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• 301. [Article] Analysis of a ³²P material balance method for measuring periphyton production in flowing water

  The ³²P material balance method for measuring periphyton production and grazing rates on periphyton in streams developed by Elwood and Nelson (1972) was evaluated by laboratory and field experiments. Three ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Analysis of a ³²P material balance method for measuring periphyton production in flowing water Author: Gregory, Stanley Vincent The ³²P material balance method for measuring periphyton production and grazing rates on periphyton in streams developed by Elwood and Nelson (1972) was evaluated by laboratory and field experiments. Three basic assumptions of the method were examined: 1) sloughing of periphyton from substrates is negligible, 2) sorption of ³²P onto substrates is a biological process, and 3) recycling of ³²P into the periphyton after ingestion by grazers does not occur. Sloughing of periphyton from stream substrates was assumed negligible except in the case of freshets and dense algal mats. Sorption of ³²P onto stream substrates was mainly a biological process except on very fine sediments. Sorption of ³²P onto leaf material was a function of microbial activity, which was a function of residence time of the leaves in the stream. Recycling of ³²P into the periphyton after ingestion by grazers was a potential problem for estimating grazing rates in slow current. ³²P material balance method was verified against the change-in-standing crop method in the laboratory. The estimates of 576 mg/m²/day and 522 mg/m²/day respectively were not significantly different at the 95% confidence level. The application of the ³²P material balance method in the field was not successful. This difficulty was most likely due to the low retention time in the high gradient Cascade stream in which it was applied. The high cost of the method, extensive sampling time, and difficulties in obtaining authorization in streams with public access warranted the development of a suitable modification. The proposed modification involves the incubation of individual substrates within a net enclosure in the stream. Title: Analysis of a ³²P material balance method for measuring periphyton production in flowing water Author: Gregory, Stanley Vincent The ³²P material balance method for measuring periphyton production and grazing rates on periphyton in streams developed by Elwood and Nelson (1972) was evaluated by laboratory and field experiments. Three basic assumptions of the method were examined: 1) sloughing of periphyton from substrates is negligible, 2) sorption of ³²P onto substrates is a biological process, and 3) recycling of ³²P into the periphyton after ingestion by grazers does not occur. Sloughing of periphyton from stream substrates was assumed negligible except in the case of freshets and dense algal mats. Sorption of ³²P onto stream substrates was mainly a biological process except on very fine sediments. Sorption of ³²P onto leaf material was a function of microbial activity, which was a function of residence time of the leaves in the stream. Recycling of ³²P into the periphyton after ingestion by grazers was a potential problem for estimating grazing rates in slow current. ³²P material balance method was verified against the change-in-standing crop method in the laboratory. The estimates of 576 mg/m²/day and 522 mg/m²/day respectively were not significantly different at the 95% confidence level. The application of the ³²P material balance method in the field was not successful. This difficulty was most likely due to the low retention time in the high gradient Cascade stream in which it was applied. The high cost of the method, extensive sampling time, and difficulties in obtaining authorization in streams with public access warranted the development of a suitable modification. The proposed modification involves the incubation of individual substrates within a net enclosure in the stream. Close

• 302. [Image] Vegetative ecology of a montane mire, Crater Lake National Park, Oregon

  	ill., maps (1 col.); Typescript (photocopy); Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 1980; Includes bibliographical references
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Vegetative ecology of a montane mire, Crater Lake National Park, Oregon Author: Seyer, Susan C. Year: 1979, 2009 ill., maps (1 col.); Typescript (photocopy); Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 1980; Includes bibliographical references Title: Vegetative ecology of a montane mire, Crater Lake National Park, Oregon Author: Seyer, Susan C. Year: 1979, 2009 ill., maps (1 col.); Typescript (photocopy); Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 1980; Includes bibliographical references Close

• 303. [Article] Hydrogeologic Investigation of the Klamath Marsh, Klamath County, Oregon

  Klamath Marsh is a wetland complex that lies in the rain shadow of the Cascade Range in the Williamson River sub-basin of the Klamath Basin. The marsh lies directly east of Crater Lake in an area inundated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydrogeologic Investigation of the Klamath Marsh, Klamath County, Oregon Author: Melady, Jason Michael Year: 2002 Klamath Marsh is a wetland complex that lies in the rain shadow of the Cascade Range in the Williamson River sub-basin of the Klamath Basin. The marsh lies directly east of Crater Lake in an area inundated by pyroclastic-flow and -fall deposits from the Holocene eruptions of Mount Mazama. The physical characteristics of rocks of Pleistocene versus Pliocene age combined with NNW -striking fault systems divide the Williamson River basin into two distinct hydrogeologic regimes. The northwestern regime includes the east slope of the Cascades and consists of at least 150 m of interbedded sand, gravel, and stacks (15 to 45 m) of thin (3-5 m) and vesiculated basalt lava flows. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 150 cm near the crest of the Cascades to 50 cm near Klamath Marsh. Moderate to high yield (100 to 4000 gpm) water wells, springs and flowing wells suggest high permeability and ground water potential. The southeastern regime is underlain by Pliocene pyroclastic flows (∼ 40 m) and lava flows (>30 m). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 70 cm in the highlands to 50 cm in the lowlands. Low-yield (20-100 gpm) water wells and perched unconfined aquifers in Holocene pumice deposits suggest low permeability and low ground water potential in areas underlain by the pyroclastic flows. Volumetric analysis of inflows and outflows in Klamath Marsh for 2000 indicates approximately 86% of inflow is from groundwater and 14% from surface water, with nearly 200 x 10⁶ m³ of water removed by evapotranspiration Title: Hydrogeologic Investigation of the Klamath Marsh, Klamath County, Oregon Author: Melady, Jason Michael Year: 2002 Klamath Marsh is a wetland complex that lies in the rain shadow of the Cascade Range in the Williamson River sub-basin of the Klamath Basin. The marsh lies directly east of Crater Lake in an area inundated by pyroclastic-flow and -fall deposits from the Holocene eruptions of Mount Mazama. The physical characteristics of rocks of Pleistocene versus Pliocene age combined with NNW -striking fault systems divide the Williamson River basin into two distinct hydrogeologic regimes. The northwestern regime includes the east slope of the Cascades and consists of at least 150 m of interbedded sand, gravel, and stacks (15 to 45 m) of thin (3-5 m) and vesiculated basalt lava flows. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 150 cm near the crest of the Cascades to 50 cm near Klamath Marsh. Moderate to high yield (100 to 4000 gpm) water wells, springs and flowing wells suggest high permeability and ground water potential. The southeastern regime is underlain by Pliocene pyroclastic flows (∼ 40 m) and lava flows (>30 m). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 70 cm in the highlands to 50 cm in the lowlands. Low-yield (20-100 gpm) water wells and perched unconfined aquifers in Holocene pumice deposits suggest low permeability and low ground water potential in areas underlain by the pyroclastic flows. Volumetric analysis of inflows and outflows in Klamath Marsh for 2000 indicates approximately 86% of inflow is from groundwater and 14% from surface water, with nearly 200 x 10⁶ m³ of water removed by evapotranspiration Close

• 304. [Article] High speed motion neutron radiography of two-phase flow

  Current research in the area of two-phase flow utilizes a wide variety of sensing devices, but some limitations exist on the information which can be obtained. Neutron radiography is a feasible alternative ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: High speed motion neutron radiography of two-phase flow Author: Wang, Shou-Kong Lancelot Current research in the area of two-phase flow utilizes a wide variety of sensing devices, but some limitations exist on the information which can be obtained. Neutron radiography is a feasible alternative to "see" the two-phase flow. A system to perform neutron radiographic analysis of dynamic events which occur on the order of several milliseconds has been developed at Oregon State University. Two different methods have been used to radiograph the simulated two-phase flow. These pulsed or "flash" radiography and high speed movie neutron radiography serve as a "snapshot" with an exposure time ranging from 10 to 20 milliseconds. In high speed movie radiography, a scintillator is used to convert neutrons into light which is enhanced by an optical intensifier and then photographed by a high speed camera. Both types of radiography utilize the pulsing capability of the OSU TRIGA reactor. In order to predict the visibility of the images in two-phase flow, two computer codes, an SN program and a Monte Carlo program, have been written. The visibility is expressed in the relative neutron density on the film. The principle difficulty with this type of neutron radiography is the fogging of the image due to the large amount of scattering in the water. This difficulty can be overcome by using thin regions for the two-phase flow, heavy water instead of light water, or an anti-scatter grid. The improvement using an anti-scatter grid has been modeled with the computer programs. The results obtained in this thesis demonstrate the feasibility of using neutron radiography to obtain data in two-phase flow situations. Both movies and flash radiographs have been obtained of air bubbles in water and boiling from a heater element. The neutron radiographs of the boiling element show both nucleate boiling and film boiling. Title: High speed motion neutron radiography of two-phase flow Author: Wang, Shou-Kong Lancelot Current research in the area of two-phase flow utilizes a wide variety of sensing devices, but some limitations exist on the information which can be obtained. Neutron radiography is a feasible alternative to "see" the two-phase flow. A system to perform neutron radiographic analysis of dynamic events which occur on the order of several milliseconds has been developed at Oregon State University. Two different methods have been used to radiograph the simulated two-phase flow. These pulsed or "flash" radiography and high speed movie neutron radiography serve as a "snapshot" with an exposure time ranging from 10 to 20 milliseconds. In high speed movie radiography, a scintillator is used to convert neutrons into light which is enhanced by an optical intensifier and then photographed by a high speed camera. Both types of radiography utilize the pulsing capability of the OSU TRIGA reactor. In order to predict the visibility of the images in two-phase flow, two computer codes, an SN program and a Monte Carlo program, have been written. The visibility is expressed in the relative neutron density on the film. The principle difficulty with this type of neutron radiography is the fogging of the image due to the large amount of scattering in the water. This difficulty can be overcome by using thin regions for the two-phase flow, heavy water instead of light water, or an anti-scatter grid. The improvement using an anti-scatter grid has been modeled with the computer programs. The results obtained in this thesis demonstrate the feasibility of using neutron radiography to obtain data in two-phase flow situations. Both movies and flash radiographs have been obtained of air bubbles in water and boiling from a heater element. The neutron radiographs of the boiling element show both nucleate boiling and film boiling. Close

• 305. [Article] Modeling Macrophytes of the Columbia Slough, Oregon

  The Columbia Slough is a tidally influenced freshwater system of wetlands, channels, and lakes located within the Portland, Oregon metropolitan area at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Modeling Macrophytes of the Columbia Slough, Oregon Author: Berger, Chris, Wells, Scott A. Year: 1999 The Columbia Slough is a tidally influenced freshwater system of wetlands, channels, and lakes located within the Portland, Oregon metropolitan area at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers. It is a eutrophic water body susceptible to algae blooms and crashes and periods of high pH which violate water quality standards. High nutrient loads from groundwater principally controls algae productivity. Past structural changes to the Columbia Slough have included filling of wetlands and lakes and the construction of levees, dikes, culverts and irrigation channels. These changes have altered the natural flow dynamics creating an environment more conducive to eutrophication. A hydrodynamic and water quality model was used to evaluate management alternatives to improve water quality in the system. The model was developed using the Corps of Engineers two-dimensional, laterally averaged, dynamic water quality model, CE-QUAL-W2. CE-QUAL-W2 consists of directly coupled hydrodynamic and water quality transport. Recently, a management strategy of flow augmentation using groundwater coupled with shorter in-pool detention times has reduced algae growth. However, the resulting increase in water clarity has created an environment favorable to the growth of aquatic plants. The aquatic plants, or macrophytes, have increased water levels and detention time by increasing channel friction and blockage. Accurate predictions of hydrodynamics were essential for evaluating the water quality impact of flow management strategies. Macrophytes and epiphyton affect nutrient cycling by removing nutrients from the water column and sediment. To help evaluate the study of new management alternatives, the Columbia Slough model was expanded to simulate the water quality and hydrodynamic effects of macrophytes and epiphyton. Title: Modeling Macrophytes of the Columbia Slough, Oregon Author: Berger, Chris, Wells, Scott A. Year: 1999 The Columbia Slough is a tidally influenced freshwater system of wetlands, channels, and lakes located within the Portland, Oregon metropolitan area at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers. It is a eutrophic water body susceptible to algae blooms and crashes and periods of high pH which violate water quality standards. High nutrient loads from groundwater principally controls algae productivity. Past structural changes to the Columbia Slough have included filling of wetlands and lakes and the construction of levees, dikes, culverts and irrigation channels. These changes have altered the natural flow dynamics creating an environment more conducive to eutrophication. A hydrodynamic and water quality model was used to evaluate management alternatives to improve water quality in the system. The model was developed using the Corps of Engineers two-dimensional, laterally averaged, dynamic water quality model, CE-QUAL-W2. CE-QUAL-W2 consists of directly coupled hydrodynamic and water quality transport. Recently, a management strategy of flow augmentation using groundwater coupled with shorter in-pool detention times has reduced algae growth. However, the resulting increase in water clarity has created an environment favorable to the growth of aquatic plants. The aquatic plants, or macrophytes, have increased water levels and detention time by increasing channel friction and blockage. Accurate predictions of hydrodynamics were essential for evaluating the water quality impact of flow management strategies. Macrophytes and epiphyton affect nutrient cycling by removing nutrients from the water column and sediment. To help evaluate the study of new management alternatives, the Columbia Slough model was expanded to simulate the water quality and hydrodynamic effects of macrophytes and epiphyton. Close

• 306. [Article] On the effects of centrifugal forces in air-water two-phase flow regime transitions of an adiabatic helical geometry

  Two-phase flow in helical conduits is important in many industries where reaction between components, heat transfer, and mass transport are utilized as processes. The helical design is chosen for the effects ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On the effects of centrifugal forces in air-water two-phase flow regime transitions of an adiabatic helical geometry Author: Young, Eric P. Two-phase flow in helical conduits is important in many industries where reaction between components, heat transfer, and mass transport are utilized as processes. The helical design is chosen for the effects of secondary flow patterns that reduce axial dispersion, increased heat transfer, and also their compact design. The first is a result of the secondary flow, which continually transports fluid from the near wall region to the bulk of the flow. In single-phase chemical reactor design this secondary flow increases radial mixing and reduces axial dispersion. In heat exchanger design it increases laminar heat transfer while extending the Reynolds number range of laminar flow. A literature review of the work on helical pipe flow shows that the vast majority of the work is on toroidal single-phase flow, and analyses of two-phase flow are sparse. This dissertation addresses this void by presenting an analytical model of the stratified and annular flow regime transitions in helical conduits, by consideration of the governing equations and mechanisms for transition in the toroidal geometry including the major impact of pitch. Studies have taken a similar approach for straight inclined horizontal and vertical geometries, but none have been found which resolve two-phase flow in the curved geometry of a helix. The main issue in resolving the flow in this geometry is that of determining appropriate inter-phase momentum transfer, and the appropriate friction correlations for wall interaction. These issues are resolved to yield a novel attempt at modeling helical two-phase flow. Pitch is considered negligible in introduction of torsion, while the dominating influence of the centrifugal force is retained. The formulation of the governing equations are taken from a general vector form that is readily extended to a true helix that includes torsion. The predictive capability of the current model is compared to the data and observations of the two-phase helical flow studies available in the open literature. The new model is found to be accurate in the linear asymptote, and to correctly predict the trends of increased liquid hold-up, a shift in the transition boundary between non-stratified and stratified flows such that the non-stratified regimes are favored, and the new liquid equilibrium height calculations shift the transition between annular and intermittent flows such that the intermittent regime is favored. The current model is an improvement over the previous methods in that it has the same accuracy of prediction of linear flowing inclined flows as methods developed for the linear flow condition, and improves the prediction of curved flow regimes by correctly shifting the boundaries as described above. Title: On the effects of centrifugal forces in air-water two-phase flow regime transitions of an adiabatic helical geometry Author: Young, Eric P. Two-phase flow in helical conduits is important in many industries where reaction between components, heat transfer, and mass transport are utilized as processes. The helical design is chosen for the effects of secondary flow patterns that reduce axial dispersion, increased heat transfer, and also their compact design. The first is a result of the secondary flow, which continually transports fluid from the near wall region to the bulk of the flow. In single-phase chemical reactor design this secondary flow increases radial mixing and reduces axial dispersion. In heat exchanger design it increases laminar heat transfer while extending the Reynolds number range of laminar flow. A literature review of the work on helical pipe flow shows that the vast majority of the work is on toroidal single-phase flow, and analyses of two-phase flow are sparse. This dissertation addresses this void by presenting an analytical model of the stratified and annular flow regime transitions in helical conduits, by consideration of the governing equations and mechanisms for transition in the toroidal geometry including the major impact of pitch. Studies have taken a similar approach for straight inclined horizontal and vertical geometries, but none have been found which resolve two-phase flow in the curved geometry of a helix. The main issue in resolving the flow in this geometry is that of determining appropriate inter-phase momentum transfer, and the appropriate friction correlations for wall interaction. These issues are resolved to yield a novel attempt at modeling helical two-phase flow. Pitch is considered negligible in introduction of torsion, while the dominating influence of the centrifugal force is retained. The formulation of the governing equations are taken from a general vector form that is readily extended to a true helix that includes torsion. The predictive capability of the current model is compared to the data and observations of the two-phase helical flow studies available in the open literature. The new model is found to be accurate in the linear asymptote, and to correctly predict the trends of increased liquid hold-up, a shift in the transition boundary between non-stratified and stratified flows such that the non-stratified regimes are favored, and the new liquid equilibrium height calculations shift the transition between annular and intermittent flows such that the intermittent regime is favored. The current model is an improvement over the previous methods in that it has the same accuracy of prediction of linear flowing inclined flows as methods developed for the linear flow condition, and improves the prediction of curved flow regimes by correctly shifting the boundaries as described above. Close

• 307. [Image] Klamath River basin : reclamation met its water bank obligations, but information provided to water bank stakeholders could be improved

  	"March 2005." ; "GAO-05-283."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath River basin : reclamation met its water bank obligations, but information provided to water bank stakeholders could be improved Author: United States. Government Accountability Office Year: 2005 "March 2005." ; "GAO-05-283." Title: Klamath River basin : reclamation met its water bank obligations, but information provided to water bank stakeholders could be improved Author: United States. Government Accountability Office Year: 2005 "March 2005." ; "GAO-05-283." Close

• 308. [Article] A system analysis method for water quality management by flow augmentation

  A rapid expansion of population and industrialization in recent years has created new and difficult problems in water resources management. Prudent management of water quality will require that more efficient ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A system analysis method for water quality management by flow augmentation Author: Worley, John Larry A rapid expansion of population and industrialization in recent years has created new and difficult problems in water resources management. Prudent management of water quality will require that more efficient methods be developed for evaluating large volumes of data on complex river systems, and tabulating the results in a form readily usable by the persons responsible for decisions. The digital computer is the most promising tool for rapid analysis of these complex water problems. The objective of this thesis is the development of a digital computer program which will investigate the dissolved oxygen relationships in flowing streams and provide for automatic adjustment of flows to maintain minimum dissolved oxygen requirements. The computer program herein developed was applied to the Willamette River Basin in Northwestern Oregon to illustrate its use, but it is general in character so that it may be applied to any drainage basin. Three orders of streams including not more than sixty lengths of river (reaches) may be considered in any given study by a computer with sixty thousand digits of core storage. Limitations on the size of the river system which may be considered are imposed by computer storage capacity above the forty thousand digits needed for program use. The results of this study indicate that: 1. A digital computer using the program developed can, in a few minutes, complete an analysis which would require many man hours of manual computation time. 2. The digital computer program developed is a useful tool for investigating the oxygen relationships existing in a river system under present loadings and flows and for predicting the conditions that will be encountered under future loadings. 3. A computer program of this type could be adapted to nearly any of the quality parameters normally considered or possibly a combination of several parameters at such time as mathematical formulations describing their behavior in streams are available. Title: A system analysis method for water quality management by flow augmentation Author: Worley, John Larry A rapid expansion of population and industrialization in recent years has created new and difficult problems in water resources management. Prudent management of water quality will require that more efficient methods be developed for evaluating large volumes of data on complex river systems, and tabulating the results in a form readily usable by the persons responsible for decisions. The digital computer is the most promising tool for rapid analysis of these complex water problems. The objective of this thesis is the development of a digital computer program which will investigate the dissolved oxygen relationships in flowing streams and provide for automatic adjustment of flows to maintain minimum dissolved oxygen requirements. The computer program herein developed was applied to the Willamette River Basin in Northwestern Oregon to illustrate its use, but it is general in character so that it may be applied to any drainage basin. Three orders of streams including not more than sixty lengths of river (reaches) may be considered in any given study by a computer with sixty thousand digits of core storage. Limitations on the size of the river system which may be considered are imposed by computer storage capacity above the forty thousand digits needed for program use. The results of this study indicate that: 1. A digital computer using the program developed can, in a few minutes, complete an analysis which would require many man hours of manual computation time. 2. The digital computer program developed is a useful tool for investigating the oxygen relationships existing in a river system under present loadings and flows and for predicting the conditions that will be encountered under future loadings. 3. A computer program of this type could be adapted to nearly any of the quality parameters normally considered or possibly a combination of several parameters at such time as mathematical formulations describing their behavior in streams are available. Close

• 309. [Article] Comprehensive Characterization of Motion of a Helical Coil Due to Flow Induced Vibration

  Mechanical vibrations compromise the integrity of key components of thermal power plants. Without careful design, strong resonances during steady state operation can wear these components to the point ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Comprehensive Characterization of Motion of a Helical Coil Due to Flow Induced Vibration Author: Harmon, Paul L. (Paul Lucas) Mechanical vibrations compromise the integrity of key components of thermal power plants. Without careful design, strong resonances during steady state operation can wear these components to the point of failure, leading to an unsafe situation that may force a plant to shut down. The purpose of this research is to further the understanding of the vibrations induced in a helical coil subject to steady fluid flow. A helical coil steam generator, such as that found in most integral pressurized water reactors, appears to eliminate many flow-induced vibration concerns when compared to traditional steam generators; however this has yet to be clearly demonstrated experimentally. The objective of this work is to develop a method of characterizing the motion of a helical coil in an annulus subject to external axial-flow of water. This is accomplished by observing the motion of a helical coil mounted to an inner opaque cylinder through an outer glass tube using a high speed video camera. A mirrored image-pair is used to observe this structure from two perspectives simultaneously, allowing for three-dimensional characterization of the coil motion. The experimental facility is described in detail. The method developed herein for identifying specific points on the coil from images and mapping them to the coil location using the law of refraction is described. A Matlab code conducts temporal measurement of the coil motion. An uncertainty analysis of the coil position measurement is conducted based on geometry and refractive index which can be readily applied to measurements obtained using this method. Title: Comprehensive Characterization of Motion of a Helical Coil Due to Flow Induced Vibration Author: Harmon, Paul L. (Paul Lucas) Mechanical vibrations compromise the integrity of key components of thermal power plants. Without careful design, strong resonances during steady state operation can wear these components to the point of failure, leading to an unsafe situation that may force a plant to shut down. The purpose of this research is to further the understanding of the vibrations induced in a helical coil subject to steady fluid flow. A helical coil steam generator, such as that found in most integral pressurized water reactors, appears to eliminate many flow-induced vibration concerns when compared to traditional steam generators; however this has yet to be clearly demonstrated experimentally. The objective of this work is to develop a method of characterizing the motion of a helical coil in an annulus subject to external axial-flow of water. This is accomplished by observing the motion of a helical coil mounted to an inner opaque cylinder through an outer glass tube using a high speed video camera. A mirrored image-pair is used to observe this structure from two perspectives simultaneously, allowing for three-dimensional characterization of the coil motion. The experimental facility is described in detail. The method developed herein for identifying specific points on the coil from images and mapping them to the coil location using the law of refraction is described. A Matlab code conducts temporal measurement of the coil motion. An uncertainty analysis of the coil position measurement is conducted based on geometry and refractive index which can be readily applied to measurements obtained using this method. Close

• 310. [Article] Characterization of unsaturated zone hydrologic properties and their influence on lateral diversion in a volcanic tuff at Yucca Mountain, Nevada

  The study of the subsurface flow and distribution of water is critical to the evaluation of the unsaturated zone for a potential geologic high-level radioactive waste repository. This site is located at ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Characterization of unsaturated zone hydrologic properties and their influence on lateral diversion in a volcanic tuff at Yucca Mountain, Nevada Author: Flint, Lorraine E. The study of the subsurface flow and distribution of water is critical to the evaluation of the unsaturated zone for a potential geologic high-level radioactive waste repository. This site is located at Yucca Mountain, Nevada in the northern Mojave Desert. and was chosen on the basis of its low precipitation, deep unsaturated zone, and layered volcanic rocks providing the potential for natural hydraulic barriers to reduce the downward percolation of water through the waste storage area. The detailed characterization of hydrologic properties is necessary to evaluate the mechanisms responsible for the distribution and flow of water in the unsaturated zone. Analyses in this study have provided detailed hydrogeologic units with unique hydrologic properties and hydraulic parameters. Porosity was determined to be a useful physical property for predicting hydraulic parameters, as it relates to the largescale deterministic processes that created the volcanic rocks. The detailed property dataset, along with field measurements of moisture status, temperature, and chemistry, were used to evaluate the potential for lateral diversion in the rocks above the potential repository. It was determined that lateral diversion is a small-scale process in this natural system. On the basis of analyses performed in this study, it is suggested that large-scale diversion is not likely to occur at this site. This mechanism should not, therefore, be relied upon to perform as a natural hydraulic barrier to flow reducing percolation through the unsaturated zone. Title: Characterization of unsaturated zone hydrologic properties and their influence on lateral diversion in a volcanic tuff at Yucca Mountain, Nevada Author: Flint, Lorraine E. The study of the subsurface flow and distribution of water is critical to the evaluation of the unsaturated zone for a potential geologic high-level radioactive waste repository. This site is located at Yucca Mountain, Nevada in the northern Mojave Desert. and was chosen on the basis of its low precipitation, deep unsaturated zone, and layered volcanic rocks providing the potential for natural hydraulic barriers to reduce the downward percolation of water through the waste storage area. The detailed characterization of hydrologic properties is necessary to evaluate the mechanisms responsible for the distribution and flow of water in the unsaturated zone. Analyses in this study have provided detailed hydrogeologic units with unique hydrologic properties and hydraulic parameters. Porosity was determined to be a useful physical property for predicting hydraulic parameters, as it relates to the largescale deterministic processes that created the volcanic rocks. The detailed property dataset, along with field measurements of moisture status, temperature, and chemistry, were used to evaluate the potential for lateral diversion in the rocks above the potential repository. It was determined that lateral diversion is a small-scale process in this natural system. On the basis of analyses performed in this study, it is suggested that large-scale diversion is not likely to occur at this site. This mechanism should not, therefore, be relied upon to perform as a natural hydraulic barrier to flow reducing percolation through the unsaturated zone. Close

• 311. [Article] Hydrogeochemical Characterization of the Alvord Valley Known Geothermal Resources Area, Harney County, Oregon

  The Alvord Valley Known Geothermal Resources Area (KGRA) , located east of the Steens Mountain-Pueblo Mountains fault block in southeastern Oregon, is within the northern Basin and Range province. This ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydrogeochemical Characterization of the Alvord Valley Known Geothermal Resources Area, Harney County, Oregon Author: St. John, Anna Maria Year: 1993 The Alvord Valley Known Geothermal Resources Area (KGRA) , located east of the Steens Mountain-Pueblo Mountains fault block in southeastern Oregon, is within the northern Basin and Range province. This investigation focuses on three thermal areas in the Alvord Basin: Borax Lake and the hot springs north of Borax Lake, Alvord Hot Springs and Mickey Springs. Mickey Springs and the springs north of Borax Lake are boiling at the surface (94 and 95° C, respectively). Inflow temperatures to Borax Lake, measured at a depth of 30 m, are greater than 100° C. Surface temperatures for Alvord Hot Springs and a flowing well northeast of Borax Lake are 78 and 59° C, respectively. Thermal fluids issue from Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. While silica sinter deposits are present at all three thermal areas, sinter is not presently being deposited. Minor calcite is being deposited at the springs north of Borax Lake. The springs discharge from N to NEstriking, high-angle, basin-bounding faults along the base of Steens Mountain and Mickey Mountain and NE-striking intrabasinal faults south of Alvord Lake. The thermal waters are dilute sodium-bicarbonate waters with significant amounts of sulfate and chloride. Conservative element plots (B, F, and Li vs. Cl) indicate good correlation between Cl and the other conservative elements. These correlations could result from mixing of thermal water with a dilute cold water or fluid evolution due to increased fluid-rock interaction, evaporation, and steam loss due to boiling. The small variations in chloride concentrations of thermal fluids during the sampling period argues against mixing of thermal fluids with cold water. The geothermal system is a hot-water rather than a vapordominated system. The ỎD content of thermal fluids is similar to the ỎD content of local cold water wells, springs, basinal pore fluids at a depth of 4 to 5 m, and perennial streams. Similarities in ỎD values indicate recharge for geothermal fluids is precipitation from the Steens Mountain fault block. The Ỏ18 content of thermal fluids is shifted 2 to 3°/oo to the right of the world meteoric water line indicating fluid-rock interaction at elevated temperatures in the reservoir. Tritium contents indicate relatively long residence times and/or low-velocity circulation of meteoric water through basement rocks. Values range from 0 to 0.25 T.U. The application of two end-member models, which calculate fluid residence times, generate a minimum of 57 years and a maximum of greater than 10,000 years. Estimated reservoir temperatures based on cation and silica geothermometry are between 170 and 200°C. Oxygensulfate isotope geothermometer estimates indicate reservoir temperatures between 198 and 207' C for Borax Lake and Alvord Hot Springs. Mickey Springs and a flowing well northeast of Borax Lake yield temperature estimates of 168 and 150° C, respectively. These values indicate partial reequilibration of the isotopic system. The Ỏ13C contents of carbon dioxide and methane of gas discharges from the thermal areas are similar to geothermal fluids from other sites. The Ỏ13C of methane indicate "normal" geothermal methane for Alvord Hot Springs and Mickey Springs (-27.8 and -27.6, respectively). The Ỏ13C of CH4 for springs north of Borax Lake (-33.6) indicates a small amount of thermogenic methane may be contributed by thermal alteration of organics in basinal sediments. The Ỏ13C contents for C02 at Alvord Hot Springs and Borax Lake are within the range expected for atmospheric, fumarolic, or mantle derived C02 (-6.5 and -6.6, respectively). The Ỏ13C content of C02 from Mickey Springs is isotopically lighter than gas released from fumaroles or the mantle (-9.4). N2/Ar ratios for Mickey Springs and Borax Lake gases (39.2 and 40.8, respectively) indicate interaction with airsaturated ground water during flow through the the zone of aeration. Helium is enriched relative to Ar and N2 in gas discharges from Alvord Hot Springs, indicating longer fluid residence times and/or increased crustal interaction at high temperatures. Ratios of B/Cl indicate the fluid reservoir is hosted in volcanic rocks. The Li/Cs ratios for the Borax Lake thermal area are consistent with a reservoir located in rhyoli tic rocks. The 228Ra/226Ra content of Borax Lake thermal fluids (1.14 ± 0.13 dpm/kg) indicates interaction with volcanic rocks for Borax Lake. The 228Ra/226Ra content of thermal fluids from Alvord Hot Springs and Mickey Springs (0.38~0.02 and 0.17 ~ 0.09) are lower than those expected for volcanic rocks and may indicate local uranium accumulation in the reservoir or zones of upflow. The 87Sr / 86Sr values for thermal waters and stratigraphic uni ts indicate the fluid reservoir is located in volcanic rocks beneath Steens Basalt. Equilibration of fluids in these units argues for thermal water circulation depths of 2 to 2.5 km in the Borax Lake thermal area, greater than 3 km in the Alvord Hot Springs area and 1 to 2 km in the Mickey Springs area. Data presented in this study do not preclude a single large deep reservoir system discharging at these three thermal areas in the Alvord basin. Differences in the chemical and isotopic composition of discharge from the three thermal areas are produced during upf low from the reservoir. During upflow, thermal waters follow a complex pathway of vertical and lateral fractures which includes short residence times in shallow reservoirs before reaching the surface. Boiling, mixing with condensate, oxidation, mixing with 1-3% tritium-bearing, near-surface cold water, relative differences in flow rate and volume, and slow cooling without vigorous boiling are processes that modify fluid composition during upflow from the deep geothermal reservoir. Title: Hydrogeochemical Characterization of the Alvord Valley Known Geothermal Resources Area, Harney County, Oregon Author: St. John, Anna Maria Year: 1993 The Alvord Valley Known Geothermal Resources Area (KGRA) , located east of the Steens Mountain-Pueblo Mountains fault block in southeastern Oregon, is within the northern Basin and Range province. This investigation focuses on three thermal areas in the Alvord Basin: Borax Lake and the hot springs north of Borax Lake, Alvord Hot Springs and Mickey Springs. Mickey Springs and the springs north of Borax Lake are boiling at the surface (94 and 95° C, respectively). Inflow temperatures to Borax Lake, measured at a depth of 30 m, are greater than 100° C. Surface temperatures for Alvord Hot Springs and a flowing well northeast of Borax Lake are 78 and 59° C, respectively. Thermal fluids issue from Quaternary lacustrine and alluvial deposits. While silica sinter deposits are present at all three thermal areas, sinter is not presently being deposited. Minor calcite is being deposited at the springs north of Borax Lake. The springs discharge from N to NEstriking, high-angle, basin-bounding faults along the base of Steens Mountain and Mickey Mountain and NE-striking intrabasinal faults south of Alvord Lake. The thermal waters are dilute sodium-bicarbonate waters with significant amounts of sulfate and chloride. Conservative element plots (B, F, and Li vs. Cl) indicate good correlation between Cl and the other conservative elements. These correlations could result from mixing of thermal water with a dilute cold water or fluid evolution due to increased fluid-rock interaction, evaporation, and steam loss due to boiling. The small variations in chloride concentrations of thermal fluids during the sampling period argues against mixing of thermal fluids with cold water. The geothermal system is a hot-water rather than a vapordominated system. The ỎD content of thermal fluids is similar to the ỎD content of local cold water wells, springs, basinal pore fluids at a depth of 4 to 5 m, and perennial streams. Similarities in ỎD values indicate recharge for geothermal fluids is precipitation from the Steens Mountain fault block. The Ỏ18 content of thermal fluids is shifted 2 to 3°/oo to the right of the world meteoric water line indicating fluid-rock interaction at elevated temperatures in the reservoir. Tritium contents indicate relatively long residence times and/or low-velocity circulation of meteoric water through basement rocks. Values range from 0 to 0.25 T.U. The application of two end-member models, which calculate fluid residence times, generate a minimum of 57 years and a maximum of greater than 10,000 years. Estimated reservoir temperatures based on cation and silica geothermometry are between 170 and 200°C. Oxygensulfate isotope geothermometer estimates indicate reservoir temperatures between 198 and 207' C for Borax Lake and Alvord Hot Springs. Mickey Springs and a flowing well northeast of Borax Lake yield temperature estimates of 168 and 150° C, respectively. These values indicate partial reequilibration of the isotopic system. The Ỏ13C contents of carbon dioxide and methane of gas discharges from the thermal areas are similar to geothermal fluids from other sites. The Ỏ13C of methane indicate "normal" geothermal methane for Alvord Hot Springs and Mickey Springs (-27.8 and -27.6, respectively). The Ỏ13C of CH4 for springs north of Borax Lake (-33.6) indicates a small amount of thermogenic methane may be contributed by thermal alteration of organics in basinal sediments. The Ỏ13C contents for C02 at Alvord Hot Springs and Borax Lake are within the range expected for atmospheric, fumarolic, or mantle derived C02 (-6.5 and -6.6, respectively). The Ỏ13C content of C02 from Mickey Springs is isotopically lighter than gas released from fumaroles or the mantle (-9.4). N2/Ar ratios for Mickey Springs and Borax Lake gases (39.2 and 40.8, respectively) indicate interaction with airsaturated ground water during flow through the the zone of aeration. Helium is enriched relative to Ar and N2 in gas discharges from Alvord Hot Springs, indicating longer fluid residence times and/or increased crustal interaction at high temperatures. Ratios of B/Cl indicate the fluid reservoir is hosted in volcanic rocks. The Li/Cs ratios for the Borax Lake thermal area are consistent with a reservoir located in rhyoli tic rocks. The 228Ra/226Ra content of Borax Lake thermal fluids (1.14 ± 0.13 dpm/kg) indicates interaction with volcanic rocks for Borax Lake. The 228Ra/226Ra content of thermal fluids from Alvord Hot Springs and Mickey Springs (0.38~0.02 and 0.17 ~ 0.09) are lower than those expected for volcanic rocks and may indicate local uranium accumulation in the reservoir or zones of upflow. The 87Sr / 86Sr values for thermal waters and stratigraphic uni ts indicate the fluid reservoir is located in volcanic rocks beneath Steens Basalt. Equilibration of fluids in these units argues for thermal water circulation depths of 2 to 2.5 km in the Borax Lake thermal area, greater than 3 km in the Alvord Hot Springs area and 1 to 2 km in the Mickey Springs area. Data presented in this study do not preclude a single large deep reservoir system discharging at these three thermal areas in the Alvord basin. Differences in the chemical and isotopic composition of discharge from the three thermal areas are produced during upf low from the reservoir. During upflow, thermal waters follow a complex pathway of vertical and lateral fractures which includes short residence times in shallow reservoirs before reaching the surface. Boiling, mixing with condensate, oxidation, mixing with 1-3% tritium-bearing, near-surface cold water, relative differences in flow rate and volume, and slow cooling without vigorous boiling are processes that modify fluid composition during upflow from the deep geothermal reservoir. Close

• 312. [Article] Hydrologic-Hydraulic Model for Simulating Dual Drainage and Flooding in Urban Areas: Application to a Catchment in the Metropolitan Area of Chicago

  This is an author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by the American Society of Civil Engineers and can be found at: http://cedb.asce.o...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydrologic-Hydraulic Model for Simulating Dual Drainage and Flooding in Urban Areas: Application to a Catchment in the Metropolitan Area of Chicago Author: García, Marcelo H., León, Arturo S., Nanía, Leonardo S. This is an author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by the American Society of Civil Engineers and can be found at: http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?331430 Title: Hydrologic-Hydraulic Model for Simulating Dual Drainage and Flooding in Urban Areas: Application to a Catchment in the Metropolitan Area of Chicago Author: García, Marcelo H., León, Arturo S., Nanía, Leonardo S. This is an author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by the American Society of Civil Engineers and can be found at: http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?331430 Close

• 313. [Image] Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview

  	Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Close

• 314. [Article] Groundwater Recharge of a Landslide : An Isotopic and Meteorological Analysis

  Landslides pose a significant threat to property and personal injury, estimated at 3.5 billion dollars and 25-50 deaths per year respectively (Schuster, 1996). The triggers that cause landslides are well ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Groundwater Recharge of a Landslide : An Isotopic and Meteorological Analysis Author: Allen, Bryan Year: 2016 Landslides pose a significant threat to property and personal injury, estimated at 3.5 billion dollars and 25-50 deaths per year respectively (Schuster, 1996). The triggers that cause landslides are well understood and include intense precipitation events, seismic shaking, destabilizing activities, and the over-steepening of slopes. However, these triggers were absent when the Silt Creek Landslide initiated, and determining this landslide’s subsurface hydrologic conditions is the focus of this study. Located on the western slopes of the Cascade mountain range in Oregon and within an active logging area, the landslide reactivated during the summer of 2014 at a site that had previous landslides dating back to at least 1994. The area is underlain by poorly welded tuffs capped with basaltic flows. Considering the near-drought to drought conditions that existed 3 years’ prior, it has a relatively high rate of slip of approximately 15 m/yr. On March 4th, 2016 I obtained twelve water samples from surface flow and springs on the landslide for isotope analysis of oxygen (18O) and deuterium (D). Comparing the resultant mean, -10.09‰ δ18O, against well-defined linear elevation/ δ18O relationships for western Oregon and the Global Meteoric Water Line for δ18O / δD the source of surface flow and groundwater likely originates from a pond above the head scarp. Analysis of precipitation data over a 42-year period prior to reactivation confirms the drought-like conditions existing at time of reactivation. These conditions align with the ‘bathtub’ model wherein an older landslide creates the conditions for repeated failures by aligning platy clay minerals such that the hydraulic conductivity is reduced to the point that a perched aquifer forms. This provides lubrication for subsequent landslides even during periods of low precipitation. Understanding the mechanisms operating on this landslide can inform future assessments of hazard and risk as well as appropriate mitigation strategies. Title: Groundwater Recharge of a Landslide : An Isotopic and Meteorological Analysis Author: Allen, Bryan Year: 2016 Landslides pose a significant threat to property and personal injury, estimated at 3.5 billion dollars and 25-50 deaths per year respectively (Schuster, 1996). The triggers that cause landslides are well understood and include intense precipitation events, seismic shaking, destabilizing activities, and the over-steepening of slopes. However, these triggers were absent when the Silt Creek Landslide initiated, and determining this landslide’s subsurface hydrologic conditions is the focus of this study. Located on the western slopes of the Cascade mountain range in Oregon and within an active logging area, the landslide reactivated during the summer of 2014 at a site that had previous landslides dating back to at least 1994. The area is underlain by poorly welded tuffs capped with basaltic flows. Considering the near-drought to drought conditions that existed 3 years’ prior, it has a relatively high rate of slip of approximately 15 m/yr. On March 4th, 2016 I obtained twelve water samples from surface flow and springs on the landslide for isotope analysis of oxygen (18O) and deuterium (D). Comparing the resultant mean, -10.09‰ δ18O, against well-defined linear elevation/ δ18O relationships for western Oregon and the Global Meteoric Water Line for δ18O / δD the source of surface flow and groundwater likely originates from a pond above the head scarp. Analysis of precipitation data over a 42-year period prior to reactivation confirms the drought-like conditions existing at time of reactivation. These conditions align with the ‘bathtub’ model wherein an older landslide creates the conditions for repeated failures by aligning platy clay minerals such that the hydraulic conductivity is reduced to the point that a perched aquifer forms. This provides lubrication for subsequent landslides even during periods of low precipitation. Understanding the mechanisms operating on this landslide can inform future assessments of hazard and risk as well as appropriate mitigation strategies. Close

• 315. [Article] Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup for 2001

  The Spokane River in Idaho originates in Coeur d’Alene Lake (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The section of the Spokane River from Coeur d’Alene Lake to the Washington state line is the subject of a water quality ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup for 2001 Author: Wells, Scott A., Annear, Robert Leslie, Berger, Chris Year: 2003 The Spokane River in Idaho originates in Coeur d’Alene Lake (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The section of the Spokane River from Coeur d’Alene Lake to the Washington state line is the subject of a water quality study for the US Environmental Protection Agency. The objective of this study is to create a water quality and hydrodynamic model of the Spokane River in Idaho using CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1 (Cole and Wells, 2002). Since the Spokane River is water quality limited, a hydrodynamic and water quality model for the Spokane River in Washington was developed by Portland State University for the Corps of Engineers and the Washington Department of Ecology from the Idaho border to the outlet of Long Lake. An earlier study of the Spokane River was undertaken by Limno-Tech (2001a, 2001b) for the domain shown in Figure 3. Limno-Tech used an earlier version of CE-QUAL-W2, Version 2, for the Reservoir portion of the Spokane River from Post Falls Dam to Coeur d’Alene Lake and a steady-state EPA model, QUAL2E, for the riverine section from Post Falls Dam to the Idaho-Washington border. The steady-state QUAL2E model was not adequate to deal with flow and water quality dynamics. Hence, the riverine portion of the model and the reservoir portion were both upgraded to CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1. Because of the necessity of looking at the entire water basin, a model using CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1 of the Idaho portion of the Spokane River model was developed to assess water quality management strategies for the Idaho side of the Spokane River. Title: Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup for 2001 Author: Wells, Scott A., Annear, Robert Leslie, Berger, Chris Year: 2003 The Spokane River in Idaho originates in Coeur d’Alene Lake (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The section of the Spokane River from Coeur d’Alene Lake to the Washington state line is the subject of a water quality study for the US Environmental Protection Agency. The objective of this study is to create a water quality and hydrodynamic model of the Spokane River in Idaho using CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1 (Cole and Wells, 2002). Since the Spokane River is water quality limited, a hydrodynamic and water quality model for the Spokane River in Washington was developed by Portland State University for the Corps of Engineers and the Washington Department of Ecology from the Idaho border to the outlet of Long Lake. An earlier study of the Spokane River was undertaken by Limno-Tech (2001a, 2001b) for the domain shown in Figure 3. Limno-Tech used an earlier version of CE-QUAL-W2, Version 2, for the Reservoir portion of the Spokane River from Post Falls Dam to Coeur d’Alene Lake and a steady-state EPA model, QUAL2E, for the riverine section from Post Falls Dam to the Idaho-Washington border. The steady-state QUAL2E model was not adequate to deal with flow and water quality dynamics. Hence, the riverine portion of the model and the reservoir portion were both upgraded to CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1. Because of the necessity of looking at the entire water basin, a model using CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1 of the Idaho portion of the Spokane River model was developed to assess water quality management strategies for the Idaho side of the Spokane River. Close

• 316. [Image] Feasibility of a Geothermal Heating System for Oakridge, Oregon

  	Geological and geophysical data indicate that Oakridge is underlain by geothermal waters. The strongest evidence is from the geothermal gradient, the increase of temperature with depth, in a 400' well ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Feasibility of a Geothermal Heating System for Oakridge, Oregon Author: Bowen, R.C. Year: 1979 Geological and geophysical data indicate that Oakridge is underlain by geothermal waters. The strongest evidence is from the geothermal gradient, the increase of temperature with depth, in a 400' well on the south edge of the City. Although this well shows signs of disturbance by ground water, the geothermal gradient appears to be similar to the gradient from a well near McCredie Hot Springs seven miles to the east. Additional evidence is a salt spring, just south of the City, that may represent a fossil geothermal system that has become sealed and is no longer flowing hot water. A third line of direct evidence is the presence of a warm spring about three miles southeast of the City that is now covered by Hills Creek Reservoir. Indirect geophysical evidence is a high gravity gradient from west to east near Oakridge. This gradient relates closely to the region of increasing geothermal gradient and heat flow of the Cascade Geothermal Anomaly. Indications of intersection of regional fault patterns could provide the subsurface fracturing and permeability necessary for a geothermal reservoir. The results of this study indicate that water sufficiently hot to be useful can be located by drilling to depths of three to four thousand feet at Oakridge. Three sites are proposed for shallow geothermal gradient holes to test the proposed model. Title: Feasibility of a Geothermal Heating System for Oakridge, Oregon Author: Bowen, R.C. Year: 1979 Geological and geophysical data indicate that Oakridge is underlain by geothermal waters. The strongest evidence is from the geothermal gradient, the increase of temperature with depth, in a 400' well on the south edge of the City. Although this well shows signs of disturbance by ground water, the geothermal gradient appears to be similar to the gradient from a well near McCredie Hot Springs seven miles to the east. Additional evidence is a salt spring, just south of the City, that may represent a fossil geothermal system that has become sealed and is no longer flowing hot water. A third line of direct evidence is the presence of a warm spring about three miles southeast of the City that is now covered by Hills Creek Reservoir. Indirect geophysical evidence is a high gravity gradient from west to east near Oakridge. This gradient relates closely to the region of increasing geothermal gradient and heat flow of the Cascade Geothermal Anomaly. Indications of intersection of regional fault patterns could provide the subsurface fracturing and permeability necessary for a geothermal reservoir. The results of this study indicate that water sufficiently hot to be useful can be located by drilling to depths of three to four thousand feet at Oakridge. Three sites are proposed for shallow geothermal gradient holes to test the proposed model. Close

• 317. [Article] Modeling of Historic Columbia River Flood Impacts Based on Delft 3D Simulations

  Natural and anthropogenic processes over the past 150 years have altered the bathymetry of the Lower Columbia River (LCR) and have changed the long wave propagation of tides and floods. Possible causes ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Modeling of Historic Columbia River Flood Impacts Based on Delft 3D Simulations Author: Helaire, Lumas Terence Year: 2016 Natural and anthropogenic processes over the past 150 years have altered the bathymetry of the Lower Columbia River (LCR) and have changed the long wave propagation of tides and floods. Possible causes for the increase in tidal amplitudes (+7% in tidal range in Astoria) are decreases in river discharge, lengthening of the river channel due to the construction of jetties at the mouth, dredging and deepening of the shipping channel, and reduction of the tidal prism due to the filling and diking of tidal wetlands. In this study, changes in the characteristics of long waves are elucidated by developing two hydrodynamic models of the LCR which reflect historical and modern bathymetric conditions and forcing. The historic model simulates late 19th century conditions and is extensively validated using recently recovered tide records along the LCR (e.g., Astoria, 1853-1876) and river stage measurements (e.g., Portland, 1876-1964). Results suggest that water levels in Portland at low river discharge are up to 0.5-1.0m lower than in the past. However, historical water levels during a flood scenario based on the 1880 spring freshet are similar to modern water levels. Since tidal range in the modern scenario is persistently higher at all locations, the flood risk in many locations along the LCR has increased for the same boundary conditions. The results are explained by considering the governing equations of momentum and mass-conservation. At low river flow, greater depth leads to reduced frictional effects, producing amplified tidal range and tidal velocities but a decreased river slope (and lower Portland water levels). At high flow, the modern flood is confined by dikes and the loss of wetlands, which counteracts the effect of decreased friction. Nonetheless, the high friction of the historical wooded floodplain also confined the historical flood path. Hence, historical and modern flood heights are surprisingly similar, though scaling analysis suggests that the historical flood wave was more diffusive. Title: Modeling of Historic Columbia River Flood Impacts Based on Delft 3D Simulations Author: Helaire, Lumas Terence Year: 2016 Natural and anthropogenic processes over the past 150 years have altered the bathymetry of the Lower Columbia River (LCR) and have changed the long wave propagation of tides and floods. Possible causes for the increase in tidal amplitudes (+7% in tidal range in Astoria) are decreases in river discharge, lengthening of the river channel due to the construction of jetties at the mouth, dredging and deepening of the shipping channel, and reduction of the tidal prism due to the filling and diking of tidal wetlands. In this study, changes in the characteristics of long waves are elucidated by developing two hydrodynamic models of the LCR which reflect historical and modern bathymetric conditions and forcing. The historic model simulates late 19th century conditions and is extensively validated using recently recovered tide records along the LCR (e.g., Astoria, 1853-1876) and river stage measurements (e.g., Portland, 1876-1964). Results suggest that water levels in Portland at low river discharge are up to 0.5-1.0m lower than in the past. However, historical water levels during a flood scenario based on the 1880 spring freshet are similar to modern water levels. Since tidal range in the modern scenario is persistently higher at all locations, the flood risk in many locations along the LCR has increased for the same boundary conditions. The results are explained by considering the governing equations of momentum and mass-conservation. At low river flow, greater depth leads to reduced frictional effects, producing amplified tidal range and tidal velocities but a decreased river slope (and lower Portland water levels). At high flow, the modern flood is confined by dikes and the loss of wetlands, which counteracts the effect of decreased friction. Nonetheless, the high friction of the historical wooded floodplain also confined the historical flood path. Hence, historical and modern flood heights are surprisingly similar, though scaling analysis suggests that the historical flood wave was more diffusive. Close

• 318. [Image] Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003

  	The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and Reports
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003 Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 2003, 2005 The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and Reports Title: Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003 Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 2003, 2005 The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and Reports Close

