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• 461. [Article] The influence of forest management on headwater stream amphibians at multiple spatial scales

  To effectively manage for biodiversity at broad, ecosystem scales, the influences of habitat structure at multiple spatial scales on vertebrate species must be understood. There are few studies on the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The influence of forest management on headwater stream amphibians at multiple spatial scales Author: Stoddard, Margo A. To effectively manage for biodiversity at broad, ecosystem scales, the influences of habitat structure at multiple spatial scales on vertebrate species must be understood. There are few studies on the broad-scale habitat requirements of stream amphibians despite their importance in streams in forest ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) as predators and prey, and potentially as indicators of ecosystem health. In particular, studies on the influence of forest structure at landscape scales on stream amphibians are lacking. I examined stream amphibian-habitat relationships for Pacific giant salamanders (Dicamptodon tenebrosus), larval and metamorphosed tailed frogs (Ascaphus truei), and torrent salamanders (Rhyacotriton spp.) at four spatial scales (2-m sample unit, intermediate, sub-drainage, and drainage). Over two field seasons (1998 and 1999), I captured 1,568 amphibians in 702 sample units in 16 randomly chosen drainages in the Oregon Coast Range. I used an information theoretic approach of analysis to rank sets of a priori candidate models that described habitat relationships at each spatial scale. At the 2-m sample unit scale, all species of interest were negatively associated with fine sediments and were positively associated with either stream width or elevation. At the intermediate spatial scale, Pacific giant salamanders, metamorphosed tailed frogs, and torrent salamanders were positively associated with the presence of a 150-ft. forested band on each side of the stream, and larval tailed frogs were positively associated with the presence of forest >105 years old on at least one side of the stream. At the sub-drainage and drainage scales, all species were positively associated with the proportion of stream length in a sub-drainage or drainage with a 150-ft. forested band on each side of the stream. Heat load index (aspect) was also important for Pacific giant salamanders and larval tailed frogs at the intermediate and sub-drainage scales. Results at all spatial scales suggest that Pacific giant salamanders and larval tailed frogs occur lower in the drainage network, and metamorphosed tailed frogs and torrent salamanders occur higher in the drainage network. This study demonstrates the importance of examining headwater stream amphibian habitat at multiple spatial scales, provides insights on linkages between amphibian responses across spatial scales, and shows that broad-scale variables (e.g., the presence of forested bands or the percentage of stream length with forested bands) can be used to assess management approaches for stream amphibian communities. Geophysical characteristics such as stream aspect may also help identify areas that should not be harvested if protection of amphibian habitat is an objective. Title: The influence of forest management on headwater stream amphibians at multiple spatial scales Author: Stoddard, Margo A. To effectively manage for biodiversity at broad, ecosystem scales, the influences of habitat structure at multiple spatial scales on vertebrate species must be understood. There are few studies on the broad-scale habitat requirements of stream amphibians despite their importance in streams in forest ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) as predators and prey, and potentially as indicators of ecosystem health. In particular, studies on the influence of forest structure at landscape scales on stream amphibians are lacking. I examined stream amphibian-habitat relationships for Pacific giant salamanders (Dicamptodon tenebrosus), larval and metamorphosed tailed frogs (Ascaphus truei), and torrent salamanders (Rhyacotriton spp.) at four spatial scales (2-m sample unit, intermediate, sub-drainage, and drainage). Over two field seasons (1998 and 1999), I captured 1,568 amphibians in 702 sample units in 16 randomly chosen drainages in the Oregon Coast Range. I used an information theoretic approach of analysis to rank sets of a priori candidate models that described habitat relationships at each spatial scale. At the 2-m sample unit scale, all species of interest were negatively associated with fine sediments and were positively associated with either stream width or elevation. At the intermediate spatial scale, Pacific giant salamanders, metamorphosed tailed frogs, and torrent salamanders were positively associated with the presence of a 150-ft. forested band on each side of the stream, and larval tailed frogs were positively associated with the presence of forest >105 years old on at least one side of the stream. At the sub-drainage and drainage scales, all species were positively associated with the proportion of stream length in a sub-drainage or drainage with a 150-ft. forested band on each side of the stream. Heat load index (aspect) was also important for Pacific giant salamanders and larval tailed frogs at the intermediate and sub-drainage scales. Results at all spatial scales suggest that Pacific giant salamanders and larval tailed frogs occur lower in the drainage network, and metamorphosed tailed frogs and torrent salamanders occur higher in the drainage network. This study demonstrates the importance of examining headwater stream amphibian habitat at multiple spatial scales, provides insights on linkages between amphibian responses across spatial scales, and shows that broad-scale variables (e.g., the presence of forested bands or the percentage of stream length with forested bands) can be used to assess management approaches for stream amphibian communities. Geophysical characteristics such as stream aspect may also help identify areas that should not be harvested if protection of amphibian habitat is an objective. Close

• 462. [Article] Total aboveground biomass and structure of tropical forest delineated by Projeto RADAMBRASIL in northern Rondonia, Brazil

