table 7.1 - Watershed Activity Fiscal Year 2004 12 Table 7.2 - KFRA Clean Water Act 303(d) Water Bodies 13 Table 8.1a - BLM /KFRA Special Status Species Designations Summary -Animals 18 Table 8.1b - BLM (KFRA) Special Status Species Designations Summary - Plants 18 Table 8.2 - Terrestrial Habitat Monitoring Fiscal Year 2004 18 Table 8.3 - Monitoring for Nest Sites, Activity Centers, Rookeries, Special Habitats 18 Table 9.1 -Aquatic Habitat/ Fish Passage Management Fiscal Year 2004 19 Table 11.1 - Managed Weed Species 20 Table 12.1 - Special Management Areas 25 Table 13.1 - Cultural Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 26 Table 16.1 - Total Payments in Lieu of Taxes and Acres by County for FY 2004 28 Table 16.2 - O&C Payments To Counties FY 2004 29 Table 16.3 - Jobs in the Woods Program Fiscal Year 2004 29 Table 18.1 - Recreation Statistics Fiscal Year 2004 30 Table 18.2 - Recreation Fee Demonstration Project Fiscal Year 2004 32 Table 19.1 - Klamath Falls Timber Sale Volume (MBF) and Acres FY 2004 35 Table 19.2-Timber Volume Sold in FY 2004 36 Table 19.3 - Harvest Activity for FY 2004 36 Table 19.4 - Planned Timber Sales (FY 2005 & 2006) 36 Table 19.5 - Status of Sold and Awarded Timber Sales 37 Table 19.6 - Summary of Volume Sold 38 Table 19.7 -Volume and Acres Sold by Allocations 38 Table 19.8 - Timber Sales Sold by Harvest Types 38 Table 19.9 - Timber Sale Acres Sold by Age Class 39 Table 19.10 - Forest Development Activities 41 Table 20.1 - Special Forest Products Fiscal Year 2004 43 Table 21.1 - Energy and Minerals Management Fiscal Year 2004 44 Table 22.1 - Land Use Tenure Adjustments Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 24.1 - Roads and Transportation Management Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 25.1 - Hazardous Materials Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 26.1 - Fire and Fuels Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 27.1 - Law Enforcement Fiscal Year 2004 47 Table 28.1 - Range Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 48 Table 29.1 -Cadastral Survey Summary Fiscal Year 2004 52 Table 30.1 - Environmental Education/Outreach Program Summary FY2004 54 Table 30.2 - Environmental Education/Outreach Special Events FY2004 55 Table 30.3 - Environmental Education/Outreach Programs & Tours FY 2004 56 Table 32.1 - Challenge Cost Share Fiscal Year 2004 62 XI Klamath Falls Resource Area Table 33.1 - NEPA Analyses and Documentation Fiscal Year 2004 64 Table 36.1 - Redefined Survey and Manage Categories 74 Table M.I - Projects Monitored FY 2004 80 Table M-2 - FY 2004 Implementation Monitoring Selection Categories 81 Table M-3 - Comparison of Projected vs. Actual Harvest Volume (MMBF)/Acres to Date 82 Table M-4 - Timber Sale Volume and Acres Offered (Entire Resource Area) 83 Table M-5 - Timber Sale Monitoring Summary 89 Table M-6 - Post Treatment Stand Characteristics for West Grenada Timber Sale - FY 2004 90 Table M-7 - Status of Watershed Analysis 98 List of Figures Figure 1 - General Location Map 2 Figure 2 - KFRA Land Allocations 7 Xll Title: Annual program summary 2004 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office District Year: 2005 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Table of Contents ANNUAL PROGRAM SUMMARY 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Summary of Accomplishments 3 3.0 Budget and Employment 6 4.0 Land Use Allocations within the Klamath Falls Resource Area 6 Late-Successional Reserves and Assessments 8 Matrix 8 5.0 Aquatic Conservation Strategy 9 Riparian Reserves 9 Watershed Analysis and Key Watersheds 9 Watershed Restoration 10 Roads 10 Riparian Habitat Enhancement 