• 319. [Article] Upper Spokane River Model: Model Calibration, 2001

  The Upper Spokane River system under consideration is located in the Northeastern part of Washington State and runs from the Stateline with Idaho, River mile (RM) 96.0, downstream to Long Lake dam at RM ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Upper Spokane River Model: Model Calibration, 2001 Author: Berger, Chris, Annear, Robert Leslie, Welle, Benjamin Year: 2003 The Upper Spokane River system under consideration is located in the Northeastern part of Washington State and runs from the Stateline with Idaho, River mile (RM) 96.0, downstream to Long Lake dam at RM 32.5. Figure 1 shows the river system and an outline the boundaries of the City of Spokane. The Washington Department of Ecology (Ecology) is interested in a water quality model for the Upper Spokane River system for use in developing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). As a result, Ecology and the Corps of Engineers funded a study to develop a water quality and hydrodynamic model of the Spokane River system for the years 1991 and 2000. Since the City of Spokane and other point dischargers to the Spokane River have taken considerable field data in the Spokane River system during 2001, the City of Spokane funded this study primarily to: • Continue the development of the Spokane River model for the year 2001, and • Ensure that the model retains its calibration for the year 2001 A hydrodynamic and water quality model, CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3 (Wells, 1997), was applied to the Spokane River system for the years 1991 and 2000. CE-QUAL-W2 is a two dimensional (longitudinalvertical), laterally averaged, hydrodynamic and water quality model that has been under development by the Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiments Station (Cole and Wells, 2000). This report evaluates the 2001 model calibration and discusses issues relative to that calibration effort. The calibration effort focused on model predictions of hydrodynamics (flow and water level), temperature, and eutrophication model parameters (such as nutrients, algae, dissolved oxygen, organic matter, coliform). The model calibration period was from March 15, 2001 to October 31, 2001. Title: Upper Spokane River Model: Model Calibration, 2001 Author: Berger, Chris, Annear, Robert Leslie, Welle, Benjamin Year: 2003 The Upper Spokane River system under consideration is located in the Northeastern part of Washington State and runs from the Stateline with Idaho, River mile (RM) 96.0, downstream to Long Lake dam at RM 32.5. Figure 1 shows the river system and an outline the boundaries of the City of Spokane. The Washington Department of Ecology (Ecology) is interested in a water quality model for the Upper Spokane River system for use in developing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). As a result, Ecology and the Corps of Engineers funded a study to develop a water quality and hydrodynamic model of the Spokane River system for the years 1991 and 2000. Since the City of Spokane and other point dischargers to the Spokane River have taken considerable field data in the Spokane River system during 2001, the City of Spokane funded this study primarily to: • Continue the development of the Spokane River model for the year 2001, and • Ensure that the model retains its calibration for the year 2001 A hydrodynamic and water quality model, CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3 (Wells, 1997), was applied to the Spokane River system for the years 1991 and 2000. CE-QUAL-W2 is a two dimensional (longitudinalvertical), laterally averaged, hydrodynamic and water quality model that has been under development by the Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiments Station (Cole and Wells, 2000). This report evaluates the 2001 model calibration and discusses issues relative to that calibration effort. The calibration effort focused on model predictions of hydrodynamics (flow and water level), temperature, and eutrophication model parameters (such as nutrients, algae, dissolved oxygen, organic matter, coliform). The model calibration period was from March 15, 2001 to October 31, 2001. Close

• 320. [Article] A novel framework for uncertainty propagation in river systems based on performance graphs using two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling

  This thesis presents a novel approach for propagation of uncertainty in river systems. Errors in data observations and predictions (e.g., stream inflows), in model parameters, and resulting from the discretization ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A novel framework for uncertainty propagation in river systems based on performance graphs using two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling Author: Gifford-Miears, Christopher H. This thesis presents a novel approach for propagation of uncertainty in river systems. Errors in data observations and predictions (e.g., stream inflows), in model parameters, and resulting from the discretization of continuous systems, all point to the need to accurately quantify the amount of uncertainty carried through the modeling process. In the proposed framework, stochastic processes are incorporated directly into the physical description of the system (e.g., river flow dynamics) with the goal of better modeling uncertainties (both aleatoric and epistemic) and hence, reducing the ranges of the confidence intervals on quantities of interest. We represent uncertainty in stream inflows via an error term modeled as a stochastic process. Stochastic collocation is then used to discretize random space. This non-intrusive approach is both more efficient than Monte-Carlo methods and is as flexible in its application. The flow dynamics are simulated efficiently using the performance graphs approach implemented in the OSU Rivers model. For one-dimensional unsteady flow routing, the performance graph (PG) approach has been shown to be accurate, numerically efficient, and robust. The Hydraulic Performance Graph (HPG) of a channel reach graphically summarizes the dynamic relation between the flow through and the stages at the ends of the reach under gradually varied flow (GVF) conditions, while the Volumetric Performance Graph (VPG) summarizes the corresponding storage. The hydraulic routing for the entire system consists of dividing the river system into reaches and pre-computing the hydraulics for each of these reaches independently using a steady flow model. Then, a non-linear system of equations is solved that is assembled based on information summarized in the systems' performance graphs, the reach-wise equation of conservation of mass, continuity and water stage compatibility conditions at the union of reaches (nodes), and the system boundary conditions. For complex flows in river systems such as when there is flow over floodplains, the dynamic relation between water stages and flow in a river reach is best represented by depth averaged two-dimensional hydrodynamic models. The applicability of two-dimensional flow modeling for the construction of PGs for unsteady flow routing in complex river networks is explored. To illustrate application of the uncertainty propagation framework and PGs derived from two-dimensional flow models, a test case is presented that examines uncertainty quantification and flood routing through a complex section of the Fraser River in British Columbia. Title: A novel framework for uncertainty propagation in river systems based on performance graphs using two-dimensional hydrodynamic modeling Author: Gifford-Miears, Christopher H. This thesis presents a novel approach for propagation of uncertainty in river systems. Errors in data observations and predictions (e.g., stream inflows), in model parameters, and resulting from the discretization of continuous systems, all point to the need to accurately quantify the amount of uncertainty carried through the modeling process. In the proposed framework, stochastic processes are incorporated directly into the physical description of the system (e.g., river flow dynamics) with the goal of better modeling uncertainties (both aleatoric and epistemic) and hence, reducing the ranges of the confidence intervals on quantities of interest. We represent uncertainty in stream inflows via an error term modeled as a stochastic process. Stochastic collocation is then used to discretize random space. This non-intrusive approach is both more efficient than Monte-Carlo methods and is as flexible in its application. The flow dynamics are simulated efficiently using the performance graphs approach implemented in the OSU Rivers model. For one-dimensional unsteady flow routing, the performance graph (PG) approach has been shown to be accurate, numerically efficient, and robust. The Hydraulic Performance Graph (HPG) of a channel reach graphically summarizes the dynamic relation between the flow through and the stages at the ends of the reach under gradually varied flow (GVF) conditions, while the Volumetric Performance Graph (VPG) summarizes the corresponding storage. The hydraulic routing for the entire system consists of dividing the river system into reaches and pre-computing the hydraulics for each of these reaches independently using a steady flow model. Then, a non-linear system of equations is solved that is assembled based on information summarized in the systems' performance graphs, the reach-wise equation of conservation of mass, continuity and water stage compatibility conditions at the union of reaches (nodes), and the system boundary conditions. For complex flows in river systems such as when there is flow over floodplains, the dynamic relation between water stages and flow in a river reach is best represented by depth averaged two-dimensional hydrodynamic models. The applicability of two-dimensional flow modeling for the construction of PGs for unsteady flow routing in complex river networks is explored. To illustrate application of the uncertainty propagation framework and PGs derived from two-dimensional flow models, a test case is presented that examines uncertainty quantification and flood routing through a complex section of the Fraser River in British Columbia. Close

• 321. [Article] Incipient resuspension of silt-clay deposits in oscillatory and unidirectional flows

  Incipient motion of cohesive sediment and the role of flow parameters were investigated for separate and combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows. Sediment from Sturgeon Lake, mainly silt and clay ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Incipient resuspension of silt-clay deposits in oscillatory and unidirectional flows Author: Talebbeydokhti, Nasser Incipient motion of cohesive sediment and the role of flow parameters were investigated for separate and combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows. Sediment from Sturgeon Lake, mainly silt and clay with organic matter, was used as bed material In recirculating and wave flumes. Bench-type experiments indicated that when the submerged sediment was under no active hydraulic disturbances, it consolidated substantially. The removal of fine sediment and organic matter from the sediment surface caused greater consolidation of the remaining coarse sediment. The mechanism for incipient motion of cohesive sediment under the action of flowing water was found to be complex. The top surface of the fine-grained sediment exhibited a skin layer which governed the the incipient motion process. Formation of this layer was evidently caused by physicochemical bonding of sediment particles by organic matter and iron in the sediment. When induced shear stress exceeded that required to initiate erosion, the bonded particles started to peel off, leaving pit marks and causing the development of streak lines. Suspension of sediment particles was a part of this process. Incipient motion for unidirectional flow could be expressed in terms of the mean velocity and shear stress necessary to initiate erosion of the cohesive sediment surface. Incipient motion for oscillatory flow could be expressed in terms of maximum orbital velocity and maximum shear stress. The results of the two sets of experiments could be used to speculate on the combined effects of oscillatory and unidirectional flows. It was found for fine cohesive sediment that: (1) the principles governing incipient motion under unidirectional flow are applicable for oscillatory flow; (2) the effects of combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows can be estimated from separate effects of each flow; (3) when induced shear stress exceeds skin bonding strength, peeling off of the skin layer begins; (4) sediment consolidation has little effect on incipient motion; (5) incipient motion of the sediment bed occurs at lower shear stress and velocity under oscillatory flow than under unidirectional flow; (6) a bed with a rough surface is more susceptible than a smooth bed to incipient motion; and (7) bioturbation affects incipient motion of fine-grained sediment. Title: Incipient resuspension of silt-clay deposits in oscillatory and unidirectional flows Author: Talebbeydokhti, Nasser Incipient motion of cohesive sediment and the role of flow parameters were investigated for separate and combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows. Sediment from Sturgeon Lake, mainly silt and clay with organic matter, was used as bed material In recirculating and wave flumes. Bench-type experiments indicated that when the submerged sediment was under no active hydraulic disturbances, it consolidated substantially. The removal of fine sediment and organic matter from the sediment surface caused greater consolidation of the remaining coarse sediment. The mechanism for incipient motion of cohesive sediment under the action of flowing water was found to be complex. The top surface of the fine-grained sediment exhibited a skin layer which governed the the incipient motion process. Formation of this layer was evidently caused by physicochemical bonding of sediment particles by organic matter and iron in the sediment. When induced shear stress exceeded that required to initiate erosion, the bonded particles started to peel off, leaving pit marks and causing the development of streak lines. Suspension of sediment particles was a part of this process. Incipient motion for unidirectional flow could be expressed in terms of the mean velocity and shear stress necessary to initiate erosion of the cohesive sediment surface. Incipient motion for oscillatory flow could be expressed in terms of maximum orbital velocity and maximum shear stress. The results of the two sets of experiments could be used to speculate on the combined effects of oscillatory and unidirectional flows. It was found for fine cohesive sediment that: (1) the principles governing incipient motion under unidirectional flow are applicable for oscillatory flow; (2) the effects of combined unidirectional and oscillatory flows can be estimated from separate effects of each flow; (3) when induced shear stress exceeds skin bonding strength, peeling off of the skin layer begins; (4) sediment consolidation has little effect on incipient motion; (5) incipient motion of the sediment bed occurs at lower shear stress and velocity under oscillatory flow than under unidirectional flow; (6) a bed with a rough surface is more susceptible than a smooth bed to incipient motion; and (7) bioturbation affects incipient motion of fine-grained sediment. Close

• 322. [Article] Little green baby steps : transforming modern power production through microscale hydropower

  Microscale hydropower, facilities that produce between 1 kW and 1 MW of power, has the potential to revolutionize modern power production. Unlike conventional large scale operations, these water supplies ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Little green baby steps : transforming modern power production through microscale hydropower Author: Holderman, Jennifer A. Microscale hydropower, facilities that produce between 1 kW and 1 MW of power, has the potential to revolutionize modern power production. Unlike conventional large scale operations, these water supplies can be utilized with little impact on the environment. Hydropower per unit production can be very affordable compared to other renewable resources, but is limited by regulatory constraints and initial capital investments. At present, multiple states allow water rights to be amended to include microscale power production. These changes are relatively recent, with many unresolved legal and policy issues. Additionally, barriers exist for small producers when trying to connect to the grid. Microscale hydropower technology is available and robust, but the initial expense can be a significant obstacle to entry in the sector. These limitations can lead to projects that are not financially feasible. Additionally small water resources tend to be ungauged; understanding power production feasibility requires straightforward ways to estimate flow. These water resources are typically very intermittent. Consequently technology and infrastructure must be designed to optimize year round power production. This paper examines the legal, policy, science and engineering questions that need to be considered in the development of a microscale hydropower facility. A case study is presented, using a regionalized water balance, ¹⁸O isotopic analysis, temperature analysis, the "5 gallon bucket" gauging method, ArcGIS applications and a policy/legal/technology review to determine power production feasibility. This case study reveals that small water resources can be developed as viable and economically feasible sources for residential use. For these resources to contribute clean and green power to the grid, the great potential of microscale hydropower must be recognized. Legal and policy reforms along with new technologic innovations can address these limitations and support wide scale application. Title: Little green baby steps : transforming modern power production through microscale hydropower Author: Holderman, Jennifer A. Microscale hydropower, facilities that produce between 1 kW and 1 MW of power, has the potential to revolutionize modern power production. Unlike conventional large scale operations, these water supplies can be utilized with little impact on the environment. Hydropower per unit production can be very affordable compared to other renewable resources, but is limited by regulatory constraints and initial capital investments. At present, multiple states allow water rights to be amended to include microscale power production. These changes are relatively recent, with many unresolved legal and policy issues. Additionally, barriers exist for small producers when trying to connect to the grid. Microscale hydropower technology is available and robust, but the initial expense can be a significant obstacle to entry in the sector. These limitations can lead to projects that are not financially feasible. Additionally small water resources tend to be ungauged; understanding power production feasibility requires straightforward ways to estimate flow. These water resources are typically very intermittent. Consequently technology and infrastructure must be designed to optimize year round power production. This paper examines the legal, policy, science and engineering questions that need to be considered in the development of a microscale hydropower facility. A case study is presented, using a regionalized water balance, ¹⁸O isotopic analysis, temperature analysis, the "5 gallon bucket" gauging method, ArcGIS applications and a policy/legal/technology review to determine power production feasibility. This case study reveals that small water resources can be developed as viable and economically feasible sources for residential use. For these resources to contribute clean and green power to the grid, the great potential of microscale hydropower must be recognized. Legal and policy reforms along with new technologic innovations can address these limitations and support wide scale application. Close

• 323. [Article] Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup and Calibration for 2001 and 2004

  As a result of a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) study of the Spokane River in Washington, a hydrodynamic and water quality model for the Spokane River was developed by Portland State University (PSU) ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup and Calibration for 2001 and 2004 Author: Annear, Robert Leslie, Wells, Scott A., Berger, Chris Year: 2005 As a result of a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) study of the Spokane River in Washington, a hydrodynamic and water quality model for the Spokane River was developed by Portland State University (PSU) for the Corps of Engineers and the Washington Department of Ecology from the Washington-Idaho state line to the outlet of Long Lake. An earlier study of the Spokane River was undertaken by Limno-Tech (2001a, 2001b) for the domain shown in Figure 3. Limno-Tech used an earlier version of CE-QUAL-W2, Version 2, for the Reservoir portion of the Spokane River from Post Falls Dam to Coeur d’Alene Lake and a steady-state EPA model, QUAL2E, for the riverine section from Post Falls Dam to the Idaho-Washington State Line. The steady-state QUAL2E model was not adequate to deal with flow and water quality dynamics. Hence, the riverine portion of the model and the reservoir portion were both upgraded to CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1. PSU developed the CE-QUAL-W2 model, but did not have adequate data for model calibration. The set-up of this model was described in the following report: * Wells et al. (2003) - Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup for 2001 Because of the necessity of looking at the entire river basin, a model using CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1 of the Idaho portion of the Spokane River model was developed to assess water quality management strategies for the Idaho side of the Spokane River. The objective of this study was to use new field data from 2001 and 2004 to improve the model calibration for the Idaho portion of the Spokane River and reevaluate the work done by Wells et al. (2003). Title: Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup and Calibration for 2001 and 2004 Author: Annear, Robert Leslie, Wells, Scott A., Berger, Chris Year: 2005 As a result of a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) study of the Spokane River in Washington, a hydrodynamic and water quality model for the Spokane River was developed by Portland State University (PSU) for the Corps of Engineers and the Washington Department of Ecology from the Washington-Idaho state line to the outlet of Long Lake. An earlier study of the Spokane River was undertaken by Limno-Tech (2001a, 2001b) for the domain shown in Figure 3. Limno-Tech used an earlier version of CE-QUAL-W2, Version 2, for the Reservoir portion of the Spokane River from Post Falls Dam to Coeur d’Alene Lake and a steady-state EPA model, QUAL2E, for the riverine section from Post Falls Dam to the Idaho-Washington State Line. The steady-state QUAL2E model was not adequate to deal with flow and water quality dynamics. Hence, the riverine portion of the model and the reservoir portion were both upgraded to CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1. PSU developed the CE-QUAL-W2 model, but did not have adequate data for model calibration. The set-up of this model was described in the following report: * Wells et al. (2003) - Upper Spokane River Model in Idaho: Boundary Conditions and Model Setup for 2001 Because of the necessity of looking at the entire river basin, a model using CE-QUAL-W2 Version 3.1 of the Idaho portion of the Spokane River model was developed to assess water quality management strategies for the Idaho side of the Spokane River. The objective of this study was to use new field data from 2001 and 2004 to improve the model calibration for the Idaho portion of the Spokane River and reevaluate the work done by Wells et al. (2003). Close

• 324. [Article] An economic analysis of alternative water allocations and habitat investments for anadromous fish production, John Day Basin, Oregon

  This thesis focuses on the economic efficiency of alternative habitat, streamfiow, and land use allocations within a major drainage of the Pacific Northwest. Specifically, productivity of present habitat and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An economic analysis of alternative water allocations and habitat investments for anadromous fish production, John Day Basin, Oregon Author: Cerda, Arcadio Alberto This thesis focuses on the economic efficiency of alternative habitat, streamfiow, and land use allocations within a major drainage of the Pacific Northwest. Specifically, productivity of present habitat and streamfiow conditions is evaluated with respect to anadromous fish species (chinook salmon and steelhead trout) in the John Day River Basin, a high-desert system in the Pacific Northwest. Alternative water allocations and fish habitat enhancements to improve anadromous fish productivity are also examined. This biophysical information is combined with economics concepts to evaluate comparative benefits and economic efficiency of selected technically feasible habitat/streamflow alternatives. The John Day River Basin is used as a case study because it provides one of the most significant runs of wild summer steelhead trout and spring chinook salmon in the Columbia River Basin. Specific categories of alternative enhancements included water transfers to instream flow, habitat vegetation improvements, and habitat structural measures. The benefits of changes in fish numbers are valued through the travel cost method. Costs of habitat investments are derived from a synthesis of cost data for similar investments for the region. For most lower-reach stream sections, benefits of habitat investments/streamflow alternatives do not equal costs. However, changes in water allocations and habitat do appear economically efficient to some upper reaches. The main results suggest that economic efficiency varies greatly within the system, indicating the need for site-specific proposals for streamfiow or habitat alterations within this or similar high desert streams. In addition to providing preliminary estimates of the economic efficency of streamfiow and habitat investments, this thesis serves as a methodological template for future integrated bioeconomic evaluations of water and fishery management issues. Title: An economic analysis of alternative water allocations and habitat investments for anadromous fish production, John Day Basin, Oregon Author: Cerda, Arcadio Alberto This thesis focuses on the economic efficiency of alternative habitat, streamfiow, and land use allocations within a major drainage of the Pacific Northwest. Specifically, productivity of present habitat and streamfiow conditions is evaluated with respect to anadromous fish species (chinook salmon and steelhead trout) in the John Day River Basin, a high-desert system in the Pacific Northwest. Alternative water allocations and fish habitat enhancements to improve anadromous fish productivity are also examined. This biophysical information is combined with economics concepts to evaluate comparative benefits and economic efficiency of selected technically feasible habitat/streamflow alternatives. The John Day River Basin is used as a case study because it provides one of the most significant runs of wild summer steelhead trout and spring chinook salmon in the Columbia River Basin. Specific categories of alternative enhancements included water transfers to instream flow, habitat vegetation improvements, and habitat structural measures. The benefits of changes in fish numbers are valued through the travel cost method. Costs of habitat investments are derived from a synthesis of cost data for similar investments for the region. For most lower-reach stream sections, benefits of habitat investments/streamflow alternatives do not equal costs. However, changes in water allocations and habitat do appear economically efficient to some upper reaches. The main results suggest that economic efficiency varies greatly within the system, indicating the need for site-specific proposals for streamfiow or habitat alterations within this or similar high desert streams. In addition to providing preliminary estimates of the economic efficency of streamfiow and habitat investments, this thesis serves as a methodological template for future integrated bioeconomic evaluations of water and fishery management issues. Close

• 325. [Image] Scientific Evaluation of biological opinions on endangered and threatened fishes in the Klamath River Basin

  	"The committee's conclusions are subject to modification in the future if scientific evidence becomes available to show that modification of flows or water levels would promote the welfare of the threatened ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Scientific Evaluation of biological opinions on endangered and threatened fishes in the Klamath River Basin Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2002, 2008, 2006 "The committee's conclusions are subject to modification in the future if scientific evidence becomes available to show that modification of flows or water levels would promote the welfare of the threatened and endangered species under consideration by the committee. The committee will make a more comprehensive and detailed consideration of the environmental requirements of the endangered suckers and threatened coho in the Klamath River Basin over the next year, during which time it will develop final conclusions." Title: Scientific Evaluation of biological opinions on endangered and threatened fishes in the Klamath River Basin Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2002, 2008, 2006 "The committee's conclusions are subject to modification in the future if scientific evidence becomes available to show that modification of flows or water levels would promote the welfare of the threatened and endangered species under consideration by the committee. The committee will make a more comprehensive and detailed consideration of the environmental requirements of the endangered suckers and threatened coho in the Klamath River Basin over the next year, during which time it will develop final conclusions." Close

• 326. [Article] Acute and chronic toxicity studies with monochlorobenzene in rainbow trout

  The toxicity of chlorobenzene (CB) was investigated in rainbow trout following acute ip administration (1. 0 ml/kg, 1:1 in corn oil) and chronic exposure (2. 1 ppm and 2. 9 ppm) via the water in a continuously flowing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Acute and chronic toxicity studies with monochlorobenzene in rainbow trout Author: Dalich, George M. The toxicity of chlorobenzene (CB) was investigated in rainbow trout following acute ip administration (1. 0 ml/kg, 1:1 in corn oil) and chronic exposure (2. 1 ppm and 2. 9 ppm) via the water in a continuously flowing system for 15 and 30 days. In the acute study, overt toxicity and hepatotoxicity were monitored over a 96 hour time period. Variables measured to assess toxicity included LD50 determination, weight changes, liver weight to body weight ratios, behavioral changes, alanine aminotransferase activity (GPT), sulfobromophthalein (BSP) retention, total plasma protein concentration and liver histopathology. In the chronic study the same measures of toxicity were followed as well as respiratory rates, oxygen consumption, food consumption, alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity, and serum protein electrophoresis. The 72 hour LD50 of CB in rainbow trout after acute intoxication was 1.8 ml/kg. The toxicant caused behavioral changes in the fish which were consistent with the known anesthetic properties of CB in mammals. Elevations in BSP retention and GPT activity, and histopathology indicated that CB was hepatotoxic in the fish. The LC50 of CB in trout exposed via the water for 96 hours was 4.7 ppm. Chronic exposure of trout to CB resulted in similar behavioral changes as seen in the acute study. Liver toxicity was evident from elevations in GPT activity and decreased A/G ratios of serum proteins after 15 days of exposure. BSP retention and AP activity appeared to be affected by the nutritional status of the trout as much as by the CB treatment. After 30 days of exposure to CB, trout appeared to have adapted to the toxic effects of CB. These results indicate that CB is toxic to rainbow trout after either acute intoxication or chronic exposure via the water. Behavioral and soft organ toxicity of CB seen in this study may compromise the ability of the trout to thrive in its environment. Title: Acute and chronic toxicity studies with monochlorobenzene in rainbow trout Author: Dalich, George M. The toxicity of chlorobenzene (CB) was investigated in rainbow trout following acute ip administration (1. 0 ml/kg, 1:1 in corn oil) and chronic exposure (2. 1 ppm and 2. 9 ppm) via the water in a continuously flowing system for 15 and 30 days. In the acute study, overt toxicity and hepatotoxicity were monitored over a 96 hour time period. Variables measured to assess toxicity included LD50 determination, weight changes, liver weight to body weight ratios, behavioral changes, alanine aminotransferase activity (GPT), sulfobromophthalein (BSP) retention, total plasma protein concentration and liver histopathology. In the chronic study the same measures of toxicity were followed as well as respiratory rates, oxygen consumption, food consumption, alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity, and serum protein electrophoresis. The 72 hour LD50 of CB in rainbow trout after acute intoxication was 1.8 ml/kg. The toxicant caused behavioral changes in the fish which were consistent with the known anesthetic properties of CB in mammals. Elevations in BSP retention and GPT activity, and histopathology indicated that CB was hepatotoxic in the fish. The LC50 of CB in trout exposed via the water for 96 hours was 4.7 ppm. Chronic exposure of trout to CB resulted in similar behavioral changes as seen in the acute study. Liver toxicity was evident from elevations in GPT activity and decreased A/G ratios of serum proteins after 15 days of exposure. BSP retention and AP activity appeared to be affected by the nutritional status of the trout as much as by the CB treatment. After 30 days of exposure to CB, trout appeared to have adapted to the toxic effects of CB. These results indicate that CB is toxic to rainbow trout after either acute intoxication or chronic exposure via the water. Behavioral and soft organ toxicity of CB seen in this study may compromise the ability of the trout to thrive in its environment. Close

• 327. [Article] Primary productivity in the southeast Pacific Ocean : effects of enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation

  Anthropogenic releases of trace gases into the atmosphere are causing a decrease in stratospheric ozone concentrations and a subsequent increase in solar ultraviolet-B (UV-B)(280-320 nm) radiation reaching ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Primary productivity in the southeast Pacific Ocean : effects of enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation Author: Behrenfeld, Mike J. Anthropogenic releases of trace gases into the atmosphere are causing a decrease in stratospheric ozone concentrations and a subsequent increase in solar ultraviolet-B (UV-B)(280-320 nm) radiation reaching the earth's surface. The objective of this study was to determine the acute effects of enhanced UV-B radiation on the primary production of natural marine phytoplankton assemblages sampled over a wide latitudinal gradient and incubated under ambient levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Samples were collected approximately every 2 to 4° latitude in the southeast Pacific. Primary production was measured using the carbon-14 light and dark bottle technique. Fluorescent sunlamps were used to enhance the dose of UV-B radiation above ambient. Samples were maintained at ambient surface water temperature in a flow-through incubation tank. Enhanced UV-B radiation caused a significant mean decrease of 34% in surface water primary production. Decreases in primary production increased with and with increasing assimilation efficiencies. Results indicate that predicted increases in ambient solar UV-B radiation resulting from stratospheric ozone depletion could result in mean annual decreases of near-surface oceanic primary production of less than 1% near the equator to more than 32% at high southern latitudes. Title: Primary productivity in the southeast Pacific Ocean : effects of enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation Author: Behrenfeld, Mike J. Anthropogenic releases of trace gases into the atmosphere are causing a decrease in stratospheric ozone concentrations and a subsequent increase in solar ultraviolet-B (UV-B)(280-320 nm) radiation reaching the earth's surface. The objective of this study was to determine the acute effects of enhanced UV-B radiation on the primary production of natural marine phytoplankton assemblages sampled over a wide latitudinal gradient and incubated under ambient levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Samples were collected approximately every 2 to 4° latitude in the southeast Pacific. Primary production was measured using the carbon-14 light and dark bottle technique. Fluorescent sunlamps were used to enhance the dose of UV-B radiation above ambient. Samples were maintained at ambient surface water temperature in a flow-through incubation tank. Enhanced UV-B radiation caused a significant mean decrease of 34% in surface water primary production. Decreases in primary production increased with and with increasing assimilation efficiencies. Results indicate that predicted increases in ambient solar UV-B radiation resulting from stratospheric ozone depletion could result in mean annual decreases of near-surface oceanic primary production of less than 1% near the equator to more than 32% at high southern latitudes. Close