  Tropical forests are of global importance with respect to their influence on biogeochemical cycles, climatic patterns, and as large reservoirs of biodiversity. Yet, few studies have quantified their structure, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Total aboveground biomass and structure of tropical forest delineated by Projeto RADAMBRASIL in northern Rondonia, Brazil Author: Cummings, Dian Lyn Tropical forests are of global importance with respect to their influence on biogeochemical cycles, climatic patterns, and as large reservoirs of biodiversity. Yet, few studies have quantified their structure, biomass, and carbon pools; basic information necessary to better understand the global function of tropical forests. The RADAMBRASIL project was conducted in the 1970's to inventory Brazil's natural resources. Describing a relationship between total aboveground biomass (TAGB) and the RADAMBRASIL forest inventories could add to the usefulness of RADAMBRASIL data base for the estimation of TAGB and carbon pools of the Amazon Basin. Our study quantified TAGB and forest structure of 20 undisturbed primary forest stands that were a part of Projeto RADAMBRASIL. This study was located in Rondonia, Brazil; an area in which a large portion of Amazonian deforestation occurred. TAGB ranged from 533 Mg ha-1 in a dense forest site to 288 Mg ha-1 in an open forest site with a mean TAGB of 341 Mg ha-1. TAGB and structure in each stand was described by partitioning and measuring the vegetation components. Non-tree components included palm, vines, litter, rootmat, and dead vegetation. The non-tree component of TAGB was highly variable (i.e.; 12% and 41%). We tested the hypothesis that there was a high correlation between these enumerated TAGB estimates from our study and predictive models that use commercial volumes from RADAMBRASIL to estimate TAGB (Fearnside, 1992 and Brown and Lugo 1992). No significant correlation was found between the modeled TAGB and the field measured TAG B. The Brown and Lugo model underestimated the mean for dense forests by > 1 00 Mg ha-1 (28%), conversely the Fearnside model overestimated the mean for open forests by > 100Mg ha-1(35%). No correlation was found between the TAGB estimates from this study and commercial volume reported in RADAMBRASIL, therefore no model was possible for TAGB based on commercial volume. Determining relationships between classifications from forest inventories and actual biomass data could improve models of global climate change and biogeochemical cycles. Given results from this study, current estimates of TAGB for Amazonian rainforests that are lower than 290 Mg ha-1 based upon forest inventories should be viewed with caution. Title: Total aboveground biomass and structure of tropical forest delineated by Projeto RADAMBRASIL in northern Rondonia, Brazil Author: Cummings, Dian Lyn Tropical forests are of global importance with respect to their influence on biogeochemical cycles, climatic patterns, and as large reservoirs of biodiversity. Yet, few studies have quantified their structure, biomass, and carbon pools; basic information necessary to better understand the global function of tropical forests. The RADAMBRASIL project was conducted in the 1970's to inventory Brazil's natural resources. Describing a relationship between total aboveground biomass (TAGB) and the RADAMBRASIL forest inventories could add to the usefulness of RADAMBRASIL data base for the estimation of TAGB and carbon pools of the Amazon Basin. Our study quantified TAGB and forest structure of 20 undisturbed primary forest stands that were a part of Projeto RADAMBRASIL. This study was located in Rondonia, Brazil; an area in which a large portion of Amazonian deforestation occurred. TAGB ranged from 533 Mg ha-1 in a dense forest site to 288 Mg ha-1 in an open forest site with a mean TAGB of 341 Mg ha-1. TAGB and structure in each stand was described by partitioning and measuring the vegetation components. Non-tree components included palm, vines, litter, rootmat, and dead vegetation. The non-tree component of TAGB was highly variable (i.e.; 12% and 41%). We tested the hypothesis that there was a high correlation between these enumerated TAGB estimates from our study and predictive models that use commercial volumes from RADAMBRASIL to estimate TAGB (Fearnside, 1992 and Brown and Lugo 1992). No significant correlation was found between the modeled TAGB and the field measured TAG B. The Brown and Lugo model underestimated the mean for dense forests by > 1 00 Mg ha-1 (28%), conversely the Fearnside model overestimated the mean for open forests by > 100Mg ha-1(35%). No correlation was found between the TAGB estimates from this study and commercial volume reported in RADAMBRASIL, therefore no model was possible for TAGB based on commercial volume. Determining relationships between classifications from forest inventories and actual biomass data could improve models of global climate change and biogeochemical cycles. Given results from this study, current estimates of TAGB for Amazonian rainforests that are lower than 290 Mg ha-1 based upon forest inventories should be viewed with caution. Close

• 463. [Article] Comparison of stand development of a deciduous-dominated riparian forest and a coniferous-dominated riparian forest in the Oregon Coast Range

  Riparian forests in the central Oregon Coast Range vary along a coniferous-deciduous compositional continuum. Variations in structure and composition affect water quality, fish and wildlife, biodiversity, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Comparison of stand development of a deciduous-dominated riparian forest and a coniferous-dominated riparian forest in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Poage, Nathan Jeremy Riparian forests in the central Oregon Coast Range vary along a coniferous-deciduous compositional continuum. Variations in structure and composition affect water quality, fish and wildlife, biodiversity, timber, and aesthetics. A retrospective approach was taken in this study in order to understand and compare the structure, pattern, and history of an unmanaged, mature, deciduous-dominated riparian forest and an unmanaged, mature, coniferous-dominated riparian forest in the central Oregon Coast Range. Information on forest structure and pattern was acquired by mapping locations of all trees and snags (DBH 5cm) within a 2.0 ha and a 2.25 ha reference stand. The history of each stand was reconstructed through analyses of stand structure and composition, tree ages, spatial patterns of trees and snags, as well as detailed field observations. The structure and composition of the two forests is very different. Non-random patterns of trees and snags were observed at multiple scales. Although it is not possible to infer directly the process(es) responsible for observed patterns, point-pattern analysis is a useful tool to detect and describe intra- and interspecific patterns. Neither forest resulted from a single, stand-replacing fire. Instead, both sites were at least partially burned about 145 years ago, possibly in the same fire(s) which spread across an estimated 500,000 acres between the Siuslaw and Siletz Rivers in the mid-1800's (Morris 1934). There is good evidence to suggest that a second fire occurred at the coniferous-dominated site. One or two other fires may have occurred at the deciduous-dominated site. Evidence of wind, herbivory, flooding, pathogens, mass movement events, and non-stand replacing fire was observed at one or both of the sites. Seed source availability as affected by disturbance history may have played a role in forest development at both sites. The seed source availability of red alder relative to Douglas-fir may have increased with successive disturbance events at the deciduous-dominated, riparian forest. A local source of western hemlock seed may have been a key factor in the development of the coniferous-dominated, riparian forest. Title: Comparison of stand development of a deciduous-dominated riparian forest and a coniferous-dominated riparian forest in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Poage, Nathan Jeremy Riparian forests in the central Oregon Coast Range vary along a coniferous-deciduous compositional continuum. Variations in structure and composition affect water quality, fish and wildlife, biodiversity, timber, and aesthetics. A retrospective approach was taken in this study in order to understand and compare the structure, pattern, and history of an unmanaged, mature, deciduous-dominated riparian forest and an unmanaged, mature, coniferous-dominated riparian forest in the central Oregon Coast Range. Information on forest structure and pattern was acquired by mapping locations of all trees and snags (DBH 5cm) within a 2.0 ha and a 2.25 ha reference stand. The history of each stand was reconstructed through analyses of stand structure and composition, tree ages, spatial patterns of trees and snags, as well as detailed field observations. The structure and composition of the two forests is very different. Non-random patterns of trees and snags were observed at multiple scales. Although it is not possible to infer directly the process(es) responsible for observed patterns, point-pattern analysis is a useful tool to detect and describe intra- and interspecific patterns. Neither forest resulted from a single, stand-replacing fire. Instead, both sites were at least partially burned about 145 years ago, possibly in the same fire(s) which spread across an estimated 500,000 acres between the Siuslaw and Siletz Rivers in the mid-1800's (Morris 1934). There is good evidence to suggest that a second fire occurred at the coniferous-dominated site. One or two other fires may have occurred at the deciduous-dominated site. Evidence of wind, herbivory, flooding, pathogens, mass movement events, and non-stand replacing fire was observed at one or both of the sites. Seed source availability as affected by disturbance history may have played a role in forest development at both sites. The seed source availability of red alder relative to Douglas-fir may have increased with successive disturbance events at the deciduous-dominated, riparian forest. A local source of western hemlock seed may have been a key factor in the development of the coniferous-dominated, riparian forest. Close