10 Stream Restoration 11 6.0 Air Quality 11 7.0 Water and Soils 11 Water - Project Implementation 11 Soils - Project Implementation 12 Water - Inventory and Monitoring 12 Soils -Inventory and Monitoring 13 State-listed Clean Water Act 303d Streams 13 RMP Best Management Practices 13 8.0 Terrestrial Species and Habitat Management 14 Survey and Manage Species 14 Threatened/Endangered Species 14 Northern Spotted Owl 14 Bald Eagle 14 Special Status Species-Animals 15 Peregrine Falcon 15 Yellow Rails 15 Bats 15 Northern Goshawk 15 Oregon Spotted Frog 15 Sage Grouse 16 vii Klamath Falls Resource Area Mollusks 16 Great Gray Owl 16 Special Status Species - Plants 16 Other Species of Concern 17 Neotropical Migratory Landbirds 17 Terrestrial Habitat Management 17 Nest Sites, Activity Centers, and Rookeries 17 Big Game Habitat 19 9.0 Aquatic Species and Habitat Management 19 Threatened/Endangered Species 19 Lost River and Shortnose Suckers 19 Bull Trout 20 Endangered Species Act Consultation 20 Aquatic Habitat Restoration 20 Klamath River Hydroelectric Facility Relicensing 21 10.0 Pathogen, Disease, and Pest Management 21 11.0 Weed Management 22 Inventories 22 Control 22 12.0 Special Areas/Management 23 Wild and Scenic Rivers 23 Wilderness 23 Areas of Critical Environmental Concern 23 Tunnel Creek Special Botanical Area 24 Klamath Canyon ACEC 24 Old Baldy Research Natural Area 24 Wood River Wetland ACEC 24 Environmental Education Areas 25 13.0 Cultural Resources 26 14.0 Visual Resources 26 15.0 Rural Interface Areas 26 16.0 Socioeconomic Conditions 27 Jobs-in-the-Woods 28 17.0 Environmental Justice 30 18.0 Recreation 30 Recreation Pipeline Restoration Funds 30 Recreation Projects 31 viii Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Recreation Fee Demonstration Project 31 Status of Recreation Plans 32 Volunteer Activities 32 Tourism 33 19.0 Forest Management and Timber Resources 33 Silvicultural Prescriptions 33 Timber Sale Planning 34 FY 2004 Timber Sale Accomplishments 34 Status of Sold & Awarded Klamath Falls RMP Timber Sales 35 Forest Development Activities 39 Stewardship Contracting 42 20.0 Special Forest Products 42 21.0 Energy and Minerals 43 22.0 Land Tenure Adjustments 44 23.0 Access and Rights-of-Way 45 24.0 Transportation and Roads 45 25.0 Hazardous Materials 46 26.0 Wildfire/Fuels Management 46 27.0 Law Enforcement 47 28.0 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 48 Fiscal Year 2004 Summary 49 Fiscal Years 1996-2004 Summary 50 Wild Horse Management 51 29.0 Cadastral Survey 52 30.0 Education and Outreach 52 31.0 Research 56 32.0 Coordination and Consultation 58 Federal Agencies 58 State of Oregon 58 Counties 59 Cities 59 Tribes 59 IX Klamath Falls Resource Area Watershed Councils 59 Chartered Advisory Groups 60 Other Local Coordination and Cooperation 61 33.0 National Environmental Policy Act Analysis and Documentation 63 NEPA documentation 63 Klamath Falls Resource Area Environmental Documentation 63 Protests and Appeals 63 34.0 Plan Evaluations 64 Third Year Evaluation 64 Eighth Year Evaluation 64 35.0 Plan Maintenance 65 36.0 Plan Amendments 72 Plan Revision 76 MONITORING REPORT Introduction 79 All Land Use Allocations 83 Late-Successional Reserves 86 Matrix 88 Riparian Reserves 92 Air Quality 95 Water and Soils 96 Terrestrial Species Habitat 101 Special Status and SEIS Special Attention Species Habitat 106 Aquatic Species Habitat 110 Noxious Weeds 112 Special Areas 113 Wild and Scenic Rivers 115 Cultural Resources Including American Indian Values 116 Visual Resources 118 Rural Interface Areas 119 Socioeconomic Conditions 120 Recreation 121 Forest Management and Timber Resources 