• 328. [Image] Surveying forest streams for fish use

  	Oregon Department of Forestry Forest Practices Section 2600 State Street Salem, OR 97310 Dl Fish 8 Wildlife Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Habitat Conservation Division P. O. Box 59 Portland, OR ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Surveying forest streams for fish use Author: Oregon. Forest Practices Section; Oregon. Habitat Conservation Division Year: 1995, 2005, 2004 Oregon Department of Forestry Forest Practices Section 2600 State Street Salem, OR 97310 Dl Fish 8 Wildlife Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Habitat Conservation Division P. O. Box 59 Portland, OR 97207 Introduction Identifying Oregon streams that contain fish is an important part in carrying out the new Water Protection Rules. These rules aim to protect areas of benefi-cial uses, such as fish. First, however, the beneficial uses present in each forest stream must be correctly identified. At present, a large number of fish- bearing streams are not identified on stream classification maps. To correct this problem, the Oregon Department of Forestry ( ODF) and the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife ( ODFW) must complete comprehensive surveys to identify fish use on all non- federal forest streams in Oregon. This effort will require at least 3 to 5 years and a significant financial investment. Because many streams are not accurately classified, the new rules also tempo-rarily protect streams that are likely to contain fish. Under the rules, for example, if Stream A flows into a body of water known to contain fish, it is assumed that fish also are using Stream A, up to the point that a natural barrier blocks their way farther upstream ( see OAR 629- 57- 2100: ll( b) B). Once the survey efforts are complete, this interim rule will not be needed. Coordinated efforts by public agencies, landowners, and others to complete fish- presence surveys will assure that important fisheries resources are pro-tected in the most cost- effective way. Landowners or any interested party may collect stream- classification information so that the overall survey can be completed as quickly as possible. Many private forest landowners, in cooperation with Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, are now completing inventories of stream habitat conditions on their lands. In the future, these cooperative efforts may also include fish-presence surveys. This publication tells how to complete fish- presence surveys on forested streams. The guidelines cover: How to plan either " operation- specific" or " maximum upstream fish distribution" surveys The proper way to conduct surveys The proper time of year to conduct surveys Minimum efforts required in completing the surveys The legal requirements for completing the surveys How to provide information to Oregon Department of Forestry to update the stream classification maps The stream reclassification process Operation- specif ic surveys Maximum upstream distribution surveys Planning the survey There are two major types of survey: operation- specific surveys, and surveys to find the maximum upstream distribution of fish. Each type requires different planning and is conducted using different approaches. Operation- specific surveys are those to classify a stream only in the particular area of an operation. This kind of survey may not include efforts to determine the maximum upstream extent of fish use. An operation- specific survey takes minimal planning and coordination. However, it may be very inefficient in the long run because future activities in other areas of the stream may require additional surveys. An operation- specilk survey is very simple to complete. It starts at the down-stream end of the operation area and moves upstream either to the end of the operation area or to the end of fish distribution, whichever comes first. If the purpose of the survey is to prove no fish use, the surveyor must be sure to make at least the minimum effort required to find fish ( see the section on " Survey Effort" on page 10). This kind of survey is done on an entire stream reach or on multiple stream reaches rather than on a restricted portion of a stream. Often, all streams within a basin or reach are completely surveyed. In some cases, the surveys encompass entire ownerships or watersheds. The specific locations of planned operations are usually not the main factor in setting up this kind of survey but can help decide which areas to survey first. Surveys to find the maximum upstream extent of fish use may be the most efficient and cost- effective. Surveyors often cover a group of streams in one area at a time; therefore, travel time is minimized because, often, a group of streams can be easily reached by one common forest road. When travel time is less, the time spent actually completing surveys is greater. This kind of survey may require slightly more planning and coordination to assure efficiency and to minimize duplication of effort by adjacent landowners or by other public agencies, but overall this approach is more cost- effective than the operation-specific surveys. Surveying for the maximum upstream distribution of fish may take more plan-ning than an operation- specific survey, but it is still relatively simple. First, look at ODF Stream Classification Maps for the survey area to see the current extent of fish- use streams. Also note which streams are not classified at all. Next, decide where to start the survey. It may help your planning if you know the relationship between watershed basin area and fish use for your area. Contact the local ODFW office to find out whether these relationships have been established for streams in your area. The information predicts where fish use is " likely to end" and so will help you decide where to start your surveys. At this point, you also may want to consider operations that are planned for certain areas and decide to survey those areas first. After choosing a starting area, look at current road maps to find potential starting points for the survey ( see Figure 1). Look for access points ( such as road crossings) near the upper reaches of the stream. When possible, a survey should start near the highest accessible point in the watershed. If road access to the stream is limited, you may want to start the survey near the point at which the stream's classification size changes from " medium" to " small"; often this point is near the end of fish use ( see Figure 2, page 4). At the starting point, first sample upstream. If you find fish, continue the survey upstream until fish use ends. Be sure to continue sampling above the point at which fish use ends ( see " Survey Effort," page 10). If you make all the required efforts but do not find fish, then survey downstream from the original starting point until you find fish. When surveying downstream, it is important to walk on the streambank until you are ready to sample so that the water stays clear. Begin fish survey above road crossing Fish use extends at least this far Figure I . Selecting survey starting points in an area with a road crossing. Additional survey work may be required if the maximum distribution of fish seems to be affected by a road culvert. If the stream above the culvert has no fish, sample the pool immediately below the culvert. If you find fish in this pool or downstream near the culvert, the culvert is a possible barrier to fish passage. Describe the culvert and the stream on the survey form ( page 19). If you do not find fish in the pool below the culvert, continue the survey down-stream until you do see fish. Begin fish survey here \ \\ \ / I Fish use extends at least this far - - k I Figure 2. Selecting survey starting points, based on the stream- size classification, in an area without a road crossing. Surveys to find the maximum upstream distribution of fish may require sampling across several land ownerships. Be certain to get permission from other landowners before beginning the survey. Contacts with other landowners are also important to prevent a duplication of effort, because many landowners and agencies may be conducting fish- presence surveys. When figuring how many surveyors and how much time you'll need to com-plete surveys in your area, you may want to consider the Department of Forestry's experience. We found that sampling a township ( 36 square miles) required approximately 24 person- days in the Coast region, but an area the same size in the Blue Mountains required only 4 person- days. Survey methods The accuracy and reliability of survey results depend greatly on the methods used to conduct the survey. Methods range from simply looking in the stream ( visual observation) to more intensive and effective sampling with a backpack electroshocker. The method you choose depends on the availability of sam-pling equipment, the size of the stream, the flow and clarity of the water, and other factors. It is important to select a sampling method that is best for the type of survey and for the waters being sampled. If the sample method is not appropriate, the results of the survey will not be very useful. For example, just looking at a stream may tell you there are fish in it at that point, but it is not an acceptable way to find the maximum upstream extent of fish use. Surveys to show that fish are not present require more sampling and specialized equipment in order to provide reliable results. Whenever the survey uses methods other than an electroshocker, it's important to thoroughly explain on the survey report form the reasons for using the other methods. This is the simplest method; it involves only walking the stream to look for fish. It is best to wear polarized sunglasses to reduce glare from the water and to survey only when water conditions allow good visibility. It's also best to walk upstream so that you can " sneak up" on fish in pools. Fish often are near the upstream ends of pools waiting for food to drift toward them. Small fish, such as fry, often are in shallow water along the margin of the stream. Be very alert because fish usually will dart into cover when they detect any movement, especially in small headwater streams. It helps to toss bread crumbs, insects, small twigs, or bemes into the stream to entice the fish to leave cover. The visual method is best suited to small streams where pools aren't deep enough to prevent your seeing the fish. This method is also the least damaging to the fish because actual collection is not required. However, the value of survey results can be reduced by many factors such as cloudy water, surface glare on the water, overcast days ( reduced light), fish behavior, and even the surveyor's poor eyesight. For these reasons, this method is not effective for determining the maximum upstream limit of fish distribution, although it can be used to prove fish are in a certain reach of the stream. Snorkeling is a special method of visual observation that can work well in some situations. Snorkeling allows you to see underwater through a diving mask and breathing snorkel. This method can be used in larger waters where electroshockers are less successful, and it has been used to locate fry where other methods failed. Night snorkel surveys are particularly useful for observ-ing bull trout fry. Visual observation Hook and line Backpack electroshocker The hook- and- line method uses a rod and reel and relies on the feeding be-havior of the fish. In small streams, drop a baited hook into the deepest pools, where larger fish often are. Bait can include worms, single eggs, cheese, dry flies, or stream insects such as caddis larvae. Sample pools that have a lot of cover because those tend to support greater numbers of fish. As with the visual observation method, approach the pool cautiously to avoid alerting the fish. To minimize the risk of injuring or killing the fish, always use barbless hooks. The hook- and- line method can be used when conditions are not good for visual sampling; for example, when water is not clear, flow is high, or the day is overcast. This method may be the most effective for sampling some larger or deeper waters where visual and electroshocker methods can be ineffective. These waters include deep beaver ponds and large, steep streams where downstream barriers ( such as falls and very steep sections) keep fish out of the small tributaries. This method has limitations, though, depending on fish behavior and the life stage of the fish that are present. Fish may be reluctant to bite on cold days, or when the water is murky with sediment, or if the fish detect the surveyor's presence. Also, hook- and- line sampling is not effective if only fry are in the stream. This method also depends on the angling skills of the surveyor. As with the visual observation method, hook- and- line sampling may not be the best way to determine the maximum upstream distribution of fish in small streams, but often it can be used to find fish in larger waters. The most effective way to determine the upstream extent of fish is with a backpack electroshocker. Electroshocker sampling requires additional training and experience, though, to be effective and safe. A backpack electroshocker introduces an electric field into the stream that temporarily immobilizes fish. Stunned fish can be observed as they float in the water, or they can be captured in a small hand net for closer observation if necessary. As with other methods, it is best to work in an upstream direction, wear polarized glasses, and to approach the sampling site carefully to avoid alerting the fish. One person nets fish while another person operates the electroshocker. The netter should walk behind or beside the shocker to avoid alerting the fish. The electroshocker can be very effective for sampling in small streams even where brush or instream cover prevents most other sampling methods. In fact, an electroshocker is often most effective in areas with instream cover because fish usually concentrate in these locations. This method works in streams of various sizes but is less effective in larger streams and in deep pools, espe-cially large beaver ponds. Use electroshockers carefully to minimize killing fish. When properly adjusted and used, the electroshocker should stun the fish without killing them. The fish may escape if the current is set too low, but usually the surveyor will still see the fish and so be able to document fish presence. To sample effectively and minimize fish kill, set the electroshocker on the lowest practical voltage output and low- frequency currents ( low pulse rates). Before sampling, use a voltame-ter to test the electroshocker in a stream. If the voltameter is not available, it is a good idea to test the electroshocker in a stream that you know has fish before working in streams whose fish use you do not know. The test will tell you whether the equipment is working and the effects of using different settings. The surveyors' safety must be considered carefully before using this method. Electroshockers can injure or kill humans if not properly used. Surveyors should not use this method without proper training, including CPR training. Surveyors should work in crews of at least two. All surveyors should wear rubber waders and rubber gloves during stream shocking and never use dipnets with metallic handles; the nets should have wood or fiberglass handles. All members of an electroshocking crew should understand the proper operation procedures and potential dangers of this equipment. The effectiveness of electroshocker sampling depends on water conditions and on the skills of the electroshocker operator and the netter. The electroshocker method may not be so useful in high flows or in turbulent or murky water because the surveyors may not see immobilized fish. Another drawback to this method is that the electroshockers may not be widely available and can be expensive. However, with proper training and experience and under suitable survey conditions, this method is the best for accurately determining the maximum upstream extent of fish use. There may be situations where reliable results can be had by using methods not discussed here. For example, headwater beaver ponds may be effectively Other methods sampled by fishing for at least 48 hours with minnow traps baited with salmon eggs or commercial trout bait. Or, seine nets may be effective in beaver ponds or larger waters. If you are thinking about using these or other sampling methods, discuss it first with the departments of Fish and Wildlife and of Forestry. They will decide whether the proposed methods are appropriate and, if so, set the required minimum level of sample effort for the alternate method. A backpack electroshocker is the best way to get reliable information about the upstream extent of fish use or to prove a stream is m e N ( no fish use). Sur- Survey methods: vey data that document the presence of fish through other methods, such as a summary visual observation or hook- and- line, will always be used to classify streams as Type F as far up as the point of observation, even though the exact upstream extent of fish use may not be known. In some cases, methods other than an electroshocker may give reliable information about the maximum upstream distribution of fish. Examples include deep beaver ponds and large, steep streams in which barriers keep fish out of small upstream tributaries. In those cases, reliable results may be better obtained with hook- and- line sampling or with other methods. Whenever the survey is conducted by methods other than an electroshocker, the reasons for choosing the other method must be thor-oughly explained on the survey form. Timing the surveys Survey accuracy depends a lot on the time of year the survey is done and on stream conditions at that time. Since the purpose of the survey is to accurately document the presence or absence of fish, it is critical to do the survey when fish are expected to be using the upper reaches of a stream. This generally is near spawning times or soon after fry emerge, when stream flows are relatively high. A survey done during a low- flow period may not indicate the actual maximum upstream extent of fish use or accurately prove no fish use the stream. Fish may use the upper reaches of a stream for a limited time only, so fish- use surveys must be timed carefully. Surveys done at other than recommended times may not give a complete description of fish use. For example, if fish are found at other than the recommended survey times, the surveyed part of the stream can be classified as fish- bearing, but the maximum upstream extent of fish use may not be known. If fish are not found, that will not necessarily prove that the stream reach does not support fish use. Only if the survey is made at a time when fish are most likely to be there can the absence of fish be a reliable sign that no fish use that portion of the stream. Other factors can affect the reliability of the survey even if it is made at the proper time. Abnormal flows due to drought or extreme runoff could affect the distribution of fish or the sampling efficiency of the surveyor. So, it is best not only to do the sampling within the recommended time period but also when conditions are appropriate. In some cases, survey timing may not have much effect on the reliability of survey results. This could occur when factors other than seasonal flow patterns control the upstream extent of fish distribution. For example, streams that get most of their water from springs may not have seasonal flow variations, including summer flows low enough to control the upstream distribution of fish. Or, conditions other than low flow could be controlling distribution. For example, large, steep streams that have natural barriers such as falls and steep, impassable sections. In such cases, surveys taken outside the recommended time periods may yield reliable data. However, it is important to describe these conditions thoroughly on the survey forms to justify not following the recom-mended timing. See Table 1 for the recommended sampling periods for different regions of the state for normal water- flow years. Periods differ due to variations in stream flow patterns, fish species, and life- history traits of the species in the different areas. Contact the local ODFW office before sampling to find out the best time to survey the stream you are planning to sample. Table 1. General recommended time periods to sample streams, by geographic region, during nomull water- flow years. Please contact your local ODFW ofice before sampling in order to get specific timing recommendations for the stream you will be sampling. REGION of Recommended Georeaion Stream Survey Period WESTERNO REGON All Coast South Coast West Cascades Interior Siskiyou March 1 through May 3 1 EASTERONR EGON All except spring- fed April 1 East Cascades through June 30 Blue Mountains Spring- fed streams* Entire year * Spring- fed streams are streams that get most of their water Born groundwater sources and that have very minor seasonal variations in flow. Stream surveys must be done within certain time periods ( Table 1) if the purpose is to prove the stream does not contain fish or to document the maximum upstream extent of fish use. mming recommendations are based on normal water- flow years and may vary in some years. Contact the local ODFW office before sampling to get specific timing recommendations for the streams to be surveyed. Information gathered at other times of the year may be used to document fish presence but may not be reliable enough to establish upstream fish- use limits or to classify the stream as II) lpe N ( no fish use). Whenever the recommended survey timing is not used, it is important to explain the reasons on the survey form so that the data can be evaluated for reliability. ~ - ~ Survey timing: a summary Survey effort: a summary Survey effort The level of effort used to complete the survey also can affect the reliability of the survey results. If the level of effort or the amount of stream sampled is too little, it may be wrong to conclude that fish are not present. The following guidelines describe the minimum level of survey effort required to assure that the data are reliable. If the purpose of the survey is to show that no fish use the stream, the survey will be considered reliable only if it includes at least 50 yards of stream length md a minimum of six pools, each at least 1 foot deep, immediately upstream of the point at which the non- fish- bearing section begins. ( In some cases, the survey will have to cover much more than 50 yards of stream in order to also include the required six pools.) In addition, the survey must include sampling any beaver dam ponds in the upstream non- fish section. Surveyors are encouraged to exceed the minimum level of effort in order to be even more sure that fish are absent from a stream reach and that the maximum upstream extent of fish use has been found. A survey intended to show the absence of fish must sample at least 50 yards of stream distance and a minimum of six pools, each at least 1 foot deep, imme-diately upstream of the point at which fish use is believed to end. In addition, any beaver ponds upstream must be sampled as part of the survey. The require-ments for the methods used and the timing of the survey also must be met in order to document the absence of fish. Legal requirements In Oregon, the Department of Fish and Wildlife regulates the collection of fish for personal or scientific use. Generally, collection methods prohibited by the general angling regulations, such as electroshockers, traps, or nets, and collec-tions at times of the year when angling is closed will require a Scientific Collection Permit from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. Scientific Collection Permits can be issued to agencies, companies, or indi-viduals. Request an application from the Fish Division of the Oregon Depart-ment of Fish and Wildlife, P. O. Box 59, Portland, OR 97207; telephone ( 503) 229- 5410, extension 323. Submit the application at least 1 month before you plan to do the survey in order to be sure the permit can be issued in time. The application requests information about the collection method to be used, when and where collection will be made, and a summary of the proposed project. By law, surveyers must keep records of their collection activities and submit them to the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. Surveys using the visual observation method ( including snorkeling) do not require any licenses or permits because fish are not physically collected. Sampling with the hook- and- line method during open fishing seasons requires only a valid angling license. However, Oregon resident landowners and their immediate families do not need angling licenses to fish on land they own and live on. In either case, the general ahgling regulations for the stream must be followed during hook- and- line sampling unless a Scientific Collection Permit is obtained. Additional restrictions on survey efforts may apply if the stream contains species that the state or federal government lists as sensitive, threatened, or endangered species. Please contact your local ODFW office to find out whether any of these species are likely to be in streams you plan to sample. Reporting survey results Give survey data to the local ODF district office so that district Stream Classi-fication Maps can be updated. On page 19 is a blank survey report form. It asks for information about the location of the stream; the methods, timing, and effort of the survey; the physical character of the stream; observations of fish and wildlife; and the presence of natural or human- created barriers to fish passage. complete one form for each stream reach where fish were ob-served or fish use was found to end. See Figure 3 ( page 12) for descriptions of some fish species common to $ mall, forested streams; these may help to identify fish seen during surveys. Detailed instructions for completing the survey form are on pages 14 through 18. Attach to the Fish Presence Survey Form a copy of the ODF Stream ClassM-cation Map for the surveyed area or, if that is not available, a copy of the 7.5 minute USGS topographic map for the area. Note the following information on the map. ( Examples of completed survey report forms and maps are on pages 21 through 30.) The area of the stream that was actually surveyed ( including the areas without fish) as part of the survey effort. Highlight in yellow the entire stream reach surveyed ( see examples on pages 25,28, and 30). The upper limit of fish use. Note this on the map by drawing a line across the stream and writing the letter F at that point. The name of the surveyor. The date the stream was surveyed. GENUS ONCORHYNCUS - PACIFIC SALMON IOENTIFICATION FEATURES OF JUVENILES Faint parr marks. extend little. if am: below latanl line. Lures SOCKEYE w GENUS ONCORHYNCUS- TROUT IDENTIFICATIOEI FUTURES OF JUVENILES pols in dorsal Teeth on of tongue Maxillary extend past rear margin on throat W - Of eye CUTTHROAT 5 - I 0 parr marks on ridge ahead of dorsal tongue astend & st rear mark on throat Y; V margin of eye STEELHEAD- RAINBOW Few or no spots i n tail Figure 3. Identification characteristics of some juvenile salmon and trout species that may be observed in forested streams. 3. Permission to enter private forest lands should be obtained from all land-owners before the surveys are conducted. 4. Fish- presence surveys should then be made according to the guidelines given in this publication. 5. The required survey information, recorded on the Fish Presence Survey Form and maps, should be given to the local ODF district office. 6. The ODF office will give copies of the completed survey forms and maps to the local office of the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 7. The Department of Forestry will review the information, usually in consul-tation with the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, to determine whether the survey results are reliable. 8. Based on its assessment of data reliability, the Department of Forestry will make appropriate changes to the ODF Stream Classification Maps. 9. All affected landowners will be notified of the proposed stream classifica-tion changes, according to the notification rules ( OAR 629- 57- 2110( 2)). Instructions for completing the survey report form The following information should be reported on the Fish Presence Survey Form. These instructions are in the order that the information appears on the form. Complete one form for each stream reach or branch where fish were observed or fish use was found to end. This may require assigning codes to unnamed tributaries ( for example, " trib. a," " trib. b") so that survey data can be cross- referenced to the survey maps. Please refer to examples on pages 21 through 29. Surveyor Narne( s): The name of the person or persons responsible for con-ducting the survey and reporting the results. AgencyfCompany: The name of the agency or company that employs the surveyor ( if applicable). Landowner: The name of the landowner of the reach surveyed. Mailing Address and Phone: The address and phone number for the person responsible for the survey. Stream: The name of the stream as reported on the USGS or ODF Stream Classification Map for the area. If the stream is unnamed, report the stream as " unnamed" and list the tributary that it flows into (" Tributary to..."). Tributary to: The name of the main stream ( as reported on the USGS or ODF map) that the surveyed stream flows into. This is especially important if the surveyed stream is unnamed. Quad Map: The name of the USGS 7.5 minute topographic map that includes the reach of the stream surveyed. If the surveyed reach covers more than one quad map, report first the name of the map that shows the identified end- point of fish use and then give the other maps' names. Location: A legal description ( township, range, and section to at least the quarter section) of the location where fish use ends. Date Surveyed: The month, day, and year the fish survey was conducted. Survey Method: Check the box for the survey method used. If more than one method was used, check all that apply and note the most often used method in the comments section or in the form's margin. Survey Amount Above End of Fish Use: The length of stream reach that was surveyed immediately upstream of the identified end of fish use. Estimate ( in feet) the length surveyed, and give the number of pools sampled for fish in that section. A survey to prove the absence of fish must sample at least 50 yards of stream and at least six pools immediately upstream of the end of fish use. In addition, any upstream beaver ponds must also be sampled. Flow Level: The flow conditions at the time of the survey. Use the following categories of flow. Low: Ranges from a series of isolated pools to flowing across less than 75 percent of the average bankfull width. Moderate: Surface water is flowing across 75 to 90 percent of the average bankfull width. High: Surface water flowing across more than 90 percent of the average bankfull width. It is not recommended thatfih presence surveys be conducted at high jlows. Weather: The weather during most of the fish survey ( rainy, overcast, partly cloudy, sunny, snowy, etc.). Water Clarity: The water visibility during the survey. Use the following categories of water visibility. Clear: Visibility is good in pools, deep pools, and riffles. Moderate: Visibility is good only in riffles and shallow pools. Turbid: Visibility is poor in both riffles and pools. It is not recommended that fih presence surveys be conducted when water is turbid. Water Temperature ( optional): The temperature of the stream ( in degrees Farenheit) at the time of the survey. Fish observations Report the species and approximate size ranges of fish observed in the sur-veyed reach. Use Figure 3 ( page 12) as a guide to identifying some game fish species commonly found in small, forested streams. Use the following codes and instructions to complete this section. Species: Use the following names or codes to report fish observed during the survey. If you observe a species not listed here, such as Pacific lamprey, use its common name. Name Species Code Coho salmon Co Cutthroat trout Ct Rainbow troutfsteelhead Rb/ St Bull trout BUT Brook trout BT Unknown salmonid UnS Sizes: Report the size range of fish, in inches, by species. For example, the size range of coho observed could be reported as " 1- 4 inches." If you see several sizes of one species ( for example, some cutthroat trout in the " 1- to 2- inch range and others in the " 6- to 8- inch" range), list them separately. Aquatic wildlife The types of aquatic wildlife that may be observed include tailed frogs ( includ-ing juvenile " tadpoles"), Pacific giant salamanders, and Olympic salamanders. Species: Give the common name of the species, if known. If you don't know the species name, at least report observations by a general name such as " salamanders." Number: The number of aquatic wildlife in each species or group observed. Physical stream data Report the physical characteristics of the stream in the vicinity of the end- point of fish use. Report information separately for ( 1) the section immediately at and downstream of the end of fish use, and ( 2) the area upstream of the maximum extent of fish use. Following are specific instructions for collecting this information. Bankfull Channel Width: By eye, estimate the average width ( in feet) of the bankfull channel for the 100- foot sections above and below the end- point of fish use. The bankfull channel is the area that is scoured by water during average high flows. The edge of the bankfull channel can be identified by looking for changes in vegetation, in soils and litter characteristics, or in the shape of the bank. The bank often will abruptly change slope at the bankfull boundary. Vegetation at the boundary often changes from annual vegetation ( such as grasses) to more permanent vegetation such as trees and shrubs. Estimate the width across the channel between the edges of the bankfull level. Current Wetted Width: Visually estimate the average width ( in feet) of the channel that contains flow ( is wetted) at the time of the survey. Report the estimated averages for the 100- foot sections above and below the end of fish use. Channel Gradient: Measure the average stream gradient with a clinometer for the 100- foot sections above and below the end of fish use. me a piece of flagging at eye level on a branch or shrub, walk up or down the stream bank, and then use the clinometer to sight on the flagging while you are standing on the channel bottom. Read and report the percent gradient. ODF Stream Class Size: The stream size (" small," " medium," or " large") from the ODF Stream Classification Maps for the reaches immediately above and downstream of the end of fish use. Natural barriers This information is very important for understanding relationships between the presence of fish and the physical characteristics of the stream. Understanding these relationships can help determine where fish- presence surveys should be concentrated and help predict where fish are likely to occur if survey informa-tion is not yet available. Generally, natural barriers are permanent structures such as falls or vertical drops more than 8 to 10 feet high for salmon or steel-head or 4 feet high for trout. Log jams, drops over logs, beaver dams, or other organic structures generally are only temporary barriers to fish passage, but report them as well. If fish use ends at a natural barrier, such as a waterfall, bedrock chute or cascades, describe the conditions at the site. Include a description of: ( 1) the type of barrier, ( 2) the approximate height ( in feet), ( 3) the percentage of slope, ( 4) the length ( in feet) of the bedrock chute or cascades, and ( 5) any other conditions that may be limiting fish passage. If the potential barrier is a bedrock chute, note whether the bedrock contains pools or rough features ( such as rocks, boulders, or other breaks in the flow), or whether the water flows in an even, shallow pattern over the bedrock. Please note on the survey map the locations of any natural barriers encountered. If you encounter a natural barrier, also be sure to sample above this point because fish often are found above natural barriers. Road- crossing barriers This information also is very important for understanding relationships be-tween the presence of fish and the physical characteristics of the stream. Road-crossing barriers can alter the relationships. If fish use ends at a road- crossing barrier, such as a culvert, describe the conditions at the site. Describe the type of barrier and its measurements at the time of the survey such as ( 1) the diameter of the culvert, in inches, ( 2) the depth ( in inches) of water in the culvert, ( 3) the height ( in feet) of the jump ( drop) below the culvert or structure, ( 4) the depth ( in inches or feet) of the plunge pool below the culvert outfall, ( 5) the gradient or slope of the culvert, given as a percentage as read off a clinometer, ( 6) the length ( in feet) of the culvert, and ( 7) any other factors that could affect fish passage. Please note on the survey map the locations of any road- crossing barriers, even if they are not at the end- point of fish use. As with natural barriers, be sure also to sample above the site because fish often are found above road- crossing barriers. Other comments Any other comments or notations that you think may be pertinent to the fish survey. It helps to describe any notable habitat characteristics, for example " lots of instream wood," " very few pools in the reach," " heavy silt load in the stream." Use the reverse side of the form if necessary. FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): Agency: Land Owner: Mailing Address: Phone: Date Surveyed: Stream: Tributary to: Quad Map: Location: T R Sec. Survey Method ( d): 0 Electroshocker 0 h & g 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) Number of Pools Flow Level ( d): 0 Low 17 Moderate High Weather: Water Temperature: Water Clarity ( d): Clear 17 Moderate 17 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): . be Sorveq , 3 Troo+, FI s h G n r u l l , I*? , S.; L. Agency: N/ C I Land Owner: k! 4~ 4f, l T; M ~ C C Mailing address:?.^. sox ~ g~,\ L L I M UF~ A \ ID~ R) jC? suo Phone: BSB- 5555 ate surveyed: A p ( ; i 2 8, ! ?? s I Stream: Un hawed , " Tr I b R!' Tributary to: lr3 F . 21 o k so- ~ r a& QuadMap: D\ A &\ dy Location: T 305 R 5 " L Sec. 30, sw/ sto Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) I 86 ' Number of Pools Flow Level ( d): CI Low cd~ oderate High Weather: S owv Water Temperature: 7 O F I Water Clarity ( V): dclear Moderate I7 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE Species I Snes 1 Spedes 1 Quant'ity 1 PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. bk If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. prf+ Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): f- 15 L wsz ewd 30 $& abov e f *; rd John50~ m ain\ ifi< ~ r o s s i n OH ~ f r e a ~ 7.% ~ 5t redw g d ~ e n f & ry s t u p abde + he a d 4' & sh use - p & f i a n 10%. 2 1 OREGON FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Fish & Wildlife Stream: ~) nr? euce, d " Tr t b, O " Tributary to: w F & n~ oq CC. Quad Map: old &\ A% Location: T 382 R 5E Sec.' 30, si/ Sw I Survey Method ( 4): ~ lectroshocker 0 Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 2 5' 0 Number of Pools 20 Flow Level ( d): 0 Low d ~ o d e r a t e High Weather: Lw+ Water Temperature: 6 0 F I Water Clarity ( d): dclear Cl Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE Species 1 Snes I! , Species Quantity If fish use ends at a natural bamer, desc ' be the conditions that prevent u stre m fish assage. Fid - 4s 4+ 2 S ' ~ r t i Lm* r? d\. A dJ @ cater also % 15& 5 ( ho& a. r. rp Q5 W F - buffis @ ere fouu\ d . opstr + ye If fish use ehs) at a roa d. crossmng, descnbe conhlons that may prevent upstream fish passage. Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): w tfw+ were fbU 4 above % z 6 + of (~ la+ erf~ ll above fu 25fcof I sowe years. 22 fail s& i ro fish t@ f& probab/ y vp FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP stream: V A ~ ~ ~ + SC~" T & ~ ributaryto: u. F. 3ehbtja14 Creek Quad Map: old - b a t d ~ Location: T 3 S 5 R 5 E Sec. Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker 0 Anghng 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) a 2 5 Number of Pools 2 Flow Level ( d): 0 Low & oderate 0 High Weather: SvMwv Water Temperature: I Water Clarity ( d): d l e a r 0 Moderate 0 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE - ... . .: : :....: ' ' . . . . . . A , , , .: . . . . , . . , .&& : ! Species ... . ..$ pedes Quantity PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. M/ A If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Stream: West h r k Aobrson Cr eeG Tributary to: Johnrow Cre~ k Quad Map: ( ~ ( 4Ith .\ Ay Location: T 385 R 5 E Sec. 2?,, 5E/ sLJ I Survey Method ( d): dlectroshocker 0 Angling Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 3 00 Number of Pools t% Flow Level ( V): 0 Low d ~ o d e r ae t High Weather: j , y~ I Water Temperature: 60" F= Water Clarity ( d): & ear Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQ- U ATIC WILDLIFE t Spedes Quantity 1 I PHYSICAL STREAM DATA + IH n D CtsL 5h-* If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. N I A If fish use ends t a roqj crossiy, describ~ concl~~ tohnats may prevent upstr am fish passa e. ~ hrvctr ert a no? pQ59 ~ c - r b LOWOJQ 4 u. 4 9 ) drop at * rut-/&. b l d a r p fn qr p aI . 7, slop is 6 70 , and w ( onp 7 % fu~ lv er+ 1s ~ chul~ ledb e replace4 t bi s Svmncr. Other comments ( use reverse s~ de~ fn ecessa ): Lower ~ t r c a - q r d r r & a & e + LC cd en. Sf- rm* bb; M Ieok 30a4, but + k shaln. dry up ;* SOW years. FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Mailing Address: ?. c, 3 2 , AJLO ~ L4- T o R 70 00 Phone: b40 - oool Date Surveyed: / Ha v 2 / cj? T I stream: ~ nnclcr- ed , " 7- r; b k " Tributary to: Lobs k c Creek Quad Map: BULL Lrceu Rtdqc Location: T 35 R 2W S ~ C . ~ ~ N € + 4 Survey Method ( d): ~ lectroshocker Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 300 Number of Pools I 57 Flow Level ( d): 0 Low rd~ oderate High Weather: 7k + lVL * wy Water Temperature: 6 O T-Water Clarity ( d): && ear Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLlFE I , , , ' Species Sies Spedes Quantity If fish use ends, at a natural ba ' er, describe t e conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. The. LZ m c b r u f - ~ V~ L ry 54- p X e u e + he ed$+ t.* use. ~ k rlrcnu, RIIIVC ~ L I : : pain+ I S ~ 4 1 ~ g ~ r L ~ d eo5ve r bai( Lle r S, b+ + his ri- gf obnhi~ n o+ Q b r r r t c r. ' 7 If fish use ends at a road crossing, descn e conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. U P Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): N r 4.0r L r ~ s; Wj J bCqPn 5 u ru . + r + he L) wediunn - sws\ l size chaqc, F, sh U ~ CC ~ wJh c r t a d c c y t r ; b ~ + G~ d . ovt WLQ) ew- ker s LLII+. 26 FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): 30 e Cadd i i , Bob hJvrnP1\ Agency: o ba~ ~ a'ndbwner: Lobsfec C r , ~ , , b c c Mailing Address: 7 D. ' 30K 2 , ~ J L pLet~ t , D R DO Phone: 8 YD- o 00 1 Date Surveyed: m4 I/ 2, i? 7- C I f Stream: / ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ek bS "" ~ c Tributaryto: L o b s t e r Lraek Quad Map: B V ' ~ Cr eek ??, d. ie Location: T 73 R 2 0 Sec. 3Y, ~ I. o AA. J G Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 2 5 0 Number of Pools / D Flow Level ( d): 0 Low d ~ o d e r a t e 0 High Weather: 94, & SU W\ I Water Temperature: 5- 7 " ?= Water Clarity ( d) : Wc1ea. r CI Moderate 0 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE PHYSICAL STREAM DATA Species Sics Spedes If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. Quantity If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. I I Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): ~ h5ctre um WLS " r y ~ Lw iL tL ~ decy f- goo( r. @. la f is/., observe4 , Ty pr N ~ f . r e u ~ z . FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): \ ce < . 3ab Tr cut Agency: u/ k2 Mailing ~ ddress: Z3R Rne St , b k n h( e dr ! OR ? d o 0 Phone: ZB?- 3333 Date Surveyed: stream: ~*- aweA Tributary to: c r & QuadMap: G l e w b ~ ~ e k Location: T \ 4 5 R 6 @ Sec. zS,, ~ 3t .+ S-Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker Angling Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) Number of Pools Q Flow Level ( d): 0 Low & oderate High Weather: C( ea c Water Temperature: 5?* F Water Clarity ( d): lW2ear 0 Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE Species Sizes Spedes Quantity PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. U P If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. Title: Surveying forest streams for fish use Author: Oregon. Forest Practices Section; Oregon. Habitat Conservation Division Year: 1995, 2005, 2004 Oregon Department of Forestry Forest Practices Section 2600 State Street Salem, OR 97310 Dl Fish 8 Wildlife Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Habitat Conservation Division P. O. Box 59 Portland, OR 97207 Introduction Identifying Oregon streams that contain fish is an important part in carrying out the new Water Protection Rules. These rules aim to protect areas of benefi-cial uses, such as fish. First, however, the beneficial uses present in each forest stream must be correctly identified. At present, a large number of fish- bearing streams are not identified on stream classification maps. To correct this problem, the Oregon Department of Forestry ( ODF) and the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife ( ODFW) must complete comprehensive surveys to identify fish use on all non- federal forest streams in Oregon. This effort will require at least 3 to 5 years and a significant financial investment. Because many streams are not accurately classified, the new rules also tempo-rarily protect streams that are likely to contain fish. Under the rules, for example, if Stream A flows into a body of water known to contain fish, it is assumed that fish also are using Stream A, up to the point that a natural barrier blocks their way farther upstream ( see OAR 629- 57- 2100: ll( b) B). Once the survey efforts are complete, this interim rule will not be needed. Coordinated efforts by public agencies, landowners, and others to complete fish- presence surveys will assure that important fisheries resources are pro-tected in the most cost- effective way. Landowners or any interested party may collect stream- classification information so that the overall survey can be completed as quickly as possible. Many private forest landowners, in cooperation with Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, are now completing inventories of stream habitat conditions on their lands. In the future, these cooperative efforts may also include fish-presence surveys. This publication tells how to complete fish- presence surveys on forested streams. The guidelines cover: How to plan either " operation- specific" or " maximum upstream fish distribution" surveys The proper way to conduct surveys The proper time of year to conduct surveys Minimum efforts required in completing the surveys The legal requirements for completing the surveys How to provide information to Oregon Department of Forestry to update the stream classification maps The stream reclassification process Operation- specif ic surveys Maximum upstream distribution surveys Planning the survey There are two major types of survey: operation- specific surveys, and surveys to find the maximum upstream distribution of fish. Each type requires different planning and is conducted using different approaches. Operation- specific surveys are those to classify a stream only in the particular area of an operation. This kind of survey may not include efforts to determine the maximum upstream extent of fish use. An operation- specific survey takes minimal planning and coordination. However, it may be very inefficient in the long run because future activities in other areas of the stream may require additional surveys. An operation- specilk survey is very simple to complete. It starts at the down-stream end of the operation area and moves upstream either to the end of the operation area or to the end of fish distribution, whichever comes first. If the purpose of the survey is to prove no fish use, the surveyor must be sure to make at least the minimum effort required to find fish ( see the section on " Survey Effort" on page 10). This kind of survey is done on an entire stream reach or on multiple stream reaches rather than on a restricted portion of a stream. Often, all streams within a basin or reach are completely surveyed. In some cases, the surveys encompass entire ownerships or watersheds. The specific locations of planned operations are usually not the main factor in setting up this kind of survey but can help decide which areas to survey first. Surveys to find the maximum upstream extent of fish use may be the most efficient and cost- effective. Surveyors often cover a group of streams in one area at a time; therefore, travel time is minimized because, often, a group of streams can be easily reached by one common forest road. When travel time is less, the time spent actually completing surveys is greater. This kind of survey may require slightly more planning and coordination to assure efficiency and to minimize duplication of effort by adjacent landowners or by other public agencies, but overall this approach is more cost- effective than the operation-specific surveys. Surveying for the maximum upstream distribution of fish may take more plan-ning than an operation- specific survey, but it is still relatively simple. First, look at ODF Stream Classification Maps for the survey area to see the current extent of fish- use streams. Also note which streams are not classified at all. Next, decide where to start the survey. It may help your planning if you know the relationship between watershed basin area and fish use for your area. Contact the local ODFW office to find out whether these relationships have been established for streams in your area. The information predicts where fish use is " likely to end" and so will help you decide where to start your surveys. At this point, you also may want to consider operations that are planned for certain areas and decide to survey those areas first. After choosing a starting area, look at current road maps to find potential starting points for the survey ( see Figure 1). Look for access points ( such as road crossings) near the upper reaches of the stream. When possible, a survey should start near the highest accessible point in the watershed. If road access to the stream is limited, you may want to start the survey near the point at which the stream's classification size changes from " medium" to " small"; often this point is near the end of fish use ( see Figure 2, page 4). At the starting point, first sample upstream. If you find fish, continue the survey upstream until fish use ends. Be sure to continue sampling above the point at which fish use ends ( see " Survey Effort," page 10). If you make all the required efforts but do not find fish, then survey downstream from the original starting point until you find fish. When surveying downstream, it is important to walk on the streambank until you are ready to sample so that the water stays clear. Begin fish survey above road crossing Fish use extends at least this far Figure I . Selecting survey starting points in an area with a road crossing. Additional survey work may be required if the maximum distribution of fish seems to be affected by a road culvert. If the stream above the culvert has no fish, sample the pool immediately below the culvert. If you find fish in this pool or downstream near the culvert, the culvert is a possible barrier to fish passage. Describe the culvert and the stream on the survey form ( page 19). If you do not find fish in the pool below the culvert, continue the survey down-stream until you do see fish. Begin fish survey here \ \\ \ / I Fish use extends at least this far - - k I Figure 2. Selecting survey starting points, based on the stream- size classification, in an area without a road crossing. Surveys to find the maximum upstream distribution of fish may require sampling across several land ownerships. Be certain to get permission from other landowners before beginning the survey. Contacts with other landowners are also important to prevent a duplication of effort, because many landowners and agencies may be conducting fish- presence surveys. When figuring how many surveyors and how much time you'll need to com-plete surveys in your area, you may want to consider the Department of Forestry's experience. We found that sampling a township ( 36 square miles) required approximately 24 person- days in the Coast region, but an area the same size in the Blue Mountains required only 4 person- days. Survey methods The accuracy and reliability of survey results depend greatly on the methods used to conduct the survey. Methods range from simply looking in the stream ( visual observation) to more intensive and effective sampling with a backpack electroshocker. The method you choose depends on the availability of sam-pling equipment, the size of the stream, the flow and clarity of the water, and other factors. It is important to select a sampling method that is best for the type of survey and for the waters being sampled. If the sample method is not appropriate, the results of the survey will not be very useful. For example, just looking at a stream may tell you there are fish in it at that point, but it is not an acceptable way to find the maximum upstream extent of fish use. Surveys to show that fish are not present require more sampling and specialized equipment in order to provide reliable results. Whenever the survey uses methods other than an electroshocker, it's important to thoroughly explain on the survey report form the reasons for using the other methods. This is the simplest method; it involves only walking the stream to look for fish. It is best to wear polarized sunglasses to reduce glare from the water and to survey only when water conditions allow good visibility. It's also best to walk upstream so that you can " sneak up" on fish in pools. Fish often are near the upstream ends of pools waiting for food to drift toward them. Small fish, such as fry, often are in shallow water along the margin of the stream. Be very alert because fish usually will dart into cover when they detect any movement, especially in small headwater streams. It helps to toss bread crumbs, insects, small twigs, or bemes into the stream to entice the fish to leave cover. The visual method is best suited to small streams where pools aren't deep enough to prevent your seeing the fish. This method is also the least damaging to the fish because actual collection is not required. However, the value of survey results can be reduced by many factors such as cloudy water, surface glare on the water, overcast days ( reduced light), fish behavior, and even the surveyor's poor eyesight. For these reasons, this method is not effective for determining the maximum upstream limit of fish distribution, although it can be used to prove fish are in a certain reach of the stream. Snorkeling is a special method of visual observation that can work well in some situations. Snorkeling allows you to see underwater through a diving mask and breathing snorkel. This method can be used in larger waters where electroshockers are less successful, and it has been used to locate fry where other methods failed. Night snorkel surveys are particularly useful for observ-ing bull trout fry. Visual observation Hook and line Backpack electroshocker The hook- and- line method uses a rod and reel and relies on the feeding be-havior of the fish. In small streams, drop a baited hook into the deepest pools, where larger fish often are. Bait can include worms, single eggs, cheese, dry flies, or stream insects such as caddis larvae. Sample pools that have a lot of cover because those tend to support greater numbers of fish. As with the visual observation method, approach the pool cautiously to avoid alerting the fish. To minimize the risk of injuring or killing the fish, always use barbless hooks. The hook- and- line method can be used when conditions are not good for visual sampling; for example, when water is not clear, flow is high, or the day is overcast. This method may be the most effective for sampling some larger or deeper waters where visual and electroshocker methods can be ineffective. These waters include deep beaver ponds and large, steep streams where downstream barriers ( such as falls and very steep sections) keep fish out of the small tributaries. This method has limitations, though, depending on fish behavior and the life stage of the fish that are present. Fish may be reluctant to bite on cold days, or when the water is murky with sediment, or if the fish detect the surveyor's presence. Also, hook- and- line sampling is not effective if only fry are in the stream. This method also depends on the angling skills of the surveyor. As with the visual observation method, hook- and- line sampling may not be the best way to determine the maximum upstream distribution of fish in small streams, but often it can be used to find fish in larger waters. The most effective way to determine the upstream extent of fish is with a backpack electroshocker. Electroshocker sampling requires additional training and experience, though, to be effective and safe. A backpack electroshocker introduces an electric field into the stream that temporarily immobilizes fish. Stunned fish can be observed as they float in the water, or they can be captured in a small hand net for closer observation if necessary. As with other methods, it is best to work in an upstream direction, wear polarized glasses, and to approach the sampling site carefully to avoid alerting the fish. One person nets fish while another person operates the electroshocker. The netter should walk behind or beside the shocker to avoid alerting the fish. The electroshocker can be very effective for sampling in small streams even where brush or instream cover prevents most other sampling methods. In fact, an electroshocker is often most effective in areas with instream cover because fish usually concentrate in these locations. This method works in streams of various sizes but is less effective in larger streams and in deep pools, espe-cially large beaver ponds. Use electroshockers carefully to minimize killing fish. When properly adjusted and used, the electroshocker should stun the fish without killing them. The fish may escape if the current is set too low, but usually the surveyor will still see the fish and so be able to document fish presence. To sample effectively and minimize fish kill, set the electroshocker on the lowest practical voltage output and low- frequency currents ( low pulse rates). Before sampling, use a voltame-ter to test the electroshocker in a stream. If the voltameter is not available, it is a good idea to test the electroshocker in a stream that you know has fish before working in streams whose fish use you do not know. The test will tell you whether the equipment is working and the effects of using different settings. The surveyors' safety must be considered carefully before using this method. Electroshockers can injure or kill humans if not properly used. Surveyors should not use this method without proper training, including CPR training. Surveyors should work in crews of at least two. All surveyors should wear rubber waders and rubber gloves during stream shocking and never use dipnets with metallic handles; the nets should have wood or fiberglass handles. All members of an electroshocking crew should understand the proper operation procedures and potential dangers of this equipment. The effectiveness of electroshocker sampling depends on water conditions and on the skills of the electroshocker operator and the netter. The electroshocker method may not be so useful in high flows or in turbulent or murky water because the surveyors may not see immobilized fish. Another drawback to this method is that the electroshockers may not be widely available and can be expensive. However, with proper training and experience and under suitable survey conditions, this method is the best for accurately determining the maximum upstream extent of fish use. There may be situations where reliable results can be had by using methods not discussed here. For example, headwater beaver ponds may be effectively Other methods sampled by fishing for at least 48 hours with minnow traps baited with salmon eggs or commercial trout bait. Or, seine nets may be effective in beaver ponds or larger waters. If you are thinking about using these or other sampling methods, discuss it first with the departments of Fish and Wildlife and of Forestry. They will decide whether the proposed methods are appropriate and, if so, set the required minimum level of sample effort for the alternate method. A backpack electroshocker is the best way to get reliable information about the upstream extent of fish use or to prove a stream is m e N ( no fish use). Sur- Survey methods: vey data that document the presence of fish through other methods, such as a summary visual observation or hook- and- line, will always be used to classify streams as Type F as far up as the point of observation, even though the exact upstream extent of fish use may not be known. In some cases, methods other than an electroshocker may give reliable information about the maximum upstream distribution of fish. Examples include deep beaver ponds and large, steep streams in which barriers keep fish out of small upstream tributaries. In those cases, reliable results may be better obtained with hook- and- line sampling or with other methods. Whenever the survey is conducted by methods other than an electroshocker, the reasons for choosing the other method must be thor-oughly explained on the survey form. Timing the surveys Survey accuracy depends a lot on the time of year the survey is done and on stream conditions at that time. Since the purpose of the survey is to accurately document the presence or absence of fish, it is critical to do the survey when fish are expected to be using the upper reaches of a stream. This generally is near spawning times or soon after fry emerge, when stream flows are relatively high. A survey done during a low- flow period may not indicate the actual maximum upstream extent of fish use or accurately prove no fish use the stream. Fish may use the upper reaches of a stream for a limited time only, so fish- use surveys must be timed carefully. Surveys done at other than recommended times may not give a complete description of fish use. For example, if fish are found at other than the recommended survey times, the surveyed part of the stream can be classified as fish- bearing, but the maximum upstream extent of fish use may not be known. If fish are not found, that will not necessarily prove that the stream reach does not support fish use. Only if the survey is made at a time when fish are most likely to be there can the absence of fish be a reliable sign that no fish use that portion of the stream. Other factors can affect the reliability of the survey even if it is made at the proper time. Abnormal flows due to drought or extreme runoff could affect the distribution of fish or the sampling efficiency of the surveyor. So, it is best not only to do the sampling within the recommended time period but also when conditions are appropriate. In some cases, survey timing may not have much effect on the reliability of survey results. This could occur when factors other than seasonal flow patterns control the upstream extent of fish distribution. For example, streams that get most of their water from springs may not have seasonal flow variations, including summer flows low enough to control the upstream distribution of fish. Or, conditions other than low flow could be controlling distribution. For example, large, steep streams that have natural barriers such as falls and steep, impassable sections. In such cases, surveys taken outside the recommended time periods may yield reliable data. However, it is important to describe these conditions thoroughly on the survey forms to justify not following the recom-mended timing. See Table 1 for the recommended sampling periods for different regions of the state for normal water- flow years. Periods differ due to variations in stream flow patterns, fish species, and life- history traits of the species in the different areas. Contact the local ODFW office before sampling to find out the best time to survey the stream you are planning to sample. Table 1. General recommended time periods to sample streams, by geographic region, during nomull water- flow years. Please contact your local ODFW ofice before sampling in order to get specific timing recommendations for the stream you will be sampling. REGION of Recommended Georeaion Stream Survey Period WESTERNO REGON All Coast South Coast West Cascades Interior Siskiyou March 1 through May 3 1 EASTERONR EGON All except spring- fed April 1 East Cascades through June 30 Blue Mountains Spring- fed streams* Entire year * Spring- fed streams are streams that get most of their water Born groundwater sources and that have very minor seasonal variations in flow. Stream surveys must be done within certain time periods ( Table 1) if the purpose is to prove the stream does not contain fish or to document the maximum upstream extent of fish use. mming recommendations are based on normal water- flow years and may vary in some years. Contact the local ODFW office before sampling to get specific timing recommendations for the streams to be surveyed. Information gathered at other times of the year may be used to document fish presence but may not be reliable enough to establish upstream fish- use limits or to classify the stream as II) lpe N ( no fish use). Whenever the recommended survey timing is not used, it is important to explain the reasons on the survey form so that the data can be evaluated for reliability. ~ - ~ Survey timing: a summary Survey effort: a summary Survey effort The level of effort used to complete the survey also can affect the reliability of the survey results. If the level of effort or the amount of stream sampled is too little, it may be wrong to conclude that fish are not present. The following guidelines describe the minimum level of survey effort required to assure that the data are reliable. If the purpose of the survey is to show that no fish use the stream, the survey will be considered reliable only if it includes at least 50 yards of stream length md a minimum of six pools, each at least 1 foot deep, immediately upstream of the point at which the non- fish- bearing section begins. ( In some cases, the survey will have to cover much more than 50 yards of stream in order to also include the required six pools.) In addition, the survey must include sampling any beaver dam ponds in the upstream non- fish section. Surveyors are encouraged to exceed the minimum level of effort in order to be even more sure that fish are absent from a stream reach and that the maximum upstream extent of fish use has been found. A survey intended to show the absence of fish must sample at least 50 yards of stream distance and a minimum of six pools, each at least 1 foot deep, imme-diately upstream of the point at which fish use is believed to end. In addition, any beaver ponds upstream must be sampled as part of the survey. The require-ments for the methods used and the timing of the survey also must be met in order to document the absence of fish. Legal requirements In Oregon, the Department of Fish and Wildlife regulates the collection of fish for personal or scientific use. Generally, collection methods prohibited by the general angling regulations, such as electroshockers, traps, or nets, and collec-tions at times of the year when angling is closed will require a Scientific Collection Permit from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. Scientific Collection Permits can be issued to agencies, companies, or indi-viduals. Request an application from the Fish Division of the Oregon Depart-ment of Fish and Wildlife, P. O. Box 59, Portland, OR 97207; telephone ( 503) 229- 5410, extension 323. Submit the application at least 1 month before you plan to do the survey in order to be sure the permit can be issued in time. The application requests information about the collection method to be used, when and where collection will be made, and a summary of the proposed project. By law, surveyers must keep records of their collection activities and submit them to the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. Surveys using the visual observation method ( including snorkeling) do not require any licenses or permits because fish are not physically collected. Sampling with the hook- and- line method during open fishing seasons requires only a valid angling license. However, Oregon resident landowners and their immediate families do not need angling licenses to fish on land they own and live on. In either case, the general ahgling regulations for the stream must be followed during hook- and- line sampling unless a Scientific Collection Permit is obtained. Additional restrictions on survey efforts may apply if the stream contains species that the state or federal government lists as sensitive, threatened, or endangered species. Please contact your local ODFW office to find out whether any of these species are likely to be in streams you plan to sample. Reporting survey results Give survey data to the local ODF district office so that district Stream Classi-fication Maps can be updated. On page 19 is a blank survey report form. It asks for information about the location of the stream; the methods, timing, and effort of the survey; the physical character of the stream; observations of fish and wildlife; and the presence of natural or human- created barriers to fish passage. complete one form for each stream reach where fish were ob-served or fish use was found to end. See Figure 3 ( page 12) for descriptions of some fish species common to $ mall, forested streams; these may help to identify fish seen during surveys. Detailed instructions for completing the survey form are on pages 14 through 18. Attach to the Fish Presence Survey Form a copy of the ODF Stream ClassM-cation Map for the surveyed area or, if that is not available, a copy of the 7.5 minute USGS topographic map for the area. Note the following information on the map. ( Examples of completed survey report forms and maps are on pages 21 through 30.) The area of the stream that was actually surveyed ( including the areas without fish) as part of the survey effort. Highlight in yellow the entire stream reach surveyed ( see examples on pages 25,28, and 30). The upper limit of fish use. Note this on the map by drawing a line across the stream and writing the letter F at that point. The name of the surveyor. The date the stream was surveyed. GENUS ONCORHYNCUS - PACIFIC SALMON IOENTIFICATION FEATURES OF JUVENILES Faint parr marks. extend little. if am: below latanl line. Lures SOCKEYE w GENUS ONCORHYNCUS- TROUT IDENTIFICATIOEI FUTURES OF JUVENILES pols in dorsal Teeth on of tongue Maxillary extend past rear margin on throat W - Of eye CUTTHROAT 5 - I 0 parr marks on ridge ahead of dorsal tongue astend & st rear mark on throat Y; V margin of eye STEELHEAD- RAINBOW Few or no spots i n tail Figure 3. Identification characteristics of some juvenile salmon and trout species that may be observed in forested streams. 3. Permission to enter private forest lands should be obtained from all land-owners before the surveys are conducted. 4. Fish- presence surveys should then be made according to the guidelines given in this publication. 5. The required survey information, recorded on the Fish Presence Survey Form and maps, should be given to the local ODF district office. 6. The ODF office will give copies of the completed survey forms and maps to the local office of the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. 7. The Department of Forestry will review the information, usually in consul-tation with the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, to determine whether the survey results are reliable. 8. Based on its assessment of data reliability, the Department of Forestry will make appropriate changes to the ODF Stream Classification Maps. 9. All affected landowners will be notified of the proposed stream classifica-tion changes, according to the notification rules ( OAR 629- 57- 2110( 2)). Instructions for completing the survey report form The following information should be reported on the Fish Presence Survey Form. These instructions are in the order that the information appears on the form. Complete one form for each stream reach or branch where fish were observed or fish use was found to end. This may require assigning codes to unnamed tributaries ( for example, " trib. a," " trib. b") so that survey data can be cross- referenced to the survey maps. Please refer to examples on pages 21 through 29. Surveyor Narne( s): The name of the person or persons responsible for con-ducting the survey and reporting the results. AgencyfCompany: The name of the agency or company that employs the surveyor ( if applicable). Landowner: The name of the landowner of the reach surveyed. Mailing Address and Phone: The address and phone number for the person responsible for the survey. Stream: The name of the stream as reported on the USGS or ODF Stream Classification Map for the area. If the stream is unnamed, report the stream as " unnamed" and list the tributary that it flows into (" Tributary to..."). Tributary to: The name of the main stream ( as reported on the USGS or ODF map) that the surveyed stream flows into. This is especially important if the surveyed stream is unnamed. Quad Map: The name of the USGS 7.5 minute topographic map that includes the reach of the stream surveyed. If the surveyed reach covers more than one quad map, report first the name of the map that shows the identified end- point of fish use and then give the other maps' names. Location: A legal description ( township, range, and section to at least the quarter section) of the location where fish use ends. Date Surveyed: The month, day, and year the fish survey was conducted. Survey Method: Check the box for the survey method used. If more than one method was used, check all that apply and note the most often used method in the comments section or in the form's margin. Survey Amount Above End of Fish Use: The length of stream reach that was surveyed immediately upstream of the identified end of fish use. Estimate ( in feet) the length surveyed, and give the number of pools sampled for fish in that section. A survey to prove the absence of fish must sample at least 50 yards of stream and at least six pools immediately upstream of the end of fish use. In addition, any upstream beaver ponds must also be sampled. Flow Level: The flow conditions at the time of the survey. Use the following categories of flow. Low: Ranges from a series of isolated pools to flowing across less than 75 percent of the average bankfull width. Moderate: Surface water is flowing across 75 to 90 percent of the average bankfull width. High: Surface water flowing across more than 90 percent of the average bankfull width. It is not recommended thatfih presence surveys be conducted at high jlows. Weather: The weather during most of the fish survey ( rainy, overcast, partly cloudy, sunny, snowy, etc.). Water Clarity: The water visibility during the survey. Use the following categories of water visibility. Clear: Visibility is good in pools, deep pools, and riffles. Moderate: Visibility is good only in riffles and shallow pools. Turbid: Visibility is poor in both riffles and pools. It is not recommended that fih presence surveys be conducted when water is turbid. Water Temperature ( optional): The temperature of the stream ( in degrees Farenheit) at the time of the survey. Fish observations Report the species and approximate size ranges of fish observed in the sur-veyed reach. Use Figure 3 ( page 12) as a guide to identifying some game fish species commonly found in small, forested streams. Use the following codes and instructions to complete this section. Species: Use the following names or codes to report fish observed during the survey. If you observe a species not listed here, such as Pacific lamprey, use its common name. Name Species Code Coho salmon Co Cutthroat trout Ct Rainbow troutfsteelhead Rb/ St Bull trout BUT Brook trout BT Unknown salmonid UnS Sizes: Report the size range of fish, in inches, by species. For example, the size range of coho observed could be reported as " 1- 4 inches." If you see several sizes of one species ( for example, some cutthroat trout in the " 1- to 2- inch range and others in the " 6- to 8- inch" range), list them separately. Aquatic wildlife The types of aquatic wildlife that may be observed include tailed frogs ( includ-ing juvenile " tadpoles"), Pacific giant salamanders, and Olympic salamanders. Species: Give the common name of the species, if known. If you don't know the species name, at least report observations by a general name such as " salamanders." Number: The number of aquatic wildlife in each species or group observed. Physical stream data Report the physical characteristics of the stream in the vicinity of the end- point of fish use. Report information separately for ( 1) the section immediately at and downstream of the end of fish use, and ( 2) the area upstream of the maximum extent of fish use. Following are specific instructions for collecting this information. Bankfull Channel Width: By eye, estimate the average width ( in feet) of the bankfull channel for the 100- foot sections above and below the end- point of fish use. The bankfull channel is the area that is scoured by water during average high flows. The edge of the bankfull channel can be identified by looking for changes in vegetation, in soils and litter characteristics, or in the shape of the bank. The bank often will abruptly change slope at the bankfull boundary. Vegetation at the boundary often changes from annual vegetation ( such as grasses) to more permanent vegetation such as trees and shrubs. Estimate the width across the channel between the edges of the bankfull level. Current Wetted Width: Visually estimate the average width ( in feet) of the channel that contains flow ( is wetted) at the time of the survey. Report the estimated averages for the 100- foot sections above and below the end of fish use. Channel Gradient: Measure the average stream gradient with a clinometer for the 100- foot sections above and below the end of fish use. me a piece of flagging at eye level on a branch or shrub, walk up or down the stream bank, and then use the clinometer to sight on the flagging while you are standing on the channel bottom. Read and report the percent gradient. ODF Stream Class Size: The stream size (" small," " medium," or " large") from the ODF Stream Classification Maps for the reaches immediately above and downstream of the end of fish use. Natural barriers This information is very important for understanding relationships between the presence of fish and the physical characteristics of the stream. Understanding these relationships can help determine where fish- presence surveys should be concentrated and help predict where fish are likely to occur if survey informa-tion is not yet available. Generally, natural barriers are permanent structures such as falls or vertical drops more than 8 to 10 feet high for salmon or steel-head or 4 feet high for trout. Log jams, drops over logs, beaver dams, or other organic structures generally are only temporary barriers to fish passage, but report them as well. If fish use ends at a natural barrier, such as a waterfall, bedrock chute or cascades, describe the conditions at the site. Include a description of: ( 1) the type of barrier, ( 2) the approximate height ( in feet), ( 3) the percentage of slope, ( 4) the length ( in feet) of the bedrock chute or cascades, and ( 5) any other conditions that may be limiting fish passage. If the potential barrier is a bedrock chute, note whether the bedrock contains pools or rough features ( such as rocks, boulders, or other breaks in the flow), or whether the water flows in an even, shallow pattern over the bedrock. Please note on the survey map the locations of any natural barriers encountered. If you encounter a natural barrier, also be sure to sample above this point because fish often are found above natural barriers. Road- crossing barriers This information also is very important for understanding relationships be-tween the presence of fish and the physical characteristics of the stream. Road-crossing barriers can alter the relationships. If fish use ends at a road- crossing barrier, such as a culvert, describe the conditions at the site. Describe the type of barrier and its measurements at the time of the survey such as ( 1) the diameter of the culvert, in inches, ( 2) the depth ( in inches) of water in the culvert, ( 3) the height ( in feet) of the jump ( drop) below the culvert or structure, ( 4) the depth ( in inches or feet) of the plunge pool below the culvert outfall, ( 5) the gradient or slope of the culvert, given as a percentage as read off a clinometer, ( 6) the length ( in feet) of the culvert, and ( 7) any other factors that could affect fish passage. Please note on the survey map the locations of any road- crossing barriers, even if they are not at the end- point of fish use. As with natural barriers, be sure also to sample above the site because fish often are found above road- crossing barriers. Other comments Any other comments or notations that you think may be pertinent to the fish survey. It helps to describe any notable habitat characteristics, for example " lots of instream wood," " very few pools in the reach," " heavy silt load in the stream." Use the reverse side of the form if necessary. FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): Agency: Land Owner: Mailing Address: Phone: Date Surveyed: Stream: Tributary to: Quad Map: Location: T R Sec. Survey Method ( d): 0 Electroshocker 0 h & g 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) Number of Pools Flow Level ( d): 0 Low 17 Moderate High Weather: Water Temperature: Water Clarity ( d): Clear 17 Moderate 17 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): . be Sorveq , 3 Troo+, FI s h G n r u l l , I*? , S.; L. Agency: N/ C I Land Owner: k! 4~ 4f, l T; M ~ C C Mailing address:?.^. sox ~ g~,\ L L I M UF~ A \ ID~ R) jC? suo Phone: BSB- 5555 ate surveyed: A p ( ; i 2 8, ! ?? s I Stream: Un hawed , " Tr I b R!' Tributary to: lr3 F . 21 o k so- ~ r a& QuadMap: D\ A &\ dy Location: T 305 R 5 " L Sec. 30, sw/ sto Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) I 86 ' Number of Pools Flow Level ( d): CI Low cd~ oderate High Weather: S owv Water Temperature: 7 O F I Water Clarity ( V): dclear Moderate I7 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE Species I Snes 1 Spedes 1 Quant'ity 1 PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. bk If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. prf+ Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): f- 15 L wsz ewd 30 $& abov e f *; rd John50~ m ain\ ifi< ~ r o s s i n OH ~ f r e a ~ 7.% ~ 5t redw g d ~ e n f & ry s t u p abde + he a d 4' & sh use - p & f i a n 10%. 2 1 OREGON FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Fish & Wildlife Stream: ~) nr? euce, d " Tr t b, O " Tributary to: w F & n~ oq CC. Quad Map: old &\ A% Location: T 382 R 5E Sec.' 30, si/ Sw I Survey Method ( 4): ~ lectroshocker 0 Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 2 5' 0 Number of Pools 20 Flow Level ( d): 0 Low d ~ o d e r a t e High Weather: Lw+ Water Temperature: 6 0 F I Water Clarity ( d): dclear Cl Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE Species 1 Snes I! , Species Quantity If fish use ends at a natural bamer, desc ' be the conditions that prevent u stre m fish assage. Fid - 4s 4+ 2 S ' ~ r t i Lm* r? d\. A dJ @ cater also % 15& 5 ( ho& a. r. rp Q5 W F - buffis @ ere fouu\ d . opstr + ye If fish use ehs) at a roa d. crossmng, descnbe conhlons that may prevent upstream fish passage. Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): w tfw+ were fbU 4 above % z 6 + of (~ la+ erf~ ll above fu 25fcof I sowe years. 22 fail s& i ro fish t@ f& probab/ y vp FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP stream: V A ~ ~ ~ + SC~" T & ~ ributaryto: u. F. 3ehbtja14 Creek Quad Map: old - b a t d ~ Location: T 3 S 5 R 5 E Sec. Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker 0 Anghng 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) a 2 5 Number of Pools 2 Flow Level ( d): 0 Low & oderate 0 High Weather: SvMwv Water Temperature: I Water Clarity ( d): d l e a r 0 Moderate 0 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE - ... . .: : :....: ' ' . . . . . . A , , , .: . . . . , . . , .&& : ! Species ... . ..$ pedes Quantity PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. M/ A If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Stream: West h r k Aobrson Cr eeG Tributary to: Johnrow Cre~ k Quad Map: ( ~ ( 4Ith .\ Ay Location: T 385 R 5 E Sec. 2?,, 5E/ sLJ I Survey Method ( d): dlectroshocker 0 Angling Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 3 00 Number of Pools t% Flow Level ( V): 0 Low d ~ o d e r ae t High Weather: j , y~ I Water Temperature: 60" F= Water Clarity ( d): & ear Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQ- U ATIC WILDLIFE t Spedes Quantity 1 I PHYSICAL STREAM DATA + IH n D CtsL 5h-* If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. N I A If fish use ends t a roqj crossiy, describ~ concl~~ tohnats may prevent upstr am fish passa e. ~ hrvctr ert a no? pQ59 ~ c - r b LOWOJQ 4 u. 4 9 ) drop at * rut-/&. b l d a r p fn qr p aI . 7, slop is 6 70 , and w ( onp 7 % fu~ lv er+ 1s ~ chul~ ledb e replace4 t bi s Svmncr. Other comments ( use reverse s~ de~ fn ecessa ): Lower ~ t r c a - q r d r r & a & e + LC cd en. Sf- rm* bb; M Ieok 30a4, but + k shaln. dry up ;* SOW years. FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Mailing Address: ?. c, 3 2 , AJLO ~ L4- T o R 70 00 Phone: b40 - oool Date Surveyed: / Ha v 2 / cj? T I stream: ~ nnclcr- ed , " 7- r; b k " Tributary to: Lobs k c Creek Quad Map: BULL Lrceu Rtdqc Location: T 35 R 2W S ~ C . ~ ~ N € + 4 Survey Method ( d): ~ lectroshocker Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 300 Number of Pools I 57 Flow Level ( d): 0 Low rd~ oderate High Weather: 7k + lVL * wy Water Temperature: 6 O T-Water Clarity ( d): && ear Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLlFE I , , , ' Species Sies Spedes Quantity If fish use ends, at a natural ba ' er, describe t e conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. The. LZ m c b r u f - ~ V~ L ry 54- p X e u e + he ed$+ t.* use. ~ k rlrcnu, RIIIVC ~ L I : : pain+ I S ~ 4 1 ~ g ~ r L ~ d eo5ve r bai( Lle r S, b+ + his ri- gf obnhi~ n o+ Q b r r r t c r. ' 7 If fish use ends at a road crossing, descn e conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. U P Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): N r 4.0r L r ~ s; Wj J bCqPn 5 u ru . + r + he L) wediunn - sws\ l size chaqc, F, sh U ~ CC ~ wJh c r t a d c c y t r ; b ~ + G~ d . ovt WLQ) ew- ker s LLII+. 26 FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): 30 e Cadd i i , Bob hJvrnP1\ Agency: o ba~ ~ a'ndbwner: Lobsfec C r , ~ , , b c c Mailing Address: 7 D. ' 30K 2 , ~ J L pLet~ t , D R DO Phone: 8 YD- o 00 1 Date Surveyed: m4 I/ 2, i? 7- C I f Stream: / ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ek bS "" ~ c Tributaryto: L o b s t e r Lraek Quad Map: B V ' ~ Cr eek ??, d. ie Location: T 73 R 2 0 Sec. 3Y, ~ I. o AA. J G Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker Angling 0 Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) 2 5 0 Number of Pools / D Flow Level ( d): 0 Low d ~ o d e r a t e 0 High Weather: 94, & SU W\ I Water Temperature: 5- 7 " ?= Water Clarity ( d) : Wc1ea. r CI Moderate 0 Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE PHYSICAL STREAM DATA Species Sics Spedes If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. Quantity If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. I I Other comments ( use reverse side if necessary): ~ h5ctre um WLS " r y ~ Lw iL tL ~ decy f- goo( r. @. la f is/., observe4 , Ty pr N ~ f . r e u ~ z . FISH PRESENCE SURVEY FORM ATTACH A COPY OF THE 7.5 MINUTE ODF STREAM CLASS MAP Surveyor Name( s): \ ce < . 3ab Tr cut Agency: u/ k2 Mailing ~ ddress: Z3R Rne St , b k n h( e dr ! OR ? d o 0 Phone: ZB?- 3333 Date Surveyed: stream: ~*- aweA Tributary to: c r & QuadMap: G l e w b ~ ~ e k Location: T \ 4 5 R 6 @ Sec. zS,, ~ 3t .+ S-Survey Method ( d): d~ lectroshocker Angling Visual Survey Above End of Fish Use: Distance ( feet) Number of Pools Q Flow Level ( d): 0 Low & oderate High Weather: C( ea c Water Temperature: 5?* F Water Clarity ( d): lW2ear 0 Moderate Turbid FISH OBSERVATIONS AQUATIC WILDLIFE Species Sizes Spedes Quantity PHYSICAL STREAM DATA If fish use ends at a natural barrier, describe the conditions that prevent upstream fish passage. U P If fish use ends at a road crossing, describe conditions that may prevent upstream fish passage. Close

• 329. [Image] Cascadia : a quarterly publication of the Oregon Department of Geology & Mineral Industries, volume 2, number 1 (Winter/Spring 2002)

  	Water and geology: how does geology control where you find and how you use water? / Roddey, James -- Through the eyes of the state geologist / Beaulieu, John D. -- What is groundwater? -- Geology and groundwater ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Cascadia : a quarterly publication of the Oregon Department of Geology & Mineral Industries, volume 2, number 1 (Winter/Spring 2002) Author: Oregon. Dept. of Geology and Mineral Industries Year: 2002, 2005 Water and geology: how does geology control where you find and how you use water? / Roddey, James -- Through the eyes of the state geologist / Beaulieu, John D. -- What is groundwater? -- Geology and groundwater -- Who owns and manages Oregon's water? -- Recent geologic efforts related to groundwater -- A groundwater case study: Catherine Creek and the Upper Grande Ronde Valley -- McKenzie - Willamette River confluence project Title: Cascadia : a quarterly publication of the Oregon Department of Geology & Mineral Industries, volume 2, number 1 (Winter/Spring 2002) Author: Oregon. Dept. of Geology and Mineral Industries Year: 2002, 2005 Water and geology: how does geology control where you find and how you use water? / Roddey, James -- Through the eyes of the state geologist / Beaulieu, John D. -- What is groundwater? -- Geology and groundwater -- Who owns and manages Oregon's water? -- Recent geologic efforts related to groundwater -- A groundwater case study: Catherine Creek and the Upper Grande Ronde Valley -- McKenzie - Willamette River confluence project Close

• 330. [Image] Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin

  	"January 2003."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin Author: Meiners, Roger E; Kosnik, Lea-Rachel D., 1972- Year: 2003, 2007, 2005 "January 2003."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28) Title: Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin Author: Meiners, Roger E; Kosnik, Lea-Rachel D., 1972- Year: 2003, 2007, 2005 "January 2003."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 25-28) Close

• 331. [Article] Periglacial debris-flow initiation and susceptibility and glacier recession from imagery, airborne LiDAR, and ground-based mapping

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Geological ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Periglacial debris-flow initiation and susceptibility and glacier recession from imagery, airborne LiDAR, and ground-based mapping Author: Copeland, Elizabeth A., Lancaster, Stephen T., Grant, Gordon E., Nolin, Anne W. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Geological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.geosociety.org/. Title: Periglacial debris-flow initiation and susceptibility and glacier recession from imagery, airborne LiDAR, and ground-based mapping Author: Copeland, Elizabeth A., Lancaster, Stephen T., Grant, Gordon E., Nolin, Anne W. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by Geological Society of America and can be found at: http://www.geosociety.org/. Close

• 332. [Article] Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Modeling of the Chehalis River Using CE-QUAL-W2