• 464. [Article] Relationship between plant and butterfly community composition on upland prairies of the Willamette Valley, Oregon

  Small remnants of 'natural' habitats exist today throughout much of the world. Upland prairies in the Willamette Valley, Oregon have been nearly eliminated by conversion to agriculture and other uses. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Relationship between plant and butterfly community composition on upland prairies of the Willamette Valley, Oregon Author: York, Melissa M. Small remnants of 'natural' habitats exist today throughout much of the world. Upland prairies in the Willamette Valley, Oregon have been nearly eliminated by conversion to agriculture and other uses. As a result, very few prairies remain and at least four butterfly species that require this habitat appear to be locally uncommon. To better understand requirements for conservation and management of upland prairies and the species that depend on them, I investigated plant abundance and species richness, butterfly abundance and species richness, and prairie integrity on 17 prairie remnants. To evaluate the relationship between prairie integrity and butterfly community composition, integrity was defined by abundance and species richness of native, prairie plant species. Because little is known about the habitat requirements of prairie-dwelling organisms, I also investigated juvenile and adult food resource use and spatial patterns associated with resource use by four locally uncommon butterfly species: common checkered-skipper, Fender's blue, Anise swallowtail, and field crescent. Plant species used and not used for nectaring and oviposition and spatial relationships between the two were explored for each butterfly species. My study provides evidence that remnants, including small, degraded sites, serve as refuges for locally uncommon butterfly species. The greatest mean number of butterfly species was detected on sites of high integrity, but total butterfly abundance at all but one unique site was similar to that of low and medium integrity sites. Butterfly species richness appeared to be positively associated with remnant integrity while factors other than remnant integrity as defined here may be influential on butterfly abundance. Furthermore, I suggest that the locally uncommon butterflies studied here have specific habitat requirements and this likely contributed to their sparse distribution. Although host plant abundance did not appear to limit butterfly distributions within either site, I lacked sufficient sample sizes necessary to make strong inferences. Factors other than, or in combination, with host plant occurrence, such as presence of Composite nectar species and native plant abundance, may be important in determining their distribution within a site. Lack of large areas of habitat and incidence of uncommon species on remnants makes it imperative that we conserve biodiversity by the maintenance, improvement, and protection of some very small areas. Title: Relationship between plant and butterfly community composition on upland prairies of the Willamette Valley, Oregon Author: York, Melissa M. Small remnants of 'natural' habitats exist today throughout much of the world. Upland prairies in the Willamette Valley, Oregon have been nearly eliminated by conversion to agriculture and other uses. As a result, very few prairies remain and at least four butterfly species that require this habitat appear to be locally uncommon. To better understand requirements for conservation and management of upland prairies and the species that depend on them, I investigated plant abundance and species richness, butterfly abundance and species richness, and prairie integrity on 17 prairie remnants. To evaluate the relationship between prairie integrity and butterfly community composition, integrity was defined by abundance and species richness of native, prairie plant species. Because little is known about the habitat requirements of prairie-dwelling organisms, I also investigated juvenile and adult food resource use and spatial patterns associated with resource use by four locally uncommon butterfly species: common checkered-skipper, Fender's blue, Anise swallowtail, and field crescent. Plant species used and not used for nectaring and oviposition and spatial relationships between the two were explored for each butterfly species. My study provides evidence that remnants, including small, degraded sites, serve as refuges for locally uncommon butterfly species. The greatest mean number of butterfly species was detected on sites of high integrity, but total butterfly abundance at all but one unique site was similar to that of low and medium integrity sites. Butterfly species richness appeared to be positively associated with remnant integrity while factors other than remnant integrity as defined here may be influential on butterfly abundance. Furthermore, I suggest that the locally uncommon butterflies studied here have specific habitat requirements and this likely contributed to their sparse distribution. Although host plant abundance did not appear to limit butterfly distributions within either site, I lacked sufficient sample sizes necessary to make strong inferences. Factors other than, or in combination, with host plant occurrence, such as presence of Composite nectar species and native plant abundance, may be important in determining their distribution within a site. Lack of large areas of habitat and incidence of uncommon species on remnants makes it imperative that we conserve biodiversity by the maintenance, improvement, and protection of some very small areas. Close

• 465. [Article] Andean roots, coca, and grassroots development in the Bolivian Yungas : food sovereignty and agrarian change for native farmers