121 Special Forest/Natural Products 122 Wildfire / Fuels Management 124 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 124 GLOSSARY/ACRONYMS 129 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 List of Tables Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments 4 Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments (Cont.).5 Table 3.1 - Resource Area Budget Fiscal Year 2004 6 Table 4.1 - Land Use Allocation 8 Table 5.1 - Watershed Analysis Schedule 10 Table 5.2-Watershed Analysis Status Fiscal Year 2004 10 Table 6.1 -Air Quality Management Fiscal Year 2004 11 Table 7.1 - Watershed Activity Fiscal Year 2004 12 Table 7.2 - KFRA Clean Water Act 303(d) Water Bodies 13 Table 8.1a - BLM /KFRA Special Status Species Designations Summary -Animals 18 Table 8.1b - BLM (KFRA) Special Status Species Designations Summary - Plants 18 Table 8.2 - Terrestrial Habitat Monitoring Fiscal Year 2004 18 Table 8.3 - Monitoring for Nest Sites, Activity Centers, Rookeries, Special Habitats 18 Table 9.1 -Aquatic Habitat/ Fish Passage Management Fiscal Year 2004 19 Table 11.1 - Managed Weed Species 20 Table 12.1 - Special Management Areas 25 Table 13.1 - Cultural Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 26 Table 16.1 - Total Payments in Lieu of Taxes and Acres by County for FY 2004 28 Table 16.2 - O&C Payments To Counties FY 2004 29 Table 16.3 - Jobs in the Woods Program Fiscal Year 2004 29 Table 18.1 - Recreation Statistics Fiscal Year 2004 30 Table 18.2 - Recreation Fee Demonstration Project Fiscal Year 2004 32 Table 19.1 - Klamath Falls Timber Sale Volume (MBF) and Acres FY 2004 35 Table 19.2-Timber Volume Sold in FY 2004 36 Table 19.3 - Harvest Activity for FY 2004 36 Table 19.4 - Planned Timber Sales (FY 2005 & 2006) 36 Table 19.5 - Status of Sold and Awarded Timber Sales 37 Table 19.6 - Summary of Volume Sold 38 Table 19.7 -Volume and Acres Sold by Allocations 38 Table 19.8 - Timber Sales Sold by Harvest Types 38 Table 19.9 - Timber Sale Acres Sold by Age Class 39 Table 19.10 - Forest Development Activities 41 Table 20.1 - Special Forest Products Fiscal Year 2004 43 Table 21.1 - Energy and Minerals Management Fiscal Year 2004 44 Table 22.1 - Land Use Tenure Adjustments Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 24.1 - Roads and Transportation Management Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 25.1 - Hazardous Materials Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 26.1 - Fire and Fuels Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 27.1 - Law Enforcement Fiscal Year 2004 47 Table 28.1 - Range Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 48 Table 29.1 -Cadastral Survey Summary Fiscal Year 2004 52 Table 30.1 - Environmental Education/Outreach Program Summary FY2004 54 Table 30.2 - Environmental Education/Outreach Special Events FY2004 55 Table 30.3 - Environmental Education/Outreach Programs & Tours FY 2004 56 Table 32.1 - Challenge Cost Share Fiscal Year 2004 62 XI Klamath Falls Resource Area Table 33.1 - NEPA Analyses and Documentation Fiscal Year 2004 64 Table 36.1 - Redefined Survey and Manage Categories 74 Table M.I - Projects Monitored FY 2004 80 Table M-2 - FY 2004 Implementation Monitoring Selection Categories 81 Table M-3 - Comparison of Projected vs. Actual Harvest Volume (MMBF)/Acres to Date 82 Table M-4 - Timber Sale Volume and Acres Offered (Entire Resource Area) 83 Table M-5 - Timber Sale Monitoring Summary 89 Table M-6 - Post Treatment Stand Characteristics for West Grenada Timber Sale - FY 2004 90 Table M-7 - Status of Watershed Analysis 98 List of Figures Figure 1 - General Location Map 2 Figure 2 - KFRA Land Allocations 7 Xll Close