  The Chehalis River Basin is located in the southwest region of Washington State, originating in the Olympic Mountains and flowing to Grays Harbor and the Pacific Ocean. The Chehalis River is over 125 miles, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Modeling of the Chehalis River Using CE-QUAL-W2 Author: Van Glubt, Sarah Year: 2017 The Chehalis River Basin is located in the southwest region of Washington State, originating in the Olympic Mountains and flowing to Grays Harbor and the Pacific Ocean. The Chehalis River is over 125 miles, exists within five counties, and flows through agricultural, residential, industrial, and forest land areas. Four major rivers discharge to the Chehalis River, as well as many smaller creeks, five wastewater treatment plants, and groundwater flows. Flooding is a major problem in the relatively flat areas surrounding the cities of Chehalis and Centralia, with severe consequences for property, safety and transportation. As a result, construction of a flood-control dam in the upper basin has been proposed. One major concern of constructing a dam is the potentially severe impacts to fish health and habitat. The Chehalis River has routinely violated water quality standards for primarily temperature and dissolved oxygen, and has had multiple water quality and Total Maximum Daily Load studies beginning in 1990. CE-QUAL-W2, a two-dimensional (longitudinal and vertical) hydrodynamic and water quality model, was used to simulate the Chehalis River, including free flowing river stretches and stratified (in summer) lake-like stretches. The goals of this research were to assess the flood retention structure's impacts to water quality, as well as river responses to potential climate change scenarios. In order to use the model to achieve these goals, calibration to field data for flow, temperature, and water quality constituents was performed. This involved developing meteorological data, riparian shading data, and flow, temperature, water quality records for all tributaries during the calibration period of January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2014. System cross-sectional geometry data were also required for the model grid. Because of the short travel time in the river, the model was sensitive to boundary condition data, wind speed, bathymetry, nutrient kinetics, and algae, epiphyton, and zooplankton kinetics. Future conditions showed predictions of warmer water temperatures and slight changes to water quality conditions on the river. As fish in the area prefer cooler water temperatures, this could pose a threat to fish health and habitat. Flood retention structures also showed impacts to river temperature and water quality. Structures with the purpose of flood retention only (only operating during times of flooding) gave model predictions for daily maximum temperature higher than structures that employed flood retention and flow augmentation (operating during all times of the year). This suggested the management of flow passage or retention by the dam is important for water quality on the river. As this research continues improvements will be made, particularly to temperature and water quality constituents. Additional data for the system would be beneficial to this process. Model predictions of temperature were sensitive to meteorological data, including cloud cover, which were largely estimated based on solar radiation. Additional meteorological data throughout the basin would be useful to temperature results. Temperature results were also sensitive to the model bathymetry, and additional investigations into segments widths and water depths may improve temperature predictions. Water quality constituent data were largely lacking for the system. Many estimation techniques and approximations were used for input water quality constituents for the model upstream boundary and tributaries when little or no data were available, introducing uncertainty to the model. It was not possible to calibrate pH to field data because alkalinity data were essentially unavailable. However, other constituents had good agreement between model predictions and field data, including dissolved oxygen, nitrates, total phosphorus, and total suspended solids. Title: Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Modeling of the Chehalis River Using CE-QUAL-W2 Author: Van Glubt, Sarah Year: 2017 The Chehalis River Basin is located in the southwest region of Washington State, originating in the Olympic Mountains and flowing to Grays Harbor and the Pacific Ocean. The Chehalis River is over 125 miles, exists within five counties, and flows through agricultural, residential, industrial, and forest land areas. Four major rivers discharge to the Chehalis River, as well as many smaller creeks, five wastewater treatment plants, and groundwater flows. Flooding is a major problem in the relatively flat areas surrounding the cities of Chehalis and Centralia, with severe consequences for property, safety and transportation. As a result, construction of a flood-control dam in the upper basin has been proposed. One major concern of constructing a dam is the potentially severe impacts to fish health and habitat. The Chehalis River has routinely violated water quality standards for primarily temperature and dissolved oxygen, and has had multiple water quality and Total Maximum Daily Load studies beginning in 1990. CE-QUAL-W2, a two-dimensional (longitudinal and vertical) hydrodynamic and water quality model, was used to simulate the Chehalis River, including free flowing river stretches and stratified (in summer) lake-like stretches. The goals of this research were to assess the flood retention structure's impacts to water quality, as well as river responses to potential climate change scenarios. In order to use the model to achieve these goals, calibration to field data for flow, temperature, and water quality constituents was performed. This involved developing meteorological data, riparian shading data, and flow, temperature, water quality records for all tributaries during the calibration period of January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2014. System cross-sectional geometry data were also required for the model grid. Because of the short travel time in the river, the model was sensitive to boundary condition data, wind speed, bathymetry, nutrient kinetics, and algae, epiphyton, and zooplankton kinetics. Future conditions showed predictions of warmer water temperatures and slight changes to water quality conditions on the river. As fish in the area prefer cooler water temperatures, this could pose a threat to fish health and habitat. Flood retention structures also showed impacts to river temperature and water quality. Structures with the purpose of flood retention only (only operating during times of flooding) gave model predictions for daily maximum temperature higher than structures that employed flood retention and flow augmentation (operating during all times of the year). This suggested the management of flow passage or retention by the dam is important for water quality on the river. As this research continues improvements will be made, particularly to temperature and water quality constituents. Additional data for the system would be beneficial to this process. Model predictions of temperature were sensitive to meteorological data, including cloud cover, which were largely estimated based on solar radiation. Additional meteorological data throughout the basin would be useful to temperature results. Temperature results were also sensitive to the model bathymetry, and additional investigations into segments widths and water depths may improve temperature predictions. Water quality constituent data were largely lacking for the system. Many estimation techniques and approximations were used for input water quality constituents for the model upstream boundary and tributaries when little or no data were available, introducing uncertainty to the model. It was not possible to calibrate pH to field data because alkalinity data were essentially unavailable. However, other constituents had good agreement between model predictions and field data, including dissolved oxygen, nitrates, total phosphorus, and total suspended solids. Close

• 333. [Article] Policy Patterns across Riverscapes : Riparian Land Standards in the Oregon Coast Range

  Land management policies are ideas about nature projected onto the landscape. Culminations of social, economic, and scientific influences, these policies create standards affecting the function of ecological ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Policy Patterns across Riverscapes : Riparian Land Standards in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Boisjolie, Brett A. Land management policies are ideas about nature projected onto the landscape. Culminations of social, economic, and scientific influences, these policies create standards affecting the function of ecological systems. In the case of riparian lands in the Oregon Coast Range, policy requirements vary considerably across federal, state, and private land ownerships. Protective measures, such as the adoption of fixed buffer widths for maintaining vegetation, are intended to preserve natural processes important to instream habitat and water quality. However, the "policy landscape" of variable management standards can result in a fragmented approach to policy protection. This fragmentation complicates recovery efforts for threatened anadromous fish species such as coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), which require connectivity in suitable habitat segments throughout the river network. Taking a riverscape perspective, this study evaluates how aquatic protections vary across the river and its valley. To explore the patterns created from variable standard, the study first delineates categories of riparian management standards in the Oregon Coast Range. Using a geographic information system (GIS), these standards are mapped across the river networks of this region. The extent of each policy category is quantified in stream kilometers in order to evaluate policy efforts within and across the riverscapes of the Oregon Coast Range. A model of intrinsic potential for coho salmon habitat is used to identify the policy standards in stream reaches where flow, valley constraint, and channel gradient are appropriate for coho salmon habitat. A second model of the stream network (hydrography) is developed to evaluate how differences in stream delineation can influence policy patterns. Results indicate that riparian lands of the Oregon Coast Range are protected by variable standards for land management, including buffer widths that range from 0 to ~152m. In streams important to coho salmon, a lower proportion of the stream network was found to be protected by policy standards compared to the watershed and ESU scale. A lack of stream data central to policy application (fish use, stream flow duration, mean annual flow, water use) complicated our ability to attribute stream segments with specific land management requirements. The choice of hydrographic data was also found to influence the proportional extent of policies within riverscapes. This framework for assessing the spatial distribution of policies can provide insights for future studies of riverscape systems. Title: Policy Patterns across Riverscapes : Riparian Land Standards in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Boisjolie, Brett A. Land management policies are ideas about nature projected onto the landscape. Culminations of social, economic, and scientific influences, these policies create standards affecting the function of ecological systems. In the case of riparian lands in the Oregon Coast Range, policy requirements vary considerably across federal, state, and private land ownerships. Protective measures, such as the adoption of fixed buffer widths for maintaining vegetation, are intended to preserve natural processes important to instream habitat and water quality. However, the "policy landscape" of variable management standards can result in a fragmented approach to policy protection. This fragmentation complicates recovery efforts for threatened anadromous fish species such as coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), which require connectivity in suitable habitat segments throughout the river network. Taking a riverscape perspective, this study evaluates how aquatic protections vary across the river and its valley. To explore the patterns created from variable standard, the study first delineates categories of riparian management standards in the Oregon Coast Range. Using a geographic information system (GIS), these standards are mapped across the river networks of this region. The extent of each policy category is quantified in stream kilometers in order to evaluate policy efforts within and across the riverscapes of the Oregon Coast Range. A model of intrinsic potential for coho salmon habitat is used to identify the policy standards in stream reaches where flow, valley constraint, and channel gradient are appropriate for coho salmon habitat. A second model of the stream network (hydrography) is developed to evaluate how differences in stream delineation can influence policy patterns. Results indicate that riparian lands of the Oregon Coast Range are protected by variable standards for land management, including buffer widths that range from 0 to ~152m. In streams important to coho salmon, a lower proportion of the stream network was found to be protected by policy standards compared to the watershed and ESU scale. A lack of stream data central to policy application (fish use, stream flow duration, mean annual flow, water use) complicated our ability to attribute stream segments with specific land management requirements. The choice of hydrographic data was also found to influence the proportional extent of policies within riverscapes. This framework for assessing the spatial distribution of policies can provide insights for future studies of riverscape systems. Close

• 334. [Article] On Intermediate Models for Barotropic Continental Shelf and Slope Flow Fields. Part I: Formulation and Comparison of Exact Solutions

  Motivated by the general objective of pursuing oceanographic process and data assimilation studies of the complex, nonlinear eddy and jet current fields observed over the continental shelf and slope off ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On Intermediate Models for Barotropic Continental Shelf and Slope Flow Fields. Part I: Formulation and Comparison of Exact Solutions Author: Barth, J. A., Allen, J. S., Newberger, P. A. Motivated by the general objective of pursuing oceanographic process and data assimilation studies of the complex, nonlinear eddy and jet current fields observed over the continental shelf and slope off the west coast of the United States, we investigate the use of intermediate models for that purpose. Intermediate models contain physics between that in the primitive equations and that in the quasigeostrophic equations and are capable of representing subinertial frequency motion over the O(1) topographic variations typical of the continental slope, while filtering out high-frequency gravity-inertial waves. As an initial step, we compare and evaluate several intermediate models applied to the f-plane shallow-water equations for flows over topography. The accuracy and utility of the intermediate models are assessed by a comparison of exact analytical and numerical solutions with those of the primitive shallow-water equations (SWE) and with those of the quasi-geostrophic equations (QG). The intermediate models that we consider are based on the geostrophic momentum (GM) approximation, the derivation of Salmon (1983) utilizing Hamilton's principle (HP), a geostrophic vorticity (GV) approximation, the quasi-geostrophic momentum and full continuity equations (IM), the linear balance equations (LBE), the balance equations (BE), the related balance-type (HBE, BEM, NBE) and modified linear balance equations (LQBE), the slow equations (SE) of Lynch (1989), and the modified slow equations (MSE). In Part I, we discuss the intermediate models and develop formulations that are suitable for numerical solution in physical coordinates for use in Parts II and III. We investigate the capability of the intermediate models to represent linear ageostrophic coastally trapped waves, i.e., Kelvin and continental shelf waves, and demonstrate that they do so with accuracy consistent with standard linear low-frequency approximations. We also assess the accuracy of the models by a comparison of exact nonlinear analytical solutions to the SWE for steady flow in an elliptic paraboloid and for unsteady motion of elliptical vortices in a circular paraboloid with corresponding analytical solutions to the intermediate models and to QG. General results from the exact solution comparisons include the following. Many of the intermediate models are capable of producing more accurate solutions than QG over a range of Rossby numbers 0 < ϵ < 1. In some cases, the intermediate models provide accurate approximate solutions where QG is not applicable and fails to give a relevant solution. Considerable parameter-dependent variation in quality exists, however, among the different intermediate models. For the particular problems considered here, BE, HBE, BEM, NBE, and MSE reproduce the exact results of the SWE while LBE and LQBE give the same approximation as QG. The accuracy of the models is typically in the order GV, GM, IM, HP, and QG, with GV most accurate and IM and HP sometimes less accurate than QG. Title: On Intermediate Models for Barotropic Continental Shelf and Slope Flow Fields. Part I: Formulation and Comparison of Exact Solutions Author: Barth, J. A., Allen, J. S., Newberger, P. A. Motivated by the general objective of pursuing oceanographic process and data assimilation studies of the complex, nonlinear eddy and jet current fields observed over the continental shelf and slope off the west coast of the United States, we investigate the use of intermediate models for that purpose. Intermediate models contain physics between that in the primitive equations and that in the quasigeostrophic equations and are capable of representing subinertial frequency motion over the O(1) topographic variations typical of the continental slope, while filtering out high-frequency gravity-inertial waves. As an initial step, we compare and evaluate several intermediate models applied to the f-plane shallow-water equations for flows over topography. The accuracy and utility of the intermediate models are assessed by a comparison of exact analytical and numerical solutions with those of the primitive shallow-water equations (SWE) and with those of the quasi-geostrophic equations (QG). The intermediate models that we consider are based on the geostrophic momentum (GM) approximation, the derivation of Salmon (1983) utilizing Hamilton's principle (HP), a geostrophic vorticity (GV) approximation, the quasi-geostrophic momentum and full continuity equations (IM), the linear balance equations (LBE), the balance equations (BE), the related balance-type (HBE, BEM, NBE) and modified linear balance equations (LQBE), the slow equations (SE) of Lynch (1989), and the modified slow equations (MSE). In Part I, we discuss the intermediate models and develop formulations that are suitable for numerical solution in physical coordinates for use in Parts II and III. We investigate the capability of the intermediate models to represent linear ageostrophic coastally trapped waves, i.e., Kelvin and continental shelf waves, and demonstrate that they do so with accuracy consistent with standard linear low-frequency approximations. We also assess the accuracy of the models by a comparison of exact nonlinear analytical solutions to the SWE for steady flow in an elliptic paraboloid and for unsteady motion of elliptical vortices in a circular paraboloid with corresponding analytical solutions to the intermediate models and to QG. General results from the exact solution comparisons include the following. Many of the intermediate models are capable of producing more accurate solutions than QG over a range of Rossby numbers 0 < ϵ < 1. In some cases, the intermediate models provide accurate approximate solutions where QG is not applicable and fails to give a relevant solution. Considerable parameter-dependent variation in quality exists, however, among the different intermediate models. For the particular problems considered here, BE, HBE, BEM, NBE, and MSE reproduce the exact results of the SWE while LBE and LQBE give the same approximation as QG. The accuracy of the models is typically in the order GV, GM, IM, HP, and QG, with GV most accurate and IM and HP sometimes less accurate than QG. Close

• 335. [Article] An experimental study of co-flow ammonia-water desorption in an oil-heated, microscale, fractal-like branching heat exchanger

  An experimental study was performed in which an ammonia-water solution was desorbed within a branching fractal-like microchannel array. The solution entered in the center of a disk, and flowed out radially ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An experimental study of co-flow ammonia-water desorption in an oil-heated, microscale, fractal-like branching heat exchanger Author: Mouchka, Gregory A. An experimental study was performed in which an ammonia-water solution was desorbed within a branching fractal-like microchannel array. The solution entered in the center of a disk, and flowed out radially until discharging in to a gravity-driven separation chamber. Heat was added to the ammonia-water through a thin wall, above which flowed heat transfer oil in a separate branching fractal-like microchannel array. Such arrays have been shown to utilize the increased heat transfer coefficients seen in parallel channel arrays; however, they do so with a lower pressure drop. An experimental flow loop consisting of ammonia-water and heat transfer oil sub-loops was instrumented along with a test manifold for global measurements to be taken. Temperature, pressure, density and mass flow rate measurements permitted calculation of desorption and heat transfer characteristics. Parameters included oil mass flow rate, oil inlet temperature, and strong solution flow rate, while strong solution concentration, temperature, and weak solution pressure were kept constant. The desorber was assumed to achieve equilibrium conditions between the vapor and weak solution in the separation chamber. The exit plenum was large and acted as a flash chamber, making the assumption reasonable. The vapor mass fraction was determined from knowledge of the weak solution saturation temperature. Heat exchanger analyses (LMTD and ε-NTU) were done to determine the heat transfer characteristics of the desorber. Calculated values of UA are shown to be as high as 5.0 W/K, and desorber heat duties were measured as high as 334 W. Strong solution, at 0.30 mass fraction, was desorbed into weak solution and vapor with concentrations ranging from 0.734 to 0.964. Circulation ratios, defined as strong solution mass flow rate per unit desorbed vapor mass flow rate, varied in this study from 3.4 to 20. A method for specifying desorber operating conditions is described, in which a minimum desorber heat input per unit vapor flow rate is determined at an optimum circulation ratio. A description of how the circulation ratio behaves as a function of strong solution mass flow rate, oil flow rate, and the maximum temperature difference between oil and ammonia-water solution is shown. Title: An experimental study of co-flow ammonia-water desorption in an oil-heated, microscale, fractal-like branching heat exchanger Author: Mouchka, Gregory A. An experimental study was performed in which an ammonia-water solution was desorbed within a branching fractal-like microchannel array. The solution entered in the center of a disk, and flowed out radially until discharging in to a gravity-driven separation chamber. Heat was added to the ammonia-water through a thin wall, above which flowed heat transfer oil in a separate branching fractal-like microchannel array. Such arrays have been shown to utilize the increased heat transfer coefficients seen in parallel channel arrays; however, they do so with a lower pressure drop. An experimental flow loop consisting of ammonia-water and heat transfer oil sub-loops was instrumented along with a test manifold for global measurements to be taken. Temperature, pressure, density and mass flow rate measurements permitted calculation of desorption and heat transfer characteristics. Parameters included oil mass flow rate, oil inlet temperature, and strong solution flow rate, while strong solution concentration, temperature, and weak solution pressure were kept constant. The desorber was assumed to achieve equilibrium conditions between the vapor and weak solution in the separation chamber. The exit plenum was large and acted as a flash chamber, making the assumption reasonable. The vapor mass fraction was determined from knowledge of the weak solution saturation temperature. Heat exchanger analyses (LMTD and ε-NTU) were done to determine the heat transfer characteristics of the desorber. Calculated values of UA are shown to be as high as 5.0 W/K, and desorber heat duties were measured as high as 334 W. Strong solution, at 0.30 mass fraction, was desorbed into weak solution and vapor with concentrations ranging from 0.734 to 0.964. Circulation ratios, defined as strong solution mass flow rate per unit desorbed vapor mass flow rate, varied in this study from 3.4 to 20. A method for specifying desorber operating conditions is described, in which a minimum desorber heat input per unit vapor flow rate is determined at an optimum circulation ratio. A description of how the circulation ratio behaves as a function of strong solution mass flow rate, oil flow rate, and the maximum temperature difference between oil and ammonia-water solution is shown. Close

• 336. [Article] On the optimization of performance in fractal-like branching microchannel heat transfer devices

  Fractal-like branching microchannel flow networks have been found to improve wall temperature uniformity and decrease both pressure drop and flow power compared to arrays of straight microchannels. The ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On the optimization of performance in fractal-like branching microchannel heat transfer devices Author: Heymann, Douglas Benjamin Fractal-like branching microchannel flow networks have been found to improve wall temperature uniformity and decrease both pressure drop and flow power compared to arrays of straight microchannels. The present study seeks to maximize the benefits of fractal-like branching channels by means of a gradient-based optimization algorithm. The algorithm identifies the geometric parameters that yield the highest ratio of benefit to cost; the benefit being the heat transfer with cost being flow power. The stream-wise pressure and wall temperature distributions were determined numerically using one-dimensional models validated using experimental diagnostics and computational flow analyses. Pressure distributions were used to assess flow power, and wall temperature was used as an optimization constraint. Several geometric constraints were imposed during optimization to ensure sufficient bonding area for fabrication, to maximize convective surface area and to prevent channel overlap. Three fractal-like devices were studied and optimized: a single-phase heat sink, a two-phase heat sink and a single-phase oil-to-water heat exchanger. The flow rate of the three devices was constrained using a maximum wall temperature constraint for the single-phase heat sink, the critical heat flux for the two-phase heat sink, and a fixed cold side mass flow rate and temperature rise in the case of the heat exchanger. The optimized solutions were found to depend highly on both the geometric and flow constraints imposed. As the terminal channel width was reduced, flow power was reduced in both single-phase and two-phase heat sinks. However, the flow power was increased in the heat exchanger due to the constrained volumetric flow rate. In addition, results show that if a maximum wall temperature constraint is employed, single-phase flow outperforms two-phase flow in terms of reduction in flow power. However when constrained by a critical heat flux, two-phase networks outperform single-phase networks by up to 150% Title: On the optimization of performance in fractal-like branching microchannel heat transfer devices Author: Heymann, Douglas Benjamin Fractal-like branching microchannel flow networks have been found to improve wall temperature uniformity and decrease both pressure drop and flow power compared to arrays of straight microchannels. The present study seeks to maximize the benefits of fractal-like branching channels by means of a gradient-based optimization algorithm. The algorithm identifies the geometric parameters that yield the highest ratio of benefit to cost; the benefit being the heat transfer with cost being flow power. The stream-wise pressure and wall temperature distributions were determined numerically using one-dimensional models validated using experimental diagnostics and computational flow analyses. Pressure distributions were used to assess flow power, and wall temperature was used as an optimization constraint. Several geometric constraints were imposed during optimization to ensure sufficient bonding area for fabrication, to maximize convective surface area and to prevent channel overlap. Three fractal-like devices were studied and optimized: a single-phase heat sink, a two-phase heat sink and a single-phase oil-to-water heat exchanger. The flow rate of the three devices was constrained using a maximum wall temperature constraint for the single-phase heat sink, the critical heat flux for the two-phase heat sink, and a fixed cold side mass flow rate and temperature rise in the case of the heat exchanger. The optimized solutions were found to depend highly on both the geometric and flow constraints imposed. As the terminal channel width was reduced, flow power was reduced in both single-phase and two-phase heat sinks. However, the flow power was increased in the heat exchanger due to the constrained volumetric flow rate. In addition, results show that if a maximum wall temperature constraint is employed, single-phase flow outperforms two-phase flow in terms of reduction in flow power. However when constrained by a critical heat flux, two-phase networks outperform single-phase networks by up to 150% Close

• 337. [Article] Impacts of Climate Change and Urban Development on Water Resources in the Tualatin River Basin

  Potential impacts of climate change on the water resources of the Pacific Northwest of the United States include earlier peak runoff, reduced summer flows, and increased winter flooding. An increase in ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Impacts of Climate Change and Urban Development on Water Resources in the Tualatin River Basin Author: Praskievicz, Sarah Year: 2009 Potential impacts of climate change on the water resources of the Pacific Northwest of the United States include earlier peak runoff, reduced summer flows, and increased winter flooding. An increase in impervious surfaces, accompanied by urban development, is known to decrease infiltration and increase surface runoff. Alterations of flow amount and pathways can alter water quality through dilution or flushing effects. I used the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) modeling system to investigate the relative importance of future climate change and land use change in determining the quantity and quality of freshwater resources in north western Oregon's Tualatin River Basin. The basin was chosen for this study because it is rapidly urbanizing and representative of other low-elevation basins in the region. BASINS models were calibrated and validated using historic flow and water quality data from 1991 to 2006. The goodness-of-fit for the calibrated hydrology, suspended sediment, and orthophosphate models was high, with coefficients of determination ranging from 0.72 to 0.93 in the calibration period. The calibrated models were run under a range of eight downscaled climate change, two regional land use change, and four combined scenarios. Results included average increases in winter flows of ten percent, decreases in summer flows of thirty-seven percent, and increases in fifth percentile flows of up to eighty percent as a result of climate change in the Tualatin River Basin. For land use change, the results included an increase in annual flows of twenty-one percent for the development-oriented scenario and a decrease of sixteen percent for the conservation-oriented scenario, with amplified changes at the sub-basin scale, including more than doubled winter flow. For combined scenarios of climate change and urban development, there is a projected increase in winter flows of up to seventy-one percent and decrease in summer flows of up to forty-eight percent. Changes in suspended sediment and orthophosphate loading broadly tracked hydrological changes, with winter increases and summer decreases. The results are relevant to regional planners interested in the long-term response of water resources to climate change and land use change at the basin scale. Title: Impacts of Climate Change and Urban Development on Water Resources in the Tualatin River Basin Author: Praskievicz, Sarah Year: 2009 Potential impacts of climate change on the water resources of the Pacific Northwest of the United States include earlier peak runoff, reduced summer flows, and increased winter flooding. An increase in impervious surfaces, accompanied by urban development, is known to decrease infiltration and increase surface runoff. Alterations of flow amount and pathways can alter water quality through dilution or flushing effects. I used the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) modeling system to investigate the relative importance of future climate change and land use change in determining the quantity and quality of freshwater resources in north western Oregon's Tualatin River Basin. The basin was chosen for this study because it is rapidly urbanizing and representative of other low-elevation basins in the region. BASINS models were calibrated and validated using historic flow and water quality data from 1991 to 2006. The goodness-of-fit for the calibrated hydrology, suspended sediment, and orthophosphate models was high, with coefficients of determination ranging from 0.72 to 0.93 in the calibration period. The calibrated models were run under a range of eight downscaled climate change, two regional land use change, and four combined scenarios. Results included average increases in winter flows of ten percent, decreases in summer flows of thirty-seven percent, and increases in fifth percentile flows of up to eighty percent as a result of climate change in the Tualatin River Basin. For land use change, the results included an increase in annual flows of twenty-one percent for the development-oriented scenario and a decrease of sixteen percent for the conservation-oriented scenario, with amplified changes at the sub-basin scale, including more than doubled winter flow. For combined scenarios of climate change and urban development, there is a projected increase in winter flows of up to seventy-one percent and decrease in summer flows of up to forty-eight percent. Changes in suspended sediment and orthophosphate loading broadly tracked hydrological changes, with winter increases and summer decreases. The results are relevant to regional planners interested in the long-term response of water resources to climate change and land use change at the basin scale. Close

• 338. [Article] The effects of red alder leaf fall on the water color and other water quality characteristics of a small watershed in northwest Oregon

  This study was initiated to make some preliminary evaluations of the effects of red alder (Alnus rubra, Bong.) leaf fall on stream water quality, particularly water color. Laboratory tests were also conducted to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effects of red alder leaf fall on the water color and other water quality characteristics of a small watershed in northwest Oregon Author: Taylor, Robert Lynn This study was initiated to make some preliminary evaluations of the effects of red alder (Alnus rubra, Bong.) leaf fall on stream water quality, particularly water color. Laboratory tests were also conducted to better understand the effects of leaf loading, duration of leaf leaching, and type of leaching on changes in water quality. The study focused on the Seaside Municipal Watershed, which is typical of many municipal systems in the Oregon Coast Range. In these systems, streamside alder stands are common and water treatment is limited to chlorination. The potential for coloration of stream water by alder leaves is present but in the fall of 1981 there was no chronic (more than one or two days) low flow water color problem observed at the Seaside diversion in the South Fork of the Necanicum River. The color observed during the lowest flows, which occurred almost through September, averaged 20 platinum-cobalt units of true color. While this is slightly higher than the 5-15 units measured during the winter months and slightly higher than the maximum standard of 15 units set by the USPH for domestic supplies, it is a very faint tint and probably would not cause many complaints by domestic users. Field results showed that the water color can become elevated for short periods at the diversion. There were two occasions when the color was above 20 units (30 units on October 6 and 25 units on November 11). Elevated water color was also observed in a tap water sample from the city's water works building on October 27 (45 units). Each of these color, increases occurred during the beginning of a storm and there was a subsequent drop in color after the storms. This increase in color during storms is probably due to the flushing of storage sites containing dissolved organic material by rising flows. The other water quality characteristics measured (dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, nitrate-nitrogen and temperature) showed evidence of. some relationships with leaf fall, but there were no signs of water quality impairment at the city diversion during the autumn of 1981. Laboratory leachings in filtered stream water showed that for a given mass of leaves leached in still water, there is a fairly constant release of color (2 units/hr) for leaching periods between 2 hours and 4 weeks. Running water was more efficient than still water in leaching colored material. There also appears to be a limit to the amount of material that can be removed from a given leaf mass in the first 48 hours of leaching. In still water a linear increase in color occurred with increases in mass loading, and weight loss (as a percentage of original dry weight) was constant. Laboratory tests also showed that ultra violet absorbance may provide a reasonable estimate of dissolved organic carbon concentrations in systems dominated by red alder input. This, however, has yet to be verified with field samples. In a small stream with lower flows than the South Fork of the Necanicum River bounded by an alder stand, color could possibly be a chronic problem during autumn low flows. The South Fork generally appears to have too large a flow for this to normally occur. However, a hypothetical calculation of maximum coloration, under conditions of very low flow and peak leaf fall, resulted in a water color of approximately 110 units in this stream. Short-term increases in color at the beginning of the first few storms would be expected to be more common, in a stream of this size, if there is time for organic matter accumulation in storage sites between storms. Such increases in true color would likely be accompanied by increases in apparent color due to sediment, which may even supercede the coloration due the dissolved or colloidal organic material. Title: The effects of red alder leaf fall on the water color and other water quality characteristics of a small watershed in northwest Oregon Author: Taylor, Robert Lynn This study was initiated to make some preliminary evaluations of the effects of red alder (Alnus rubra, Bong.) leaf fall on stream water quality, particularly water color. Laboratory tests were also conducted to better understand the effects of leaf loading, duration of leaf leaching, and type of leaching on changes in water quality. The study focused on the Seaside Municipal Watershed, which is typical of many municipal systems in the Oregon Coast Range. In these systems, streamside alder stands are common and water treatment is limited to chlorination. The potential for coloration of stream water by alder leaves is present but in the fall of 1981 there was no chronic (more than one or two days) low flow water color problem observed at the Seaside diversion in the South Fork of the Necanicum River. The color observed during the lowest flows, which occurred almost through September, averaged 20 platinum-cobalt units of true color. While this is slightly higher than the 5-15 units measured during the winter months and slightly higher than the maximum standard of 15 units set by the USPH for domestic supplies, it is a very faint tint and probably would not cause many complaints by domestic users. Field results showed that the water color can become elevated for short periods at the diversion. There were two occasions when the color was above 20 units (30 units on October 6 and 25 units on November 11). Elevated water color was also observed in a tap water sample from the city's water works building on October 27 (45 units). Each of these color, increases occurred during the beginning of a storm and there was a subsequent drop in color after the storms. This increase in color during storms is probably due to the flushing of storage sites containing dissolved organic material by rising flows. The other water quality characteristics measured (dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, nitrate-nitrogen and temperature) showed evidence of. some relationships with leaf fall, but there were no signs of water quality impairment at the city diversion during the autumn of 1981. Laboratory leachings in filtered stream water showed that for a given mass of leaves leached in still water, there is a fairly constant release of color (2 units/hr) for leaching periods between 2 hours and 4 weeks. Running water was more efficient than still water in leaching colored material. There also appears to be a limit to the amount of material that can be removed from a given leaf mass in the first 48 hours of leaching. In still water a linear increase in color occurred with increases in mass loading, and weight loss (as a percentage of original dry weight) was constant. Laboratory tests also showed that ultra violet absorbance may provide a reasonable estimate of dissolved organic carbon concentrations in systems dominated by red alder input. This, however, has yet to be verified with field samples. In a small stream with lower flows than the South Fork of the Necanicum River bounded by an alder stand, color could possibly be a chronic problem during autumn low flows. The South Fork generally appears to have too large a flow for this to normally occur. However, a hypothetical calculation of maximum coloration, under conditions of very low flow and peak leaf fall, resulted in a water color of approximately 110 units in this stream. Short-term increases in color at the beginning of the first few storms would be expected to be more common, in a stream of this size, if there is time for organic matter accumulation in storage sites between storms. Such increases in true color would likely be accompanied by increases in apparent color due to sediment, which may even supercede the coloration due the dissolved or colloidal organic material. Close

• 339. [Article] On the estimation and application of spatial and temporal autocorrelation in headwater streams

  This collection of three manuscripts serves to improve methods for collecting, interpreting, and utilizing autocorrelated data from headwater stream networks. Each stream network is comprised of linear ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On the estimation and application of spatial and temporal autocorrelation in headwater streams Author: Som, Nicholas A. This collection of three manuscripts serves to improve methods for collecting, interpreting, and utilizing autocorrelated data from headwater stream networks. Each stream network is comprised of linear segments. These segments lie within a unique branching structure that connects the segments via flowing water, and the connectivity provided by water varies seasonally. These aspects separate stream networks from other landscapes, and provide unique challenges to the statistical analysis of stream-based phenomenon. Two chapters of this work relied on a unique and comprehensive set of data. These data constitute a complete census of habitat unit fish counts from 40 randomly selected headwater basins in western Oregon. The first objective of this work was to evaluate how different sampling designs captured spatial autocorrelation, given the samples were drawn from a population of spatially autocorrelated observations. Spatially distributed clusters of sampling locations were more apt to capture spatial autocorrelation than samples without clusters or small clusters located at tributary junctions. A similar investigation was made concerning sampling design performance in relation to estimating autocorrelation function values. All sampling designs lead generally to negatively biased estimates, and practical differences among the sampling designs were not observed. The second objective was to investigate spatial autocorrelation model range parameters as measures of patch sizes. It is common practice to use range parameters to infer the size of patches within spatially autocorrelated data, but this methodology lacks sufficient justification. The census data were used to compute range parameter values, and another proposed autocorrelative measure of patch size: the integral scale. The same data were used to compute patch sizes under several patch definitions, and the relationship of range parameters and integral scale values with patch sizes was explored. Range parameter values did not equal and were not strongly correlated with average patch sizes, though range parameter values were more correlated with maximum patch and gap sizes. Integral scale values matched the magnitude of, but were not strongly correlated with, average patch sizes. The third objective was to refine the analysis of temporally autocorrelated hydrology data from paired watershed studies. Paired watershed studies are used to evaluate forest harvesting effects on stream biota and hydrology (i.e. fish, amphibians, insects, stream flow, and sediment yield). Traditionally, treatment effects are discerned using prediction intervals. This work provided an improved method for constructing prediction intervals for use in change detection in paired watershed studies. The improved prediction intervals included variation associated with estimating linear and autocorrelation model parameters. Title: On the estimation and application of spatial and temporal autocorrelation in headwater streams Author: Som, Nicholas A. This collection of three manuscripts serves to improve methods for collecting, interpreting, and utilizing autocorrelated data from headwater stream networks. Each stream network is comprised of linear segments. These segments lie within a unique branching structure that connects the segments via flowing water, and the connectivity provided by water varies seasonally. These aspects separate stream networks from other landscapes, and provide unique challenges to the statistical analysis of stream-based phenomenon. Two chapters of this work relied on a unique and comprehensive set of data. These data constitute a complete census of habitat unit fish counts from 40 randomly selected headwater basins in western Oregon. The first objective of this work was to evaluate how different sampling designs captured spatial autocorrelation, given the samples were drawn from a population of spatially autocorrelated observations. Spatially distributed clusters of sampling locations were more apt to capture spatial autocorrelation than samples without clusters or small clusters located at tributary junctions. A similar investigation was made concerning sampling design performance in relation to estimating autocorrelation function values. All sampling designs lead generally to negatively biased estimates, and practical differences among the sampling designs were not observed. The second objective was to investigate spatial autocorrelation model range parameters as measures of patch sizes. It is common practice to use range parameters to infer the size of patches within spatially autocorrelated data, but this methodology lacks sufficient justification. The census data were used to compute range parameter values, and another proposed autocorrelative measure of patch size: the integral scale. The same data were used to compute patch sizes under several patch definitions, and the relationship of range parameters and integral scale values with patch sizes was explored. Range parameter values did not equal and were not strongly correlated with average patch sizes, though range parameter values were more correlated with maximum patch and gap sizes. Integral scale values matched the magnitude of, but were not strongly correlated with, average patch sizes. The third objective was to refine the analysis of temporally autocorrelated hydrology data from paired watershed studies. Paired watershed studies are used to evaluate forest harvesting effects on stream biota and hydrology (i.e. fish, amphibians, insects, stream flow, and sediment yield). Traditionally, treatment effects are discerned using prediction intervals. This work provided an improved method for constructing prediction intervals for use in change detection in paired watershed studies. The improved prediction intervals included variation associated with estimating linear and autocorrelation model parameters. Close

• 340. [Article] Invertebrate composition and distribution in desert springs of Oregon

  In the summers of 1998 and 1999, aquatic invertebrate and plant communities were sampled from nineteen springs in the Warner Basin of southeastern Oregon. Across the landscape, these springs exhibited ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Invertebrate composition and distribution in desert springs of Oregon Author: Mauger, Susan In the summers of 1998 and 1999, aquatic invertebrate and plant communities were sampled from nineteen springs in the Warner Basin of southeastern Oregon. Across the landscape, these springs exhibited a broad range in water temperature (5-24°C), pH, conductivity, elevation, and gradient. Within a particular spring, water temperature and chemistry fluctuated little diurnally or annually providing a constant environment for aquatic organisms. Benthic hand net samples, emergence traps, and hand-picking methods were employed to determine the invertebrate composition of each spring. Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) invertebrate ordination showed a strong temperature and chemical gradient. For example, invertebrate communities on Abert Rim and Hart Mountain were similar because water temperature, chemistries, and elevation were similar. On the second NMS ordination axis, communities responded to topographic gradients. Differences in the presence of specific taxa in Abert Rim and Hart Mountain springs were related to topographic separation of these sub-basins. For example, only Abert Rim springs contained nemourid stoneflies, Malenka sp., and limniphilid caddisflies, Pseudostenophylax edwarsii. Hart Mountain springs were distinctive in the presence of certain dytiscid beetle and chironomid taxa. TWINSPAN analysis confirmed differences in invertebrate composition in Abert Rim and Hart Mountain springs and identified variation in invertebrate communities within sub-basins. When riparian and emergent plant taxa and plant-type variables were overlaid on the NMS invertebrate ordination, neither were related to invertebrate composition. However, there was a significant correlation between invertebrate taxa and percent open area and percent vegetative cover. Open water may be an important habitat attribute for more active invertebrates such as Labiobaetis sp., a mayfly, and Rhyacophila sp., a free-swimming caddisfly that were correlated with open water and faster-flowing springs in this study. Dixa sp., a midge, was prevalent in marshy systems. Longitudinal patterns of invertebrate taxa richness showed an increase as distance from the spring source increased, and may be related to increased temperature fluctuations as groundwater influences decrease. These springs make a significant contribution to the invertebrate diversity of the Warner Basin; forty-three taxa were collected in this study that have not been found in Warner Basin streams. Title: Invertebrate composition and distribution in desert springs of Oregon Author: Mauger, Susan In the summers of 1998 and 1999, aquatic invertebrate and plant communities were sampled from nineteen springs in the Warner Basin of southeastern Oregon. Across the landscape, these springs exhibited a broad range in water temperature (5-24°C), pH, conductivity, elevation, and gradient. Within a particular spring, water temperature and chemistry fluctuated little diurnally or annually providing a constant environment for aquatic organisms. Benthic hand net samples, emergence traps, and hand-picking methods were employed to determine the invertebrate composition of each spring. Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) invertebrate ordination showed a strong temperature and chemical gradient. For example, invertebrate communities on Abert Rim and Hart Mountain were similar because water temperature, chemistries, and elevation were similar. On the second NMS ordination axis, communities responded to topographic gradients. Differences in the presence of specific taxa in Abert Rim and Hart Mountain springs were related to topographic separation of these sub-basins. For example, only Abert Rim springs contained nemourid stoneflies, Malenka sp., and limniphilid caddisflies, Pseudostenophylax edwarsii. Hart Mountain springs were distinctive in the presence of certain dytiscid beetle and chironomid taxa. TWINSPAN analysis confirmed differences in invertebrate composition in Abert Rim and Hart Mountain springs and identified variation in invertebrate communities within sub-basins. When riparian and emergent plant taxa and plant-type variables were overlaid on the NMS invertebrate ordination, neither were related to invertebrate composition. However, there was a significant correlation between invertebrate taxa and percent open area and percent vegetative cover. Open water may be an important habitat attribute for more active invertebrates such as Labiobaetis sp., a mayfly, and Rhyacophila sp., a free-swimming caddisfly that were correlated with open water and faster-flowing springs in this study. Dixa sp., a midge, was prevalent in marshy systems. Longitudinal patterns of invertebrate taxa richness showed an increase as distance from the spring source increased, and may be related to increased temperature fluctuations as groundwater influences decrease. These springs make a significant contribution to the invertebrate diversity of the Warner Basin; forty-three taxa were collected in this study that have not been found in Warner Basin streams. Close

• 341. [Article] A Hierarchical Modeling Approach to Simulating the Geomorphic Response of River Systems to Climate Change

  Anthropogenic climate change significantly affects water resources. River flows in mountainous regions are driven by snowmelt and are therefore highly sensitive to increases in temperature resulting from ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A Hierarchical Modeling Approach to Simulating the Geomorphic Response of River Systems to Climate Change Author: Praskievicz, Sarah Year: 2014 Anthropogenic climate change significantly affects water resources. River flows in mountainous regions are driven by snowmelt and are therefore highly sensitive to increases in temperature resulting from climate change. Climate-driven hydrological changes are potentially significant for the fluvial geomorphology of river systems. In unchanging climatic and tectonic conditions, a river's morphology will develop in equilibrium with inputs of water and sediment, but climate change represents a potential forcing on these variables that may push the system into disequilibrium and cause significant changes in river morphology. Geomorphic factors, such as channel geometry, planform, and sediment transport, are major determinants of the value of river systems, including their suitability for threatened and endangered species and for human uses of water. This dissertation research uses a hierarchical modeling approach to investigate potential impacts of anthropogenic climate change on river morphology in the interior Pacific Northwest. The research will address the following theoretical and methodological objectives: 1) Develop downscaled climate change scenarios, based on regional climate-model output, including changes in daily minimum and maximum temperature and precipitation. 2) Estimate how climate change scenarios affect river discharge and suspended-sediment load, using a basin-scale hydrologic model. 3) Examine potential impacts of climate-driven hydrologic changes on stream power and shear stress, bedload sediment transport, and river morphology, including channel geometry and planform. The downscaling approach, based on empirically-estimated local topographic lapse rates, produces high-resolution climate grids with positive forecast skill. The hydrologic modeling results indicate that projected climate change in the study rivers will change the annual cycle of hydrology, with increased winter discharge, a decrease in the magnitude of the spring snowmelt peak, and decreased summer discharge. Geomorphic modeling results suggest that changes in reach-averaged bedload transport are highly sensitive to likely changes in the recurrence interval of the critical discharge needed to mobilize bed sediments. This dissertation research makes an original contribution to the climate-change impacts literature by linking Earth processes across a wide range of spatial scales to project changes in river systems that may be significant for management of these systems for societal and ecological benefits. This dissertation includes unpublished co-authored material. Title: A Hierarchical Modeling Approach to Simulating the Geomorphic Response of River Systems to Climate Change Author: Praskievicz, Sarah Year: 2014 Anthropogenic climate change significantly affects water resources. River flows in mountainous regions are driven by snowmelt and are therefore highly sensitive to increases in temperature resulting from climate change. Climate-driven hydrological changes are potentially significant for the fluvial geomorphology of river systems. In unchanging climatic and tectonic conditions, a river's morphology will develop in equilibrium with inputs of water and sediment, but climate change represents a potential forcing on these variables that may push the system into disequilibrium and cause significant changes in river morphology. Geomorphic factors, such as channel geometry, planform, and sediment transport, are major determinants of the value of river systems, including their suitability for threatened and endangered species and for human uses of water. This dissertation research uses a hierarchical modeling approach to investigate potential impacts of anthropogenic climate change on river morphology in the interior Pacific Northwest. The research will address the following theoretical and methodological objectives: 1) Develop downscaled climate change scenarios, based on regional climate-model output, including changes in daily minimum and maximum temperature and precipitation. 2) Estimate how climate change scenarios affect river discharge and suspended-sediment load, using a basin-scale hydrologic model. 3) Examine potential impacts of climate-driven hydrologic changes on stream power and shear stress, bedload sediment transport, and river morphology, including channel geometry and planform. The downscaling approach, based on empirically-estimated local topographic lapse rates, produces high-resolution climate grids with positive forecast skill. The hydrologic modeling results indicate that projected climate change in the study rivers will change the annual cycle of hydrology, with increased winter discharge, a decrease in the magnitude of the spring snowmelt peak, and decreased summer discharge. Geomorphic modeling results suggest that changes in reach-averaged bedload transport are highly sensitive to likely changes in the recurrence interval of the critical discharge needed to mobilize bed sediments. This dissertation research makes an original contribution to the climate-change impacts literature by linking Earth processes across a wide range of spatial scales to project changes in river systems that may be significant for management of these systems for societal and ecological benefits. This dissertation includes unpublished co-authored material. Close

• 342. [Article] The role of near-stream zones on flow, chemistry and isotopic composition at the headwater scale

  Stream discharge is a key water balance component and important factor in global change evaluations. Nevertheless, the mechanisms for streamflow generation are poorly understood. Near- stream surface saturation ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The role of near-stream zones on flow, chemistry and isotopic composition at the headwater scale Author: Frentress, Jay Stream discharge is a key water balance component and important factor in global change evaluations. Nevertheless, the mechanisms for streamflow generation are poorly understood. Near- stream surface saturation during precipitation events is one of the most iconic, visible indicators of rapid runoff production in upland humid catchments around the world. Despite years of study, we lack understanding of what occurs within the near-stream saturated area, its mixing dynamics and how this affects catchment geochemical- and flow-response dynamics during events. This thesis explores the mechanisms that control near-stream saturated area behavior in a headwater catchment. First, I explore the relation between catchment geochemical response and the flow duration curve (FDC) for the 46-ha Weierbach catchment in Luxembourg across 10 years of runoff monitoring. The shape of the Weierbach FDC suggested a two-phase system, a high-flow, precipitation-driven period and a dry, evapotranspiration-driven, low-flow period. I hypothesized that the two phases were correlated with activation of shallow hillslope and subsurface streamflow sources and that the activation of these sources would be reflected in stream chemistry and surface saturation dynamics. During high-flow periods of the FDC, stream geochemistry was largely unchanging, lacking a dilution effect and appeared a mix of the highly variable soil and groundwater. Thermal infrared (TIR) imagery suggested large surface saturation dynamics at high flows. The geochemical signature of streamflow and soil riparian water during low-flow periods most closely resembled groundwater chemistry and led to increasing base cation concentrations and electrical conductivity. Secondly, to better understand the effect of rain falling on saturated areas and the contribution of rainfall to saturation excess overland flow, I quantified surface saturation dynamics in a near- stream area during rainfall events using high-frequency TIR imagery. During 10 rainfall events across a 34-day period starting December 2013, a total of 161 mm of rainfall elicited 133 mm of runoff at the 6-ha outlet. Surface saturation within a 25-m² thermal infrared imaged area increased from 2 to 20% but was highly variable and weakly correlated to discharge and precipitation. Rainfall onto mapped, near-stream saturated areas accounted for little of the flow generated within a headwater reach. Streamflow isotopic composition at the 6-ha, headwater outlet deflected little throughout the 30-day rainfall period, 0.7 and 1.2 ‰ for δ¹⁸O and δ²H, respectively. Groundwater exfiltration within the saturated area generated nearly all of the streamflow as well the persistent saturation throughout the event. Thirdly, I examined the underlying controls on streamwater chemostasis in a forested, headwater catchment. Thermal infrared imagery was simultaneously used to quantify saturation expansion and groundwater exfiltration hotspots within the headwater reach. Streamflow during a series of rainfall events responded chemostatically, most measured geochemical species (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, SiO₂, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻) varied little (< 0.5 mg/L), despite discharge increases from 0.2 to 4 L/s. Groundwater levels within the saturated zone increased after an initial 24 mm of event rainfall and remained within 0.05 m of the soil surface throughout the runoff period. TIR imagery identified consistent groundwater exfiltration zones from temperature differences across the event-period in the saturated zone. This suggested that unlike many headwater systems, the alluvial aquifer was well connected to groundwater outside the riparian zone and the mapped seepage area was a focused discharge point for the catchment-scale groundwater flow system. Overall this work suggests that for this catchment, groundwater exfiltration in the near-stream zone strongly controls stream geochemical response as well as the timing, duration and quantity of streamflow generation. Title: The role of near-stream zones on flow, chemistry and isotopic composition at the headwater scale Author: Frentress, Jay Stream discharge is a key water balance component and important factor in global change evaluations. Nevertheless, the mechanisms for streamflow generation are poorly understood. Near- stream surface saturation during precipitation events is one of the most iconic, visible indicators of rapid runoff production in upland humid catchments around the world. Despite years of study, we lack understanding of what occurs within the near-stream saturated area, its mixing dynamics and how this affects catchment geochemical- and flow-response dynamics during events. This thesis explores the mechanisms that control near-stream saturated area behavior in a headwater catchment. First, I explore the relation between catchment geochemical response and the flow duration curve (FDC) for the 46-ha Weierbach catchment in Luxembourg across 10 years of runoff monitoring. The shape of the Weierbach FDC suggested a two-phase system, a high-flow, precipitation-driven period and a dry, evapotranspiration-driven, low-flow period. I hypothesized that the two phases were correlated with activation of shallow hillslope and subsurface streamflow sources and that the activation of these sources would be reflected in stream chemistry and surface saturation dynamics. During high-flow periods of the FDC, stream geochemistry was largely unchanging, lacking a dilution effect and appeared a mix of the highly variable soil and groundwater. Thermal infrared (TIR) imagery suggested large surface saturation dynamics at high flows. The geochemical signature of streamflow and soil riparian water during low-flow periods most closely resembled groundwater chemistry and led to increasing base cation concentrations and electrical conductivity. Secondly, to better understand the effect of rain falling on saturated areas and the contribution of rainfall to saturation excess overland flow, I quantified surface saturation dynamics in a near- stream area during rainfall events using high-frequency TIR imagery. During 10 rainfall events across a 34-day period starting December 2013, a total of 161 mm of rainfall elicited 133 mm of runoff at the 6-ha outlet. Surface saturation within a 25-m² thermal infrared imaged area increased from 2 to 20% but was highly variable and weakly correlated to discharge and precipitation. Rainfall onto mapped, near-stream saturated areas accounted for little of the flow generated within a headwater reach. Streamflow isotopic composition at the 6-ha, headwater outlet deflected little throughout the 30-day rainfall period, 0.7 and 1.2 ‰ for δ¹⁸O and δ²H, respectively. Groundwater exfiltration within the saturated area generated nearly all of the streamflow as well the persistent saturation throughout the event. Thirdly, I examined the underlying controls on streamwater chemostasis in a forested, headwater catchment. Thermal infrared imagery was simultaneously used to quantify saturation expansion and groundwater exfiltration hotspots within the headwater reach. Streamflow during a series of rainfall events responded chemostatically, most measured geochemical species (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, SiO₂, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻) varied little (< 0.5 mg/L), despite discharge increases from 0.2 to 4 L/s. Groundwater levels within the saturated zone increased after an initial 24 mm of event rainfall and remained within 0.05 m of the soil surface throughout the runoff period. TIR imagery identified consistent groundwater exfiltration zones from temperature differences across the event-period in the saturated zone. This suggested that unlike many headwater systems, the alluvial aquifer was well connected to groundwater outside the riparian zone and the mapped seepage area was a focused discharge point for the catchment-scale groundwater flow system. Overall this work suggests that for this catchment, groundwater exfiltration in the near-stream zone strongly controls stream geochemical response as well as the timing, duration and quantity of streamflow generation. Close

• 343. [Article] The lateral movement of cycloate as affected by three soil types and four methods of irrigation when applied to the soil by injection incorporation