  Since the 1952 Bolivian agrarian reform, farmer unions have sought to establish themselves as producers for regional markets. Development strategies led by the World Bank and IMF have largely jeopardized ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Andean roots, coca, and grassroots development in the Bolivian Yungas : food sovereignty and agrarian change for native farmers Author: Piispanen, Kyle Henry Since the 1952 Bolivian agrarian reform, farmer unions have sought to establish themselves as producers for regional markets. Development strategies led by the World Bank and IMF have largely jeopardized small farmers, and challenged farmers to meet market demands. At present, a new agrarian revolution is being implemented and is conditioned by objectives, which include land redistribution, food sovereignty, and public food enterprises. This research was conducted in the Yungas region of Bolivia in isolated mountain communities that are part of the established traditional and legal area for coca growing and thus clearly integrated into the world "commodities" market via the illicit cocaine economy. Curiously, many farmers continue to grow crops for local markets, their homes, and organic coca for traditional use. Is this part of a greater movement of revolutionary agrarian policy or concern for food sovereignty in local communities? Under this context, I explore how some individual farmers and farming associations have developed a tradition of growing Andean root crops and their lived experience of their involvement in the associations. Through participant observation and ethnographic interviews with members of two Yungueño community associations and with regional technicians, this study explores how associations and individuals negotiate national and international policy, and NGO activity, in order to create specialty niche markets for native crops. This thesis argues that alternative agricultural development that has focused on coca reduction, export-oriented agriculture, and food security has, to a large extent, been a failure. Rather, local initiatives that focus on ecological coca, food sovereignty, and native crops for local markets taken together are meeting some local development goals. This study provides an opportunity for reframing development theory and expanding the literature on food sovereignty. The concept of the La Paz-El Alto food-shed is used as a tool for exploring the potential of reorienting the moral economy around food in re-creating a more sustainable food system. From the perspectives of an Andean root crop association, I explore particular challenges members face in farming in contested lands of commodity coca production. Associations begin by meeting specialty market needs for ritual uses of specialty Andean crops, and may utilize a variety of assistance programs but are determined to maintain a high level of autonomy. Associations are often cautious in searching for assistance because farmers cannot afford to lose time expanding alternative crops that could be better spent in coca production. Failure is common, and few associations achieve goals of significantly increased incomes. Rather semi-subsistence and diversification along with coca growing provide greater autonomy and sovereignty in practical terms when many of the anticipated national reforms are yet to be seen in these particular Yungueño communities. In addition, I briefly explore with farmers the environmental considerations and perspectives to climate, gardening, biodiversity loss, and the concern about the use of chemical applications. Title: Andean roots, coca, and grassroots development in the Bolivian Yungas : food sovereignty and agrarian change for native farmers Author: Piispanen, Kyle Henry Since the 1952 Bolivian agrarian reform, farmer unions have sought to establish themselves as producers for regional markets. Development strategies led by the World Bank and IMF have largely jeopardized small farmers, and challenged farmers to meet market demands. At present, a new agrarian revolution is being implemented and is conditioned by objectives, which include land redistribution, food sovereignty, and public food enterprises. This research was conducted in the Yungas region of Bolivia in isolated mountain communities that are part of the established traditional and legal area for coca growing and thus clearly integrated into the world "commodities" market via the illicit cocaine economy. Curiously, many farmers continue to grow crops for local markets, their homes, and organic coca for traditional use. Is this part of a greater movement of revolutionary agrarian policy or concern for food sovereignty in local communities? Under this context, I explore how some individual farmers and farming associations have developed a tradition of growing Andean root crops and their lived experience of their involvement in the associations. Through participant observation and ethnographic interviews with members of two Yungueño community associations and with regional technicians, this study explores how associations and individuals negotiate national and international policy, and NGO activity, in order to create specialty niche markets for native crops. This thesis argues that alternative agricultural development that has focused on coca reduction, export-oriented agriculture, and food security has, to a large extent, been a failure. Rather, local initiatives that focus on ecological coca, food sovereignty, and native crops for local markets taken together are meeting some local development goals. This study provides an opportunity for reframing development theory and expanding the literature on food sovereignty. The concept of the La Paz-El Alto food-shed is used as a tool for exploring the potential of reorienting the moral economy around food in re-creating a more sustainable food system. From the perspectives of an Andean root crop association, I explore particular challenges members face in farming in contested lands of commodity coca production. Associations begin by meeting specialty market needs for ritual uses of specialty Andean crops, and may utilize a variety of assistance programs but are determined to maintain a high level of autonomy. Associations are often cautious in searching for assistance because farmers cannot afford to lose time expanding alternative crops that could be better spent in coca production. Failure is common, and few associations achieve goals of significantly increased incomes. Rather semi-subsistence and diversification along with coca growing provide greater autonomy and sovereignty in practical terms when many of the anticipated national reforms are yet to be seen in these particular Yungueño communities. In addition, I briefly explore with farmers the environmental considerations and perspectives to climate, gardening, biodiversity loss, and the concern about the use of chemical applications. Close

• 466. [Article] A community-based approach for evaluating tradeoffs across marine ecosystem services in Oregon