  Lateral diffusion of S-ethyl N-ethylthiocyclohexanecarbamate (cycloate)¹ is essential for satisfactory weed control with injection type incorporation in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris Linn.) production. Previous ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The lateral movement of cycloate as affected by three soil types and four methods of irrigation when applied to the soil by injection incorporation Author: Stanger, Charles Earl, 1929- Lateral diffusion of S-ethyl N-ethylthiocyclohexanecarbamate (cycloate)¹ is essential for satisfactory weed control with injection type incorporation in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris Linn.) production. Previous field experience with injection incorporation has indicated that sufficient lateral diffusion for satisfactory weed control has not occurred under all field conditions. Researchers who have been closely associated with injection incorporation of cycloate have attributed soil physical properties as the most important factor limiting lateral diffusion. Studies were conducted in the greenhouse to investigate the effects of soil texture, irrigation methods, and weed densities on the lateral diffusion of cycloate. In these studies barnyard grass ¹Trade name is Roneet. (Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv.) was the indicator plant used in the bioassay analysis. Onyx silt loam (3.57% O.M.), Shano silt loam (.71% O.M.), and Quincy loamy sand (.49% O.M.) type soils were used to determine the influence of soil texture on the extent of lateral diffusion. Approximately 40% more lateral herbicide movement and 50% more growth inhibition occurred with Quincy loamy sand than in the silt loam soils. Cycloate injected into moist soils consistently resulted in greater distances of lateral diffusion and more rapid herbicidal activity than when injected into dry soil and followed by an irrigation. This effect was noted with all soil textures. Both sprinkler and sub-type irrigations restricted the lateral diffusion of cycloate in silt loam soils to the extent that barnyard grass growth was not inhibited in the beet row between the lines of herbicide injection. This effect was not noted with furrow irrigation. The normal water movement under furrow irrigation aided in the desired lateral herbicide diffusion. Delaying the application of an irrigation for 24 hours after cycloate was injected into Quincy loamy sand did not reduce the herbicide movement by flowing water. Barnyard grass seedlings at high densities restricted cycloate diffusion and reduced the herbicidal effect. These results may have been caused by a reduction in herbicide concentration by plant adsorption over the points of injection; thus lowering the diffusion gradient to the extent that cycloate did not diffuse in lethal concentrations. In fine textured soils weed control was consistently better when cycloate was incorporated by mixing rather than injection type incorporation. Benefits from mixing type incorporation will be even more significant if an irrigation is required for crop seed germination. Title: The lateral movement of cycloate as affected by three soil types and four methods of irrigation when applied to the soil by injection incorporation Author: Stanger, Charles Earl, 1929- Lateral diffusion of S-ethyl N-ethylthiocyclohexanecarbamate (cycloate)¹ is essential for satisfactory weed control with injection type incorporation in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris Linn.) production. Previous field experience with injection incorporation has indicated that sufficient lateral diffusion for satisfactory weed control has not occurred under all field conditions. Researchers who have been closely associated with injection incorporation of cycloate have attributed soil physical properties as the most important factor limiting lateral diffusion. Studies were conducted in the greenhouse to investigate the effects of soil texture, irrigation methods, and weed densities on the lateral diffusion of cycloate. In these studies barnyard grass ¹Trade name is Roneet. (Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv.) was the indicator plant used in the bioassay analysis. Onyx silt loam (3.57% O.M.), Shano silt loam (.71% O.M.), and Quincy loamy sand (.49% O.M.) type soils were used to determine the influence of soil texture on the extent of lateral diffusion. Approximately 40% more lateral herbicide movement and 50% more growth inhibition occurred with Quincy loamy sand than in the silt loam soils. Cycloate injected into moist soils consistently resulted in greater distances of lateral diffusion and more rapid herbicidal activity than when injected into dry soil and followed by an irrigation. This effect was noted with all soil textures. Both sprinkler and sub-type irrigations restricted the lateral diffusion of cycloate in silt loam soils to the extent that barnyard grass growth was not inhibited in the beet row between the lines of herbicide injection. This effect was not noted with furrow irrigation. The normal water movement under furrow irrigation aided in the desired lateral herbicide diffusion. Delaying the application of an irrigation for 24 hours after cycloate was injected into Quincy loamy sand did not reduce the herbicide movement by flowing water. Barnyard grass seedlings at high densities restricted cycloate diffusion and reduced the herbicidal effect. These results may have been caused by a reduction in herbicide concentration by plant adsorption over the points of injection; thus lowering the diffusion gradient to the extent that cycloate did not diffuse in lethal concentrations. In fine textured soils weed control was consistently better when cycloate was incorporated by mixing rather than injection type incorporation. Benefits from mixing type incorporation will be even more significant if an irrigation is required for crop seed germination. Close

• 344. [Article] Seasonal and Elevational Variation of Surface Water δ¹⁸O and δ²H in the Willamette River Basin

  Presented at The Oregon Water Conference, May 24-25, 2011, Corvallis, OR.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Seasonal and Elevational Variation of Surface Water δ¹⁸O and δ²H in the Willamette River Basin Author: Wigington, Parker J. Jr, Coulombe, Rob, Comeleo, Randy, Brooks, J. Renee, Rodecap, Kent, Kendall, Carol Presented at The Oregon Water Conference, May 24-25, 2011, Corvallis, OR. Title: Seasonal and Elevational Variation of Surface Water δ¹⁸O and δ²H in the Willamette River Basin Author: Wigington, Parker J. Jr, Coulombe, Rob, Comeleo, Randy, Brooks, J. Renee, Rodecap, Kent, Kendall, Carol Presented at The Oregon Water Conference, May 24-25, 2011, Corvallis, OR. Close

• 345. [Article] Spawning distribution and habitat use of adult Pacific and western brook lamprey in Smith River, Oregon Information Reports 2006-1

  Abstract -- Coastal Oregon populations of Pacific lamprey Lampetra tridentata and western brook lamprey L. richardsoni are considered depressed due to habitat loss and passage problems (Close et al. 2002, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Spawning distribution and habitat use of adult Pacific and western brook lamprey in Smith River, Oregon Information Reports 2006-1 Abstract -- Coastal Oregon populations of Pacific lamprey Lampetra tridentata and western brook lamprey L. richardsoni are considered depressed due to habitat loss and passage problems (Close et al. 2002, Nawa 2003, ODFW 2006). Pacific lamprey was listed as an Oregon state sensitive species in 1993 and in 1996 was protected through restriction of harvest (ODFW 2006). Western brook lamprey is not protected and has no special state status. Abundance of Pacific lamprey throughout the coast and Columbia River has declined dramatically since the1960s. Dam counts at Winchester, Bonneville, and Leaburg dams show a dramatic decrease from historical levels (Kostow 2002, Nawa 2003, ODFW 2006). In 2003, eleven environmental groups petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list Pacific, western brook, and two other lamprey species as endangered in the Pacific Northwest and California (Nawa 2003). Even though the petition cited habitat losses due to reduced in-stream flows, water diversions, dredging, scour and channnelization issues, pollution and degradation of riparian communities, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined the petition did not contain adequate information to warrant a listing (Federal Register, 69 (27 December 2004) 77158-77167). The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife recently reviewed the status of western brook and Pacific lamprey and found populations to be ‘at risk’ of extinction (ODFW 2006) due to habitat loss, passage barriers and pollution. However data necessary to conduct a thorough and detailed assessment are lacking. Much of the data lacking are critical to the effective management and conservation of Oregon’s coastal lamprey species. The Columbia River Basin Lamprey Technical Workgroup (CRBLTW 2005) and members of Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (CRITFC 2004) have identified and prioritized critical data gaps for Pacific lamprey, many of which also apply to western brook lamprey. Among these are 1) methods to assess distribution and abundance of all life stages and appropriate techniques for monitoring population status; 2) population structure and delineation; 3) population dynamics; 4) basic biology including interspecific and community level relationships; 5) limiting factors and threats including passage issues, and 6) habitat needs and requirements. This study addresses information needs pertaining to distribution and habitat use in addition to providing basic descriptive ecology. Our goal was to identify habitat variables associated with spawning Pacific and western brook lamprey in order to infer distribution throughout coastal Oregon. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine distribution of spawning Pacific and western brook lamprey in the Smith River basin; 2) describe redds of both species; and 3) describe associations of spawning Pacific and western brook lamprey in relation to habitat unit and reach scale habitat characteristics. Title: Spawning distribution and habitat use of adult Pacific and western brook lamprey in Smith River, Oregon Information Reports 2006-1 Abstract -- Coastal Oregon populations of Pacific lamprey Lampetra tridentata and western brook lamprey L. richardsoni are considered depressed due to habitat loss and passage problems (Close et al. 2002, Nawa 2003, ODFW 2006). Pacific lamprey was listed as an Oregon state sensitive species in 1993 and in 1996 was protected through restriction of harvest (ODFW 2006). Western brook lamprey is not protected and has no special state status. Abundance of Pacific lamprey throughout the coast and Columbia River has declined dramatically since the1960s. Dam counts at Winchester, Bonneville, and Leaburg dams show a dramatic decrease from historical levels (Kostow 2002, Nawa 2003, ODFW 2006). In 2003, eleven environmental groups petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list Pacific, western brook, and two other lamprey species as endangered in the Pacific Northwest and California (Nawa 2003). Even though the petition cited habitat losses due to reduced in-stream flows, water diversions, dredging, scour and channnelization issues, pollution and degradation of riparian communities, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined the petition did not contain adequate information to warrant a listing (Federal Register, 69 (27 December 2004) 77158-77167). The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife recently reviewed the status of western brook and Pacific lamprey and found populations to be ‘at risk’ of extinction (ODFW 2006) due to habitat loss, passage barriers and pollution. However data necessary to conduct a thorough and detailed assessment are lacking. Much of the data lacking are critical to the effective management and conservation of Oregon’s coastal lamprey species. The Columbia River Basin Lamprey Technical Workgroup (CRBLTW 2005) and members of Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (CRITFC 2004) have identified and prioritized critical data gaps for Pacific lamprey, many of which also apply to western brook lamprey. Among these are 1) methods to assess distribution and abundance of all life stages and appropriate techniques for monitoring population status; 2) population structure and delineation; 3) population dynamics; 4) basic biology including interspecific and community level relationships; 5) limiting factors and threats including passage issues, and 6) habitat needs and requirements. This study addresses information needs pertaining to distribution and habitat use in addition to providing basic descriptive ecology. Our goal was to identify habitat variables associated with spawning Pacific and western brook lamprey in order to infer distribution throughout coastal Oregon. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine distribution of spawning Pacific and western brook lamprey in the Smith River basin; 2) describe redds of both species; and 3) describe associations of spawning Pacific and western brook lamprey in relation to habitat unit and reach scale habitat characteristics. Close

• 346. [Article] Influence of upwelling-season coastal currents on near-bottom dissolved oxygen concentrations over a submarine bank

  Wind-driven coastal upwelling brings subsurface water onto the central-Oregon shelf after the spring transition each year. This cold and salty source water is oxygen-poor, yet above the hypoxic threshold, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Influence of upwelling-season coastal currents on near-bottom dissolved oxygen concentrations over a submarine bank Author: Adams, Katherine A. Wind-driven coastal upwelling brings subsurface water onto the central-Oregon shelf after the spring transition each year. This cold and salty source water is oxygen-poor, yet above the hypoxic threshold, dissolved oxygen < 1.4 ml l⁻¹. Once on the shelf, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations of upwelled near-bottom waters are modified by physical and biological shelf processes, such as advection, mixing and microbial respiration. The influences of shelf processes on near-bottom DO concentrations on tidal, event and seasonal time scales are investigated using moored continuous time series and underwater glider cross-shelf transects over the Heceta and Stonewall Bank complex (HSBC) off central Oregon. A linear, seasonal decline rate of ~0.01 ml l⁻¹ day⁻¹ is observed from moored near-bottom continuous time series on the mid shelf over HSBC. This seasonal decline rate is only 30% of the expected draw down from calculated respiration rates over the shelf (0.026 ± 0.013 ml l⁻¹ day⁻¹). The severity of low-oxygen concentrations in a given year is a combined result of the biological consumption rate, the physical replenishment rate due to advection and mixing and the length of the season. Along the Newport Hydrographic (NH) line (44.65°N), cross-shelf variability of hypoxic measurements sampled in over 100 underwater glider cross-shelf transects (2006 - 2012) is investigated. Prevalent near-bottom hypoxic areas are identified on the mid (50-80-m isobaths) and the outer (120-150-m isobaths) shelf regions. The gap in between the two regions is just north of Stonewall Bank, an area of enhanced mixing where higher-DO water is likely mixed into the bottom mixed layer. A seasonal change in near-bottom currents is observed on the mid shelf. In early July of 2011, equatorward along-shelf currents weaken and near-bottom cross-shelf currents change from strongly onshore to weakly onshore and offshore. This change is likely due to the offshore movement of the coastal jet during the upwelling season. Consequently, bottom Ekman transport decreases significantly throughout the upwelling season. Low along-shelf and cross-shelf flow, or flushing, of near-bottom shelf waters increases the risk for hypoxia. Cross-shelf advection cannot account for the large decrease in outer-shelf DO observed in a sequence of 10 glider lines in late-summer 2011. This decrease is attributed to an along-shelf DO gradient of -0.72 ml l⁻¹ over 2.58 km, or 0.28 ml l⁻¹ per km, such that equatorward near-bottom flow brings low-DO water south past the NH line. The effect of the Heceta and Stonewall Bank complex on along-shelf variability of shelf and slope waters is investigated during the 2008 upwelling season by comparing the NH glider line with a glider line located just south of the Bank (Umpqua River - UR, 43.7°N). Spicy, subsurface poleward flows, characteristic of the California Undercurrent (CU), are observed along both lines in September 2008. Spice values are proportional to a salinity anomaly and thus can be positive and negative. High spice values indicate transport from the southern CCS via the CU. A poleward core of 0.05 m s⁻¹ is observed against the continental slope of the NH line, however the spiciness of this poleward flow is diffuse and reaches a maximum of -0.1 kg m⁻³. The UR-line poleward core, 0.1 m s⁻¹, and spice maximum, 0.05 kg m⁻³, are much stronger signals. The average spice field from 64 summertime Seaglider lines collected along the NH line from 2008 to 2012, also show a wide, diffuse subsurface spice signal of magnitude -0.1 kg m⁻³. Mixing of CU water induced by flow around the Bank is likely resulting in the weak signal observed on the NH line. To investigate the along-shelf difference in shelf water properties, spice-density and DO-density relationships over the 300-m isobath are investigated. Spice along isopycnals which upwell onto the shelf, 26.4 - 26.6 kg m⁻³, are much higher on the UR line. DO concentrations along isopycnals are similar on the NH and UR lines. This indicates that spicier source water does not equate to lower DO concentrations on the UR line. Near-bottom shelf waters, 10 m above the 100-m isobath, are also spicier on the UR line than the NH line in 2008. A spice-DO relationship for shelf waters indicates the influence of source water variability on shelf DO concentrations is small in comparison to the shelf respiration signal on shelf DO concentrations. Title: Influence of upwelling-season coastal currents on near-bottom dissolved oxygen concentrations over a submarine bank Author: Adams, Katherine A. Wind-driven coastal upwelling brings subsurface water onto the central-Oregon shelf after the spring transition each year. This cold and salty source water is oxygen-poor, yet above the hypoxic threshold, dissolved oxygen < 1.4 ml l⁻¹. Once on the shelf, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations of upwelled near-bottom waters are modified by physical and biological shelf processes, such as advection, mixing and microbial respiration. The influences of shelf processes on near-bottom DO concentrations on tidal, event and seasonal time scales are investigated using moored continuous time series and underwater glider cross-shelf transects over the Heceta and Stonewall Bank complex (HSBC) off central Oregon. A linear, seasonal decline rate of ~0.01 ml l⁻¹ day⁻¹ is observed from moored near-bottom continuous time series on the mid shelf over HSBC. This seasonal decline rate is only 30% of the expected draw down from calculated respiration rates over the shelf (0.026 ± 0.013 ml l⁻¹ day⁻¹). The severity of low-oxygen concentrations in a given year is a combined result of the biological consumption rate, the physical replenishment rate due to advection and mixing and the length of the season. Along the Newport Hydrographic (NH) line (44.65°N), cross-shelf variability of hypoxic measurements sampled in over 100 underwater glider cross-shelf transects (2006 - 2012) is investigated. Prevalent near-bottom hypoxic areas are identified on the mid (50-80-m isobaths) and the outer (120-150-m isobaths) shelf regions. The gap in between the two regions is just north of Stonewall Bank, an area of enhanced mixing where higher-DO water is likely mixed into the bottom mixed layer. A seasonal change in near-bottom currents is observed on the mid shelf. In early July of 2011, equatorward along-shelf currents weaken and near-bottom cross-shelf currents change from strongly onshore to weakly onshore and offshore. This change is likely due to the offshore movement of the coastal jet during the upwelling season. Consequently, bottom Ekman transport decreases significantly throughout the upwelling season. Low along-shelf and cross-shelf flow, or flushing, of near-bottom shelf waters increases the risk for hypoxia. Cross-shelf advection cannot account for the large decrease in outer-shelf DO observed in a sequence of 10 glider lines in late-summer 2011. This decrease is attributed to an along-shelf DO gradient of -0.72 ml l⁻¹ over 2.58 km, or 0.28 ml l⁻¹ per km, such that equatorward near-bottom flow brings low-DO water south past the NH line. The effect of the Heceta and Stonewall Bank complex on along-shelf variability of shelf and slope waters is investigated during the 2008 upwelling season by comparing the NH glider line with a glider line located just south of the Bank (Umpqua River - UR, 43.7°N). Spicy, subsurface poleward flows, characteristic of the California Undercurrent (CU), are observed along both lines in September 2008. Spice values are proportional to a salinity anomaly and thus can be positive and negative. High spice values indicate transport from the southern CCS via the CU. A poleward core of 0.05 m s⁻¹ is observed against the continental slope of the NH line, however the spiciness of this poleward flow is diffuse and reaches a maximum of -0.1 kg m⁻³. The UR-line poleward core, 0.1 m s⁻¹, and spice maximum, 0.05 kg m⁻³, are much stronger signals. The average spice field from 64 summertime Seaglider lines collected along the NH line from 2008 to 2012, also show a wide, diffuse subsurface spice signal of magnitude -0.1 kg m⁻³. Mixing of CU water induced by flow around the Bank is likely resulting in the weak signal observed on the NH line. To investigate the along-shelf difference in shelf water properties, spice-density and DO-density relationships over the 300-m isobath are investigated. Spice along isopycnals which upwell onto the shelf, 26.4 - 26.6 kg m⁻³, are much higher on the UR line. DO concentrations along isopycnals are similar on the NH and UR lines. This indicates that spicier source water does not equate to lower DO concentrations on the UR line. Near-bottom shelf waters, 10 m above the 100-m isobath, are also spicier on the UR line than the NH line in 2008. A spice-DO relationship for shelf waters indicates the influence of source water variability on shelf DO concentrations is small in comparison to the shelf respiration signal on shelf DO concentrations. Close

• 347. [Article] Predicted economic effects of environmental quality control policies on linear firm models and an application to an irrigated farm model

  Linear economic models were utilized to predict effects of various environmental control policies on individual firms. Four different linear models were specified and in some instances relatively minor ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Predicted economic effects of environmental quality control policies on linear firm models and an application to an irrigated farm model Author: Clark, Richard T. Linear economic models were utilized to predict effects of various environmental control policies on individual firms. Four different linear models were specified and in some instances relatively minor changes in specification were made which resulted in additional sub-models. Models varied as to numbers and types of fixed factors, variable cost relationships, market products, and fixed factor requirements. Once each model or sub-model was described five or six policies were theoretically applied to that model. Policies used were: taxing market products, taxing variable factors, taxing a non-market externality (external diseconomy), a standard on the quality of the externality, subsidizing variable factors and subsidizing fixed factors. It was assumed that the non-market externality would be produced in a fixed ratio with market products. Furthermore, the assumption was made that alternative production techniques were available to the firm. The important aspect of the various techniques was that the proportion of the externality generated by a market product varied by production method. Consequently, strong emphasis in the analysis was placed on determining whether or not a given policy could induce the firm to switch to a lower externality generating production method. In addition to the strictly theoretical analysis a linear irrigated farm model was described. The farm model produced irrigation return flows which were considered to be creating stream pollution. From the theoretical analysis likely policies for controlling return flows were ascertained. Some of these policies were then applied to the farm model. Specifically, a water tax (variable factor tax) and a constraint on delivered water were administered to the farm model. Based on the theoretical analysis taxing market products did not appear to be a particularly desirable policy. For some models, the market product tax actually increased externality production. A tax on externality production (effluent tax) seemed to give the most consistent effects of all policies across all models. The externality tax either reduced or had no effect on externality production. The biggest shortcoming of the externality tax appeared to be administrative. Before the tax can be used the externality must be identifiable as to source. Consequently, a search was made for policies which generated results similar to the externality tax yet were not subject to the same administrative problem. It appeared that under specific conditions a variable factor tax, a tax on specialized fixed factors or a combination of a tax-subsidy scheme could be effective alternative policies. However, these latter policies, if improperly applied could result in increased externality production. Taxes as high as 65 cents per acre inch of water were applied to the farm model. Depending on assumed conditions the water tax resulted in reduced irrigation return flows. When labor was constrained tax levels needed to be higher to reduce return flows compared to the case where labor was not constrained. Placing a restraint on delivered water also reduced return flows. Again, when labor was constrained this policy was not as effective as when labor was unconstrained. The water tax policy reduced net returns to the farm model considerably more than the constraint on delivered water. The main difference in net revenues was attributable to the total water tax bill rather than reductions from other added costs and/or enterprise changes. Title: Predicted economic effects of environmental quality control policies on linear firm models and an application to an irrigated farm model Author: Clark, Richard T. Linear economic models were utilized to predict effects of various environmental control policies on individual firms. Four different linear models were specified and in some instances relatively minor changes in specification were made which resulted in additional sub-models. Models varied as to numbers and types of fixed factors, variable cost relationships, market products, and fixed factor requirements. Once each model or sub-model was described five or six policies were theoretically applied to that model. Policies used were: taxing market products, taxing variable factors, taxing a non-market externality (external diseconomy), a standard on the quality of the externality, subsidizing variable factors and subsidizing fixed factors. It was assumed that the non-market externality would be produced in a fixed ratio with market products. Furthermore, the assumption was made that alternative production techniques were available to the firm. The important aspect of the various techniques was that the proportion of the externality generated by a market product varied by production method. Consequently, strong emphasis in the analysis was placed on determining whether or not a given policy could induce the firm to switch to a lower externality generating production method. In addition to the strictly theoretical analysis a linear irrigated farm model was described. The farm model produced irrigation return flows which were considered to be creating stream pollution. From the theoretical analysis likely policies for controlling return flows were ascertained. Some of these policies were then applied to the farm model. Specifically, a water tax (variable factor tax) and a constraint on delivered water were administered to the farm model. Based on the theoretical analysis taxing market products did not appear to be a particularly desirable policy. For some models, the market product tax actually increased externality production. A tax on externality production (effluent tax) seemed to give the most consistent effects of all policies across all models. The externality tax either reduced or had no effect on externality production. The biggest shortcoming of the externality tax appeared to be administrative. Before the tax can be used the externality must be identifiable as to source. Consequently, a search was made for policies which generated results similar to the externality tax yet were not subject to the same administrative problem. It appeared that under specific conditions a variable factor tax, a tax on specialized fixed factors or a combination of a tax-subsidy scheme could be effective alternative policies. However, these latter policies, if improperly applied could result in increased externality production. Taxes as high as 65 cents per acre inch of water were applied to the farm model. Depending on assumed conditions the water tax resulted in reduced irrigation return flows. When labor was constrained tax levels needed to be higher to reduce return flows compared to the case where labor was not constrained. Placing a restraint on delivered water also reduced return flows. Again, when labor was constrained this policy was not as effective as when labor was unconstrained. The water tax policy reduced net returns to the farm model considerably more than the constraint on delivered water. The main difference in net revenues was attributable to the total water tax bill rather than reductions from other added costs and/or enterprise changes. Close

• 348. [Image] Hydrogeology and paleohydrology in the Williamson River basin, Klamath County, Oregon

  	Abstract An abstract of the thesis of Jeffrey Scott Conaway for the Master of Science in Geology presented December 8, 1999. Title: Hydrogeology and Paleohydrology in the Williamson River Basin, Klamath ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydrogeology and paleohydrology in the Williamson River basin, Klamath County, Oregon Author: Conaway, Jeffrey Scott Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Abstract An abstract of the thesis of Jeffrey Scott Conaway for the Master of Science in Geology presented December 8, 1999. Title: Hydrogeology and Paleohydrology in the Williamson River Basin, Klamath County, Oregon. Stress on the water resources of the Williamson River basin has led to their regulation to protect important habitat. Quantification of this resource is required for accurate regulation. A portion of this study is a hydrogeologic reconnaissance that suggests directions for future work. Measured discharge and deuterium isotope data from points above and below the Williamson River canyon indicate that the river receives 99% of its discharge from ground water during periods of low flow. The principle aquifer of the southern Klamath Marsh is a fractured basalt, while continental sediments that are up to 200 m thick provide high artesian yields south of the canyon. The disparity between high precipitation on the basin's western margin and the low and variable discharge of the Williamson River at the Kirk Sill suggests either the presence of a fault zone that interrupts the flow of ground water or deep flow paths that do not surface within Klamath Marsh. Three terraces line the eastern edge of Klamath Marsh at approximate elevations of 1380, 1385, and 1397 m. The lowest terrace is late Holocene and cut into marsh sediment and reworked deposits from the pyroclastic eruptions of Mount Mazama. The middle terrace is planed into bedrock and formed when Pleistocene Lake Chemult occupied this basin. The upper terrace, a strand line, is delineated by a slope break that separates reworked pyroclastic deposits from undisturbed pyroclastic fall. Formation of this terrace occurred when pyroclastic flows from the cataclysmic eruption of Mount Mazama formed a blockage in the Williamson River canyon. Resultant backflooding reworked pyroclastic deposits and rafted pumice up to an approximate elevation of 1400 m. The blockage failed catastrophically from overtopping, draining 5.7 x 109 m3 of water, scouring the canyon and producing an erratic boulder deposit at the mouth of the canyon. Upstream evidence of rapid draining includes linear scour channels incised in pyroclastic-flow deposits and scouring of the broad Pleistocene terrace. Paleohydraulic reconstruction of down stream flooding using a flow-competence equation and a physically based dam-break model yield a peak discharge of 1.3 x 104 m3 s"1. Title: Hydrogeology and paleohydrology in the Williamson River basin, Klamath County, Oregon Author: Conaway, Jeffrey Scott Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Abstract An abstract of the thesis of Jeffrey Scott Conaway for the Master of Science in Geology presented December 8, 1999. Title: Hydrogeology and Paleohydrology in the Williamson River Basin, Klamath County, Oregon. Stress on the water resources of the Williamson River basin has led to their regulation to protect important habitat. Quantification of this resource is required for accurate regulation. A portion of this study is a hydrogeologic reconnaissance that suggests directions for future work. Measured discharge and deuterium isotope data from points above and below the Williamson River canyon indicate that the river receives 99% of its discharge from ground water during periods of low flow. The principle aquifer of the southern Klamath Marsh is a fractured basalt, while continental sediments that are up to 200 m thick provide high artesian yields south of the canyon. The disparity between high precipitation on the basin's western margin and the low and variable discharge of the Williamson River at the Kirk Sill suggests either the presence of a fault zone that interrupts the flow of ground water or deep flow paths that do not surface within Klamath Marsh. Three terraces line the eastern edge of Klamath Marsh at approximate elevations of 1380, 1385, and 1397 m. The lowest terrace is late Holocene and cut into marsh sediment and reworked deposits from the pyroclastic eruptions of Mount Mazama. The middle terrace is planed into bedrock and formed when Pleistocene Lake Chemult occupied this basin. The upper terrace, a strand line, is delineated by a slope break that separates reworked pyroclastic deposits from undisturbed pyroclastic fall. Formation of this terrace occurred when pyroclastic flows from the cataclysmic eruption of Mount Mazama formed a blockage in the Williamson River canyon. Resultant backflooding reworked pyroclastic deposits and rafted pumice up to an approximate elevation of 1400 m. The blockage failed catastrophically from overtopping, draining 5.7 x 109 m3 of water, scouring the canyon and producing an erratic boulder deposit at the mouth of the canyon. Upstream evidence of rapid draining includes linear scour channels incised in pyroclastic-flow deposits and scouring of the broad Pleistocene terrace. Paleohydraulic reconstruction of down stream flooding using a flow-competence equation and a physically based dam-break model yield a peak discharge of 1.3 x 104 m3 s"1. Close

• 349. [Article] Watershed Response to Climate Change and Fire-Burns in the Upper Umatilla River Basin, USA

  This study analyzed watershed response to climate change and forest fire impacts in the upper Umatilla River Basin (URB), Oregon, using the precipitation runoff modeling system. Ten global climate models ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Watershed Response to Climate Change and Fire-Burns in the Upper Umatilla River Basin, USA Author: Yazzie, Kimberly Crystal, Chang, Heejun Year: 2017 This study analyzed watershed response to climate change and forest fire impacts in the upper Umatilla River Basin (URB), Oregon, using the precipitation runoff modeling system. Ten global climate models using Coupled Intercomparison Project Phase 5 experiments with Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 were used to simulate the effects of climate and fire-burns on runoff behavior throughout the 21st century. We observed the center timing (CT) of flow, seasonal flows, snow water equivalent (SWE) and basin recharge. In the upper URB, hydrologic regime shifts from a snow-rain-dominated to rain-dominated basin. Ensemble mean CT occurs 27 days earlier in RCP 4.5 and 33 days earlier in RCP 8.5, in comparison to historic conditions (1980s) by the end of the 21st century. After forest cover reduction in the 2080s, CT occurs 35 days earlier in RCP 4.5 and 29 days earlier in RCP 8.5. The difference in mean CT after fire-burns may be due to projected changes in the individual climate model. Winter flow is projected to decline after forest cover reduction in the 2080s by 85% and 72% in RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, in comparison to 98% change in ensemble mean winter flows in the 2080s before forest cover reduction. The ratio of ensemble mean snow water equivalent to precipitation substantially decreases by 81% and 91% in the 2050s and 2080s before forest cover reduction and a decrease of 90% in RCP 4.5 and 99% in RCP 8.5 in the 2080s after fire-burns. Mean basin recharge is 10% and 14% lower in the 2080s before fire-burns and after fire-burns, and it decreases by 13% in RCP 4.5 and decreases 22% in RCP 8.5 in the 2080s in comparison to historical conditions. Mixed results for recharge after forest cover reduction suggest that an increase may be due to the size of burned areas, decreased canopy interception and less evaporation occurring at the watershed surface, increasing the potential for infiltration. The effects of fire on the watershed system are strongly indicated by a significant increase in winter seasonal flows and a slight reduction in summer flows. Findings from this study may improve adaptive management of water resources, flood control and the effects of fire on a watershed system. Title: Watershed Response to Climate Change and Fire-Burns in the Upper Umatilla River Basin, USA Author: Yazzie, Kimberly Crystal, Chang, Heejun Year: 2017 This study analyzed watershed response to climate change and forest fire impacts in the upper Umatilla River Basin (URB), Oregon, using the precipitation runoff modeling system. Ten global climate models using Coupled Intercomparison Project Phase 5 experiments with Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 were used to simulate the effects of climate and fire-burns on runoff behavior throughout the 21st century. We observed the center timing (CT) of flow, seasonal flows, snow water equivalent (SWE) and basin recharge. In the upper URB, hydrologic regime shifts from a snow-rain-dominated to rain-dominated basin. Ensemble mean CT occurs 27 days earlier in RCP 4.5 and 33 days earlier in RCP 8.5, in comparison to historic conditions (1980s) by the end of the 21st century. After forest cover reduction in the 2080s, CT occurs 35 days earlier in RCP 4.5 and 29 days earlier in RCP 8.5. The difference in mean CT after fire-burns may be due to projected changes in the individual climate model. Winter flow is projected to decline after forest cover reduction in the 2080s by 85% and 72% in RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, in comparison to 98% change in ensemble mean winter flows in the 2080s before forest cover reduction. The ratio of ensemble mean snow water equivalent to precipitation substantially decreases by 81% and 91% in the 2050s and 2080s before forest cover reduction and a decrease of 90% in RCP 4.5 and 99% in RCP 8.5 in the 2080s after fire-burns. Mean basin recharge is 10% and 14% lower in the 2080s before fire-burns and after fire-burns, and it decreases by 13% in RCP 4.5 and decreases 22% in RCP 8.5 in the 2080s in comparison to historical conditions. Mixed results for recharge after forest cover reduction suggest that an increase may be due to the size of burned areas, decreased canopy interception and less evaporation occurring at the watershed surface, increasing the potential for infiltration. The effects of fire on the watershed system are strongly indicated by a significant increase in winter seasonal flows and a slight reduction in summer flows. Findings from this study may improve adaptive management of water resources, flood control and the effects of fire on a watershed system. Close

• 350. [Article] Hydrological parameters affecting overland flow in an agricultural watershed

  Surface and subsurface hydrological parameters affecting overland flow from cultivated land were studied in three small sub-watersheds located in the western foothills of the Willamette Valley. The sub-watersheds, which ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydrological parameters affecting overland flow in an agricultural watershed Author: Lowery, Birl Surface and subsurface hydrological parameters affecting overland flow from cultivated land were studied in three small sub-watersheds located in the western foothills of the Willamette Valley. The sub-watersheds, which ranged in size from 0.46 to 6.0-ha, were fall-planted to grass or small grain. The parameters studied were infiltration, rainfall, runoff and subsurface water measurements. Infiltration measurements were obtained monthly using a portable infiltrometer. Rainfall was measured with recording and non-recording rain gages. Runoff was monitored from the sub-watershed outlets and within the watersheds using H-flumes and erosion plots, respectively. Subsurface moisture conditions were monitored with wells, piezometers and tensiometers. Seasonal changes in soil surface and moisture conditions caused seasonal variations in steady state infiltration rates. Low antecedent moisture and fail cropping practices produced rough, highly permeable surfaces which resulted in a high steady state infiltration rate (6.8 cm/hr). Winter rains caused increased antecedent moisture and surface sealing, and the final infiltration rate was found to decreased to a low of 4.0 cm/hr. Decreased storm events in the spring caused cracks to develop in the crust producing infiltration rates similar to those of the fall. Saturated hydraulic conductivities, measured with core samples from different horizons indicated decreased hydraulic conductivities in lower horizons. In some cases the hydraulic conductivities were virtually zero in the Cr horizon. Bimodal pore desaturations were noted in unsaturated hydraulic conductivities measured by a continuous drainage method. Piezometers and tensiometers indicated positive pore water pressures above moisture flow impeding layers. Hydrostatic pressures developed after rainy seasons started, producing ephemeral perched water tables. Ephemeral perched water tables were at or near ground surfaces during storm periods, causing saturated surface conditions. In lower landscape positions the ephemeral water table intersected the soil surface producing seepage zones. Seepage areas produced runoff between and during storm periods from plots located in the lower landscape position. Runoff from plots in the lower landscape position occasionally exceeded that of plots in upper landscape position by more than 50%. Overland flow occurred in sub-watersheds when the ephemeral perched water table approached the soil surface. In some cases during large storm events, the water table surfaced in both the lower and upper landscape position. Usually the water table was close enough to the surface to cause saturated or near saturated surface conditions via capillary rise. Title: Hydrological parameters affecting overland flow in an agricultural watershed Author: Lowery, Birl Surface and subsurface hydrological parameters affecting overland flow from cultivated land were studied in three small sub-watersheds located in the western foothills of the Willamette Valley. The sub-watersheds, which ranged in size from 0.46 to 6.0-ha, were fall-planted to grass or small grain. The parameters studied were infiltration, rainfall, runoff and subsurface water measurements. Infiltration measurements were obtained monthly using a portable infiltrometer. Rainfall was measured with recording and non-recording rain gages. Runoff was monitored from the sub-watershed outlets and within the watersheds using H-flumes and erosion plots, respectively. Subsurface moisture conditions were monitored with wells, piezometers and tensiometers. Seasonal changes in soil surface and moisture conditions caused seasonal variations in steady state infiltration rates. Low antecedent moisture and fail cropping practices produced rough, highly permeable surfaces which resulted in a high steady state infiltration rate (6.8 cm/hr). Winter rains caused increased antecedent moisture and surface sealing, and the final infiltration rate was found to decreased to a low of 4.0 cm/hr. Decreased storm events in the spring caused cracks to develop in the crust producing infiltration rates similar to those of the fall. Saturated hydraulic conductivities, measured with core samples from different horizons indicated decreased hydraulic conductivities in lower horizons. In some cases the hydraulic conductivities were virtually zero in the Cr horizon. Bimodal pore desaturations were noted in unsaturated hydraulic conductivities measured by a continuous drainage method. Piezometers and tensiometers indicated positive pore water pressures above moisture flow impeding layers. Hydrostatic pressures developed after rainy seasons started, producing ephemeral perched water tables. Ephemeral perched water tables were at or near ground surfaces during storm periods, causing saturated surface conditions. In lower landscape positions the ephemeral water table intersected the soil surface producing seepage zones. Seepage areas produced runoff between and during storm periods from plots located in the lower landscape position. Runoff from plots in the lower landscape position occasionally exceeded that of plots in upper landscape position by more than 50%. Overland flow occurred in sub-watersheds when the ephemeral perched water table approached the soil surface. In some cases during large storm events, the water table surfaced in both the lower and upper landscape position. Usually the water table was close enough to the surface to cause saturated or near saturated surface conditions via capillary rise. Close

• 351. [Article] Precipitation-snowmelt timing and snowmelt augmentation of large peak flow events, western Cascades, Oregon

  Despite advances in the understanding of rain-on-snow storms and their resulting peak flows, little is understood about the response of snowmelt to precipitation and the relative timing of the two at multiple ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Precipitation-snowmelt timing and snowmelt augmentation of large peak flow events, western Cascades, Oregon Author: Jennings, Keith S. Despite advances in the understanding of rain-on-snow storms and their resulting peak flows, little is understood about the response of snowmelt to precipitation and the relative timing of the two at multiple temporal scales within such events. To address this issue, climate, snowmelt, and streamflow data were analyzed for 26 large storms in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in the western Cascades of Oregon. Cumulative net snowmelt was plotted against precipitation for each storm to identify net snowmelt response categories, which were then used to summarize climatic and streamflow data, while the timing of precipitation and net snowmelt was assessed at multiple temporal scales and time ranges with wavelet coherence. Five precipitation-net snowmelt response categories were identified: flat; persistent melt; persistent accumulation; late melt; and late accumulation. Persistent melt events, which were characterized by concomitantly increasing cumulative net snowmelt and precipitation, had the highest mean peak flow and water available for runoff values of the response categories. Large, contiguous regions of significant wavelet coherence at multiple temporal scales were observed in both the persistent melt and persistent accumulation categories, but the phase difference distributions indicated differing snowpack dynamics with pulses of precipitation leading pulses of snowmelt in the former and precipitation being absorbed by the snowpack in the latter. High water available for runoff totals and peak flows were observed in each of the five response categories, but a dewpoint temperature consistently above 0.5°C, elevated wind speeds, and a high fraction of precipitation falling as rain in the persistent melt category facilitated rapid snowmelt rates which were often synchronized with precipitation. Wavelet coherence showed this synchronization to be significant across all temporal scales and time periods for the two largest peak flows in the study, indicating that tightly coupled rainfall-synchrony is essential in generating an extreme rain-on-snow flood. By quantifying the amount and timing of net snowmelt, the categorization scheme provides a means of distinguishing among rain-on-snow events and predicting peak discharge magnitude. Title: Precipitation-snowmelt timing and snowmelt augmentation of large peak flow events, western Cascades, Oregon Author: Jennings, Keith S. Despite advances in the understanding of rain-on-snow storms and their resulting peak flows, little is understood about the response of snowmelt to precipitation and the relative timing of the two at multiple temporal scales within such events. To address this issue, climate, snowmelt, and streamflow data were analyzed for 26 large storms in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in the western Cascades of Oregon. Cumulative net snowmelt was plotted against precipitation for each storm to identify net snowmelt response categories, which were then used to summarize climatic and streamflow data, while the timing of precipitation and net snowmelt was assessed at multiple temporal scales and time ranges with wavelet coherence. Five precipitation-net snowmelt response categories were identified: flat; persistent melt; persistent accumulation; late melt; and late accumulation. Persistent melt events, which were characterized by concomitantly increasing cumulative net snowmelt and precipitation, had the highest mean peak flow and water available for runoff values of the response categories. Large, contiguous regions of significant wavelet coherence at multiple temporal scales were observed in both the persistent melt and persistent accumulation categories, but the phase difference distributions indicated differing snowpack dynamics with pulses of precipitation leading pulses of snowmelt in the former and precipitation being absorbed by the snowpack in the latter. High water available for runoff totals and peak flows were observed in each of the five response categories, but a dewpoint temperature consistently above 0.5°C, elevated wind speeds, and a high fraction of precipitation falling as rain in the persistent melt category facilitated rapid snowmelt rates which were often synchronized with precipitation. Wavelet coherence showed this synchronization to be significant across all temporal scales and time periods for the two largest peak flows in the study, indicating that tightly coupled rainfall-synchrony is essential in generating an extreme rain-on-snow flood. By quantifying the amount and timing of net snowmelt, the categorization scheme provides a means of distinguishing among rain-on-snow events and predicting peak discharge magnitude. Close

• 352. [Article] The Periyar-Vaigai project (India) : - a geographical appraisal of water resource development

  The Periyar-Vaigai project is one of the important water resource developments in South India, designed and constructed in part during the last decade of the nineteenth century, to accelerate the growth ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Periyar-Vaigai project (India) : - a geographical appraisal of water resource development Author: Vedanayagam, Edith G., 1926- The Periyar-Vaigai project is one of the important water resource developments in South India, designed and constructed in part during the last decade of the nineteenth century, to accelerate the growth of the economy of Madras state. A noteworthy feature of this project is that the waters of the westward flowing Periyar river has been diverted to flow eastward for use on the east sloping plains of Madurai. The Periyar dam project which actually diverts the water was completed in 1896. The Vaigai regulating dam and reservoir were additions, finished in 1959, to provide better control and thus more efficient utilization of the water. The thesis study begins with a descriptive statement of the macro-physical environmental complex - the terrain, hydrography, and climate - in which the project developed. It is followed by an appraisal of the pre-Periyar resource utilization, covering the people of the area, pattern of settlement, and cropping and irrigation systems carried out on a precarious land. An analysis of daily rainfall data for a 30-year series, 1931-1960, is made to indicate the need for the project being considered and accomplished. The entire project is then described as a single unit, including a brief historical account of its inception, the inter-state agreement; and finally the physical project that consists of the Periyar dam that impounds the Periyar waters in the Periyar lake, the tunnel through which the water is led to Suruliyar, and the dam and reservoir on Vaigai. The details pertaining to the two main canals of the system, Periyar Main Canal and Tirumangalam Canal, as well as the land irrigated by thern are given. The impact of the project is considered in terms of utilization of water, changes in land use, and increased production, limiting the appraisal to the five taluks in Madurai district. A case study of Jothimanickkam village and Farmer John Veeramani Thevar from this village is further used to illustrate the impact of the project. As a result of the project, the average area cultivated has increased by 22% percent; but, even more important, the water has given essential cropping stability to approximately a third of the cropland of the locale. Prior to the project, when the cultivation depended on the rainfall of the locale, the net produce per acre ranged frorn 8 to 12 bags of paddy. After the completion of the project, the yield increased to 22 bags per acre, due to the assured supply of water. Thus , as a result of the Periyar-Vaigai development, the average farmer is now able to produce more than his family needs; and the tenant farmer, after paying the landlord's share, is able to feed his family and even make a small profit on his surplus produce. Title: The Periyar-Vaigai project (India) : - a geographical appraisal of water resource development Author: Vedanayagam, Edith G., 1926- The Periyar-Vaigai project is one of the important water resource developments in South India, designed and constructed in part during the last decade of the nineteenth century, to accelerate the growth of the economy of Madras state. A noteworthy feature of this project is that the waters of the westward flowing Periyar river has been diverted to flow eastward for use on the east sloping plains of Madurai. The Periyar dam project which actually diverts the water was completed in 1896. The Vaigai regulating dam and reservoir were additions, finished in 1959, to provide better control and thus more efficient utilization of the water. The thesis study begins with a descriptive statement of the macro-physical environmental complex - the terrain, hydrography, and climate - in which the project developed. It is followed by an appraisal of the pre-Periyar resource utilization, covering the people of the area, pattern of settlement, and cropping and irrigation systems carried out on a precarious land. An analysis of daily rainfall data for a 30-year series, 1931-1960, is made to indicate the need for the project being considered and accomplished. The entire project is then described as a single unit, including a brief historical account of its inception, the inter-state agreement; and finally the physical project that consists of the Periyar dam that impounds the Periyar waters in the Periyar lake, the tunnel through which the water is led to Suruliyar, and the dam and reservoir on Vaigai. The details pertaining to the two main canals of the system, Periyar Main Canal and Tirumangalam Canal, as well as the land irrigated by thern are given. The impact of the project is considered in terms of utilization of water, changes in land use, and increased production, limiting the appraisal to the five taluks in Madurai district. A case study of Jothimanickkam village and Farmer John Veeramani Thevar from this village is further used to illustrate the impact of the project. As a result of the project, the average area cultivated has increased by 22% percent; but, even more important, the water has given essential cropping stability to approximately a third of the cropland of the locale. Prior to the project, when the cultivation depended on the rainfall of the locale, the net produce per acre ranged frorn 8 to 12 bags of paddy. After the completion of the project, the yield increased to 22 bags per acre, due to the assured supply of water. Thus , as a result of the Periyar-Vaigai development, the average farmer is now able to produce more than his family needs; and the tenant farmer, after paying the landlord's share, is able to feed his family and even make a small profit on his surplus produce. Close

• 353. [Article] Amphibian communities and physical characteristics of intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in western Oregon

  Intermittent, headwater streams recently have been recognized as important components of forest ecosystems and have been provided increased protection by the Northwest Forest Plan. However, few studies ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Amphibian communities and physical characteristics of intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in western Oregon Author: Lee, Yu Man Intermittent, headwater streams recently have been recognized as important components of forest ecosystems and have been provided increased protection by the Northwest Forest Plan. However, few studies have examined their distribution, dynamics, and ecological roles, such as habitat for wildlife. My goal was to provide additional information on the ecology of intermittent streams in the Pacific Northwest. I examined and compared hydrologic, water quality, and physical characteristics of 16 intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in the central Cascade Range in western Oregon. I documented amphibian communities and habitat associations in these streams during spring and summer. I used comparisons of current habitat conditions and amphibian communities between stand types to gain insight into potential impacts of timber harvesting on these stream systems. Of the streams surveyed in old-growth and young forest stands, relatively few (23%) were designated as intermittent based on my definition which included presence of a definable channel, evidence of annual scour and deposition, and lack of surface flow along at least 90% of the stream length. Intermittent streams in old-growth stands exhibited the following characteristics: (1) annual flow pattern in which streams started to dry in May and June and were mostly dry by July; (2) lengthy annual flow durations (range 6-11 months); (3) cool and stable daily stream temperatures; (4) primarily coarse substrates, such as cobbles and pebbles; (5) streamside vegetation comprised of predominantly coniferous overstories, and plant species associated with uplands or dry site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site conditions, such as red alder, oxalis, red huckleberry, and vine maple (Steinblums et al. 1984, Bilby 1988); and (6) low to moderate densities of large wood, mostly moderately- and well-decayed. Study streams in young forest appeared to dry about one to two months later than the streams in old growth but had similar annual flow durations. They also were characterized by higher daily stream temperatures, similar diel fluctuations, finer substrates, more deciduous overstory and herbaceous understory cover, and lower densities of moderately-decayed large wood. Differences in habitat conditions between stand types may be attributed to timber harvesting as well as discrepancies in physiographic and geological factors, such as elevationgradient, and soil type. Amphibian communities in spring and summer were comprised primarily of the Cascade torrent salamander (Rhyacotriton cascadae), Dunn's salamander (Plethodon dunni), and Pacific giant salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus). Amphibian communities in streams in young forest stands exhibited different species composition and seasonal patterns in total density from those in old growth. Cascade torrent salamanders and Dunn's salamanders maintained similar densities and biomass between spring and summer by potentially adopting drought avoidance strategies. Species differed in their use of habitat types and associations with habitat features. In general, amphibian species were positively correlated with percent surface flow, water depth, intermediate-sized substrates and negatively associated with overstory canopy cover, elevation, and wood cover. Results of my study suggest that intermittent streams may warrant protection for their potential effects on downstream habitat and water quality and for their role as habitat for aquatic species, such as amphibians. Streamside vegetation should be maintained along intermittent channels to provide shade protection for water temperature regulation and sources of large woody debris and other allochthonous energy input, to help stabilize slopes, and to minimize erosion and sedimentation. At a minimum, intermittent stream channels should receive protection from physical disturbance during timber harvesting operations. However, since intermittent stream systems are highly variable, management should address individual site conditions and vary accordingly. Title: Amphibian communities and physical characteristics of intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in western Oregon Author: Lee, Yu Man Intermittent, headwater streams recently have been recognized as important components of forest ecosystems and have been provided increased protection by the Northwest Forest Plan. However, few studies have examined their distribution, dynamics, and ecological roles, such as habitat for wildlife. My goal was to provide additional information on the ecology of intermittent streams in the Pacific Northwest. I examined and compared hydrologic, water quality, and physical characteristics of 16 intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in the central Cascade Range in western Oregon. I documented amphibian communities and habitat associations in these streams during spring and summer. I used comparisons of current habitat conditions and amphibian communities between stand types to gain insight into potential impacts of timber harvesting on these stream systems. Of the streams surveyed in old-growth and young forest stands, relatively few (23%) were designated as intermittent based on my definition which included presence of a definable channel, evidence of annual scour and deposition, and lack of surface flow along at least 90% of the stream length. Intermittent streams in old-growth stands exhibited the following characteristics: (1) annual flow pattern in which streams started to dry in May and June and were mostly dry by July; (2) lengthy annual flow durations (range 6-11 months); (3) cool and stable daily stream temperatures; (4) primarily coarse substrates, such as cobbles and pebbles; (5) streamside vegetation comprised of predominantly coniferous overstories, and plant species associated with uplands or dry site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site conditions, such as red alder, oxalis, red huckleberry, and vine maple (Steinblums et al. 1984, Bilby 1988); and (6) low to moderate densities of large wood, mostly moderately- and well-decayed. Study streams in young forest appeared to dry about one to two months later than the streams in old growth but had similar annual flow durations. They also were characterized by higher daily stream temperatures, similar diel fluctuations, finer substrates, more deciduous overstory and herbaceous understory cover, and lower densities of moderately-decayed large wood. Differences in habitat conditions between stand types may be attributed to timber harvesting as well as discrepancies in physiographic and geological factors, such as elevationgradient, and soil type. Amphibian communities in spring and summer were comprised primarily of the Cascade torrent salamander (Rhyacotriton cascadae), Dunn's salamander (Plethodon dunni), and Pacific giant salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus). Amphibian communities in streams in young forest stands exhibited different species composition and seasonal patterns in total density from those in old growth. Cascade torrent salamanders and Dunn's salamanders maintained similar densities and biomass between spring and summer by potentially adopting drought avoidance strategies. Species differed in their use of habitat types and associations with habitat features. In general, amphibian species were positively correlated with percent surface flow, water depth, intermediate-sized substrates and negatively associated with overstory canopy cover, elevation, and wood cover. Results of my study suggest that intermittent streams may warrant protection for their potential effects on downstream habitat and water quality and for their role as habitat for aquatic species, such as amphibians. Streamside vegetation should be maintained along intermittent channels to provide shade protection for water temperature regulation and sources of large woody debris and other allochthonous energy input, to help stabilize slopes, and to minimize erosion and sedimentation. At a minimum, intermittent stream channels should receive protection from physical disturbance during timber harvesting operations. However, since intermittent stream systems are highly variable, management should address individual site conditions and vary accordingly. Close

• 354. [Image] Water rights in Oregon : an introduction to Oregon's water laws and water rights system

  	CONTENTS THE WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION AND DEPARTMENT 1c "To serve the public by practicing and promoting wise long-term water management. " 1.¨REGON WATER LAWS 22 water management in Oregon 2.°ATER PROTECTIONS ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water rights in Oregon : an introduction to Oregon's water laws and water rights system Author: Oregon. Water Resources Dept. Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS THE WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION AND DEPARTMENT 1c "To serve the public by practicing and promoting wise long-term water management. " 1.¨REGON WATER LAWS 22 water management in Oregon 2.°ATER PROTECTIONS AND RESTRICTIONS 262011 managing water appropriations 3.¨BTAINING NEW WATER RIGHTS 185 gaining authorization to use water 4.¨THER WATER RIGHTS 197 authorization for water use 5.­RANSFERRING WATER RIGHTS 1c1 existing rights for new uses 6.SANCELLING WATER RIGHTS 1c5 loss of water rights through non-use 7.SONSERVATION 1c8 encouraging efficient water use 8.xINDING WATER RIGHTS 1d1 determining if you have a water right 9.°ATER DISTRIBUTION AND ENFORCEMENT 1d2 watermasters and field staff protecting rights and resources 10.«EGION OFFICES AND WATERMASTER DISTRICTS 1d4 11.xEES 1d6 APPENDIX A 1d7 other development permits WATER RIGHTS IN OREGON Title: Water rights in Oregon : an introduction to Oregon's water laws and water rights system Author: Oregon. Water Resources Dept. Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS THE WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION AND DEPARTMENT 1c "To serve the public by practicing and promoting wise long-term water management. " 1.¨REGON WATER LAWS 22 water management in Oregon 2.°ATER PROTECTIONS AND RESTRICTIONS 262011 managing water appropriations 3.¨BTAINING NEW WATER RIGHTS 185 gaining authorization to use water 4.¨THER WATER RIGHTS 197 authorization for water use 5.­RANSFERRING WATER RIGHTS 1c1 existing rights for new uses 6.SANCELLING WATER RIGHTS 1c5 loss of water rights through non-use 7.SONSERVATION 1c8 encouraging efficient water use 8.xINDING WATER RIGHTS 1d1 determining if you have a water right 9.°ATER DISTRIBUTION AND ENFORCEMENT 1d2 watermasters and field staff protecting rights and resources 10.«EGION OFFICES AND WATERMASTER DISTRICTS 1d4 11.xEES 1d6 APPENDIX A 1d7 other development permits WATER RIGHTS IN OREGON Close

• 355. [Article] Remediation of atrazine in irrigation runoff by a constructed wetland

  Due to its frequent use in agriculture and its frequent detection in surface water, atrazine was chosen as a model compound to study the treatment capability of a surface flow wetland used to remediate ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Remediation of atrazine in irrigation runoff by a constructed wetland Author: Runes, Heather B. Due to its frequent use in agriculture and its frequent detection in surface water, atrazine was chosen as a model compound to study the treatment capability of a surface flow wetland used to remediate irrigation runoff at a container nursery near Portland, Oregon. Further evaluation of treatment of atrazine was performed under controlled conditions using static wetland microcosms. The potential to enhance microbial degradation of atrazine in the constructed wetland was investigated using bioaugmentation with an atrazine spill-site soil containing a large population of atrazine-degrading microorganisms. For the first five field experiments conducted in 1998 and 1999, the percent atrazine recovered at the outlet of the constructed wetland during a 7-d period ranged from 16 to 24% and several degradation products (deethylatrazine (DEA), deisopropylatrazine (DIA)) were detected in runoff water. Changes in total flow or frequency and intensity of runoff events did not affect treatment. However, for a sixth experiment, when runoff events were longer in duration treatment was compromised. Static water-sediment column experiments suggested that sorption is an important mechanism for atrazine loss from water passing through the constructed wetland. Less than 12% of the atrazine applied to static wetland microcosms remained in the water column after 56 d. Atrazine degradates were observed in water and sediment, with hydroxyatrazine (HA) the predominant degradate. The presence of a large population of atrazinedegrading organisms was not observed in wetland sediment, suggesting that microbial degradation of atrazine in the constructed wetland was inconsequential. Wetland sediment bioaugmented with spill-site soil (1: 100 w/w) was shown to rapidly degrade 30% of atrazine added, and most probable number (MPN) assays confirmed growth of microorganisms in bioaugmented wetland sediment. Enhanced atrazine degradation using bioaugmentation into static wetland microcosms was successful when atrazine treatment in the water column of microcosms was employed. Results of these studies indicated that this constructed wetland effectively reduced overall atrazine concentration in irrigation runoff by sorption, abiotic degradation, and possibly by plant uptake. Due to the limited presence of atrazine-degrading microorganisms in wetland sediment, bioaugmentation provides the best opportunity for enhancing microbial degradation of atrazine in sediment in this wetland system. Title: Remediation of atrazine in irrigation runoff by a constructed wetland Author: Runes, Heather B. Due to its frequent use in agriculture and its frequent detection in surface water, atrazine was chosen as a model compound to study the treatment capability of a surface flow wetland used to remediate irrigation runoff at a container nursery near Portland, Oregon. Further evaluation of treatment of atrazine was performed under controlled conditions using static wetland microcosms. The potential to enhance microbial degradation of atrazine in the constructed wetland was investigated using bioaugmentation with an atrazine spill-site soil containing a large population of atrazine-degrading microorganisms. For the first five field experiments conducted in 1998 and 1999, the percent atrazine recovered at the outlet of the constructed wetland during a 7-d period ranged from 16 to 24% and several degradation products (deethylatrazine (DEA), deisopropylatrazine (DIA)) were detected in runoff water. Changes in total flow or frequency and intensity of runoff events did not affect treatment. However, for a sixth experiment, when runoff events were longer in duration treatment was compromised. Static water-sediment column experiments suggested that sorption is an important mechanism for atrazine loss from water passing through the constructed wetland. Less than 12% of the atrazine applied to static wetland microcosms remained in the water column after 56 d. Atrazine degradates were observed in water and sediment, with hydroxyatrazine (HA) the predominant degradate. The presence of a large population of atrazinedegrading organisms was not observed in wetland sediment, suggesting that microbial degradation of atrazine in the constructed wetland was inconsequential. Wetland sediment bioaugmented with spill-site soil (1: 100 w/w) was shown to rapidly degrade 30% of atrazine added, and most probable number (MPN) assays confirmed growth of microorganisms in bioaugmented wetland sediment. Enhanced atrazine degradation using bioaugmentation into static wetland microcosms was successful when atrazine treatment in the water column of microcosms was employed. Results of these studies indicated that this constructed wetland effectively reduced overall atrazine concentration in irrigation runoff by sorption, abiotic degradation, and possibly by plant uptake. Due to the limited presence of atrazine-degrading microorganisms in wetland sediment, bioaugmentation provides the best opportunity for enhancing microbial degradation of atrazine in sediment in this wetland system. Close

• 356. [Article] Aircraft washrack wastes : their characteristics and treatment

  Oils, greases, and grit which collect on an aircraft during flight are removed on the U. S. Air Force washracks using an alkaline, water-base cleaner. Waste-flows from these washracks may include in addition ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Aircraft washrack wastes : their characteristics and treatment Author: Evans, David Roland Oils, greases, and grit which collect on an aircraft during flight are removed on the U. S. Air Force washracks using an alkaline, water-base cleaner. Waste-flows from these washracks may include in addition to free oils, emulsified oils, and alkaline, water-base cleaners several other constituents such as acid skin brightners, paint stripping solvents, paint scrapings, and volatile cleaning solvents. A study of aircraft washrack waste characteristics and treatment methods is presented in this thesis. The first section is a review of available literature including past experimental analysis. A survey of current washrack installations and treatment facilities at 65 Air Force bases in the United States forms the second section. The final section of this thesis contains an experimental analysis of the washrack wastes and the treatment facility at Portland AFB, Oregon. Oil concentration, five-day BOD., suspended solids, total solids, and effluent over-flow are used to measure the waste characteristics and flow and to determine the efficiency of a gravity oil separator at the Portland base. A testing procedure for determining oil concentrations is developed. Tests of the inflow and outflow of the gravity oil separator showed the following ranges. Waste Characteristics: 5-day BOD. (mg/1), Oil Content (mg/1), Suspended Solids (mg/1), Total Solids (mg/1) Influent: 530 - 3,300, 1,450 - 6,400, 34 - 270, 690 - 2,400 Effluent: 350 - 1,250, 240 - 1,130, 28 - 80, 500 - 2,070 The conclusions drawn from the test results are as follows: 1. An acclimated seed was required for the five-day BOD. test of aircraft washrack wastes. 2. For oil concentrations in washrack wastes, the testing procedure presented in this thesis measured oil concentrations with an error of less than four percent. 3. The gravity oil separator at the Portland AFB provided an average BOD. reduction of 37 percent and an oil removal of 70 percent. 4. The effluent from the gravity oil separator contained only emulsified oils. 5. The average oil content of the treated effluent was 589 ppm. This value greatly exceeded the general limit of 30 ppm, established by states which had oil concentration standards. 6. An average of 410 gallons of water was required to wash a C-119 aircraft at Portland AFB. Title: Aircraft washrack wastes : their characteristics and treatment Author: Evans, David Roland Oils, greases, and grit which collect on an aircraft during flight are removed on the U. S. Air Force washracks using an alkaline, water-base cleaner. Waste-flows from these washracks may include in addition to free oils, emulsified oils, and alkaline, water-base cleaners several other constituents such as acid skin brightners, paint stripping solvents, paint scrapings, and volatile cleaning solvents. A study of aircraft washrack waste characteristics and treatment methods is presented in this thesis. The first section is a review of available literature including past experimental analysis. A survey of current washrack installations and treatment facilities at 65 Air Force bases in the United States forms the second section. The final section of this thesis contains an experimental analysis of the washrack wastes and the treatment facility at Portland AFB, Oregon. Oil concentration, five-day BOD., suspended solids, total solids, and effluent over-flow are used to measure the waste characteristics and flow and to determine the efficiency of a gravity oil separator at the Portland base. A testing procedure for determining oil concentrations is developed. Tests of the inflow and outflow of the gravity oil separator showed the following ranges. Waste Characteristics: 5-day BOD. (mg/1), Oil Content (mg/1), Suspended Solids (mg/1), Total Solids (mg/1) Influent: 530 - 3,300, 1,450 - 6,400, 34 - 270, 690 - 2,400 Effluent: 350 - 1,250, 240 - 1,130, 28 - 80, 500 - 2,070 The conclusions drawn from the test results are as follows: 1. An acclimated seed was required for the five-day BOD. test of aircraft washrack wastes. 2. For oil concentrations in washrack wastes, the testing procedure presented in this thesis measured oil concentrations with an error of less than four percent. 3. The gravity oil separator at the Portland AFB provided an average BOD. reduction of 37 percent and an oil removal of 70 percent. 4. The effluent from the gravity oil separator contained only emulsified oils. 5. The average oil content of the treated effluent was 589 ppm. This value greatly exceeded the general limit of 30 ppm, established by states which had oil concentration standards. 6. An average of 410 gallons of water was required to wash a C-119 aircraft at Portland AFB. Close

• 357. [Article] Ecology of Corydalis aquae-gelidae, a rare riparian plant

  Corydalis aquae-gelidae is a large herbaceous perennial in the Fumariaceae that has high habitat specificity. It is endemic to the western Cascade Range of Oregon and Washington, almost entirely on the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Ecology of Corydalis aquae-gelidae, a rare riparian plant Author: Goldenberg, Douglas M. Corydalis aquae-gelidae is a large herbaceous perennial in the Fumariaceae that has high habitat specificity. It is endemic to the western Cascade Range of Oregon and Washington, almost entirely on the Mt. Hood and Gifford Pinchot National Forests. It is a federal C2 candidate under the Endangered Species Act and a Forest Service sensitive species. This study included a niche analysis, i.e., defining the levels of environmental factors where Corydalis aquaegelidae grew, and relating its abundance to environmental variation, using data from the southwestern Mt. Hood National Forest. Corydalis grew in relatively cool habitats (between late June and early September, diurnal means were 17.7°C for air temperature, 9.7°C for water temperature, and 10.6°C tor substrate temperature). Elevations were from 460 to 1300 m, on streams from headwaters to the fifth order Clackamas River. The stream reaches occupied by Corydalis had relatively small seasonal fluctuations in flow. An estimated 90% of the plants on the Oak Grove Fork were submerged yearly, and about 75% of the plants were between average summer low water level and winter high water level. The abundance of Corydalis aquae-gelidae was modeled using principal components analysis, resulting in a reproduction index (based on the number of seedlings and juveniles) and a biomass index (from the number of adults, their average leaf numbers and height, and percent cover). The abundance of Corydalis was greatest within 5 cm vertical distance below to 20 cm above the summer water levels, and within 150 cm horizontal distance to the water. Optimal water cover was within 10 to 30%. Abundance decreased with increasing organic material and fines (material <2mm) substrate cover. Optimal mineral and moss cover were 25 to 50% and 50 to 80% respectively. Abundance increased with increasing gravel and cobble cover. Abundance was suppressed where canopy cover was below 20%. GS substrates (gravel and coarse sand) were most favorable, followed by GX substrates (gravel and sand dominant, with other materials), then LX substrates (soil or mud dominant). Emergence from seeds and rootstocks occurred in late May and early June. Plants farther from the water flowered later than those closer to or in the water. Senescence occurred in late August to mid-September. Temperature differences and phenological state differences were generally greater within sites than across the elevational gradient. Corydalis aquae-gelidae seeds required 6 to 7 months of stratification before germination in the laboratory. Under lab conditions, cold substrates (less than 5.8°C AM low, 12.6°C PM high) reduced growth of Senecio triangularis seedlings, but not of Corydalis. Corydalis seedlings grew as rapidly in a greenhouse as in the field, but warmer, drier treatments produced less rapid growth than cool treatments with saturated substrates. Corydalis aquae-gelidae had relatively high allocation to roots, and slightly below average reproductive allocation, compared to data for other herbaceous species in the literature, including species from the same region. Development was slow; an estimated 8 years were required for reproductive maturity. Using a growth model and growth stage data from the field, a population age structure was hypothesized. Based on this age structure, Corydalis reproduction appeared to be adequate for population maintenance. Seed dispersal was mainly by explosive dehiscence and flowing water. Corydalis aquae-gelidae was pollinated by bumblebees (Apidae). VA mycorrhizae were present but infrequent in the juveniles and seedlings investigated. Slugs were the most frequent cause of herbivore damage. Downy mildew (Peronospora) occurred at relatively low elevations and under relatively low canopy cover. Both competition with and niche differentiation among streamside species were thought to occur. Corydalis aquae-gelidae appeared to be a relatively late-successional plant. The range of Corydalis aquae-gelidae may be restricted by dispersal problems, rather than by unfavorable environments, as apparently suitable habitat existed beyond its range. Timber harvest and road building have damaged Corydalis aquae-gelidae populations through direct physical disturbance and habitat degradation. Water diversion for the Stone Creek Hydropower Project should lead to loss of plants from the large Oak Grove Fork populations through drought and other habitat changes. Fisheries habitat improvement projects and grazing may also threaten Corydalis populations. Title: Ecology of Corydalis aquae-gelidae, a rare riparian plant Author: Goldenberg, Douglas M. Corydalis aquae-gelidae is a large herbaceous perennial in the Fumariaceae that has high habitat specificity. It is endemic to the western Cascade Range of Oregon and Washington, almost entirely on the Mt. Hood and Gifford Pinchot National Forests. It is a federal C2 candidate under the Endangered Species Act and a Forest Service sensitive species. This study included a niche analysis, i.e., defining the levels of environmental factors where Corydalis aquaegelidae grew, and relating its abundance to environmental variation, using data from the southwestern Mt. Hood National Forest. Corydalis grew in relatively cool habitats (between late June and early September, diurnal means were 17.7°C for air temperature, 9.7°C for water temperature, and 10.6°C tor substrate temperature). Elevations were from 460 to 1300 m, on streams from headwaters to the fifth order Clackamas River. The stream reaches occupied by Corydalis had relatively small seasonal fluctuations in flow. An estimated 90% of the plants on the Oak Grove Fork were submerged yearly, and about 75% of the plants were between average summer low water level and winter high water level. The abundance of Corydalis aquae-gelidae was modeled using principal components analysis, resulting in a reproduction index (based on the number of seedlings and juveniles) and a biomass index (from the number of adults, their average leaf numbers and height, and percent cover). The abundance of Corydalis was greatest within 5 cm vertical distance below to 20 cm above the summer water levels, and within 150 cm horizontal distance to the water. Optimal water cover was within 10 to 30%. Abundance decreased with increasing organic material and fines (material <2mm) substrate cover. Optimal mineral and moss cover were 25 to 50% and 50 to 80% respectively. Abundance increased with increasing gravel and cobble cover. Abundance was suppressed where canopy cover was below 20%. GS substrates (gravel and coarse sand) were most favorable, followed by GX substrates (gravel and sand dominant, with other materials), then LX substrates (soil or mud dominant). Emergence from seeds and rootstocks occurred in late May and early June. Plants farther from the water flowered later than those closer to or in the water. Senescence occurred in late August to mid-September. Temperature differences and phenological state differences were generally greater within sites than across the elevational gradient. Corydalis aquae-gelidae seeds required 6 to 7 months of stratification before germination in the laboratory. Under lab conditions, cold substrates (less than 5.8°C AM low, 12.6°C PM high) reduced growth of Senecio triangularis seedlings, but not of Corydalis. Corydalis seedlings grew as rapidly in a greenhouse as in the field, but warmer, drier treatments produced less rapid growth than cool treatments with saturated substrates. Corydalis aquae-gelidae had relatively high allocation to roots, and slightly below average reproductive allocation, compared to data for other herbaceous species in the literature, including species from the same region. Development was slow; an estimated 8 years were required for reproductive maturity. Using a growth model and growth stage data from the field, a population age structure was hypothesized. Based on this age structure, Corydalis reproduction appeared to be adequate for population maintenance. Seed dispersal was mainly by explosive dehiscence and flowing water. Corydalis aquae-gelidae was pollinated by bumblebees (Apidae). VA mycorrhizae were present but infrequent in the juveniles and seedlings investigated. Slugs were the most frequent cause of herbivore damage. Downy mildew (Peronospora) occurred at relatively low elevations and under relatively low canopy cover. Both competition with and niche differentiation among streamside species were thought to occur. Corydalis aquae-gelidae appeared to be a relatively late-successional plant. The range of Corydalis aquae-gelidae may be restricted by dispersal problems, rather than by unfavorable environments, as apparently suitable habitat existed beyond its range. Timber harvest and road building have damaged Corydalis aquae-gelidae populations through direct physical disturbance and habitat degradation. Water diversion for the Stone Creek Hydropower Project should lead to loss of plants from the large Oak Grove Fork populations through drought and other habitat changes. Fisheries habitat improvement projects and grazing may also threaten Corydalis populations. Close

• 358. [Article] Reaeration in a turbulent stream system

  The oxygen concentration in a stream is an important parameter of water quality. Changes in oxygen concentrations can affect various stream organisms including fish. Foresters have become concerned with ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Reaeration in a turbulent stream system Author: Ice, George G. The oxygen concentration in a stream is an important parameter of water quality. Changes in oxygen concentrations can affect various stream organisms including fish. Foresters have become concerned with predicting the impacts of forest activities on oxygen levels in streams. Slash, which accumulates in streams as a result of harvesting activities, is a food source for stream organisms. During aerobic respiration, oxygen is utilized. Under some conditions the oxygen concentration can be depleted below acceptable levels. Large, fish bearing streams are generally well protected by forest practice regulations. For smaller streams without fish populations, the issue is one of downstream impairment of water quality as deoxygenated water enters fish-bearing reaches. A natural process counteracting oxygen depletion is reaeration. Reaeration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and water. This process operates to maintain oxygen near the saturation concentration. The change in the oxygen deficit in a stream is a function of the existing deficit and the reaeration rate coefficient. The objective of this study was to develop a predictive equation for the reaeration rate coefficient based on the hydraulic characteristics of stream channels. This is a a first step in developing guidelines to regulate harvesting residues in streams. Seven natural stream sites were selected in Oregon. These sites represented a wide range of hydraulic conditions. The stream reaches were segregated into segments of uniform hydraulic characteristics. Sodium sulfite was injected into the stream to artificially deplete the oxygen concentration. The recovery of the oxygen concentration was used to determine the reaeration rate coefficient. Several models for the reaeration process were tested using regression techniques. Some were models proposed by other investigators and some were developed independently. The predictive equation which fit the data best is a function of the maximum unit energy dissipation rate (ED) and a depth parameter (HD): [equation-see PDF] This equation is consistent with theoretical descriptions of gas exchange phenomena. As the rate of energy dissipation increases in a segment, the turbulence in the segment also increases. Turbulence promotes an increase in the liquid-atmosphere interface area and in the exchange rate of volume elements in the interface. Reaeration is stimulated when deaerated water from the bulk flow of the stream replaces the oxygen saturated water in the surface film. As the area of liquid-atmosphere contact increases, the total flux of oxygen molecules into the depleted fluid volume increases. As the fluid volume increases, the change in concentration for a specific flux of molecules decreases. The depth term (HD) can be used to describe the ratio of the surface area to the volume of fluid in the segment. In this study, the depth term used was the discharge divided by the mean width and maximum velocity. This approach adjusts for dead zones that do not actively mix with the bulk flow. For field applications, predicting the reaeration coefficient for any temperature (T) requires that the slope (s), active width (WD), maximum velocity (UD), and discharge (Q), be measured for uniform stream segments. These variables are combined in the following equation: [equation- see PDF] Using the predicted reaeration rates, estimates of mean segment velocities, biochemical oxygen demand loading, and rates of oxygen demand decay, it is possible to predict the oxygen concentration of a stream moving through and downstream from a harvesting site. The reaeration rate influences the maximum deficit and time required for recovery and can be used to evaluate the risks that debris accumulations pose to water quality. Title: Reaeration in a turbulent stream system Author: Ice, George G. The oxygen concentration in a stream is an important parameter of water quality. Changes in oxygen concentrations can affect various stream organisms including fish. Foresters have become concerned with predicting the impacts of forest activities on oxygen levels in streams. Slash, which accumulates in streams as a result of harvesting activities, is a food source for stream organisms. During aerobic respiration, oxygen is utilized. Under some conditions the oxygen concentration can be depleted below acceptable levels. Large, fish bearing streams are generally well protected by forest practice regulations. For smaller streams without fish populations, the issue is one of downstream impairment of water quality as deoxygenated water enters fish-bearing reaches. A natural process counteracting oxygen depletion is reaeration. Reaeration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and water. This process operates to maintain oxygen near the saturation concentration. The change in the oxygen deficit in a stream is a function of the existing deficit and the reaeration rate coefficient. The objective of this study was to develop a predictive equation for the reaeration rate coefficient based on the hydraulic characteristics of stream channels. This is a a first step in developing guidelines to regulate harvesting residues in streams. Seven natural stream sites were selected in Oregon. These sites represented a wide range of hydraulic conditions. The stream reaches were segregated into segments of uniform hydraulic characteristics. Sodium sulfite was injected into the stream to artificially deplete the oxygen concentration. The recovery of the oxygen concentration was used to determine the reaeration rate coefficient. Several models for the reaeration process were tested using regression techniques. Some were models proposed by other investigators and some were developed independently. The predictive equation which fit the data best is a function of the maximum unit energy dissipation rate (ED) and a depth parameter (HD): [equation-see PDF] This equation is consistent with theoretical descriptions of gas exchange phenomena. As the rate of energy dissipation increases in a segment, the turbulence in the segment also increases. Turbulence promotes an increase in the liquid-atmosphere interface area and in the exchange rate of volume elements in the interface. Reaeration is stimulated when deaerated water from the bulk flow of the stream replaces the oxygen saturated water in the surface film. As the area of liquid-atmosphere contact increases, the total flux of oxygen molecules into the depleted fluid volume increases. As the fluid volume increases, the change in concentration for a specific flux of molecules decreases. The depth term (HD) can be used to describe the ratio of the surface area to the volume of fluid in the segment. In this study, the depth term used was the discharge divided by the mean width and maximum velocity. This approach adjusts for dead zones that do not actively mix with the bulk flow. For field applications, predicting the reaeration coefficient for any temperature (T) requires that the slope (s), active width (WD), maximum velocity (UD), and discharge (Q), be measured for uniform stream segments. These variables are combined in the following equation: [equation- see PDF] Using the predicted reaeration rates, estimates of mean segment velocities, biochemical oxygen demand loading, and rates of oxygen demand decay, it is possible to predict the oxygen concentration of a stream moving through and downstream from a harvesting site. The reaeration rate influences the maximum deficit and time required for recovery and can be used to evaluate the risks that debris accumulations pose to water quality. Close

• 359. [Article] Structural and physiological changes with stand age : use of a process-based model to compare carbon and water fluxes in young and old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest stands

  Many studies have shown that net primary production in old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forests is lower than in younger forests in similar sites, although the cause is still not clear. One possibility ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Structural and physiological changes with stand age : use of a process-based model to compare carbon and water fluxes in young and old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest stands Author: Licata, Julian A. Many studies have shown that net primary production in old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forests is lower than in younger forests in similar sites, although the cause is still not clear. One possibility is that overall carbon assimilation, or GPP, is lower in older forests. However, it is difficult to measure GPP on an ecosystem scale, particularly in complex terrain where approaches such as eddy covariance are not possible. One approach is to use process models, although care must be taken to ensure that the model adequately represents "reality". I used a detailed soil-plant-atmosphere (SPA) continuum model, which explicitly links CO2 and H2O fluxes through stomatal conductance. The SPA model has mLlltiple canopy and soil layers where the hydraulic system is modeled as analogue to an electrical circuit. The model accounts for many structural and physiological differences in the stands. I carefully calibrated the model to accurately represent transpiration in a young (ca 25 years old) and an old-growth (ca 450 years old) Douglas-fir/western hemlock stands at Wind River, WA, based on detailed measurements of soil water depletion and sap flow and then used the model to predict variation in GPP among the sites. The modeling approach of this study allowed me to perform sensitivity tests to examine the likely influence of individual structural and physiological parameters on transpiration and GPP. The variables tested were height, above ground leaf specific conductivity, capacitance, leaf area and root vertical distribution, minimum mid-day water potential, canopy water storage, rain interception, root resistivity, and photosynthetic capacity. Within the natural range of variation of these variables, the most influential of these on GPP and Transpiration was height, followed by above ground leaf specific conductivity, and minimum mid-day water potential. By identifying the sensitivity of water and carbon fluxes to the range of natural variation found in these variables, it was possible to examine the likelihood of various hypotheses proposed to explain the age-related decline in productivity. Finally, I modified the model software in order to improve its versatility and make it available to other researchers for use in additional types of forests. Title: Structural and physiological changes with stand age : use of a process-based model to compare carbon and water fluxes in young and old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest stands Author: Licata, Julian A. Many studies have shown that net primary production in old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forests is lower than in younger forests in similar sites, although the cause is still not clear. One possibility is that overall carbon assimilation, or GPP, is lower in older forests. However, it is difficult to measure GPP on an ecosystem scale, particularly in complex terrain where approaches such as eddy covariance are not possible. One approach is to use process models, although care must be taken to ensure that the model adequately represents "reality". I used a detailed soil-plant-atmosphere (SPA) continuum model, which explicitly links CO2 and H2O fluxes through stomatal conductance. The SPA model has mLlltiple canopy and soil layers where the hydraulic system is modeled as analogue to an electrical circuit. The model accounts for many structural and physiological differences in the stands. I carefully calibrated the model to accurately represent transpiration in a young (ca 25 years old) and an old-growth (ca 450 years old) Douglas-fir/western hemlock stands at Wind River, WA, based on detailed measurements of soil water depletion and sap flow and then used the model to predict variation in GPP among the sites. The modeling approach of this study allowed me to perform sensitivity tests to examine the likely influence of individual structural and physiological parameters on transpiration and GPP. The variables tested were height, above ground leaf specific conductivity, capacitance, leaf area and root vertical distribution, minimum mid-day water potential, canopy water storage, rain interception, root resistivity, and photosynthetic capacity. Within the natural range of variation of these variables, the most influential of these on GPP and Transpiration was height, followed by above ground leaf specific conductivity, and minimum mid-day water potential. By identifying the sensitivity of water and carbon fluxes to the range of natural variation found in these variables, it was possible to examine the likelihood of various hypotheses proposed to explain the age-related decline in productivity. Finally, I modified the model software in order to improve its versatility and make it available to other researchers for use in additional types of forests. Close

• 360. [Article] Interpolation Schemes for Two Dimensional Flow with Applications

  In this thesis we study a numerical analysis problem motivated by the need to simulate an event such as an oil spill in a deep water environment. Numerical simulation can help to mitigate the disastrous ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Interpolation Schemes for Two Dimensional Flow with Applications Author: Umhoefer, Joseph G. In this thesis we study a numerical analysis problem motivated by the need to simulate an event such as an oil spill in a deep water environment. Numerical simulation can help to mitigate the disastrous effects of such events by aiding the management of risk assessment and recovery efforts. However, an accurate simulation of the physical processes involved in the oil spill requires highly sophisticated and accurate numerical models. Equally important is that such a simulation needs to have accurate hydrodynamics data which may either come from observations or from some other computation simulator which predicts the flow of water near the area involved in the spill. In this thesis we discuss a particular technical problem involved with proper interpretation and use of hydrodynamic data. In numerical analysis, it is often necessary to approximate a given function or interpolate from discrete data. One may have discrete data from sampling or due to solving a partial differential equation at discrete points but require information between the nodes. The motivation for this investigation of interpolation on scattered data is to recreate a smooth function from hydrodynamic data. In other words, we will discuss algorithms that provide a smooth field from given discrete data. The Blowout and Spill Occurrence Model (BLOSOM) developed by the Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory models hydrocarbon release events from the sea floor to the final fate of the oil. The generated smooth field could be used in such a model, potentially improving the predicted outcomes. The errors in prediction of the fate of oil arise, of course, from multiple sources. We study the errors due to the interpolation scheme applied. One particular aspect is also associated with whether the interpolated velocities have non-physical characteristics, specifically whether the interpolated velocities are conservative, given that the true velocities are. Ultimately, we achieve good results using radial basis function interpolation, but the scale of the problem needs to be considered further, as the large data sets in use may make the problem intractable. Title: Interpolation Schemes for Two Dimensional Flow with Applications Author: Umhoefer, Joseph G. In this thesis we study a numerical analysis problem motivated by the need to simulate an event such as an oil spill in a deep water environment. Numerical simulation can help to mitigate the disastrous effects of such events by aiding the management of risk assessment and recovery efforts. However, an accurate simulation of the physical processes involved in the oil spill requires highly sophisticated and accurate numerical models. Equally important is that such a simulation needs to have accurate hydrodynamics data which may either come from observations or from some other computation simulator which predicts the flow of water near the area involved in the spill. In this thesis we discuss a particular technical problem involved with proper interpretation and use of hydrodynamic data. In numerical analysis, it is often necessary to approximate a given function or interpolate from discrete data. One may have discrete data from sampling or due to solving a partial differential equation at discrete points but require information between the nodes. The motivation for this investigation of interpolation on scattered data is to recreate a smooth function from hydrodynamic data. In other words, we will discuss algorithms that provide a smooth field from given discrete data. The Blowout and Spill Occurrence Model (BLOSOM) developed by the Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory models hydrocarbon release events from the sea floor to the final fate of the oil. The generated smooth field could be used in such a model, potentially improving the predicted outcomes. The errors in prediction of the fate of oil arise, of course, from multiple sources. We study the errors due to the interpolation scheme applied. One particular aspect is also associated with whether the interpolated velocities have non-physical characteristics, specifically whether the interpolated velocities are conservative, given that the true velocities are. Ultimately, we achieve good results using radial basis function interpolation, but the scale of the problem needs to be considered further, as the large data sets in use may make the problem intractable. Close

• 361. [Article] Biology and downstream drift of some Oregon Ephemeroptera

  Six species of Ephemeroptera were studied in two sample areas in Western Oregon: the Metolius River, Jefferson Co., and Oak Creek, Benton Co. The Metolius River is characterized by low fluctuations in ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biology and downstream drift of some Oregon Ephemeroptera Author: Lehmkuhl, Dennis Merle, 1942- Six species of Ephemeroptera were studied in two sample areas in Western Oregon: the Metolius River, Jefferson Co., and Oak Creek, Benton Co. The Metolius River is characterized by low fluctuations in flow and water temperatures (8-13 C); whereas, Oak Creek is characterized by large fluctuations in volume of flow (6X or more) due to winter rains and by high summer water temperatures (22 C). Keys or descriptions are presented for identifying the nymphs of all species and the adult females of Paraleptophlebia. Each sample area was divided into four biotopes, and each was sampled, alternate months in the Metolius River and monthly in Oak Creek, by using a stovepipe (6 in. dia.) and a fine meshed aquarium net. Drift samples were taken monthly in Oak Creek. Specimens were counted, measured for length, and divided into age groups ranging from newly hatched (Group I) to ultimate instar nymphs (Group V). All six species were found in both streams. Baetis bicaudatus Dodds had two generations per year in the Metolius River, but one per year in Oak Creek, In Oak Creek nymphs of the second generation may be killed by high summer temperatures, and the species survives the warm period in the egg stage. Baetis tricaudatus Dodds (Oak Creek only) had multiple but an undetermined number of generations per year. The cycles of Baetis parvus Dodds, Paraleptophlebia temporalis (McDunnough), and Cinygmula reticulata McDunnough were similar in both areas (one generation per year; hatching in fall, emergence in spring), but the period of adult emergence is shorter and earlier in Oak Creek. Paraleptophlebia debilis (Walker) (Oak Creek only) hatched in early spring and completed emergence by November (one generation per year). Beginning with the species that lived in slowest current and in silty substrate and proceeding to that which lived in fastest current, the sequence was: P. debilis, P. temporalis, B. parvus, C. reticulata, B. tricaudatus, and B. bicaudatus. All species were displaced to non-typical habitats during winter flooding (Nov. to Feb.). During flooding, density per unit area decreased 60%, but this was apparently due to increase in stream width, since the number per unit length of stream decreased only 20%. Drift rate was not directly correlated to habitat, since in Oct. and Nov., of three species found predominantly in the riffle, two were abundant in the benthos but scarce in drift, while the third species was scarce in the benthos but dominant in the drift. In the laboratory, drift rate could not be correlated with ability of a species to hold to the substrate, since the species with the least current resistance drifted little, while a species with great current resistance was dominant in the drift. The main effect of drift in Oak Creek was a temporary displacement of species from the chosen habitat. A conceptual model emphasizing additive components of drift is discussed. Title: Biology and downstream drift of some Oregon Ephemeroptera Author: Lehmkuhl, Dennis Merle, 1942- Six species of Ephemeroptera were studied in two sample areas in Western Oregon: the Metolius River, Jefferson Co., and Oak Creek, Benton Co. The Metolius River is characterized by low fluctuations in flow and water temperatures (8-13 C); whereas, Oak Creek is characterized by large fluctuations in volume of flow (6X or more) due to winter rains and by high summer water temperatures (22 C). Keys or descriptions are presented for identifying the nymphs of all species and the adult females of Paraleptophlebia. Each sample area was divided into four biotopes, and each was sampled, alternate months in the Metolius River and monthly in Oak Creek, by using a stovepipe (6 in. dia.) and a fine meshed aquarium net. Drift samples were taken monthly in Oak Creek. Specimens were counted, measured for length, and divided into age groups ranging from newly hatched (Group I) to ultimate instar nymphs (Group V). All six species were found in both streams. Baetis bicaudatus Dodds had two generations per year in the Metolius River, but one per year in Oak Creek, In Oak Creek nymphs of the second generation may be killed by high summer temperatures, and the species survives the warm period in the egg stage. Baetis tricaudatus Dodds (Oak Creek only) had multiple but an undetermined number of generations per year. The cycles of Baetis parvus Dodds, Paraleptophlebia temporalis (McDunnough), and Cinygmula reticulata McDunnough were similar in both areas (one generation per year; hatching in fall, emergence in spring), but the period of adult emergence is shorter and earlier in Oak Creek. Paraleptophlebia debilis (Walker) (Oak Creek only) hatched in early spring and completed emergence by November (one generation per year). Beginning with the species that lived in slowest current and in silty substrate and proceeding to that which lived in fastest current, the sequence was: P. debilis, P. temporalis, B. parvus, C. reticulata, B. tricaudatus, and B. bicaudatus. All species were displaced to non-typical habitats during winter flooding (Nov. to Feb.). During flooding, density per unit area decreased 60%, but this was apparently due to increase in stream width, since the number per unit length of stream decreased only 20%. Drift rate was not directly correlated to habitat, since in Oct. and Nov., of three species found predominantly in the riffle, two were abundant in the benthos but scarce in drift, while the third species was scarce in the benthos but dominant in the drift. In the laboratory, drift rate could not be correlated with ability of a species to hold to the substrate, since the species with the least current resistance drifted little, while a species with great current resistance was dominant in the drift. The main effect of drift in Oak Creek was a temporary displacement of species from the chosen habitat. A conceptual model emphasizing additive components of drift is discussed. Close

• 362. [Article] Bioactive Microbial Natural Products from Unique Indonesian Black Water Ecosystems

  The discovery of new antibiotics reached its peak during the golden era of antibiotics in the mid 20th century and continued to thrive until the 1980s. However, after more than 50 years of fruitful exploration ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Bioactive Microbial Natural Products from Unique Indonesian Black Water Ecosystems Author: Sheng, Yan The discovery of new antibiotics reached its peak during the golden era of antibiotics in the mid 20th century and continued to thrive until the 1980s. However, after more than 50 years of fruitful exploration and exploitation of microbial natural products the discovery rate of new antibiotics has dropped drastically in recent decades. On the other hand, known compounds were re-discovered again and again, possibly from related producing organisms, making natural products discovery an expensive and time-consuming endeavor. Therefore, in recent years, efforts for discovering new natural products have been redirected towards organisms from unique and untapped areas of the globe with remarkable biodiversity potential and/or extreme environment, such as deep-sea vents, caves, and other unusual ecosystems. This dissertation describes our efforts to discover new bioactive natural products from microorganisms isolated from a unique black water ecosystem in Indonesia. Indonesia is recognized as a major center in the world for biodiversity and is one of the countries with the highest level of endemic species and microorganisms that live in its various ecosystems. Among them are the black-water rivers, which flow in the steamy jungles of islands along the Indonesian archipelago, providing unique environments for its flora and fauna. In collaboration with scientists at the Indonesian Center for Biodiversity and Biotechnology (ICBB), we investigated bioactive secondary metabolites of microorganisms from the soil samples of a black water ecosystem on Borneo Island, Indonesia. 16S rRNA sequence analysis was used for the identification of the bacteria, and from 141 bacterial strains investigated, 77% were Streptomyces, 6% were non-Streptomyces actinomycetes, and 17% were non-actinomycete strains. About one third of the strains were screened for their bioactive secondary metabolites production. The EtOAc and n-BuOH extracts of the culture broths of the bacteria were subjected to antibacterial and antifungal assays, as well as mass spectrometry analysis. More than half of the screened Streptomyces (18 out of 24) showed activities against one or more pathogenic microorganisms, whereas only 2 out of 14 of the non-actinomycete strains showed antibacterial activities. Furthermore, chemical screening of 9 non-Streptomyces actinomycetes revealed that 3 strains, all of which are Amycolatopsis spp., produce the anticancer agents the apoptolidins. Chemical investigation of the strain Streptomyces albiflaviniger ICBB 9297 delivered four new elaiophylin-like macrolides and five known elaiophylins. The new compounds have macrocyclic skeletons distinct from those of the known elaiophylins, in which one or both of the dimeric polyketide chains contain(s) an additional pendant methyl group. However, they showed comparable antibacterial activity to elaiophylin against Staphylococcus aureus. Interestingly, those with the additional pendant methyl group on only one of the polyketide chains showed significantly increased activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis, whereas the one with two additional methyl groups and the known elaiophylin analogues showed no activity. The production of the new analogues suggests that the last acyltrasferase (AT) domain of the elaiophylin polyketide synthases has relaxed substrate specificity. Bioinfomatic analysis of the conserved active site residues within the AT domains revealed an unusual amino acid sequence of the active site motif in the AT7 domain. Investigations of the apoptolidin producer Amycolatopsis sp. ICBB 8242 led to the discovery of two succinylated apoptolidin analogues and linear apoptolidin A. The two succinylated compounds can inhibit the proliferation and viability of human H292 and HeLa cells. However, in contrast to apoptolidin A, they do not inhibit cellular respiration in H292 cells. This seemingly contradictory results may be due to an alternative biological mechanism of action or due to degradation of succinyl-apoptolidin A to apoptolidin A in the cell viability assay. This hydrolysis may not occur during the real time analysis of cellular respiration, which was performed in a relatively short experimental time. The production of succinylated apoptolidins by Amycolatopsis sp. ICBB 8242 suggests that succinylation may play a role in self-resistance and/or as an export mechanism. Title: Bioactive Microbial Natural Products from Unique Indonesian Black Water Ecosystems Author: Sheng, Yan The discovery of new antibiotics reached its peak during the golden era of antibiotics in the mid 20th century and continued to thrive until the 1980s. However, after more than 50 years of fruitful exploration and exploitation of microbial natural products the discovery rate of new antibiotics has dropped drastically in recent decades. On the other hand, known compounds were re-discovered again and again, possibly from related producing organisms, making natural products discovery an expensive and time-consuming endeavor. Therefore, in recent years, efforts for discovering new natural products have been redirected towards organisms from unique and untapped areas of the globe with remarkable biodiversity potential and/or extreme environment, such as deep-sea vents, caves, and other unusual ecosystems. This dissertation describes our efforts to discover new bioactive natural products from microorganisms isolated from a unique black water ecosystem in Indonesia. Indonesia is recognized as a major center in the world for biodiversity and is one of the countries with the highest level of endemic species and microorganisms that live in its various ecosystems. Among them are the black-water rivers, which flow in the steamy jungles of islands along the Indonesian archipelago, providing unique environments for its flora and fauna. In collaboration with scientists at the Indonesian Center for Biodiversity and Biotechnology (ICBB), we investigated bioactive secondary metabolites of microorganisms from the soil samples of a black water ecosystem on Borneo Island, Indonesia. 16S rRNA sequence analysis was used for the identification of the bacteria, and from 141 bacterial strains investigated, 77% were Streptomyces, 6% were non-Streptomyces actinomycetes, and 17% were non-actinomycete strains. About one third of the strains were screened for their bioactive secondary metabolites production. The EtOAc and n-BuOH extracts of the culture broths of the bacteria were subjected to antibacterial and antifungal assays, as well as mass spectrometry analysis. More than half of the screened Streptomyces (18 out of 24) showed activities against one or more pathogenic microorganisms, whereas only 2 out of 14 of the non-actinomycete strains showed antibacterial activities. Furthermore, chemical screening of 9 non-Streptomyces actinomycetes revealed that 3 strains, all of which are Amycolatopsis spp., produce the anticancer agents the apoptolidins. Chemical investigation of the strain Streptomyces albiflaviniger ICBB 9297 delivered four new elaiophylin-like macrolides and five known elaiophylins. The new compounds have macrocyclic skeletons distinct from those of the known elaiophylins, in which one or both of the dimeric polyketide chains contain(s) an additional pendant methyl group. However, they showed comparable antibacterial activity to elaiophylin against Staphylococcus aureus. Interestingly, those with the additional pendant methyl group on only one of the polyketide chains showed significantly increased activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis, whereas the one with two additional methyl groups and the known elaiophylin analogues showed no activity. The production of the new analogues suggests that the last acyltrasferase (AT) domain of the elaiophylin polyketide synthases has relaxed substrate specificity. Bioinfomatic analysis of the conserved active site residues within the AT domains revealed an unusual amino acid sequence of the active site motif in the AT7 domain. Investigations of the apoptolidin producer Amycolatopsis sp. ICBB 8242 led to the discovery of two succinylated apoptolidin analogues and linear apoptolidin A. The two succinylated compounds can inhibit the proliferation and viability of human H292 and HeLa cells. However, in contrast to apoptolidin A, they do not inhibit cellular respiration in H292 cells. This seemingly contradictory results may be due to an alternative biological mechanism of action or due to degradation of succinyl-apoptolidin A to apoptolidin A in the cell viability assay. This hydrolysis may not occur during the real time analysis of cellular respiration, which was performed in a relatively short experimental time. The production of succinylated apoptolidins by Amycolatopsis sp. ICBB 8242 suggests that succinylation may play a role in self-resistance and/or as an export mechanism. Close

• 363. [Image] Biological opinion Klamath Project operations

  	"May 31, 2002."; Includes bibliographical references.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biological opinion Klamath Project operations Author: United States.; National Marine Fisheries Service. Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 "May 31, 2002."; Includes bibliographical references. Title: Biological opinion Klamath Project operations Author: United States.; National Marine Fisheries Service. Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 "May 31, 2002."; Includes bibliographical references. Close

• 364. [Article] The simultaneous expression of metal tolerance and antibiotic resistance by bacteria from drinking water systems

  Previous studies of six Oregon public water supply systems revealed that greater proportions of the standard plate count (SPC) bacteria from distribution waters were multiple antibiotic resistant (MAR) ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The simultaneous expression of metal tolerance and antibiotic resistance by bacteria from drinking water systems Author: Calomiris, Jon James Previous studies of six Oregon public water supply systems revealed that greater proportions of the standard plate count (SPC) bacteria from distribution waters were multiple antibiotic resistant (MAR) compared to isolates from the corresponding source raw waters. In the present study, two of these water systems were examined further to determine the possible role that metal tolerance has in the selection of MAR bacteria. The first drinking water system examined serves an Oregon coastal resort community. A total of 216 distribution water and 177 raw water isolates were tested for resistance to five antibiotics (chloramphenicol, kanamycin, streptomycin, sulfanilamide, and tetracycline), tolerance to six metals (as salts, Al₂(SO₄)₃, CdC1₂, CuC1₂, Pb(NO₃)₂, SnC1₂, and ZnC1₂), and were identified. Statistically significant associations between multiple antibiotic resistance and tolerance to Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn ²⁺ were found among distribution water isolates but not raw water isolates. Significantly greater proportions of the raw water isolates were tolerant to A1³⁺ and Sn²⁺ and were not typically MAR. Tolerance to Cd²⁺ was not associated with the isolates from either water type or with multiple antibiotic resistance. Characteristic patterns of antibiotic resistance and metal tolerance were associated with various taxonomic genera and groups. Of the taxonomic types that were isolated from both raw and distribution waters, greater proportions of the distribution water isolates were resistant to more antibiotics and tolerant to more metals. Resistance to kanamycin and tolerance to Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was typical among the distribution but not raw water Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, and Pseudomonas and Alcaligenes groups. The association of multiple antibiotic resistance with tolerance to Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was significantly more prevalent among the isolates from near the end of the distribution system while the isolates from near the origin of the system typically expressed phenotypes more similar to those of the raw water isolates. To determine the impact of water treatment and distribution in the selection of MAR and MMT (multiple metal tolerant) SPC bacteria, a drinking water system serving an Oregon community of 40,000 was studied. On four dates, samples were obtained from the source water, treatment waters, distribution waters, and inner surfaces of water pipes. A total of 730 river, 290 flash mix tank, 359 clear well, 629 distribution water, and 298 pipe surface isolates were identified and tested for resistance to the isolates. Significantly greater proportions of the raw water isolates were tolerant to A1³⁺ and Sn²⁺ and were not typically MAR. Tolerance to Cd²⁺ was not associated with the isolates from either water type or with multiple antibiotic resistance. Characteristic patterns of antibiotic resistance and metal tolerance were associated with various taxonomic genera and groups. Of the taxonomic types that were isolated from both raw and distribution waters, greater proportions of the distribution water isolates were resistant to more antibiotics and tolerant to more metals. Resistance to kanamycin and tolerance to Cu ²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was typical among the distribution but not raw water Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, and Pseudomonas and Alcaligenes groups. The association of multiple antibiotic resistance with tolerance to Cu ²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was significantly more prevalent among the isolates from near the end of the distribution system while the isolates from near the origin of the system typically expressed phenotypes more similar to those of the raw water isolates. To determine the impact of water treatment and distribution in the selection of MAR and MMT (multiple metal tolerant) SPC bacteria, a drinking water system serving an Oregon community of 40,000 was studied. On four dates, samples were obtained from the source water, treatment waters, distribution waters, and inner surfaces of water pipes. A total of 730 river, 290 flash mix tank, 359 clear well, 629 distribution water, and 298 pipe surface isolates were identified and tested for resistance to the antibiotics and tolerance to the metals used in the first study, with the additions of carbenicillin and FeC1₃. Results indicated increases in the incidence of MAR and MMT bacteria when comparing river, treatment plant, and distribution water and pipe surface SPC populations. Distribution water isolates and isolates from inner pipe surfaces exhibited much greater associations of metal tolerance with multiple antibiotic resistance as compared to river isolates or treatment plant isolates. Pipe surface materials were shown to contain high concentrations of metals and large numbers of viable bacteria. The predominant metal tolerance phenotypes of these organisms reflected the metals present, since the copper pipe sample had a high level of Cu²⁺ tolerant bacteria while the galvanized iron pipe samples contained many Zn²⁺ tolerant bacteria. Similarities in taxonomic groups as well as in antibiotic and metal resistance patterns were observed in distribution water isolates and in bacteria from inner pipe surfaces. This suggested that bacteria colonizing pipe surfaces are shed into flowing distribution water. Title: The simultaneous expression of metal tolerance and antibiotic resistance by bacteria from drinking water systems Author: Calomiris, Jon James Previous studies of six Oregon public water supply systems revealed that greater proportions of the standard plate count (SPC) bacteria from distribution waters were multiple antibiotic resistant (MAR) compared to isolates from the corresponding source raw waters. In the present study, two of these water systems were examined further to determine the possible role that metal tolerance has in the selection of MAR bacteria. The first drinking water system examined serves an Oregon coastal resort community. A total of 216 distribution water and 177 raw water isolates were tested for resistance to five antibiotics (chloramphenicol, kanamycin, streptomycin, sulfanilamide, and tetracycline), tolerance to six metals (as salts, Al₂(SO₄)₃, CdC1₂, CuC1₂, Pb(NO₃)₂, SnC1₂, and ZnC1₂), and were identified. Statistically significant associations between multiple antibiotic resistance and tolerance to Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn ²⁺ were found among distribution water isolates but not raw water isolates. Significantly greater proportions of the raw water isolates were tolerant to A1³⁺ and Sn²⁺ and were not typically MAR. Tolerance to Cd²⁺ was not associated with the isolates from either water type or with multiple antibiotic resistance. Characteristic patterns of antibiotic resistance and metal tolerance were associated with various taxonomic genera and groups. Of the taxonomic types that were isolated from both raw and distribution waters, greater proportions of the distribution water isolates were resistant to more antibiotics and tolerant to more metals. Resistance to kanamycin and tolerance to Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was typical among the distribution but not raw water Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, and Pseudomonas and Alcaligenes groups. The association of multiple antibiotic resistance with tolerance to Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was significantly more prevalent among the isolates from near the end of the distribution system while the isolates from near the origin of the system typically expressed phenotypes more similar to those of the raw water isolates. To determine the impact of water treatment and distribution in the selection of MAR and MMT (multiple metal tolerant) SPC bacteria, a drinking water system serving an Oregon community of 40,000 was studied. On four dates, samples were obtained from the source water, treatment waters, distribution waters, and inner surfaces of water pipes. A total of 730 river, 290 flash mix tank, 359 clear well, 629 distribution water, and 298 pipe surface isolates were identified and tested for resistance to the isolates. Significantly greater proportions of the raw water isolates were tolerant to A1³⁺ and Sn²⁺ and were not typically MAR. Tolerance to Cd²⁺ was not associated with the isolates from either water type or with multiple antibiotic resistance. Characteristic patterns of antibiotic resistance and metal tolerance were associated with various taxonomic genera and groups. Of the taxonomic types that were isolated from both raw and distribution waters, greater proportions of the distribution water isolates were resistant to more antibiotics and tolerant to more metals. Resistance to kanamycin and tolerance to Cu ²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was typical among the distribution but not raw water Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, and Pseudomonas and Alcaligenes groups. The association of multiple antibiotic resistance with tolerance to Cu ²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ was significantly more prevalent among the isolates from near the end of the distribution system while the isolates from near the origin of the system typically expressed phenotypes more similar to those of the raw water isolates. To determine the impact of water treatment and distribution in the selection of MAR and MMT (multiple metal tolerant) SPC bacteria, a drinking water system serving an Oregon community of 40,000 was studied. On four dates, samples were obtained from the source water, treatment waters, distribution waters, and inner surfaces of water pipes. A total of 730 river, 290 flash mix tank, 359 clear well, 629 distribution water, and 298 pipe surface isolates were identified and tested for resistance to the antibiotics and tolerance to the metals used in the first study, with the additions of carbenicillin and FeC1₃. Results indicated increases in the incidence of MAR and MMT bacteria when comparing river, treatment plant, and distribution water and pipe surface SPC populations. Distribution water isolates and isolates from inner pipe surfaces exhibited much greater associations of metal tolerance with multiple antibiotic resistance as compared to river isolates or treatment plant isolates. Pipe surface materials were shown to contain high concentrations of metals and large numbers of viable bacteria. The predominant metal tolerance phenotypes of these organisms reflected the metals present, since the copper pipe sample had a high level of Cu²⁺ tolerant bacteria while the galvanized iron pipe samples contained many Zn²⁺ tolerant bacteria. Similarities in taxonomic groups as well as in antibiotic and metal resistance patterns were observed in distribution water isolates and in bacteria from inner pipe surfaces. This suggested that bacteria colonizing pipe surfaces are shed into flowing distribution water. Close