  As competing uses of our coastlines increase, natural resource agencies are employing marine spatial planning (MSP) to designate areas for different uses or activities in order to reduce conflicts while ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A community-based approach for evaluating tradeoffs across marine ecosystem services in Oregon Author: Freeman, Peter M. As competing uses of our coastlines increase, natural resource agencies are employing marine spatial planning (MSP) to designate areas for different uses or activities in order to reduce conflicts while achieving ecological, economic and social objectives. A central challenge of implementing MSP is development of a rigorous approach for analyzing tradeoffs across the provision of ecosystem services (i.e., the benefits humans receive from nature). This study develops an operational approach to this problem that is founded on community-based methods, ecological production theory, and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). The approach merges ecological models with surveys to identify marine ecosystem services for use in tradeoff analysis. The approach allows for a single set of marine ecosystem services to at once be valued by local stakeholders and measured by biologists, thus connecting social and biological monitoring efforts. To develop the approach in a real-world context, I examined ecosystem services associated with nearshore marine ecosystems in Oregon, where marine reserves are being introduced for biodiversity conservation. I worked with stakeholder focus groups in three Oregon communities to identify 24 marine ecosystem services. I then linked the ecosystem services with ecological indicators, which I then consolidated to derive 11 items for use in a survey-based tradeoff analysis exercise. I administered the survey to a nonrandom sample of stakeholders in Oregon (n=31), from which their relative preferences and preference weights for ecosystem services were derived. The weights and preference measures may then be used in MSP decision-making. Furthermore, I grouped the stakeholder survey data in three ways: by location of residence (coastal vs. non-coastal), by eight categories of affiliation (e.g., business owners, conservationists, commercial and recreational fishers, etc.), and by resource use patterns. I then analyzed the various groupings of stakeholders for within- and between-group homogeneity of preferences. Results of the analyses showed that there are statistically significant variations in preferences within and between most groupings. Capturing the variations in stakeholder preferences is important when developing policies that affect different stakeholder groups. Thus, when implementing the survey instrument, I suggest random sampling of stakeholders stratified by location, affiliation, and resource use. This study provides one of the first examples of a systems-based approach to ecosystem service valuation operationalized to inform MSP, and novel features of the approach have a number of implications for advancing marine research and management. First, by using stakeholders to identify ecosystem services, the approach allows for a tailored implementation of ecosystem-based management at the community level. Second, by integrating ecological and economic information on the provision and value of ecosystem services, the approach provides relevant data for MSP decision-making during the siting, evaluation, and monitoring stages. And third, by applying both stated-preference and MCDA methods, the approach may capture the array of values represented by diverse stakeholder groups. Title: A community-based approach for evaluating tradeoffs across marine ecosystem services in Oregon Author: Freeman, Peter M. As competing uses of our coastlines increase, natural resource agencies are employing marine spatial planning (MSP) to designate areas for different uses or activities in order to reduce conflicts while achieving ecological, economic and social objectives. A central challenge of implementing MSP is development of a rigorous approach for analyzing tradeoffs across the provision of ecosystem services (i.e., the benefits humans receive from nature). This study develops an operational approach to this problem that is founded on community-based methods, ecological production theory, and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). The approach merges ecological models with surveys to identify marine ecosystem services for use in tradeoff analysis. The approach allows for a single set of marine ecosystem services to at once be valued by local stakeholders and measured by biologists, thus connecting social and biological monitoring efforts. To develop the approach in a real-world context, I examined ecosystem services associated with nearshore marine ecosystems in Oregon, where marine reserves are being introduced for biodiversity conservation. I worked with stakeholder focus groups in three Oregon communities to identify 24 marine ecosystem services. I then linked the ecosystem services with ecological indicators, which I then consolidated to derive 11 items for use in a survey-based tradeoff analysis exercise. I administered the survey to a nonrandom sample of stakeholders in Oregon (n=31), from which their relative preferences and preference weights for ecosystem services were derived. The weights and preference measures may then be used in MSP decision-making. Furthermore, I grouped the stakeholder survey data in three ways: by location of residence (coastal vs. non-coastal), by eight categories of affiliation (e.g., business owners, conservationists, commercial and recreational fishers, etc.), and by resource use patterns. I then analyzed the various groupings of stakeholders for within- and between-group homogeneity of preferences. Results of the analyses showed that there are statistically significant variations in preferences within and between most groupings. Capturing the variations in stakeholder preferences is important when developing policies that affect different stakeholder groups. Thus, when implementing the survey instrument, I suggest random sampling of stakeholders stratified by location, affiliation, and resource use. This study provides one of the first examples of a systems-based approach to ecosystem service valuation operationalized to inform MSP, and novel features of the approach have a number of implications for advancing marine research and management. First, by using stakeholders to identify ecosystem services, the approach allows for a tailored implementation of ecosystem-based management at the community level. Second, by integrating ecological and economic information on the provision and value of ecosystem services, the approach provides relevant data for MSP decision-making during the siting, evaluation, and monitoring stages. And third, by applying both stated-preference and MCDA methods, the approach may capture the array of values represented by diverse stakeholder groups. Close

• 467. [Article] Efficacy of Empirical Seed Zones: Pseudoroegneria Spicata Reproductive Phenology & Seedling Stage Traits

  Ecological restoration is needed to mitigate losses to biodiversity. Restoration success is enhanced through the use of native plant materials that are genetically diverse and locally adapted. Seed transfer ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Efficacy of Empirical Seed Zones: Pseudoroegneria Spicata Reproductive Phenology & Seedling Stage Traits Author: Prive, Kathryn A. Ecological restoration is needed to mitigate losses to biodiversity. Restoration success is enhanced through the use of native plant materials that are genetically diverse and locally adapted. Seed transfer zones have been developed to delineate geographic areas where native seed can be collected and distributed with reduced risk of maladaptation. Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) Á. Löve is a widespread bunchgrass species with recently delineated seed zones, that is used extensively for ecological restoration in the Intermountain West. In this work, I conducted two studies of seed zone efficacy for P. spicata. In the first study, I determined if genetic differences in reproductive timing exist among P. spicata populations, and whether any such differences should be considered to avoid single-harvest stabilizing selection, which would cause inadvertent genetic loss during commercial seed production. In the second study, I determined if seedling traits differ among P. spicata populations, and if seed transfer zones developed using adult traits account for these differences. I utilized linear mixed modeling, intra-class coefficient analysis, nonmetric multi-dimensional scaling, and multi-response permutation procedures to quantify differences in the timing of anthesis, ripening, and dispersal and various seedling stage phenotypic traits for P. spicata. I found that variation in the timing of anthesis is not well explained by seed zones but that there was little difference in the mean values of this trait among populations from the same seed zone. On the other hand, genetic variation in seed ripening is captured by seed zones. For the dispersal stage, a lack of strong evidence for genetic differences among populations suggests a plastic response to environmental cues. Thus, typical single-pass seed harvest techniques are not likely to cause inadvertent selection for reproductive timing when seed transfer guidelines are followed. In the second study, I found that seed zones do not account for variation in seedling traits, meaning the use of current seed zones could risk the transfer of seeds to locations where seedling recruitment and establishment are hindered. This is important, since seedling establishment is often a limiting factor in restoration success. Although I focused these studies on P. spicata, my findings of incongruences between both reproductive timing and seedling stage phenotypic traits with respect to seed transfer zones suggests that such incongruities could be commonplace among other species used in restoration. Inadvertent selection during seed increase does not appear to be a risk in P. spicata when seed transfer guidelines are followed, but more research is needed to ensure that seedling stage traits are accounted for within future native species seed transfer guidelines. Title: Efficacy of Empirical Seed Zones: Pseudoroegneria Spicata Reproductive Phenology & Seedling Stage Traits Author: Prive, Kathryn A. Ecological restoration is needed to mitigate losses to biodiversity. Restoration success is enhanced through the use of native plant materials that are genetically diverse and locally adapted. Seed transfer zones have been developed to delineate geographic areas where native seed can be collected and distributed with reduced risk of maladaptation. Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) Á. Löve is a widespread bunchgrass species with recently delineated seed zones, that is used extensively for ecological restoration in the Intermountain West. In this work, I conducted two studies of seed zone efficacy for P. spicata. In the first study, I determined if genetic differences in reproductive timing exist among P. spicata populations, and whether any such differences should be considered to avoid single-harvest stabilizing selection, which would cause inadvertent genetic loss during commercial seed production. In the second study, I determined if seedling traits differ among P. spicata populations, and if seed transfer zones developed using adult traits account for these differences. I utilized linear mixed modeling, intra-class coefficient analysis, nonmetric multi-dimensional scaling, and multi-response permutation procedures to quantify differences in the timing of anthesis, ripening, and dispersal and various seedling stage phenotypic traits for P. spicata. I found that variation in the timing of anthesis is not well explained by seed zones but that there was little difference in the mean values of this trait among populations from the same seed zone. On the other hand, genetic variation in seed ripening is captured by seed zones. For the dispersal stage, a lack of strong evidence for genetic differences among populations suggests a plastic response to environmental cues. Thus, typical single-pass seed harvest techniques are not likely to cause inadvertent selection for reproductive timing when seed transfer guidelines are followed. In the second study, I found that seed zones do not account for variation in seedling traits, meaning the use of current seed zones could risk the transfer of seeds to locations where seedling recruitment and establishment are hindered. This is important, since seedling establishment is often a limiting factor in restoration success. Although I focused these studies on P. spicata, my findings of incongruences between both reproductive timing and seedling stage phenotypic traits with respect to seed transfer zones suggests that such incongruities could be commonplace among other species used in restoration. Inadvertent selection during seed increase does not appear to be a risk in P. spicata when seed transfer guidelines are followed, but more research is needed to ensure that seedling stage traits are accounted for within future native species seed transfer guidelines. Close