• 365. [Image] Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters

  	"July 2003."; "GAO-03-514."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters Author: United States. General Accounting Office Year: 2003, 2005 "July 2003."; "GAO-03-514." Title: Freshwater supply : states' views of how federal agencies could help them meet the challenges of expected shortages : report to Congressional Requesters Author: United States. General Accounting Office Year: 2003, 2005 "July 2003."; "GAO-03-514." Close

• 366. [Article] Do network relationships matter? Comparing network and instream habitat variables to explain densities of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in mid-coastal Oregon, USA

  This is a scanned version of a published article. The original can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291099-0755. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Do network relationships matter? Comparing network and instream habitat variables to explain densities of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in mid-coastal Oregon, USA Author: Reeves, Gordon H., Ganio, Lisa M., Flitcroft, Rebecca L., Burnett, Kelly M. This is a scanned version of a published article. The original can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291099-0755. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Title: Do network relationships matter? Comparing network and instream habitat variables to explain densities of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in mid-coastal Oregon, USA Author: Reeves, Gordon H., Ganio, Lisa M., Flitcroft, Rebecca L., Burnett, Kelly M. This is a scanned version of a published article. The original can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291099-0755. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Close

• 367. [Article] Experimental study of subcooled water spray cooling using flow symmetric micro-structured surfaces

  Spray impingement cooling has been shown to be a leading candidate for future high heat flux cooling applications. In general, spray cooling curves consist of three heat flux regimes; single-phase, two-phase ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Experimental study of subcooled water spray cooling using flow symmetric micro-structured surfaces Author: Tulchinsky, Alex M. Spray impingement cooling has been shown to be a leading candidate for future high heat flux cooling applications. In general, spray cooling curves consist of three heat flux regimes; single-phase, two-phase and critical heat flux (CHF). CHF is considered the design limit for almost all two-phase cooling applications, as a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in heat flux occurs beyond this point. Recent studies have shown that the addition of micro-structures on the impingement surface can enhance heat transfer relative to a smooth surface. In the present study, spray cooling curves are obtained for two micro-structured surfaces and are compared to smooth surface results. Micro-structured surfaces consisted of bio-inspired fractal-like geometries, denoted as grooves and fins, extending in a radial direction from the center to the periphery of a 37.8 mm circular disc. Depending on the location on the surface, dimensions of groove widths and heights varied from 100 to 500 μm, and 30 to 60 μm, respectively. Fin width and height dimension remained constant throughout the surface at 127 and 60 μm, respectively. Heat flux and wall temperature at the impingement surface were calculated from temperature data measured at multiple locations below the impingement surface. Results are presented as heat flux, q" , versus the wall-to-spray temperature difference, ΔT[subscript w], at each of 5 volume flux, Q", conditions ranging from 0.54 to 2.04 x 10⁻³ m³/m²s. Convection coefficients, h[subscript cv], and spray efficiencies, η, are also presented for each case as a function of q" and ΔT[subscript w] , respectively. Results of the study indicate that at low and high volume fluxes, an improvement in heat transfer occurs in the single-phase regime for the fin geometry. Enhancement in the single-phase regime did not occur at the intermediate volume flux condition of 1.37 x 10⁻³ m³/m²s. At all volume flux states tested, significant enhancements, as high as 50% in some cases, were observed in the two-phase regime for the fin structure, whereas the groove structure performed identically to the flat surface in the single-phase regime and exhibited a large degradation in the two-phase and critical heat flux regimes (~50%). Critical heat flux for the fin surface compared to the flat surface was slightly lower at low volume flux conditions, equivalent at the intermediate volume flux, and slightly greater at high volume flux conditions. Further investigations into the underlying mechanisms responsible for these results are needed. Title: Experimental study of subcooled water spray cooling using flow symmetric micro-structured surfaces Author: Tulchinsky, Alex M. Spray impingement cooling has been shown to be a leading candidate for future high heat flux cooling applications. In general, spray cooling curves consist of three heat flux regimes; single-phase, two-phase and critical heat flux (CHF). CHF is considered the design limit for almost all two-phase cooling applications, as a rapid increase in temperature and decrease in heat flux occurs beyond this point. Recent studies have shown that the addition of micro-structures on the impingement surface can enhance heat transfer relative to a smooth surface. In the present study, spray cooling curves are obtained for two micro-structured surfaces and are compared to smooth surface results. Micro-structured surfaces consisted of bio-inspired fractal-like geometries, denoted as grooves and fins, extending in a radial direction from the center to the periphery of a 37.8 mm circular disc. Depending on the location on the surface, dimensions of groove widths and heights varied from 100 to 500 μm, and 30 to 60 μm, respectively. Fin width and height dimension remained constant throughout the surface at 127 and 60 μm, respectively. Heat flux and wall temperature at the impingement surface were calculated from temperature data measured at multiple locations below the impingement surface. Results are presented as heat flux, q" , versus the wall-to-spray temperature difference, ΔT[subscript w], at each of 5 volume flux, Q", conditions ranging from 0.54 to 2.04 x 10⁻³ m³/m²s. Convection coefficients, h[subscript cv], and spray efficiencies, η, are also presented for each case as a function of q" and ΔT[subscript w] , respectively. Results of the study indicate that at low and high volume fluxes, an improvement in heat transfer occurs in the single-phase regime for the fin geometry. Enhancement in the single-phase regime did not occur at the intermediate volume flux condition of 1.37 x 10⁻³ m³/m²s. At all volume flux states tested, significant enhancements, as high as 50% in some cases, were observed in the two-phase regime for the fin structure, whereas the groove structure performed identically to the flat surface in the single-phase regime and exhibited a large degradation in the two-phase and critical heat flux regimes (~50%). Critical heat flux for the fin surface compared to the flat surface was slightly lower at low volume flux conditions, equivalent at the intermediate volume flux, and slightly greater at high volume flux conditions. Further investigations into the underlying mechanisms responsible for these results are needed. Close

• 368. [Article] Biosystematic studies of the Mimulus moschatus complex in the Pacific Northwest

  Populations of an unknown species of Mimulus, herein described as Mimulus hymenophyllus Meinke, were located and studied near Horse Creek, a tributary of the Snake River in eastern Wallowa County, Oregon. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biosystematic studies of the Mimulus moschatus complex in the Pacific Northwest Author: Meinke, Robert James Populations of an unknown species of Mimulus, herein described as Mimulus hymenophyllus Meinke, were located and studied near Horse Creek, a tributary of the Snake River in eastern Wallowa County, Oregon. The new species is differentiated from its apparent closest relative, Mimulus jungermannioides Suksd., by an annual habit, long petioles, corollas that are three to four times the length of the calyx, rounded capsules, and seeds up to 0.85 mm long. Mimulus hymenophyllus and M. iungermannioides are members of the section Paradanthus, and are morphologically allied with Mimulus moschatus Dougl. in Lindl. and several related taxa. The Mimulus moschatus complex of species is distinguished within the genus by having firmly adherent placentae, glandular-sticky foliage and stems, prismatic calyces with equal to sub-equal teeth, elongate pedicels, and deciduous, funnelform corollas ranging in color from canary to lemon yellow. Mimulus hvmenophyllus is endemic to the steep canyons of Horse and Cow Creeks in Wallowa County, at altitudes ranging from 850 to 1300 m. The species is restricted to the damp crevices of vertical basalt cliffs, often growing in the shade under overhangs. The surrounding plant community is dominated by several coniferous species, primarily Pseudotsuga menziesii, pinus ponderosa, and Abies arandis. The habitat of M. hymenophyllus is isolated, and is presently not in danger from human disturbance. However, the species is currently maintained as a state and federal candidate for listing as threatened or endangered, based on limited abundance and narrow geographic range. Studies of the seed and seedling biology of Mimulus hymenophyllus and its Pacific Northwest relatives (i.e., M. moschatus, M. floribundus, M. jungermannioides, M. patulus, M. pulsiferae, M. washingtonensis, and M. breviflorus) were also conducted. Germination trials indicated that seeds of M. moschatus, M. jungermannioides, and M. floribundus are capable of germination immediately or soon after capsules dehisce, and do not become dormant upon later exposure to warm or cold temperatures. Seed lots of M. hymenophyllus and M. breviflorus germinate rapidly when first mature, but subsequently develop complete or partial dormancy after prolonged exposure to late summer temperatures. Dormant seeds of these species, as well as those of M. patulus, M. Dulsiferae, and M. washingtonensis which are dormant when capsules dehisce, will germinate readily after several weeks of cold-wet stratification. Four of the five species lacking innate seed dormancy develop inflated fruiting calyces that temporarily trap seeds as capsules dehisce. This prolongs the dispersal rate of seed crops, thereby minimizing the potential for catastrophic seedling mortality due to mass germination of cohorts during unfavorable environmental conditions. These species retain seed on the parent plant for significantly longer periods than species with unmodified calyces. Seed dispersal from parent plants is accomplished by wind and flowing water, except in M. hvmenophvllus, where negatively phototropic pedicels orient ripe capsules towards the darkened cliff substrate for dispersal directly into crevices. Two of the rarest species studied, M. hymenophyllus and M. patulus, were found to co-occur in nature with an indigenous and rather weedy, unrelated species of Mimulus, i.e., M. nasutus Greene. Experimental plantings showed that seedling lots of M. nasutus emerge sooner and over a shorter period than those of the two uncommon species, suggesting that M. nasutus may outcompete them and thereby contribute to their rarity. Seedlings of M. breviflorus and M. floribundus, which typically occur in habitats subject to sudden fluctuations in soil moisture, exhibit adaptations for accelerated sexual reproduction under experimental drought conditions. This trait, when coupled with inflated fruiting calyces, enables these species to exploit unpredictably arid environments despite the potential disadvantage of nondormant seeds. Mimulus jungermannioides and M. moschatus are not adapted for precocious sexual maturation, and offset their lack of seed dormancy by having a perennial life cycle and by occurring in more predictably mesic habitats. Significant differences between the annual and perennial species were observed in the timing and amount of seed production during droughtstress. The information provided in this thesis will be valuable to systematists and conservation biologists. Several of the species studied have been promoted for protection under endangered species laws. The formal naming of Mimulus hymenophyllus legitimizes efforts for the management of this unique species, while seed and seedling biology data will be important to germplasm studies, phylogenetic assessments, and possible reintroduction of species or populations should extirpation occur. Title: Biosystematic studies of the Mimulus moschatus complex in the Pacific Northwest Author: Meinke, Robert James Populations of an unknown species of Mimulus, herein described as Mimulus hymenophyllus Meinke, were located and studied near Horse Creek, a tributary of the Snake River in eastern Wallowa County, Oregon. The new species is differentiated from its apparent closest relative, Mimulus jungermannioides Suksd., by an annual habit, long petioles, corollas that are three to four times the length of the calyx, rounded capsules, and seeds up to 0.85 mm long. Mimulus hymenophyllus and M. iungermannioides are members of the section Paradanthus, and are morphologically allied with Mimulus moschatus Dougl. in Lindl. and several related taxa. The Mimulus moschatus complex of species is distinguished within the genus by having firmly adherent placentae, glandular-sticky foliage and stems, prismatic calyces with equal to sub-equal teeth, elongate pedicels, and deciduous, funnelform corollas ranging in color from canary to lemon yellow. Mimulus hvmenophyllus is endemic to the steep canyons of Horse and Cow Creeks in Wallowa County, at altitudes ranging from 850 to 1300 m. The species is restricted to the damp crevices of vertical basalt cliffs, often growing in the shade under overhangs. The surrounding plant community is dominated by several coniferous species, primarily Pseudotsuga menziesii, pinus ponderosa, and Abies arandis. The habitat of M. hymenophyllus is isolated, and is presently not in danger from human disturbance. However, the species is currently maintained as a state and federal candidate for listing as threatened or endangered, based on limited abundance and narrow geographic range. Studies of the seed and seedling biology of Mimulus hymenophyllus and its Pacific Northwest relatives (i.e., M. moschatus, M. floribundus, M. jungermannioides, M. patulus, M. pulsiferae, M. washingtonensis, and M. breviflorus) were also conducted. Germination trials indicated that seeds of M. moschatus, M. jungermannioides, and M. floribundus are capable of germination immediately or soon after capsules dehisce, and do not become dormant upon later exposure to warm or cold temperatures. Seed lots of M. hymenophyllus and M. breviflorus germinate rapidly when first mature, but subsequently develop complete or partial dormancy after prolonged exposure to late summer temperatures. Dormant seeds of these species, as well as those of M. patulus, M. Dulsiferae, and M. washingtonensis which are dormant when capsules dehisce, will germinate readily after several weeks of cold-wet stratification. Four of the five species lacking innate seed dormancy develop inflated fruiting calyces that temporarily trap seeds as capsules dehisce. This prolongs the dispersal rate of seed crops, thereby minimizing the potential for catastrophic seedling mortality due to mass germination of cohorts during unfavorable environmental conditions. These species retain seed on the parent plant for significantly longer periods than species with unmodified calyces. Seed dispersal from parent plants is accomplished by wind and flowing water, except in M. hvmenophvllus, where negatively phototropic pedicels orient ripe capsules towards the darkened cliff substrate for dispersal directly into crevices. Two of the rarest species studied, M. hymenophyllus and M. patulus, were found to co-occur in nature with an indigenous and rather weedy, unrelated species of Mimulus, i.e., M. nasutus Greene. Experimental plantings showed that seedling lots of M. nasutus emerge sooner and over a shorter period than those of the two uncommon species, suggesting that M. nasutus may outcompete them and thereby contribute to their rarity. Seedlings of M. breviflorus and M. floribundus, which typically occur in habitats subject to sudden fluctuations in soil moisture, exhibit adaptations for accelerated sexual reproduction under experimental drought conditions. This trait, when coupled with inflated fruiting calyces, enables these species to exploit unpredictably arid environments despite the potential disadvantage of nondormant seeds. Mimulus jungermannioides and M. moschatus are not adapted for precocious sexual maturation, and offset their lack of seed dormancy by having a perennial life cycle and by occurring in more predictably mesic habitats. Significant differences between the annual and perennial species were observed in the timing and amount of seed production during droughtstress. The information provided in this thesis will be valuable to systematists and conservation biologists. Several of the species studied have been promoted for protection under endangered species laws. The formal naming of Mimulus hymenophyllus legitimizes efforts for the management of this unique species, while seed and seedling biology data will be important to germplasm studies, phylogenetic assessments, and possible reintroduction of species or populations should extirpation occur. Close

• 369. [Image] Irrigation in Klamath County : cooperative irrigation investigation with the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture

  	CONTENTS. Page Introduction 2620 5 Climatic conditions 2620 6 Units of measurement 2620 7 Losses by seepage and evaporation 2620 7 Duty of water 26208-10 Evaporation 2620 12 Soil and water analyses ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Irrigation in Klamath County : cooperative irrigation investigation with the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture Author: Kent, F.L. (Fred LeRoy) Year: 1905, 2005 CONTENTS. Page Introduction 2620 5 Climatic conditions 2620 6 Units of measurement 2620 7 Losses by seepage and evaporation 2620 7 Duty of water 26208-10 Evaporation 2620 12 Soil and water analyses 262014-15 Data relative to alfalfa growing 2620 15 Summary 2620 16 ILLUSTRATIONS. I. Wing dam at intake of Ankeny canal 269 4 II. Checked field of M. E. Robinson 2620 10 III. Headgate, Ankeny canal 2620 11 Title: Irrigation in Klamath County : cooperative irrigation investigation with the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture Author: Kent, F.L. (Fred LeRoy) Year: 1905, 2005 CONTENTS. Page Introduction 2620 5 Climatic conditions 2620 6 Units of measurement 2620 7 Losses by seepage and evaporation 2620 7 Duty of water 26208-10 Evaporation 2620 12 Soil and water analyses 262014-15 Data relative to alfalfa growing 2620 15 Summary 2620 16 ILLUSTRATIONS. I. Wing dam at intake of Ankeny canal 269 4 II. Checked field of M. E. Robinson 2620 10 III. Headgate, Ankeny canal 2620 11 Close

• 370. [Image] Empire building

  	Article on the history and future of the agricultural settlement of the desert regions of the western United States. Includes a black and white photograph of Thousand Springs, Idaho.
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Empire building Author: Blanchard, C.J. Year: 1906, 2004 Article on the history and future of the agricultural settlement of the desert regions of the western United States. Includes a black and white photograph of Thousand Springs, Idaho. Title: Empire building Author: Blanchard, C.J. Year: 1906, 2004 Article on the history and future of the agricultural settlement of the desert regions of the western United States. Includes a black and white photograph of Thousand Springs, Idaho. Close

• 371. [Image] Land use and vegetation community changes at Beswick Ranch, Klamath River Canyon, California from 1955 to 2003 : focus on relationship between the irrigation and the vegetation and the land use cover

  	Humans have altered the Klamath River Canyon in many ways. This study focuses on the years from 1955 to 2003. One substantial alteration is the conversion of terraces into irrigated pastures for agriculture ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Land use and vegetation community changes at Beswick Ranch, Klamath River Canyon, California from 1955 to 2003 : focus on relationship between the irrigation and the vegetation and the land use cover Author: Bilka, Monika N. Year: 2002, 2005 Humans have altered the Klamath River Canyon in many ways. This study focuses on the years from 1955 to 2003. One substantial alteration is the conversion of terraces into irrigated pastures for agriculture and cattle ranching. This research project explains the relationships between the irrigation network and the vegetation and land use cover patterns that existed in the past and that exist today at Beswick Ranch. Data sources such as aerial photographs, maps, and other historical information are used to create Geographic Information System (GIS) maps and models of the area. Due to time constraints, the final maps and models are not complete at this time. However, the completed models were synthesized with observational data to come to preliminary conclusions. While the ditches of Shovel Creek Pasture have undergone little to no change at all since 1955, ranchers have added ditches to Faye Pasture. Ranch workers have also increased the amount of agricultural land use cover and decreased in tree cover of Faye Pasture. Conversely, ranchers increased the tree cover and non-agricultural land cover, and they have decreased the agricultural cover. The GIS coverages of Shovel Pasture remain in the preliminary stage, and further analyses of the calculated areas of land use cover and ditch lengths are needed to complete this study. In partnership with PacifiCorp and the BLM, this project aims to provide information about the impacts of the current and historical irrigation systems used on the pastures and riparian zones within this reach of the Klamath River Canyon from 1955 to 2003. Even at this stage, the preliminary coverages provide insight into the relationships between irrigation, vegetation communities, and land use cover that have occurred during the study period. Title: Land use and vegetation community changes at Beswick Ranch, Klamath River Canyon, California from 1955 to 2003 : focus on relationship between the irrigation and the vegetation and the land use cover Author: Bilka, Monika N. Year: 2002, 2005 Humans have altered the Klamath River Canyon in many ways. This study focuses on the years from 1955 to 2003. One substantial alteration is the conversion of terraces into irrigated pastures for agriculture and cattle ranching. This research project explains the relationships between the irrigation network and the vegetation and land use cover patterns that existed in the past and that exist today at Beswick Ranch. Data sources such as aerial photographs, maps, and other historical information are used to create Geographic Information System (GIS) maps and models of the area. Due to time constraints, the final maps and models are not complete at this time. However, the completed models were synthesized with observational data to come to preliminary conclusions. While the ditches of Shovel Creek Pasture have undergone little to no change at all since 1955, ranchers have added ditches to Faye Pasture. Ranch workers have also increased the amount of agricultural land use cover and decreased in tree cover of Faye Pasture. Conversely, ranchers increased the tree cover and non-agricultural land cover, and they have decreased the agricultural cover. The GIS coverages of Shovel Pasture remain in the preliminary stage, and further analyses of the calculated areas of land use cover and ditch lengths are needed to complete this study. In partnership with PacifiCorp and the BLM, this project aims to provide information about the impacts of the current and historical irrigation systems used on the pastures and riparian zones within this reach of the Klamath River Canyon from 1955 to 2003. Even at this stage, the preliminary coverages provide insight into the relationships between irrigation, vegetation communities, and land use cover that have occurred during the study period. Close

• 372. [Image] Influences of human activity on stream temperatures and existence of cold-water fish in streams with elevated temperature: report of a workshop: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Corvallis, OR, October 5-6, 2000

  	Executive Summary The Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (IMST) convened a panel of experts on stream temperature and fish ecology on October 5-6, 2000 for a scientific workshop on human influences ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Influences of human activity on stream temperatures and existence of cold-water fish in streams with elevated temperature: report of a workshop: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Corvallis, OR, October 5-6, 2000 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (IMST) convened a panel of experts on stream temperature and fish ecology on October 5-6, 2000 for a scientific workshop on human influences on stream temperature and responses by salmonids. The workshop was designed to review and discuss scientifically credible data and publications about 1) factors related to human activity that influence stream temperature and 2) behavioral, physical, and ecological mechanisms of cold water fish species for existing in streams with elevated temperatures. The goal of the workshop was to review empirical evidence and to identify points of agreement, disagreement, and knowledge gaps within the scientific community concerning the factors that influence stream temperature and fish responses to elevated temperatures. This information will assist the IMST in preparing a broader temperature report on Oregon's stream temperature water quality standards and their implementation. This report is prepared by the IMST. It was reviewed by workshop participants and revised by the IMST accordingly. The report includes abstracts of plenary presentations on factors that influence stream temperatures and fish responses, and the results of group discussions. The workshop participants focused on three main questions and were asked to list statements of agreement and disagreement, and to identify gaps in the scientific knowledge related to each question: ? How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? ? Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? ? How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? The workshop participants provided answers to the questions in the form of bullets. The answers below represent the IMST's summation of the workshop findings and were reviewed by the participants. Several gaps in the scientific basis for specific questions or relationships were identified. The participants found no areas of disagreement for which technical information was available. They noted that any disagreements were not related to scientific interpretation, but were based on concerns or opinions about application, regulation, and management. How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? The influence of riparian vegetation on stream temperature is cumulative and complex, varying by site, over time, and across regions. Riparian vegetation can directly affect stream temperature by intercepting solar radiation and reducing stream heating. The influence of riparian shade in controlling temperature declines as streams widen in downstream reaches, but the role of riparian vegetation in providing water quality and fish habitat benefits continues to be important. Besides providing shade, riparian vegetation can also indirectly affect stream temperature by influencing microclimate, affecting channel morphology, affecting stream flow, influencing wind speed, affecting humidity, affecting soil temperature, using water, influencing air temperature, enhancing infiltration, and influencing thermal radiation. It is critical to know the site potential to understand what vegetation a site can support. There is not a good scientific understanding of how much vegetation shading is required to affect stream temperature. 1 This lack of understanding may be due to the spatial and temporal variability in landscape components, and the resulting variability in both the direct and indirect influences of vegetation on stream temperature. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize about the effects of vegetation on stream temperature. Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? The answer to this question is yes, other physical changes in the stream system can modify stream temperatures. Stream temperature is a product of complex interactions between geomorphology, soil, hydrology, vegetation, and climate within a watershed. Changes in these factors will result in changes in stream temperature. Human activities influence stream temperature by affecting one or more of four major components: riparian vegetation, channel morphology, hydrology, and surface/subsurface interactions. Stream systems vary substantially across the landscape, and site-specific information is critical to understanding stream temperature responses to human activities. How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? Workshop participants identified several mechanisms that might explain the ability of fish populations to exist at higher than expected temperatures. The first mechanism was that the fish may have physiological adaptations to survive exposures to high temperatures. A second possibility was that stream habitats may contain cooler microhabitats that fish can occupy as refuge from higher temperatures. A third consideration is that ecological interactions may be different under differing thermal conditions resulting, for example, in changes in disease virulence or cumulative effects of stressors. Finally, since substantial differences exist between laboratory and field studies, it is difficult to apply results of laboratory studies to fish responses in the field. It is important to note that these proposed mechanisms are speculative and, as the list of gaps indicates, substantial experimental work is required to establish their influences on fish in different stream systems. Workshop Summaiy Workshop participants recognized gaps in the available science. Additional knowledge about human influences on stream temperatures and, consequently, influences on cold-water fish populations, will improve our ability to prevent further degradation of stream habitat and will enhance efforts geared towards the recovery of depressed fish populations. Even with these gaps, there was enough agreement on factors that influence stream temperature to indicate information is available to start developing and implementing management practices that are designed to reduce stream warming. It was suggested that managers should consider riparian vegetation, channel morphology, and hydrology, and should account for site differences. Title: Influences of human activity on stream temperatures and existence of cold-water fish in streams with elevated temperature: report of a workshop: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, Corvallis, OR, October 5-6, 2000 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Oregon) Year: 2000, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (IMST) convened a panel of experts on stream temperature and fish ecology on October 5-6, 2000 for a scientific workshop on human influences on stream temperature and responses by salmonids. The workshop was designed to review and discuss scientifically credible data and publications about 1) factors related to human activity that influence stream temperature and 2) behavioral, physical, and ecological mechanisms of cold water fish species for existing in streams with elevated temperatures. The goal of the workshop was to review empirical evidence and to identify points of agreement, disagreement, and knowledge gaps within the scientific community concerning the factors that influence stream temperature and fish responses to elevated temperatures. This information will assist the IMST in preparing a broader temperature report on Oregon's stream temperature water quality standards and their implementation. This report is prepared by the IMST. It was reviewed by workshop participants and revised by the IMST accordingly. The report includes abstracts of plenary presentations on factors that influence stream temperatures and fish responses, and the results of group discussions. The workshop participants focused on three main questions and were asked to list statements of agreement and disagreement, and to identify gaps in the scientific knowledge related to each question: ? How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? ? Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? ? How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? The workshop participants provided answers to the questions in the form of bullets. The answers below represent the IMST's summation of the workshop findings and were reviewed by the participants. Several gaps in the scientific basis for specific questions or relationships were identified. The participants found no areas of disagreement for which technical information was available. They noted that any disagreements were not related to scientific interpretation, but were based on concerns or opinions about application, regulation, and management. How and where does riparian vegetation influence stream temperature? The influence of riparian vegetation on stream temperature is cumulative and complex, varying by site, over time, and across regions. Riparian vegetation can directly affect stream temperature by intercepting solar radiation and reducing stream heating. The influence of riparian shade in controlling temperature declines as streams widen in downstream reaches, but the role of riparian vegetation in providing water quality and fish habitat benefits continues to be important. Besides providing shade, riparian vegetation can also indirectly affect stream temperature by influencing microclimate, affecting channel morphology, affecting stream flow, influencing wind speed, affecting humidity, affecting soil temperature, using water, influencing air temperature, enhancing infiltration, and influencing thermal radiation. It is critical to know the site potential to understand what vegetation a site can support. There is not a good scientific understanding of how much vegetation shading is required to affect stream temperature. 1 This lack of understanding may be due to the spatial and temporal variability in landscape components, and the resulting variability in both the direct and indirect influences of vegetation on stream temperature. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize about the effects of vegetation on stream temperature. Do other changes in streams cause increases in stream temperature? The answer to this question is yes, other physical changes in the stream system can modify stream temperatures. Stream temperature is a product of complex interactions between geomorphology, soil, hydrology, vegetation, and climate within a watershed. Changes in these factors will result in changes in stream temperature. Human activities influence stream temperature by affecting one or more of four major components: riparian vegetation, channel morphology, hydrology, and surface/subsurface interactions. Stream systems vary substantially across the landscape, and site-specific information is critical to understanding stream temperature responses to human activities. How can apparently healthy fish populations exist in streams with temperatures higher than laboratory and field studies would indicate as healthy? Workshop participants identified several mechanisms that might explain the ability of fish populations to exist at higher than expected temperatures. The first mechanism was that the fish may have physiological adaptations to survive exposures to high temperatures. A second possibility was that stream habitats may contain cooler microhabitats that fish can occupy as refuge from higher temperatures. A third consideration is that ecological interactions may be different under differing thermal conditions resulting, for example, in changes in disease virulence or cumulative effects of stressors. Finally, since substantial differences exist between laboratory and field studies, it is difficult to apply results of laboratory studies to fish responses in the field. It is important to note that these proposed mechanisms are speculative and, as the list of gaps indicates, substantial experimental work is required to establish their influences on fish in different stream systems. Workshop Summaiy Workshop participants recognized gaps in the available science. Additional knowledge about human influences on stream temperatures and, consequently, influences on cold-water fish populations, will improve our ability to prevent further degradation of stream habitat and will enhance efforts geared towards the recovery of depressed fish populations. Even with these gaps, there was enough agreement on factors that influence stream temperature to indicate information is available to start developing and implementing management practices that are designed to reduce stream warming. It was suggested that managers should consider riparian vegetation, channel morphology, and hydrology, and should account for site differences. Close

• 373. [Image] Klamath River Basin issues and activities

  	Klamath River Basin Issues and Activities: An Overview Summary The Klamath River Basin, an area on the California-Oregon border, has become a focal point for local and national discussions on water ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath River Basin issues and activities Author: Kyna Powers Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Klamath River Basin Issues and Activities: An Overview Summary The Klamath River Basin, an area on the California-Oregon border, has become a focal point for local and national discussions on water management and water scarcity. Water and species management issues were brought to the forefront when severe drought in 2001 exacerbated competition for scarce water resources and generated conflict among several interests - farmers, Indian tribes, commercial and sport fishermen, other recreationists, federal wildlife refuge managers, environmental groups, and state, local, and tribal governments. The conflicts over water distribution and allocation are physically and legally complex, reflecting the varied and sometimes competing uses of limited water supplies in the Basin. For management purposes, the Basin is divided at Iron Gate Dam into the Upper and Lower Basins. As is true in many regions in the West, the federal government plays a prominent role in the Klamath Basin's water management. This role stems from three primary activities: (1) the operation and management of the Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Water Project and Central Valley Project (e.g., Trinity River dams); (2) management of federal lands in the Basin, including five national wildlife refuges, several national forests, and public lands; and (3) implementation of federal laws, such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Conflict was sparked in April of 2001 when the Bureau of Reclamation, which has supplied water to farms in the Upper Basin for nearly 100 years, announced that "no water [would] be available" for farms normally receiving water from the Upper Klamath Lake to avoid jeopardizing the existence of three fish species listed as endangered or threatened under the ESA. While some water was subsequently made available to some farmers from other sources (e.g., wells and other Bureau sources), many farmers faced serious hardships. During Reclamation's operations in September of 2002, warm water temperatures and atypically low flows in the lower Klamath contributed to the death of at least 33,000 adult salmonids. This die-off damaged fish stocks and the tribes, commercial fishermen, and recreational anglers that catch Klamath fish. There have been many studies, Biological Opinions, and operating plans over recent years, all of which have been controversial. The events of 2001 and 2002 prompted renewed efforts to resolve water conflicts in the Klamath Basin. Congress has responded to the controversy in a number of ways, including holding oversight hearings and appropriating funds for activities in the area. This report provides an overview of recent conflict in the Klamath Basin, with an emphasis on activities in the Upper Basin, and summarizes some of the activities taking place to improve water supply reliability and fish survival. This report will be updated as events warrant. Title: Klamath River Basin issues and activities Author: Kyna Powers Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Klamath River Basin Issues and Activities: An Overview Summary The Klamath River Basin, an area on the California-Oregon border, has become a focal point for local and national discussions on water management and water scarcity. Water and species management issues were brought to the forefront when severe drought in 2001 exacerbated competition for scarce water resources and generated conflict among several interests - farmers, Indian tribes, commercial and sport fishermen, other recreationists, federal wildlife refuge managers, environmental groups, and state, local, and tribal governments. The conflicts over water distribution and allocation are physically and legally complex, reflecting the varied and sometimes competing uses of limited water supplies in the Basin. For management purposes, the Basin is divided at Iron Gate Dam into the Upper and Lower Basins. As is true in many regions in the West, the federal government plays a prominent role in the Klamath Basin's water management. This role stems from three primary activities: (1) the operation and management of the Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Water Project and Central Valley Project (e.g., Trinity River dams); (2) management of federal lands in the Basin, including five national wildlife refuges, several national forests, and public lands; and (3) implementation of federal laws, such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Conflict was sparked in April of 2001 when the Bureau of Reclamation, which has supplied water to farms in the Upper Basin for nearly 100 years, announced that "no water [would] be available" for farms normally receiving water from the Upper Klamath Lake to avoid jeopardizing the existence of three fish species listed as endangered or threatened under the ESA. While some water was subsequently made available to some farmers from other sources (e.g., wells and other Bureau sources), many farmers faced serious hardships. During Reclamation's operations in September of 2002, warm water temperatures and atypically low flows in the lower Klamath contributed to the death of at least 33,000 adult salmonids. This die-off damaged fish stocks and the tribes, commercial fishermen, and recreational anglers that catch Klamath fish. There have been many studies, Biological Opinions, and operating plans over recent years, all of which have been controversial. The events of 2001 and 2002 prompted renewed efforts to resolve water conflicts in the Klamath Basin. Congress has responded to the controversy in a number of ways, including holding oversight hearings and appropriating funds for activities in the area. This report provides an overview of recent conflict in the Klamath Basin, with an emphasis on activities in the Upper Basin, and summarizes some of the activities taking place to improve water supply reliability and fish survival. This report will be updated as events warrant. Close

• 374. [Image] Surface water-supply of the United States. pt. 11. Pacific slope basins in California

  	Includes Klamath River Basin; Chiefly tables; Includes indexes; Prepared in cooperation with the states and other agencies
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Surface water-supply of the United States. pt. 11. Pacific slope basins in California Author: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey Year: 1910, 2008, 2005 Includes Klamath River Basin; Chiefly tables; Includes indexes; Prepared in cooperation with the states and other agencies Title: Surface water-supply of the United States. pt. 11. Pacific slope basins in California Author: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey Year: 1910, 2008, 2005 Includes Klamath River Basin; Chiefly tables; Includes indexes; Prepared in cooperation with the states and other agencies Close

• 375. [Article] Stem sapwood water transport and storage strategies in three conifers from contrasting climates

  The state of Oregon has two distinct climate types bisected by the crest of the Cascade Mountain range. The western side of the Cascades experiences high levels of precipitation and mild temperatures ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Stem sapwood water transport and storage strategies in three conifers from contrasting climates Author: Barnard, David M. (David Michael) The state of Oregon has two distinct climate types bisected by the crest of the Cascade Mountain range. The western side of the Cascades experiences high levels of precipitation and mild temperatures due to the maritime influence of the Pacific Ocean, while the eastern side lies in the rain shadow of the Cascades and is subject to more continental temperatures and arid conditions. Several tree species have subspecies or varieties adapted to the contrasting climates, including Douglas-fir (Pseudostsuga menziesii), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and the shore pine and lodgepole pine subspecies of Pinus contorta. These species provide a unique opportunity to study adaptations of tree hydraulic architecture to contrasting climates. The current study has two major foci: the first being an investigation of the water storage and transport properties and resistance to drought-induced xylem dysfunction of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir from east and west-side populations, the second being an investigation into the sapwood radial water transport properties in east and west-side populations of all three species listed above coupled with an analysis of ray structure and frequency in an attempt to elucidate the radial flow pathway. Water transport efficiency was measured as specific conductivity (k[subscript s], kg m⁻¹ s⁻¹ MPa⁻¹) in both axial and radial directions at three different sapwood depths; intrinsic water storage capacity was expressed as sapwood capacitance derived from sapwood moisture release curves and normalized on a sapwood volume basis (kg H₂O m⁻³ MPa⁻¹). Resistance to drought-induced xylem dysfunction was determined through acoustic emissions testing and is reported as percent of cumulative acoustic emissions (%UAE) as a function of xylem water potential (Ψ). Fluorescent microscopy was used to determine ray tracheid and ray parenchyma lumen areas and a tree ring microscope was used to determine earlywood, latewood and growth ring boundary properties from the samples used to collect radial conductivity measurements. Axial k[subscript s] values were not significantly higher in ponderosa pine than Douglas-fir (5.46 and 5.30 kg m⁻¹ s⁻¹ MPa⁻¹ respectively) and axial k[subscript s] was lower from western populations of both species. Resistance to drought-induced embolism expressed as the xylem water potential causing 50% loss of k[subscript s] (Ψ₅₀) was the same in eastern populations (Ψ₅₀=-2.0 MPa for both species) but was significantly higher in western populations of ponderosa pine (Ψ₅₀=-3.26) and Douglas-fir (Ψ₅₀=-2.35 MPa). Axial k[subscript s] showed a strong positive relationship with Ψ₅₀ values across species and populations (r²=0.40, p<0.0001). Capacitance values did not vary significantly between species of west-side populations or east-side populations, but east-side populations were significantly higher than west-side populations. Capacitance showed a strong positive relationship with Ψ₅₀ (r²=0.65, p<0.0001), suggesting that capacitance acts to buffer water column tensions thereby reducing the necessity for reliance on structural adaptations to reduce Ψ₅₀. Radial k[subscript s] values were highest in west-side populations and generally decreased with distance inward from the cambium, except for west-side ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir in which radial k[subscript s] increased with increasing depth into the sapwood. East-side populations of all species tended to have smaller ray tracheid lumen areas but ray tracheids comprised a larger proportion of total area and were more numerous per area. Ray tracheids were smaller and less numerous in Douglas-fir than in the pines, which had similar lumen areas, although ray tracheids comprised a larger proportion of total area in shore/lodgepole pine. Ray parenchyma lumen areas tended to be larger in west-side populations but ray parenchyma frequency was lower and thus comprised a smaller proportion of total area in east and west-side Douglas-fir. Total ray density was higher in west-side varieties, and correlated with radial conductivity. The strongest correlation was between radial conductivity and number of growth ring boundaries in the sample (p=0.002, r² =0.11). This result suggests that rays may not be as important in radial conductivity as thought, since growth ring boundaries should not affect water movement through ray cells. Title: Stem sapwood water transport and storage strategies in three conifers from contrasting climates Author: Barnard, David M. (David Michael) The state of Oregon has two distinct climate types bisected by the crest of the Cascade Mountain range. The western side of the Cascades experiences high levels of precipitation and mild temperatures due to the maritime influence of the Pacific Ocean, while the eastern side lies in the rain shadow of the Cascades and is subject to more continental temperatures and arid conditions. Several tree species have subspecies or varieties adapted to the contrasting climates, including Douglas-fir (Pseudostsuga menziesii), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and the shore pine and lodgepole pine subspecies of Pinus contorta. These species provide a unique opportunity to study adaptations of tree hydraulic architecture to contrasting climates. The current study has two major foci: the first being an investigation of the water storage and transport properties and resistance to drought-induced xylem dysfunction of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir from east and west-side populations, the second being an investigation into the sapwood radial water transport properties in east and west-side populations of all three species listed above coupled with an analysis of ray structure and frequency in an attempt to elucidate the radial flow pathway. Water transport efficiency was measured as specific conductivity (k[subscript s], kg m⁻¹ s⁻¹ MPa⁻¹) in both axial and radial directions at three different sapwood depths; intrinsic water storage capacity was expressed as sapwood capacitance derived from sapwood moisture release curves and normalized on a sapwood volume basis (kg H₂O m⁻³ MPa⁻¹). Resistance to drought-induced xylem dysfunction was determined through acoustic emissions testing and is reported as percent of cumulative acoustic emissions (%UAE) as a function of xylem water potential (Ψ). Fluorescent microscopy was used to determine ray tracheid and ray parenchyma lumen areas and a tree ring microscope was used to determine earlywood, latewood and growth ring boundary properties from the samples used to collect radial conductivity measurements. Axial k[subscript s] values were not significantly higher in ponderosa pine than Douglas-fir (5.46 and 5.30 kg m⁻¹ s⁻¹ MPa⁻¹ respectively) and axial k[subscript s] was lower from western populations of both species. Resistance to drought-induced embolism expressed as the xylem water potential causing 50% loss of k[subscript s] (Ψ₅₀) was the same in eastern populations (Ψ₅₀=-2.0 MPa for both species) but was significantly higher in western populations of ponderosa pine (Ψ₅₀=-3.26) and Douglas-fir (Ψ₅₀=-2.35 MPa). Axial k[subscript s] showed a strong positive relationship with Ψ₅₀ values across species and populations (r²=0.40, p<0.0001). Capacitance values did not vary significantly between species of west-side populations or east-side populations, but east-side populations were significantly higher than west-side populations. Capacitance showed a strong positive relationship with Ψ₅₀ (r²=0.65, p<0.0001), suggesting that capacitance acts to buffer water column tensions thereby reducing the necessity for reliance on structural adaptations to reduce Ψ₅₀. Radial k[subscript s] values were highest in west-side populations and generally decreased with distance inward from the cambium, except for west-side ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir in which radial k[subscript s] increased with increasing depth into the sapwood. East-side populations of all species tended to have smaller ray tracheid lumen areas but ray tracheids comprised a larger proportion of total area and were more numerous per area. Ray tracheids were smaller and less numerous in Douglas-fir than in the pines, which had similar lumen areas, although ray tracheids comprised a larger proportion of total area in shore/lodgepole pine. Ray parenchyma lumen areas tended to be larger in west-side populations but ray parenchyma frequency was lower and thus comprised a smaller proportion of total area in east and west-side Douglas-fir. Total ray density was higher in west-side varieties, and correlated with radial conductivity. The strongest correlation was between radial conductivity and number of growth ring boundaries in the sample (p=0.002, r² =0.11). This result suggests that rays may not be as important in radial conductivity as thought, since growth ring boundaries should not affect water movement through ray cells. Close

• 376. [Image] Final progress report for fisheries investigations on Blue Creek, tributary to Klamath River, northern California, FY 1993

  	FINAL PROGRESS REPORT FOR FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS ON BLUE CREEK, TRIBUTARY TO K1AMATH RIVER, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FY 1993 (October 1992 - September 1993) ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Final progress report for fisheries investigations on Blue Creek, tributary to Klamath River, northern California, FY 1993 Author: Longenbaugh, Matthew H.; Chan, Jeffrey R. Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 FINAL PROGRESS REPORT FOR FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS ON BLUE CREEK, TRIBUTARY TO K1AMATH RIVER, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FY 1993 (October 1992 - September 1993) ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Coastal California Fishery Resource Office (CCFRO) in Arcata, CA, was funded to investigate chinook salmon spawning use, juvenile salmonid emigration and characterize habitats in Blue Creek, Klamath Basin, CA. Investigations that began in October, 1988, have continued to date, with this reporting period covering Fiscal Year 1993 (FY 1993, October, 1992, through September, 1993). In addition, some information already presented in previous progress reports, FY 1989 - FY 1992, is summarized. In 1993, adult chinook spawner escapements were addressed by snorkel surveys of redds and carcasses. Spawner numbers were very low, with only 17 redds observed in fall/winter 1992-93. The peak count of adult chinook was 136 fish in early November. Emigrating juvenile s&lmonids were trapped at river kilometer (rkm) 3.35 with a screw trap and panel weir. The screw trapping period extended from April through July for a total of 91 trapping nights. Screw trap catches totaled 14,526 chinook, 912 steelhead and 69 coho. Chinook emigration was spread over the entire trapping period, with increases during mid-May, and from mid-June throughout July. A juvenile weir was operated 60 nights, and caught a total of 6,334 chinook, 992 steelhead, 49 coho salmon, and 0 juvenile cutthroat. The total index of production for emigrating chinook during the 1993 juvenile trapping period was 101,819. Chinook that were marked with coded-wire tags (n-12,299) were released, with other juvenile fish, into Blue Creek at rkm 3.3. Mean temperatures varied from 6.3 to 18.6 ?C and flows ranged from 0.91 cubic m/s (32 cubic feet/s) to 202.6 cubic m/s (7,160 cubic feet/s) during FY 1993. Extreme flows for FY 1993 were the lowest and highest observed by CCFRO since the project began in 1989, and lower than the previous low of the 13 years of record. Title: Final progress report for fisheries investigations on Blue Creek, tributary to Klamath River, northern California, FY 1993 Author: Longenbaugh, Matthew H.; Chan, Jeffrey R. Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 FINAL PROGRESS REPORT FOR FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS ON BLUE CREEK, TRIBUTARY TO K1AMATH RIVER, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA FY 1993 (October 1992 - September 1993) ABSTRACT The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Coastal California Fishery Resource Office (CCFRO) in Arcata, CA, was funded to investigate chinook salmon spawning use, juvenile salmonid emigration and characterize habitats in Blue Creek, Klamath Basin, CA. Investigations that began in October, 1988, have continued to date, with this reporting period covering Fiscal Year 1993 (FY 1993, October, 1992, through September, 1993). In addition, some information already presented in previous progress reports, FY 1989 - FY 1992, is summarized. In 1993, adult chinook spawner escapements were addressed by snorkel surveys of redds and carcasses. Spawner numbers were very low, with only 17 redds observed in fall/winter 1992-93. The peak count of adult chinook was 136 fish in early November. Emigrating juvenile s&lmonids were trapped at river kilometer (rkm) 3.35 with a screw trap and panel weir. The screw trapping period extended from April through July for a total of 91 trapping nights. Screw trap catches totaled 14,526 chinook, 912 steelhead and 69 coho. Chinook emigration was spread over the entire trapping period, with increases during mid-May, and from mid-June throughout July. A juvenile weir was operated 60 nights, and caught a total of 6,334 chinook, 992 steelhead, 49 coho salmon, and 0 juvenile cutthroat. The total index of production for emigrating chinook during the 1993 juvenile trapping period was 101,819. Chinook that were marked with coded-wire tags (n-12,299) were released, with other juvenile fish, into Blue Creek at rkm 3.3. Mean temperatures varied from 6.3 to 18.6 ?C and flows ranged from 0.91 cubic m/s (32 cubic feet/s) to 202.6 cubic m/s (7,160 cubic feet/s) during FY 1993. Extreme flows for FY 1993 were the lowest and highest observed by CCFRO since the project began in 1989, and lower than the previous low of the 13 years of record. Close

• 377. [Article] Surface Water and Groundwater Interactions in the Walla Walla River, Northeast Oregon, USA : A Multi-Method Field-Based Approach

  Surface water and groundwater interactions are a key component in the functioning of stream ecosystems. Exchange of water between the stream and the hyporheic zone creates habitat for aquatic organisms ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Surface Water and Groundwater Interactions in the Walla Walla River, Northeast Oregon, USA : A Multi-Method Field-Based Approach Author: Gryczkowski, Landon Surface water and groundwater interactions are a key component in the functioning of stream ecosystems. Exchange of water between the stream and the hyporheic zone creates habitat for aquatic organisms and serves as a control for stream biogeochemical, thermal, and flow processes. This study takes a multi-method field-based approach to gain a better understanding of exchange processes in the Walla Walla River, Northeast Oregon, USA, with focus on advancing methodologies, spatial and temporal exchange dynamics, fish ecology and habitat, and geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange. Fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) was used to identify, quantify, and map cold-water inflows at the meter scale. Analysis of the maximum and minimum daily temperature traces separated each cold-water inflow into either hyporheic or groundwater-derived. DTS identified a very active hyporheic zone in this system, with a near-equal importance of hyporheic and groundwater inflows. Approximately one-third of the 2-km study reach was influence by cold-water inflows, providing significant cooling in certain areas. Using piezometers in conjunction with DTS provided validation and supplementation of DTS results, increased the reliability of conclusions, and helped to identify and understand specific exchange processes. Piezometer data showed downwelling conditions (negative head differential) except immediately downstream of riffles, with head differentials becoming increasingly negative farther downstream from a riffle. Furthermore, head differentials increased in the negative direction from left bank to right bank, indicating lateral movement of groundwater and more loss of river water from the right bank. Nearest to riffles and river bends, head differentials remained more stable over time, which may indicate that geomorphic structures influence head variations locally, while aquifer levels and dynamics have an increasing influence farther from these structures. Seasonally, head differentials became increasingly negative through the summer into fall as aquifer levels decreased, and areas of the river that lost the most water to the subsurface tended to lose more water at a faster rate as the summer progressed. However, the seasonal trend of head differentials may be counteracted by decreasing bed permeability, yielding little or no temporal change in vertical flux of water through the streambed. During high-flow events, river losses to the subsurface decreased overall; in particular, areas with the greatest water loss at low flows showed reduced losses during high flows. High variability and lack of patterns in the response to high flow events suggests complexity in this process. Temperature-related variables from DTS data were combined with habitat-related variables to determine which variables best explain pool-scale salmonid abundance. Two snorkel surveys of 23 pools within the study reach were performed. The change in temperature across the pool showed the strongest overall relationship to salmonid abundance, particularly Chinook salmon. Chinook salmon showed a stronger preference for specific pools compared to steelhead/rainbow trout. The magnitude of cold-water inflows appears more important than the presence or proportion of the pool receiving cold-water inflows, and salmonid abundance was more strongly explained by hyporheic inflows compared to groundwater. Temperature variables increased in importance relative to habitat variables in the second snorkel sample compared to sample one. The highest river temperatures of the summer occurred between the two sample dates, and this may suggest that salmonids’ affinity for cold-water refuge was enhanced through behavioral adaptation following periods of high temperature approaching the lethal threshold. The combined use of DTS, continuous electrical resistivity/induced polarization profiling, LiDAR, aerial imagery analysis, and field surveys allowed for the quantification of many geomorphic and hydraulic variables known or hypothesized to contribute to surface water and groundwater exchange processes. Regression analysis was used to determine which of these variables best explain the presence and magnitude of both groundwater and hyporheic inflows. For the first time, the cross-sectional area of the hyporheic zone was estimated at high resolution at the reach scale, and decreasing hyporheic cross-sectional area best explained both the presence and magnitude of cold-water inflows of either type. Higher water surface slope and sinuosity/curvature were next in order of importance. The presence of hyporheic inflows was also explained by higher water surface slope, sinuosity, and Reynolds number, while the magnitude of hyporheic inflows was best explained by higher sinuosity. Groundwater inflows were also explained by higher width-to-depth ratio, higher water surface slope, decreasing distance from a stream bank to the bankfull or floodplain extent, and decreasing flow velocity. Lateral processes (e.g. sinuosity) and vertical processes (e.g. water surface slope) were found to be of comparable importance, but lateral processes better explained larger decreases in stream temperature, possibly because lateral subsurface flow paths are longer in distance and duration. Hydraulic conductivity variables did not show up among the most important variables likely because of the difficulty in estimating hydraulic conductivity at the meter scale using electrical geophysical tools. Title: Surface Water and Groundwater Interactions in the Walla Walla River, Northeast Oregon, USA : A Multi-Method Field-Based Approach Author: Gryczkowski, Landon Surface water and groundwater interactions are a key component in the functioning of stream ecosystems. Exchange of water between the stream and the hyporheic zone creates habitat for aquatic organisms and serves as a control for stream biogeochemical, thermal, and flow processes. This study takes a multi-method field-based approach to gain a better understanding of exchange processes in the Walla Walla River, Northeast Oregon, USA, with focus on advancing methodologies, spatial and temporal exchange dynamics, fish ecology and habitat, and geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange. Fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) was used to identify, quantify, and map cold-water inflows at the meter scale. Analysis of the maximum and minimum daily temperature traces separated each cold-water inflow into either hyporheic or groundwater-derived. DTS identified a very active hyporheic zone in this system, with a near-equal importance of hyporheic and groundwater inflows. Approximately one-third of the 2-km study reach was influence by cold-water inflows, providing significant cooling in certain areas. Using piezometers in conjunction with DTS provided validation and supplementation of DTS results, increased the reliability of conclusions, and helped to identify and understand specific exchange processes. Piezometer data showed downwelling conditions (negative head differential) except immediately downstream of riffles, with head differentials becoming increasingly negative farther downstream from a riffle. Furthermore, head differentials increased in the negative direction from left bank to right bank, indicating lateral movement of groundwater and more loss of river water from the right bank. Nearest to riffles and river bends, head differentials remained more stable over time, which may indicate that geomorphic structures influence head variations locally, while aquifer levels and dynamics have an increasing influence farther from these structures. Seasonally, head differentials became increasingly negative through the summer into fall as aquifer levels decreased, and areas of the river that lost the most water to the subsurface tended to lose more water at a faster rate as the summer progressed. However, the seasonal trend of head differentials may be counteracted by decreasing bed permeability, yielding little or no temporal change in vertical flux of water through the streambed. During high-flow events, river losses to the subsurface decreased overall; in particular, areas with the greatest water loss at low flows showed reduced losses during high flows. High variability and lack of patterns in the response to high flow events suggests complexity in this process. Temperature-related variables from DTS data were combined with habitat-related variables to determine which variables best explain pool-scale salmonid abundance. Two snorkel surveys of 23 pools within the study reach were performed. The change in temperature across the pool showed the strongest overall relationship to salmonid abundance, particularly Chinook salmon. Chinook salmon showed a stronger preference for specific pools compared to steelhead/rainbow trout. The magnitude of cold-water inflows appears more important than the presence or proportion of the pool receiving cold-water inflows, and salmonid abundance was more strongly explained by hyporheic inflows compared to groundwater. Temperature variables increased in importance relative to habitat variables in the second snorkel sample compared to sample one. The highest river temperatures of the summer occurred between the two sample dates, and this may suggest that salmonids’ affinity for cold-water refuge was enhanced through behavioral adaptation following periods of high temperature approaching the lethal threshold. The combined use of DTS, continuous electrical resistivity/induced polarization profiling, LiDAR, aerial imagery analysis, and field surveys allowed for the quantification of many geomorphic and hydraulic variables known or hypothesized to contribute to surface water and groundwater exchange processes. Regression analysis was used to determine which of these variables best explain the presence and magnitude of both groundwater and hyporheic inflows. For the first time, the cross-sectional area of the hyporheic zone was estimated at high resolution at the reach scale, and decreasing hyporheic cross-sectional area best explained both the presence and magnitude of cold-water inflows of either type. Higher water surface slope and sinuosity/curvature were next in order of importance. The presence of hyporheic inflows was also explained by higher water surface slope, sinuosity, and Reynolds number, while the magnitude of hyporheic inflows was best explained by higher sinuosity. Groundwater inflows were also explained by higher width-to-depth ratio, higher water surface slope, decreasing distance from a stream bank to the bankfull or floodplain extent, and decreasing flow velocity. Lateral processes (e.g. sinuosity) and vertical processes (e.g. water surface slope) were found to be of comparable importance, but lateral processes better explained larger decreases in stream temperature, possibly because lateral subsurface flow paths are longer in distance and duration. Hydraulic conductivity variables did not show up among the most important variables likely because of the difficulty in estimating hydraulic conductivity at the meter scale using electrical geophysical tools. Close