• 468. [Article] Relationships of green-tree retention following timber harvest to forest growth and species composition in the western Cascade Mountains

  National Forest management in the Pacific Northwest is shifting from a focus on commodity production to ecosystem management, in which the health of the entire forest ecosystem is considered, rather than ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Relationships of green-tree retention following timber harvest to forest growth and species composition in the western Cascade Mountains Author: Rose, Coulter R. National Forest management in the Pacific Northwest is shifting from a focus on commodity production to ecosystem management, in which the health of the entire forest ecosystem is considered, rather than that of a few key species. Ecosystem management includes retention of some live trees following timber harvest (green-tree retention) to preserve biodiversity, imitating the natural fire regime of large, but patchy fires that leave many live trees. How ecosystem management will affect growth and species composition of future forests is an important question. This study takes a retrospective approach to this question by using past disturbance as an analogue to green-tree retention following timber harvest. Using USDA Forest Service timber inventory plot data from the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and SW Washington, 132 unmanaged stands were identified with a tree cohort of 70-110 years old (regeneration) or a tree cohort of 70-110 years old with an overstory of large trees 200+ years old (remnants). All stands were in the Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. zone (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). Single-aged stands represented clearcuts, while two-aged stands served as analogues to stands harvested with green-tree retention. Regeneration basal area/hectare (ba/ha) declined when remnant-tree densities exceeded about 15 remnant trees/ha (R²=0.51) in a relationship roughly described by a sigmoidal curve. Conceptually removing remnant-tree space occupancy effects decreased remnant-tree density's value as a predictor of regeneration ba/ha by about 50% at management-level remnant densities (≤45 remnant trees/ha). Thus, it appears that remnant "effects" were a result of both remnant-tree space occupancy and remnant resource use. Douglas-fir ba/ha in the regeneration also declined when remnant-tree densities exceeded about 15 remnant trees/ha (R²=0.60). Western hemlock ba/ha in the regeneration increased slightly with increasing remnant-tree densities (R²=0.19). Western redcedar ba/ha in the regeneration was apparently not related to remnant-tree density (R²=0.02). The degree of aggregation in remnant trees did not appear to affect regeneration ba/ha, but few stands contained the isolated clumps of remnant trees likely under a management scenario. Neither measured site characteristics nor regeneration density was related to regeneration ba/ha across species. Remnant-tree density was apparently unrelated to tree-species diversity in the regeneration. Total-stand ba/ha remained relatively constant across remnant densities. Title: Relationships of green-tree retention following timber harvest to forest growth and species composition in the western Cascade Mountains Author: Rose, Coulter R. National Forest management in the Pacific Northwest is shifting from a focus on commodity production to ecosystem management, in which the health of the entire forest ecosystem is considered, rather than that of a few key species. Ecosystem management includes retention of some live trees following timber harvest (green-tree retention) to preserve biodiversity, imitating the natural fire regime of large, but patchy fires that leave many live trees. How ecosystem management will affect growth and species composition of future forests is an important question. This study takes a retrospective approach to this question by using past disturbance as an analogue to green-tree retention following timber harvest. Using USDA Forest Service timber inventory plot data from the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and SW Washington, 132 unmanaged stands were identified with a tree cohort of 70-110 years old (regeneration) or a tree cohort of 70-110 years old with an overstory of large trees 200+ years old (remnants). All stands were in the Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. zone (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). Single-aged stands represented clearcuts, while two-aged stands served as analogues to stands harvested with green-tree retention. Regeneration basal area/hectare (ba/ha) declined when remnant-tree densities exceeded about 15 remnant trees/ha (R²=0.51) in a relationship roughly described by a sigmoidal curve. Conceptually removing remnant-tree space occupancy effects decreased remnant-tree density's value as a predictor of regeneration ba/ha by about 50% at management-level remnant densities (≤45 remnant trees/ha). Thus, it appears that remnant "effects" were a result of both remnant-tree space occupancy and remnant resource use. Douglas-fir ba/ha in the regeneration also declined when remnant-tree densities exceeded about 15 remnant trees/ha (R²=0.60). Western hemlock ba/ha in the regeneration increased slightly with increasing remnant-tree densities (R²=0.19). Western redcedar ba/ha in the regeneration was apparently not related to remnant-tree density (R²=0.02). The degree of aggregation in remnant trees did not appear to affect regeneration ba/ha, but few stands contained the isolated clumps of remnant trees likely under a management scenario. Neither measured site characteristics nor regeneration density was related to regeneration ba/ha across species. Remnant-tree density was apparently unrelated to tree-species diversity in the regeneration. Total-stand ba/ha remained relatively constant across remnant densities. Close

• 469. [Article] Effects of pesticides on amphibians with special reference to the pyrethroid insecticide, cypermethrin

  Pollution by pesticides is a ubiquitous concern for wildlife. The effects of pesticides are especially concerning in aquatic environments, which are particularly vulnerable as they have several exposure ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of pesticides on amphibians with special reference to the pyrethroid insecticide, cypermethrin Author: Biga, Lindsay M. Pollution by pesticides is a ubiquitous concern for wildlife. The effects of pesticides are especially concerning in aquatic environments, which are particularly vulnerable as they have several exposure routes for the influx of chemicals. These effects are of particular concern as biodiversity loss reaches unprecedented rates. This includes recent declines of amphibian populations and loss of amphibian species. Pesticide exposure may contribute to some amphibian populations and extinctions. This dissertation explores the effects of pesticides on amphibians, with particular reference to the pyrethroid insecticide cypermethrin. I first synthesized acute toxicity data of pesticides for amphibians from the literature (Chapter 2). Using 96h LC50 values for amphibian larvae exposed to insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, I determined that amphibian species cannot be systematically classified as sensitive or tolerant to pesticides. Rather, relative acute lethal toxicities varied among species and between chemicals and types of pesticides even within a species, indicating that no amphibian species from this analysis can represent anticipated toxic effects to all amphibians. I next examined the differences in sensitivity to cypermethrin among three developmental stages for three anuran (frog) species (Chapter 3). I experimentally exposed embryos, recently hatched larvae and larvae with limb buds to cypermethrin in the laboratory. Exposure to cypermethrin had lethal and sublethal effects on some species and stages, but not all. The Pacific treefrog (Pseudacris regilla) was the most sensitive species and the early larval stage was the most sensitive for these three species. Additionally, cypermethrin exposure induced abnormal behavior in response to prodding for some species and stages. These results indicate differences in sensitivity to cypermethrin among species of amphibians. To further understand differences in sensitivity to pesticides among amphibians, I compared how three populations of P. regilla responded to cypermethrin exposure (Chapter 4). I performed a time-to-death assay in the laboratory, exposing newly hatched larvae from each population to cypermethrin under identical conditions. All populations had high rates of mortality when exposed to cypermethrin compared to unexposed controls and populations varied in the time to death. Moreover, exposed individuals were smaller than unexposed controls. Interestingly, population sensitivity did not appear to be associated with proximity to agriculture, but rather with elevation gradient, indicating that an evolved tolerance to pesticide exposure is not the mechanism for the differences in sensitivity observed here. To investigate the effects of cypermethrin on amphibians within a community context, I studied exposure in mesocosms (Chapter 5). I set up semi-natural aquatic ponds in enclosures that contained zooplankton, phytoplankton, and periphyton along with amphibian larvae. I experimentally exposed these mesocosms to cypermethrin and measured the effects on the amphibians and the other members of the community. Cypermethrin affected the entire aquatic community, even at the lowest dose, indicating the direct and indirect deleterious effects of cypermethrin on both invertebrate and vertebrate species in an aquatic community. This dissertation provides needed data on the effects of the pyrethroid insecticide cypermethrin on amphibians and their communities. Understanding the toxicity of newer, commonly used pesticides to non-target organisms is important as conservation biologists and managers make efforts to combat future amphibian population declines which may be associated with chemicals in the environment. Title: Effects of pesticides on amphibians with special reference to the pyrethroid insecticide, cypermethrin Author: Biga, Lindsay M. Pollution by pesticides is a ubiquitous concern for wildlife. The effects of pesticides are especially concerning in aquatic environments, which are particularly vulnerable as they have several exposure routes for the influx of chemicals. These effects are of particular concern as biodiversity loss reaches unprecedented rates. This includes recent declines of amphibian populations and loss of amphibian species. Pesticide exposure may contribute to some amphibian populations and extinctions. This dissertation explores the effects of pesticides on amphibians, with particular reference to the pyrethroid insecticide cypermethrin. I first synthesized acute toxicity data of pesticides for amphibians from the literature (Chapter 2). Using 96h LC50 values for amphibian larvae exposed to insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, I determined that amphibian species cannot be systematically classified as sensitive or tolerant to pesticides. Rather, relative acute lethal toxicities varied among species and between chemicals and types of pesticides even within a species, indicating that no amphibian species from this analysis can represent anticipated toxic effects to all amphibians. I next examined the differences in sensitivity to cypermethrin among three developmental stages for three anuran (frog) species (Chapter 3). I experimentally exposed embryos, recently hatched larvae and larvae with limb buds to cypermethrin in the laboratory. Exposure to cypermethrin had lethal and sublethal effects on some species and stages, but not all. The Pacific treefrog (Pseudacris regilla) was the most sensitive species and the early larval stage was the most sensitive for these three species. Additionally, cypermethrin exposure induced abnormal behavior in response to prodding for some species and stages. These results indicate differences in sensitivity to cypermethrin among species of amphibians. To further understand differences in sensitivity to pesticides among amphibians, I compared how three populations of P. regilla responded to cypermethrin exposure (Chapter 4). I performed a time-to-death assay in the laboratory, exposing newly hatched larvae from each population to cypermethrin under identical conditions. All populations had high rates of mortality when exposed to cypermethrin compared to unexposed controls and populations varied in the time to death. Moreover, exposed individuals were smaller than unexposed controls. Interestingly, population sensitivity did not appear to be associated with proximity to agriculture, but rather with elevation gradient, indicating that an evolved tolerance to pesticide exposure is not the mechanism for the differences in sensitivity observed here. To investigate the effects of cypermethrin on amphibians within a community context, I studied exposure in mesocosms (Chapter 5). I set up semi-natural aquatic ponds in enclosures that contained zooplankton, phytoplankton, and periphyton along with amphibian larvae. I experimentally exposed these mesocosms to cypermethrin and measured the effects on the amphibians and the other members of the community. Cypermethrin affected the entire aquatic community, even at the lowest dose, indicating the direct and indirect deleterious effects of cypermethrin on both invertebrate and vertebrate species in an aquatic community. This dissertation provides needed data on the effects of the pyrethroid insecticide cypermethrin on amphibians and their communities. Understanding the toxicity of newer, commonly used pesticides to non-target organisms is important as conservation biologists and managers make efforts to combat future amphibian population declines which may be associated with chemicals in the environment. Close

• 470. [Article] Evolutionary Insights into Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis from Natural Variation in Aiptasia Sea Anemones

  Mutualistic associations between corals and symbiotic microalgae of the genus Symbiodium power tropical reef ecosystems, hotspots of marine biodiversity that buffer coastlines, support tourism- and fisheries-based ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evolutionary Insights into Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis from Natural Variation in Aiptasia Sea Anemones Author: Bellis, Emily S Mutualistic associations between corals and symbiotic microalgae of the genus Symbiodium power tropical reef ecosystems, hotspots of marine biodiversity that buffer coastlines, support tourism- and fisheries-based economies, and offer untapped potential for discovery of novel pharmaceutical compounds. However, reef ecosystems are declining at an alarming rate, in large part due to severe episodes of coral bleaching, or breakdown of the coral-Symbiodinium symbiosis. The sea anemone Aiptasia has emerged as a laboratory model system for understanding coral-Symbiodinium interactions at multiple biological levels. To further develop Aiptasia as an evolutionary model system, the goal of my dissertation work was to characterize natural variation in Aiptasia-Symbiodinium symbioses by (1) examining genome-wide polymorphism among global anemone lineages, (2) experimentally evaluating natural variation in bleaching response, and (3) investigating patterns of genetic variation in natural populations across diverse abiotic environments. In Chapter 2, I use low-coverage genome skimming to investigate polymorphism in well-studied laboratory strains hosting diverse Symbiodinium, revealing that higher genetic diversity exists in Aiptasia from the Western Atlantic compared to a more globally distributed lineage. I further compare polymorphisms in sliding windows across the genome to identify candidate genes under balancing and positive selection based on patterns of heterozygosity, nucleotide diversity, and Tajima’s D. In Chapter 3, I characterize bleaching of Aiptasia lab strains to different stressors and discover significant variation in responses to acute heat stress but not to cold-shock. In Chapter 4, I examine potential relationships between abiotic environmental variation and genetic variation of anemone-Symbiodinium assemblages in the wild, at four locations in Caribbean Panama where long-term environmental datasets are available. High-throughput genotyping of anemone populations revealed the presence of a closely related cryptic species, Exaiptasia brasiliensis, and striking differences in anemone abundance, distribution, and patterns of symbiont association across environments. An Aiptasia sub-population specific to the Bocas del Toro Archipelago is described, with strong differentiation compared to the global population at several loci predicted to be important for mediating interactions with Symbiodinium. Analyses further suggest that the spatial extent of clonal reproduction in natural populations could be somewhat limited. Overall, Chapters 2-4 support a widespread global Aiptasia population distributed throughout tropical and subtropical latitudes with one or more diverged lineages, diversity of both host lineages and holobiont assemblages centered in the tropical Western Atlantic, and holobiont distribution patterns that may be strongly influenced by abiotic environment. Future studies leveraging natural variation in the Aiptasia model system described here hold great promise for advancing our fundamental knowledge of the evolution of symbiotic interactions in the sea. Title: Evolutionary Insights into Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis from Natural Variation in Aiptasia Sea Anemones Author: Bellis, Emily S Mutualistic associations between corals and symbiotic microalgae of the genus Symbiodium power tropical reef ecosystems, hotspots of marine biodiversity that buffer coastlines, support tourism- and fisheries-based economies, and offer untapped potential for discovery of novel pharmaceutical compounds. However, reef ecosystems are declining at an alarming rate, in large part due to severe episodes of coral bleaching, or breakdown of the coral-Symbiodinium symbiosis. The sea anemone Aiptasia has emerged as a laboratory model system for understanding coral-Symbiodinium interactions at multiple biological levels. To further develop Aiptasia as an evolutionary model system, the goal of my dissertation work was to characterize natural variation in Aiptasia-Symbiodinium symbioses by (1) examining genome-wide polymorphism among global anemone lineages, (2) experimentally evaluating natural variation in bleaching response, and (3) investigating patterns of genetic variation in natural populations across diverse abiotic environments. In Chapter 2, I use low-coverage genome skimming to investigate polymorphism in well-studied laboratory strains hosting diverse Symbiodinium, revealing that higher genetic diversity exists in Aiptasia from the Western Atlantic compared to a more globally distributed lineage. I further compare polymorphisms in sliding windows across the genome to identify candidate genes under balancing and positive selection based on patterns of heterozygosity, nucleotide diversity, and Tajima’s D. In Chapter 3, I characterize bleaching of Aiptasia lab strains to different stressors and discover significant variation in responses to acute heat stress but not to cold-shock. In Chapter 4, I examine potential relationships between abiotic environmental variation and genetic variation of anemone-Symbiodinium assemblages in the wild, at four locations in Caribbean Panama where long-term environmental datasets are available. High-throughput genotyping of anemone populations revealed the presence of a closely related cryptic species, Exaiptasia brasiliensis, and striking differences in anemone abundance, distribution, and patterns of symbiont association across environments. An Aiptasia sub-population specific to the Bocas del Toro Archipelago is described, with strong differentiation compared to the global population at several loci predicted to be important for mediating interactions with Symbiodinium. Analyses further suggest that the spatial extent of clonal reproduction in natural populations could be somewhat limited. Overall, Chapters 2-4 support a widespread global Aiptasia population distributed throughout tropical and subtropical latitudes with one or more diverged lineages, diversity of both host lineages and holobiont assemblages centered in the tropical Western Atlantic, and holobiont distribution patterns that may be strongly influenced by abiotic environment. Future studies leveraging natural variation in the Aiptasia model system described here hold great promise for advancing our fundamental knowledge of the evolution of symbiotic interactions in the sea. Close