• 378. [Article] Changes in the swimming performance, behavior and physiology of juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytcha) after exposure to one, two or three acute handling stresses

  The performance of an organism or organismic subsystem is the result of the interaction between the performance capacity of the system and Its environment. Environmental conditions can stress an organism ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Changes in the swimming performance, behavior and physiology of juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytcha) after exposure to one, two or three acute handling stresses Author: Sigismondi, Linda A. The performance of an organism or organismic subsystem is the result of the interaction between the performance capacity of the system and Its environment. Environmental conditions can stress an organism and thus affect it's performance. In this study, three whole organism performances were examined: critical swimming speed, fatigue time and response time to a sudden bright light. In addition, subsystem performances were examined by measuring changes in hematocrit and plasma levels of cortisol, glucose, lactic acid, osmolarity, sodium and potassium. Performance tests were made on juvenile chinook salmon stressed 0, 1, 2 or 3 times, with 1 or 3 h between stresses, and on fish allowed to recover 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h after each level of stress. A stress consisted of holding the fish in a dip net in the air for 30 sec. The physiological responses and the swimming tests were conducted on salt water adapted fish while the behavioral response was measured with fish in fresh water. Plasma levels of cortisol, lactic acid, osmolarity and sodium increased cumulatively following several acute handling stresses spaced I h apart, though each parameter returned to control levels in 6-12 h. Plasma glucose rose significantly by 1 h after the first stress and remained higher than control levels at all levels of stress and through 24 h after stress. Plasma potassium increased initially following one and two stresses, dropped below control levels within 1-6 h after the last stress, and then increased above control levels for the remainder of the 24 h. Following three stresses potassium was lower than controls initially and then was similar to the levels for one and two stresses throughout the rest of the 24 h recovery period. There was a decrease in hematocrit 3-6 h after each level of stress followed by a return to control levels within 12 h of the last stress. Critical swimming speed was measured by increasing the water velocity in a flow-through swim tube and noting the velocity at which each fish stopped swimming. Critical swimming speeds after handling were highly variable and no differences were found between stressed fish and unstressed fish at any level of stress or any recovery time. Fatigue time was measured as the time a fish can maintain position in a swim tube at a given constant water velocity (60 cm/sec). Following each fatigue test, fish were killed and blood samples were obtained. Unlike unstressed fish, which all fatigued within13 min, the times to fatigue of stressed fish varied with some fish fatiguing within a few minutes and some fish swimming the 60 min period. There was a depression in fatigue times immediately following one and three handling stresses spaced 1 h apart. Immediately after two stresses and with all groups given time to recover from stress, fatigue times were similar to or higher than for unstressed fish. Plasma levels of cortisol, glucose, osmolarity and sodium were higher in swimming fish than in non-swimming controls. Plasma concentrations of cortisol, glucose and lactic acid were all highly variable in fish following fatigue and no differences were found betweeen fish handled in a dip net and unhandled fish at any level of stress or any time after stress. Plasma osmolarity and sodium levels in fatigued fish immediately after one stress were higher than levels in unstressed fatigued fish. Plasma potassium was higher in fatigued fish than in unstressed fatigued controls at several time periods after one and three stresses. The behavior test consisted of exposing groups of salmon in fresh water to a sudden bright light and measuring the time it took each fish to reach cover. Unstressed fish reached cover within 15 sec. Stressed fish took longer to reach cover, with the greatest delay immediately after stress and a gradual decrease in response time with recovery from stress. Exposure to two and three consecutive stress with 3 h between stresses increased the response times and the recovery times indicating that the effects of stress were cumulative. Title: Changes in the swimming performance, behavior and physiology of juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytcha) after exposure to one, two or three acute handling stresses Author: Sigismondi, Linda A. The performance of an organism or organismic subsystem is the result of the interaction between the performance capacity of the system and Its environment. Environmental conditions can stress an organism and thus affect it's performance. In this study, three whole organism performances were examined: critical swimming speed, fatigue time and response time to a sudden bright light. In addition, subsystem performances were examined by measuring changes in hematocrit and plasma levels of cortisol, glucose, lactic acid, osmolarity, sodium and potassium. Performance tests were made on juvenile chinook salmon stressed 0, 1, 2 or 3 times, with 1 or 3 h between stresses, and on fish allowed to recover 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h after each level of stress. A stress consisted of holding the fish in a dip net in the air for 30 sec. The physiological responses and the swimming tests were conducted on salt water adapted fish while the behavioral response was measured with fish in fresh water. Plasma levels of cortisol, lactic acid, osmolarity and sodium increased cumulatively following several acute handling stresses spaced I h apart, though each parameter returned to control levels in 6-12 h. Plasma glucose rose significantly by 1 h after the first stress and remained higher than control levels at all levels of stress and through 24 h after stress. Plasma potassium increased initially following one and two stresses, dropped below control levels within 1-6 h after the last stress, and then increased above control levels for the remainder of the 24 h. Following three stresses potassium was lower than controls initially and then was similar to the levels for one and two stresses throughout the rest of the 24 h recovery period. There was a decrease in hematocrit 3-6 h after each level of stress followed by a return to control levels within 12 h of the last stress. Critical swimming speed was measured by increasing the water velocity in a flow-through swim tube and noting the velocity at which each fish stopped swimming. Critical swimming speeds after handling were highly variable and no differences were found between stressed fish and unstressed fish at any level of stress or any recovery time. Fatigue time was measured as the time a fish can maintain position in a swim tube at a given constant water velocity (60 cm/sec). Following each fatigue test, fish were killed and blood samples were obtained. Unlike unstressed fish, which all fatigued within13 min, the times to fatigue of stressed fish varied with some fish fatiguing within a few minutes and some fish swimming the 60 min period. There was a depression in fatigue times immediately following one and three handling stresses spaced 1 h apart. Immediately after two stresses and with all groups given time to recover from stress, fatigue times were similar to or higher than for unstressed fish. Plasma levels of cortisol, glucose, osmolarity and sodium were higher in swimming fish than in non-swimming controls. Plasma concentrations of cortisol, glucose and lactic acid were all highly variable in fish following fatigue and no differences were found betweeen fish handled in a dip net and unhandled fish at any level of stress or any time after stress. Plasma osmolarity and sodium levels in fatigued fish immediately after one stress were higher than levels in unstressed fatigued fish. Plasma potassium was higher in fatigued fish than in unstressed fatigued controls at several time periods after one and three stresses. The behavior test consisted of exposing groups of salmon in fresh water to a sudden bright light and measuring the time it took each fish to reach cover. Unstressed fish reached cover within 15 sec. Stressed fish took longer to reach cover, with the greatest delay immediately after stress and a gradual decrease in response time with recovery from stress. Exposure to two and three consecutive stress with 3 h between stresses increased the response times and the recovery times indicating that the effects of stress were cumulative. Close

• 379. [Image] Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 2; Technical guide and appendixes

  	Title from cover; "May 1991"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 2; Technical guide and appendixes Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991" Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 2; Technical guide and appendixes Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991" Close

• 380. [Image] September 2002 Klamath River fish-kill : final analysis of contributing factors and impacts

  	"July 2004"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: September 2002 Klamath River fish-kill : final analysis of contributing factors and impacts Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "July 2004" Title: September 2002 Klamath River fish-kill : final analysis of contributing factors and impacts Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "July 2004" Close

• 381. [Image] A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest

  	Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Title: A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest Year: 2004 Abstract Everest, Fred H.; Stouder, Deanna J.; Kakoyannis, Christina; Houston, Laurie; Stankey, George; Kline, Jeffery; Alig, Ralph. 2004. A review of scientific information on issues related to the use and management of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-595. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 128 p. Fresh water is a valuable and essential commodity in the Pacific Northwest States, specifically Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and one provided abundantly by forested watersheds in the region. The maintenance and growth of industrial, municipal, agricultural, and recreational activities in the region are dependent on adequate and sustainable supplies of fresh water from surface and ground-water sources. Future development, especially in the semiarid intermountain area, depends on the conservation and expansion of the region's water resource. This synthesis reviews the state of our knowledge and condition of water resources in the Pacific Northwest. Keywords: Water distribution, flow regimes, water demand, conflicts, tools, water use. Close

• 382. [Image] Preparation plan for the Klamath River management plan and environmental impact statement

  	"October 2001"; "This planning effort is being undertaken because the current recreation plan is outdated, almost 20 years old . . . At the conclusion of this planning effort there will be one [Environmental ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Preparation plan for the Klamath River management plan and environmental impact statement Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2001, 2005 "October 2001"; "This planning effort is being undertaken because the current recreation plan is outdated, almost 20 years old . . . At the conclusion of this planning effort there will be one [Environmental Impact Statement] and management plan that will guide and coordinate all land management activities along the river. This EIS could amend both the BLM Redding (Califonia) and the Klamath Falls (Oregon) Resource Management Plans."- Introduction.; This document appears to be a planning document to organize the process of completing later documents, including the Draft Upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments (2003) which can be found at http://klamathwaterlib.oit.edu/cgi-bin/viewer.exe?CISOROOT=/WaterLibContent&CISOPTR=110 Title: Preparation plan for the Klamath River management plan and environmental impact statement Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2001, 2005 "October 2001"; "This planning effort is being undertaken because the current recreation plan is outdated, almost 20 years old . . . At the conclusion of this planning effort there will be one [Environmental Impact Statement] and management plan that will guide and coordinate all land management activities along the river. This EIS could amend both the BLM Redding (Califonia) and the Klamath Falls (Oregon) Resource Management Plans."- Introduction.; This document appears to be a planning document to organize the process of completing later documents, including the Draft Upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments (2003) which can be found at http://klamathwaterlib.oit.edu/cgi-bin/viewer.exe?CISOROOT=/WaterLibContent&CISOPTR=110 Close

• 383. [Image] Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004

  	CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Title: Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004 Author: United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67 Close

• 384. [Article] The ecology of riparian ecosystems of Northeast Oregon : shrub recovery at Meadow Creek and the structure and biomass of headwater Upper Grande Ronde ecosystems

  Riparian ecosystems play numerous and essential roles related to the quality and flow of water, and food/habitat for fish, and varieties of wildlife. Due to lateral and linear linkages throughout the landscape, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The ecology of riparian ecosystems of Northeast Oregon : shrub recovery at Meadow Creek and the structure and biomass of headwater Upper Grande Ronde ecosystems Author: Case, Richard L. Riparian ecosystems play numerous and essential roles related to the quality and flow of water, and food/habitat for fish, and varieties of wildlife. Due to lateral and linear linkages throughout the landscape, these zones influence the integrity of the terrestrial as well as the entire aquatic-riverine ecosystem. Since Euro-American settlement in the West, the structure and condition of many riparian ecosystems has been significantly altered. To provide tools and an ecological perspective related to riparian restoration and management, and to document late 20th century headwater riparian structure and biomass in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, this research project was undertaken. At Meadow Creek, the response of riparian hardwood species to the termination of livestock grazing was quantified. Regression equations were developed to predict shrub biomass. Permanently marked hardwood plants were measured annually to quantify parameters of growth (height, crown area, mainstem diameter, number of stems, biomass). Permanent belt transects on gravel bars were utilized to quantify rates of shrub establishment. Elk/deer-proof exclosures allowed the quantification of the browsing influence of wild ungulates. In 1991, initial shrub heights and densities reflected decades of grazing pressure. Mean heights of515 woody plants (14 species) was 47 cm and densities on gravel bars averaged 10.7 plants/100m². After two seasons without livestock grazing, mean crown volumes of willows (Salix spp.) increased 550% inside of wild ungulate exclosures and 195% outside, black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) 773% inside and 808% outside, and thin-leaf alder (Almis incana) 1046% inside and 198% outside, respectively. Willows were significantly impeded (p<0.Ol) mule deer and Rocky Mountain elk, alder samples were too small to statistically test, and cottonwood was not significantly impeded. However, impacts by deer and elk may be exaggerated due to high densities and the ungulate density-dynamics unique within the 77 km² Starkey Experimental Forest big-game enclosure surrounding the study site. Establishment rates are low at this time, i.e., only 10% of previously suppressed willows produced catkins. Although in transects densities increased by 5 new woody plants/lOOm² (50m of streambank). Other non-anthropogenic factors influencing the recovery of shrubs, included beaver which removed mainstems from 20% of willows, 11% of thin-leaf alder, and 4% of black cottonwood, and active insect defoliation which was noted on 16% of willows, 7% of thin-leaf alder, and 0% of black cottonwood. Crude protein levels measured in willow and alder leaves was relatively high (16.1 to 16.3%) helping to explain their palatability and use by wild and domestic herbivores. Few studies have quantified biomass, structure and composition of headwater riparian ecosystems. Data such as this are important given their dominant roles in ecosystem biodiversity, and aquatic function. To document relatively intact forested headwater ripanan conditions in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, the biomass, structure and composition along six headwater reaches was quantified. Sampling was done using a nested belt transect/plot arrangement along 500 meter reaches. Total aboveground biomass (TAGB) ranged from 203 to 261 Mg/ha, with overstory conifers contributing 101 to 177 Mg/ha. Living understory components (saplings, seedlings, shrubs, and herbs) comprised 5 to 18 Mg/ha (2 to 9% of TAGB), while forest floor detrital accumulations comprised 65 to 101 Mg/ha (29 to 42% of TAGB). Average shade per day for July, 1993 ranged between 53% and 75%, reducing the unshaded solar energy potential of 2390 Mj/day to between 680 and 1280 Mj/day striking each m² of stream surface. This baseline reference information can serve in multi-disciplined research, as well as, be a basis for long term studies of natural systems responding to changing climate and different resource management scenarios. Title: The ecology of riparian ecosystems of Northeast Oregon : shrub recovery at Meadow Creek and the structure and biomass of headwater Upper Grande Ronde ecosystems Author: Case, Richard L. Riparian ecosystems play numerous and essential roles related to the quality and flow of water, and food/habitat for fish, and varieties of wildlife. Due to lateral and linear linkages throughout the landscape, these zones influence the integrity of the terrestrial as well as the entire aquatic-riverine ecosystem. Since Euro-American settlement in the West, the structure and condition of many riparian ecosystems has been significantly altered. To provide tools and an ecological perspective related to riparian restoration and management, and to document late 20th century headwater riparian structure and biomass in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, this research project was undertaken. At Meadow Creek, the response of riparian hardwood species to the termination of livestock grazing was quantified. Regression equations were developed to predict shrub biomass. Permanently marked hardwood plants were measured annually to quantify parameters of growth (height, crown area, mainstem diameter, number of stems, biomass). Permanent belt transects on gravel bars were utilized to quantify rates of shrub establishment. Elk/deer-proof exclosures allowed the quantification of the browsing influence of wild ungulates. In 1991, initial shrub heights and densities reflected decades of grazing pressure. Mean heights of515 woody plants (14 species) was 47 cm and densities on gravel bars averaged 10.7 plants/100m². After two seasons without livestock grazing, mean crown volumes of willows (Salix spp.) increased 550% inside of wild ungulate exclosures and 195% outside, black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) 773% inside and 808% outside, and thin-leaf alder (Almis incana) 1046% inside and 198% outside, respectively. Willows were significantly impeded (p<0.Ol) mule deer and Rocky Mountain elk, alder samples were too small to statistically test, and cottonwood was not significantly impeded. However, impacts by deer and elk may be exaggerated due to high densities and the ungulate density-dynamics unique within the 77 km² Starkey Experimental Forest big-game enclosure surrounding the study site. Establishment rates are low at this time, i.e., only 10% of previously suppressed willows produced catkins. Although in transects densities increased by 5 new woody plants/lOOm² (50m of streambank). Other non-anthropogenic factors influencing the recovery of shrubs, included beaver which removed mainstems from 20% of willows, 11% of thin-leaf alder, and 4% of black cottonwood, and active insect defoliation which was noted on 16% of willows, 7% of thin-leaf alder, and 0% of black cottonwood. Crude protein levels measured in willow and alder leaves was relatively high (16.1 to 16.3%) helping to explain their palatability and use by wild and domestic herbivores. Few studies have quantified biomass, structure and composition of headwater riparian ecosystems. Data such as this are important given their dominant roles in ecosystem biodiversity, and aquatic function. To document relatively intact forested headwater ripanan conditions in the Upper Grande Ronde Basin, the biomass, structure and composition along six headwater reaches was quantified. Sampling was done using a nested belt transect/plot arrangement along 500 meter reaches. Total aboveground biomass (TAGB) ranged from 203 to 261 Mg/ha, with overstory conifers contributing 101 to 177 Mg/ha. Living understory components (saplings, seedlings, shrubs, and herbs) comprised 5 to 18 Mg/ha (2 to 9% of TAGB), while forest floor detrital accumulations comprised 65 to 101 Mg/ha (29 to 42% of TAGB). Average shade per day for July, 1993 ranged between 53% and 75%, reducing the unshaded solar energy potential of 2390 Mj/day to between 680 and 1280 Mj/day striking each m² of stream surface. This baseline reference information can serve in multi-disciplined research, as well as, be a basis for long term studies of natural systems responding to changing climate and different resource management scenarios. Close

• 385. [Image] Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide

  	"May 1999"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide Author: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "May 1999" Title: Oregon aquatic habitat restoration and enhancement guide Author: Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "May 1999" Close

• 386. [Image] Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: draft visitor services plan, environmental impact statement

  	"November 1997."; Includes bibliographical references (155-163) and index
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: draft visitor services plan, environmental impact statement Author: United States. National Park Service Year: 1997, 2008 "November 1997."; Includes bibliographical references (155-163) and index Title: Crater Lake National Park, Oregon: draft visitor services plan, environmental impact statement Author: United States. National Park Service Year: 1997, 2008 "November 1997."; Includes bibliographical references (155-163) and index Close

• 387. [Image] Geology and ground-water resources of the Swan Lake-Yonna Valleys area, Klamath County, Oregon

  	Abstract The Swan Lake-Yonna Valleys area consists of two intermountain valleys with their subordinate side valleys adjoining slopes, and mountainous boundary ridges, In all the area covered is about 256 ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geology and ground-water resources of the Swan Lake-Yonna Valleys area, Klamath County, Oregon Author: Meyers, Joseph D. Year: 1952, 2007, 2005 Abstract The Swan Lake-Yonna Valleys area consists of two intermountain valleys with their subordinate side valleys adjoining slopes, and mountainous boundary ridges, In all the area covered is about 256 square miles but the essential agricultural sections are restricted to the floors of Swan Lake and Yonna valleys with their respective subsidiary extensions of Pine Flats and Alkali Lake flats, a valley-floor area totaling about 90 square miles The floors of Swan Lake Valley and Yonna Valley lie at an altitude of about U52OO feet but the mountainous boundary ridges rise generally to 6000 feeto Yonna Valley is largely drained to Lost River by Buck Creek but also in part to Alkali Lakeo Swan Lake Valley and Pine Flats have only internal drainage. The Swan Lake Valley floor is the top of a deep alluvial fill, while Yonna Valley floor is mainly an erosional surface sloping to lines of through drainage Precipitation is about lit inches annually on the valley floors 9 but must be much more, possibly 18 to 24 inches, on the higher parts of the drainage basins. The growing season is short and killing frosts do occur in late spring and early fall. The rock units forming the bedrock structure of the area are consolidated or semiconsolidated rocks of Tertiary age and are largely of volcanic-flow and volcanic-sedimentary originc They consist of three main elements, a lower lava-rock unit, a sedimentary and volcanic-sedimentary unit, and an upper lava-rock unito The unconsolidated deposits are the older alluvium of Quaternary (and in part of late-Tertiary) age and the younger alluvium of Quaternary age0 The bedrock is faulted and deformed particularly so along a northwest-southeast set of fault lines that have given a remarkable linearity to the topography. Unpublished records subject to revision Ground water occurs below a regional water table that slopes south-ward to the level of the Lost Rivero The upper lava rocks and the lower lava rocks contain the principal permeable zones that occur beneath the areao Breccia and other porous zones in those rocks in places yield water to wells at a rate as large as 35OOO gallons per minute with but 1 or 2 feet of drawdowno The economical construction of irrigation wells requires the determination of the best possible location at which those rocks may be tapped at shallow depth below the level of the water tableo The ground water in general relatively low in dissolved mineral matter and is but slightly to moderately hard and would be considered chemically satisfactory for most uaeso Irrigation is the principal use of the ground water in the area north of the Horsefly Irrigation Districto There 3? wells supplied about 6,000 acre-feet of water to about 3800 acres of land in 1950. Water-level records obtained since 19U8 and approximations of the probable annual recharge from precipitation indicate that the present withdrawals are considerably less than the annual increment of the ground-water recharge, Rough estimates indicate that an increase in withdrawals of as much as 100 percent or more can take place before ground-water levels, by a persistent lowering, will begin to indicate that the annual replenishment is being exceeded. Title: Geology and ground-water resources of the Swan Lake-Yonna Valleys area, Klamath County, Oregon Author: Meyers, Joseph D. Year: 1952, 2007, 2005 Abstract The Swan Lake-Yonna Valleys area consists of two intermountain valleys with their subordinate side valleys adjoining slopes, and mountainous boundary ridges, In all the area covered is about 256 square miles but the essential agricultural sections are restricted to the floors of Swan Lake and Yonna valleys with their respective subsidiary extensions of Pine Flats and Alkali Lake flats, a valley-floor area totaling about 90 square miles The floors of Swan Lake Valley and Yonna Valley lie at an altitude of about U52OO feet but the mountainous boundary ridges rise generally to 6000 feeto Yonna Valley is largely drained to Lost River by Buck Creek but also in part to Alkali Lakeo Swan Lake Valley and Pine Flats have only internal drainage. The Swan Lake Valley floor is the top of a deep alluvial fill, while Yonna Valley floor is mainly an erosional surface sloping to lines of through drainage Precipitation is about lit inches annually on the valley floors 9 but must be much more, possibly 18 to 24 inches, on the higher parts of the drainage basins. The growing season is short and killing frosts do occur in late spring and early fall. The rock units forming the bedrock structure of the area are consolidated or semiconsolidated rocks of Tertiary age and are largely of volcanic-flow and volcanic-sedimentary originc They consist of three main elements, a lower lava-rock unit, a sedimentary and volcanic-sedimentary unit, and an upper lava-rock unito The unconsolidated deposits are the older alluvium of Quaternary (and in part of late-Tertiary) age and the younger alluvium of Quaternary age0 The bedrock is faulted and deformed particularly so along a northwest-southeast set of fault lines that have given a remarkable linearity to the topography. Unpublished records subject to revision Ground water occurs below a regional water table that slopes south-ward to the level of the Lost Rivero The upper lava rocks and the lower lava rocks contain the principal permeable zones that occur beneath the areao Breccia and other porous zones in those rocks in places yield water to wells at a rate as large as 35OOO gallons per minute with but 1 or 2 feet of drawdowno The economical construction of irrigation wells requires the determination of the best possible location at which those rocks may be tapped at shallow depth below the level of the water tableo The ground water in general relatively low in dissolved mineral matter and is but slightly to moderately hard and would be considered chemically satisfactory for most uaeso Irrigation is the principal use of the ground water in the area north of the Horsefly Irrigation Districto There 3? wells supplied about 6,000 acre-feet of water to about 3800 acres of land in 1950. Water-level records obtained since 19U8 and approximations of the probable annual recharge from precipitation indicate that the present withdrawals are considerably less than the annual increment of the ground-water recharge, Rough estimates indicate that an increase in withdrawals of as much as 100 percent or more can take place before ground-water levels, by a persistent lowering, will begin to indicate that the annual replenishment is being exceeded. Close

• 388. [Image] Groundwater investigation of Bonanza Springs, Yonna, Poe and Langel valleys

  	PURPOSE, SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY A reconnaissance study was designed to collect, compile, and analyze data to determine if ground-water use would interfere with surface water sources near Big Bonanza Springs. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Groundwater investigation of Bonanza Springs, Yonna, Poe and Langel valleys Author: Gorman, Kyle G. Year: 1994, 2004 PURPOSE, SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY A reconnaissance study was designed to collect, compile, and analyze data to determine if ground-water use would interfere with surface water sources near Big Bonanza Springs. The study was to last one year from July 1992 to June 1993. Periodic water level measurements and stream flow measurements have been made since June 1993, to create a more complete data set. Water level measurements in selected wells were made periodically to determine groundwater level fluctuations over time. A continuous water level recorder was installed in one well in September 1992 and is currently scheduled to run until spring 1994, when its status will be evaluated. The emphasis on work in the local area around Bonanza included monthly water level measurements, Lost River stream flow measurements, and Bonanza Springs weir measurements. This area has the highest concentration of wells, both domestic and irrigation, and is of particular interest because of the large aggregate discharge of groundwater in a short reach of the Lost River. To quantify the discharge of the Bonanza Springs, wading stream flow measurements were made above and below the section of the Lost River where groundwater is known to discharge. The difference between the two measurements was assumed to give the discharge of the springs in that reach. To correlate the overall flow of Bonanza Springs to the direct measurement of some of the discharge points, various-sized rectangular weirs were placed in the northern channel of the springs in the Big Bonanza Springs Park. The comparison could then be made by making sets of measurements at all locations in a single day. The total potential use was determined by summing the number of cubic feet per second (cfs) on the pending applications filed with OWRD for the appropriation of groundwater in the area within the study boundaries. This area coincides with the valley lowland areas. The total maximum rate of appropriation under terms of existing permits was determined by valley only in Langell Valley for the 1992 irrigation season. This was done by summing the individual rates in permits for irrigation, stock and domestic purposes, if any. This total included all issued permits and emergency drought permits exclusively from groundwater. Sample drill cuttings were collected from wells under construction during the study period within the study boundaries. The samples were examined in an effort to correlate geology defined in past studies with present knowledge. They were also used to conceptualize the subsurface geology. A video log of the well bore in which the continuous water level recorder was installed was done in early October 1992. Since this well was constructed prior to the requirement of a well drilling report, a video log of the rock types throughout the well bore was recorded. This information was important in evaluating static water level information also collected by the recorder. Title: Groundwater investigation of Bonanza Springs, Yonna, Poe and Langel valleys Author: Gorman, Kyle G. Year: 1994, 2004 PURPOSE, SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY A reconnaissance study was designed to collect, compile, and analyze data to determine if ground-water use would interfere with surface water sources near Big Bonanza Springs. The study was to last one year from July 1992 to June 1993. Periodic water level measurements and stream flow measurements have been made since June 1993, to create a more complete data set. Water level measurements in selected wells were made periodically to determine groundwater level fluctuations over time. A continuous water level recorder was installed in one well in September 1992 and is currently scheduled to run until spring 1994, when its status will be evaluated. The emphasis on work in the local area around Bonanza included monthly water level measurements, Lost River stream flow measurements, and Bonanza Springs weir measurements. This area has the highest concentration of wells, both domestic and irrigation, and is of particular interest because of the large aggregate discharge of groundwater in a short reach of the Lost River. To quantify the discharge of the Bonanza Springs, wading stream flow measurements were made above and below the section of the Lost River where groundwater is known to discharge. The difference between the two measurements was assumed to give the discharge of the springs in that reach. To correlate the overall flow of Bonanza Springs to the direct measurement of some of the discharge points, various-sized rectangular weirs were placed in the northern channel of the springs in the Big Bonanza Springs Park. The comparison could then be made by making sets of measurements at all locations in a single day. The total potential use was determined by summing the number of cubic feet per second (cfs) on the pending applications filed with OWRD for the appropriation of groundwater in the area within the study boundaries. This area coincides with the valley lowland areas. The total maximum rate of appropriation under terms of existing permits was determined by valley only in Langell Valley for the 1992 irrigation season. This was done by summing the individual rates in permits for irrigation, stock and domestic purposes, if any. This total included all issued permits and emergency drought permits exclusively from groundwater. Sample drill cuttings were collected from wells under construction during the study period within the study boundaries. The samples were examined in an effort to correlate geology defined in past studies with present knowledge. They were also used to conceptualize the subsurface geology. A video log of the well bore in which the continuous water level recorder was installed was done in early October 1992. Since this well was constructed prior to the requirement of a well drilling report, a video log of the rock types throughout the well bore was recorded. This information was important in evaluating static water level information also collected by the recorder. Close

• 389. [Image] The Water Report. Klamath Decisions: Court rulings on "takings" and BIOP/RPA sufficiency

  	Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. The abbreviations in the title are for Biological opinion (BIOP) and reasonable and prudent alternative ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Water Report. Klamath Decisions: Court rulings on "takings" and BIOP/RPA sufficiency Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. The abbreviations in the title are for Biological opinion (BIOP) and reasonable and prudent alternative (RPA). See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Title: The Water Report. Klamath Decisions: Court rulings on "takings" and BIOP/RPA sufficiency Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. The abbreviations in the title are for Biological opinion (BIOP) and reasonable and prudent alternative (RPA). See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Close

• 390. [Image] Klamath wild and scenic river eligibility report and environmental assessment : Klamath River, Oregon : draft

  	"February 1994." ; "Much of this document was taken directly from, or based on, the Bureau of Land Management's earlier studies of the Klamath River: the Final eligibility and suitability report for the ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath wild and scenic river eligibility report and environmental assessment : Klamath River, Oregon : draft Author: United States. National Park Service. Pacific Northwest Region Year: 1994, 2004 "February 1994." ; "Much of this document was taken directly from, or based on, the Bureau of Land Management's earlier studies of the Klamath River: the Final eligibility and suitability report for the Upper Klamath wild and scenic river study and the Draft Klamath Falls area resource management plan and environmental impact statement. This assessment also borrowed heavily from the Final environmental impact statement for the Salt Caves hydroelectric project prepared by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission."-p.i ; "State of Oregon application, Section 2(a)(ii) National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act." Title: Klamath wild and scenic river eligibility report and environmental assessment : Klamath River, Oregon : draft Author: United States. National Park Service. Pacific Northwest Region Year: 1994, 2004 "February 1994." ; "Much of this document was taken directly from, or based on, the Bureau of Land Management's earlier studies of the Klamath River: the Final eligibility and suitability report for the Upper Klamath wild and scenic river study and the Draft Klamath Falls area resource management plan and environmental impact statement. This assessment also borrowed heavily from the Final environmental impact statement for the Salt Caves hydroelectric project prepared by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission."-p.i ; "State of Oregon application, Section 2(a)(ii) National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act." Close

• 391. [Image] Evaluation of interim instream flow needs in the Klamath River : Phase I, final report

  	"August 5, 1999"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Evaluation of interim instream flow needs in the Klamath River : Phase I, final report Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 1999, 2005 "August 5, 1999" Title: Evaluation of interim instream flow needs in the Klamath River : Phase I, final report Author: United States. Dept. of the Interior Year: 1999, 2005 "August 5, 1999" Close

• 392. [Image] Upper Klamath Lake Basin nutrient-loading study: assessment of historic flows in the Williamson and Sprague Rivers

  	"The goal of the project is to quantitatively describe the nature and extent of the ground-water flow systems in the basin."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Upper Klamath Lake Basin nutrient-loading study: assessment of historic flows in the Williamson and Sprague Rivers Author: Risley, John C. Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "The goal of the project is to quantitatively describe the nature and extent of the ground-water flow systems in the basin." Title: Upper Klamath Lake Basin nutrient-loading study: assessment of historic flows in the Williamson and Sprague Rivers Author: Risley, John C. Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "The goal of the project is to quantitatively describe the nature and extent of the ground-water flow systems in the basin." Close

• 393. [Image] Geological and Geophysical Analysis of Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole No. 1 (CGEH-1), Coso Hot Springs KGRA, California

  	The Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole number one (CGEH-1) was drilled in the Coso Hot Springs KGRA, California, from September 2 to December 2, 1977. Chip samples were collected at ten foot intervals and ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geological and Geophysical Analysis of Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole No. 1 (CGEH-1), Coso Hot Springs KGRA, California Author: Galbraith, R.M. Year: 1978 The Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole number one (CGEH-1) was drilled in the Coso Hot Springs KGRA, California, from September 2 to December 2, 1977. Chip samples were collected at ten foot intervals and extensive geophysical logging surveys were conducted to document the geologic character of the geothermal system as penetrated by CGEH-1. The major rock units encountered include a mafic metamorphic sequence and a leucogranite which intruded the metamorphic rocks. Only weak hydrothermal alteration was noted in these rocks. Drillhole surveys and drilling rate data indicate that the geothermal system is structurally controlled and that the drillhole itself was strongly influenced by structural zones. Water chemistry indicates that this geothermal resource is a hot-water rather than a vapor-dominated system. Several geophysical logs were employed to characterize the drillhole geology. The natural gamma and neutron porosity logs indicate gross rock type and the acoustics logs indicate fractured rock and potentially permeable zones. A series of temperature logs run as a function of time during and after the completion of drilling were most useful in delineating the zones of maximum heat flux. Convective heat flow and temperatures greater than 350/sup 0/F appear to occur only along an open fracture system encountered between depths of 1850 and 2775 feet. Temperature logs indicate a negative thermal gradient below 3000 feet Title: Geological and Geophysical Analysis of Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole No. 1 (CGEH-1), Coso Hot Springs KGRA, California Author: Galbraith, R.M. Year: 1978 The Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole number one (CGEH-1) was drilled in the Coso Hot Springs KGRA, California, from September 2 to December 2, 1977. Chip samples were collected at ten foot intervals and extensive geophysical logging surveys were conducted to document the geologic character of the geothermal system as penetrated by CGEH-1. The major rock units encountered include a mafic metamorphic sequence and a leucogranite which intruded the metamorphic rocks. Only weak hydrothermal alteration was noted in these rocks. Drillhole surveys and drilling rate data indicate that the geothermal system is structurally controlled and that the drillhole itself was strongly influenced by structural zones. Water chemistry indicates that this geothermal resource is a hot-water rather than a vapor-dominated system. Several geophysical logs were employed to characterize the drillhole geology. The natural gamma and neutron porosity logs indicate gross rock type and the acoustics logs indicate fractured rock and potentially permeable zones. A series of temperature logs run as a function of time during and after the completion of drilling were most useful in delineating the zones of maximum heat flux. Convective heat flow and temperatures greater than 350/sup 0/F appear to occur only along an open fracture system encountered between depths of 1850 and 2775 feet. Temperature logs indicate a negative thermal gradient below 3000 feet Close

• 394. [Image] Farming practices and water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin : final report to the California State Water Resources Control Board : 205j program

  	Summary The Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) is a high desert region straddling the California-Oregon border east of the Cascade Range. Irrigation and other agricultural practices in the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Farming practices and water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin : final report to the California State Water Resources Control Board : 205j program Author: Danosky, Earl; Kaffka, Stephen Year: 2002, 2007, 2006 Summary The Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) is a high desert region straddling the California-Oregon border east of the Cascade Range. Irrigation and other agricultural practices in the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project may result in impaired surface water quality, reducing its use for wildlife and fish in important national wildlife refuges that receive drainage water from farms, and in the Klamath River. By 2004, a system of total maximum daily loads (TMDL) for nutrients must be established for the Klamath River. To investigate the relationships among agricultural practices and surface water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin, a two year reconnaissance survey of surface water and agricultural tile drain locations, focusing on nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and mass transfers was conducted. Data was collected at 18 surface locations and 10 tile drain locations. Triplicate samples were taken every ten days during the growing season (April through October) and one or two times a month during the remainder of the months, depending on opportunity. No samples were taken from tile drains during the winter months because there was no irrigation and drainage during that period. Water samples were analyzed for phosphorus (total P, soluble reactive P, total filterable P, and particulate P) and nitrogen (total N, soluble N, Soluble organic N, total filterable N, particulate N, and ammonia N), temperature, pH and electrical conductivity, a measure of salinity or total dissolved solids. Analyses of data, including data quality, estimates of the transfer of nutrients in surface waters in the region, and hypotheses about the relationship between agriculture and water quality are reported. 1. The salt and nutrient content of surface waters increases nearly threefold as water moves through the watershed from the Lost River and J canal diversion to the Klamath Straits Drain. Mean ECW levels in input waters at the J canal diversion were approximately 250 \iS cm1, while water sampled at the D pump increased to 600 ^S cm"1 on average over the sample period. By the time water reenters the Klamath River, salt concentrations have increased to approximately 700 jaS cm1. 2. The ECW values observed in subsurface tile drains were higher on average than in input waters and surface waters elsewhere in the region, especially in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake Irrigation District (TID). ECW values averaged approximately 2,500 ^S cm"1 . Recycling irrigation water through soils in the TID increases the salinity of the water, especially by the time it reaches and is reused in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake National Wildlife Refuge (TLNWR). Soils in this part of the Klamath Project area are naturally high in salt. 3. Water temperatures in agricultural subsurface tile drains were significantly lower than surface water temperatures during the growing season when tile drains were active. pH values in tile drains were lower than surface water values. The temperature and pH of tile drains does not influence surface water values. 1. 4. For total phosphorus (TP) input waters at the J canal irrigation diversion for the TED averaged approximately 0.27 mg L1 for the two years reported. Water leaving the Tulelake Sumps at the D pump increases to 0.33 mg L1. Water leaving the Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (LKNWR) sampled at the start of the Klamath Straits Drain, averaged 0.33 mg L1, similar to those at the D pump. TP increased further to 0.40 mg L"1 a the end of the Klamath Straits Drain. The overall increase in P concentration in surface waters was much less than for salt, suggesting that processes other than simple enrichment are occurring, particularly those associated with the exchange of sedimentary P and aquatic plant species. TN increases from 2.3 mg L"1 to 4.0 mg L1 over the same pathway. Atomic ratios (TN:TP) of surface water samples remain constant at approximately 10:1 throughout the system, suggesting that the amount of sediment and other small particulate matter in surface waters affects the values observed. The amount of sediment is influenced in part by the agitation of surface water as it passes through pumps and over weirs. 5. The average seasonal TP value in tile drains beneath farm fields is approximately 0.34 mg L"1 . While average total P values in subsurface tile drains were not different from those found at the D pump and the LKNWR outlet, the range in values was great (0.1 to 0.8 mg L1). Similarly, high NO3 -N values were observed at times in tile drains. Very high values in tile drains lead to the inference that some fertilizer N and P is lost in drainage water, combined with nutrients derived from decaying soil organic matter. The amount estimated as lost is much less than the amount of surplus fertilizer P applied and the amount of P surmised to be mineralized from decaying soil organic matter. P from fertilizer and decaying organic matter appears to be accumulating in soils and lake sediments in the region. 6. Ammonia N concentrations are at or below the limit of detection in subsurface agricultural tile lines and one to two orders of magnitude below the values observed in surface soils. Un ionized ammonia increases with temperature. Values above 0.25 mg L1 were observed in late summer at several locations. 7. Some leaching of soluble salts and nutrients is unavoidable when crops are irrigated. P fertilizer is applied at rates higher than crop removal, while fertilizer n is applied at rates less than crop removal. Reduced fertilizer use can help bring P inputs and outputs into balance and may reduce further any avoidable losses of P. This objective should be the subject of an agronomic research program in the region. 8. Surface waters entering the TDD, the TLNWR, and the LKNWR are already enriched with N and P. It seems unlikely that reducing N and P losses from farming in the TID, if possible, would influence surface water quality sufficiently to make them significantly less eutrophic. For P, the hypothesized threshold concentration limiting algae growth in fresh waters is 5 to 25 times smaller than the values observed in waters entering the TID for irrigation use. The addition of 1. nutrients from agriculture probably does not influence significantly surface water quality in the region. Wetland sediments, large amounts of organic matter in soils, and water introduced for irrigation contain essentially unlimited amounts of nutrients for aquatic plant growth. It is not clear how this circumstance could be changed under any reasonable time frame, if ever. 9. Using a TMDL approach may not result in reduced amounts of nutrients returned to the Klamath River because wetlands and farming practices in the southern portion of the Klamath Project result in the net removal of nutrients from the waters diverted for irrigation on a yearly basis, compared to allowing the same amount of water simply to flow down the river unused. Because of large errors of estimation for the amounts of water transferred, combined with smaller errors associated with estimating nutrient concentrations in water samples, and with year to year climate variation, TMDLs may not be an effective or efficient means of reducing nutrients in return flows to the Klamath River. Rational confidence limits for TMDLs may have to be too broad to be effective. Recycling of some drainage water for irrigation would reduce the amount of nutrients returned to the river more effectively than implementing a TMDL program. Title: Farming practices and water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin : final report to the California State Water Resources Control Board : 205j program Author: Danosky, Earl; Kaffka, Stephen Year: 2002, 2007, 2006 Summary The Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) is a high desert region straddling the California-Oregon border east of the Cascade Range. Irrigation and other agricultural practices in the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project may result in impaired surface water quality, reducing its use for wildlife and fish in important national wildlife refuges that receive drainage water from farms, and in the Klamath River. By 2004, a system of total maximum daily loads (TMDL) for nutrients must be established for the Klamath River. To investigate the relationships among agricultural practices and surface water quality in the Upper Klamath Basin, a two year reconnaissance survey of surface water and agricultural tile drain locations, focusing on nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and mass transfers was conducted. Data was collected at 18 surface locations and 10 tile drain locations. Triplicate samples were taken every ten days during the growing season (April through October) and one or two times a month during the remainder of the months, depending on opportunity. No samples were taken from tile drains during the winter months because there was no irrigation and drainage during that period. Water samples were analyzed for phosphorus (total P, soluble reactive P, total filterable P, and particulate P) and nitrogen (total N, soluble N, Soluble organic N, total filterable N, particulate N, and ammonia N), temperature, pH and electrical conductivity, a measure of salinity or total dissolved solids. Analyses of data, including data quality, estimates of the transfer of nutrients in surface waters in the region, and hypotheses about the relationship between agriculture and water quality are reported. 1. The salt and nutrient content of surface waters increases nearly threefold as water moves through the watershed from the Lost River and J canal diversion to the Klamath Straits Drain. Mean ECW levels in input waters at the J canal diversion were approximately 250 \iS cm1, while water sampled at the D pump increased to 600 ^S cm"1 on average over the sample period. By the time water reenters the Klamath River, salt concentrations have increased to approximately 700 jaS cm1. 2. The ECW values observed in subsurface tile drains were higher on average than in input waters and surface waters elsewhere in the region, especially in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake Irrigation District (TID). ECW values averaged approximately 2,500 ^S cm"1 . Recycling irrigation water through soils in the TID increases the salinity of the water, especially by the time it reaches and is reused in the Lease Lands area of the Tulelake National Wildlife Refuge (TLNWR). Soils in this part of the Klamath Project area are naturally high in salt. 3. Water temperatures in agricultural subsurface tile drains were significantly lower than surface water temperatures during the growing season when tile drains were active. pH values in tile drains were lower than surface water values. The temperature and pH of tile drains does not influence surface water values. 1. 4. For total phosphorus (TP) input waters at the J canal irrigation diversion for the TED averaged approximately 0.27 mg L1 for the two years reported. Water leaving the Tulelake Sumps at the D pump increases to 0.33 mg L1. Water leaving the Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (LKNWR) sampled at the start of the Klamath Straits Drain, averaged 0.33 mg L1, similar to those at the D pump. TP increased further to 0.40 mg L"1 a the end of the Klamath Straits Drain. The overall increase in P concentration in surface waters was much less than for salt, suggesting that processes other than simple enrichment are occurring, particularly those associated with the exchange of sedimentary P and aquatic plant species. TN increases from 2.3 mg L"1 to 4.0 mg L1 over the same pathway. Atomic ratios (TN:TP) of surface water samples remain constant at approximately 10:1 throughout the system, suggesting that the amount of sediment and other small particulate matter in surface waters affects the values observed. The amount of sediment is influenced in part by the agitation of surface water as it passes through pumps and over weirs. 5. The average seasonal TP value in tile drains beneath farm fields is approximately 0.34 mg L"1 . While average total P values in subsurface tile drains were not different from those found at the D pump and the LKNWR outlet, the range in values was great (0.1 to 0.8 mg L1). Similarly, high NO3 -N values were observed at times in tile drains. Very high values in tile drains lead to the inference that some fertilizer N and P is lost in drainage water, combined with nutrients derived from decaying soil organic matter. The amount estimated as lost is much less than the amount of surplus fertilizer P applied and the amount of P surmised to be mineralized from decaying soil organic matter. P from fertilizer and decaying organic matter appears to be accumulating in soils and lake sediments in the region. 6. Ammonia N concentrations are at or below the limit of detection in subsurface agricultural tile lines and one to two orders of magnitude below the values observed in surface soils. Un ionized ammonia increases with temperature. Values above 0.25 mg L1 were observed in late summer at several locations. 7. Some leaching of soluble salts and nutrients is unavoidable when crops are irrigated. P fertilizer is applied at rates higher than crop removal, while fertilizer n is applied at rates less than crop removal. Reduced fertilizer use can help bring P inputs and outputs into balance and may reduce further any avoidable losses of P. This objective should be the subject of an agronomic research program in the region. 8. Surface waters entering the TDD, the TLNWR, and the LKNWR are already enriched with N and P. It seems unlikely that reducing N and P losses from farming in the TID, if possible, would influence surface water quality sufficiently to make them significantly less eutrophic. For P, the hypothesized threshold concentration limiting algae growth in fresh waters is 5 to 25 times smaller than the values observed in waters entering the TID for irrigation use. The addition of 1. nutrients from agriculture probably does not influence significantly surface water quality in the region. Wetland sediments, large amounts of organic matter in soils, and water introduced for irrigation contain essentially unlimited amounts of nutrients for aquatic plant growth. It is not clear how this circumstance could be changed under any reasonable time frame, if ever. 9. Using a TMDL approach may not result in reduced amounts of nutrients returned to the Klamath River because wetlands and farming practices in the southern portion of the Klamath Project result in the net removal of nutrients from the waters diverted for irrigation on a yearly basis, compared to allowing the same amount of water simply to flow down the river unused. Because of large errors of estimation for the amounts of water transferred, combined with smaller errors associated with estimating nutrient concentrations in water samples, and with year to year climate variation, TMDLs may not be an effective or efficient means of reducing nutrients in return flows to the Klamath River. Rational confidence limits for TMDLs may have to be too broad to be effective. Recycling of some drainage water for irrigation would reduce the amount of nutrients returned to the river more effectively than implementing a TMDL program. Close

• 395. [Image] Nitrogen and phosphorus loading from drained wetlands adjacent to Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon

  	Two maps digitized separately; Includes bibliographical references (p. 44-49)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Nitrogen and phosphorus loading from drained wetlands adjacent to Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon Author: Snyder, Daniel T. Year: 1997, 2005, 2004 Two maps digitized separately; Includes bibliographical references (p. 44-49) Title: Nitrogen and phosphorus loading from drained wetlands adjacent to Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon Author: Snyder, Daniel T. Year: 1997, 2005, 2004 Two maps digitized separately; Includes bibliographical references (p. 44-49) Close

• 396. [Image] Draft upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments. Volume 2 - Appendices

  	"BLM/OR/WA/PL-02/038+1792"--P. [2] of cover; Cover title; Includes bibliographical references (v. 2, p. 219-228) and index
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Draft upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments. Volume 2 - Appendices Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2003, 2004 "BLM/OR/WA/PL-02/038+1792"--P. [2] of cover; Cover title; Includes bibliographical references (v. 2, p. 219-228) and index Title: Draft upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments. Volume 2 - Appendices Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2003, 2004 "BLM/OR/WA/PL-02/038+1792"--P. [2] of cover; Cover title; Includes bibliographical references (v. 2, p. 219-228) and index Close

• 397. [Image] Trinity River Flow Evaluation: final report: a report to the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior

  	TRINITY RIVER FLOW EVALUATION - FINAL REPORT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When Congress authorized construction of the Trinity River Division (TRD) of the Central Valley Project (CVP) in 1955, the expectation was ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Trinity River Flow Evaluation: final report: a report to the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office; Hoopa Valley Tribe Year: 1999, 2006, 2005 TRINITY RIVER FLOW EVALUATION - FINAL REPORT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When Congress authorized construction of the Trinity River Division (TRD) of the Central Valley Project (CVP) in 1955, the expectation was that surplus water could be exported to the Central Valley without harm to the fish and wildlife resources of the Trinity River. The TRD began operations in 1963, diverting up to 90 percent of the Trinity River's average annual yield at Lewiston, California. Access to 109 river miles of fish habitat and replenishment of coarse sediment from upstream river segments were permanently eliminated by Lewiston and Trinity Dams. Within a decade of completing the TRD, the adverse biological and geomorphic responses to TRD operations were obvious. Riverine habitats below Lewiston Dam degraded and salmon and steelhead populations noticeably declined. In 1981, the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) directed that a Trinity River Flow Evaluation (TRFE) study be conducted to determine how to rest Title: Trinity River Flow Evaluation: final report: a report to the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Arcata Fish and Wildlife Office; Hoopa Valley Tribe Year: 1999, 2006, 2005 TRINITY RIVER FLOW EVALUATION - FINAL REPORT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When Congress authorized construction of the Trinity River Division (TRD) of the Central Valley Project (CVP) in 1955, the expectation was that surplus water could be exported to the Central Valley without harm to the fish and wildlife resources of the Trinity River. The TRD began operations in 1963, diverting up to 90 percent of the Trinity River's average annual yield at Lewiston, California. Access to 109 river miles of fish habitat and replenishment of coarse sediment from upstream river segments were permanently eliminated by Lewiston and Trinity Dams. Within a decade of completing the TRD, the adverse biological and geomorphic responses to TRD operations were obvious. Riverine habitats below Lewiston Dam degraded and salmon and steelhead populations noticeably declined. In 1981, the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) directed that a Trinity River Flow Evaluation (TRFE) study be conducted to determine how to rest Close

• 398. [Image] Chronic toxicity of low dissolved oxygen concentrations, elevated pH, and elevated ammonia concentrations to lost river suckers (deltistes luxatus), and swimming performance of lost river suckers at various temperatures.

  	The study examines two species of sucker,the shortnose sucker(chasmistes brevirostrix), and the Lost River sucker,(deltisties luxatus) that inhabit Upper Klamath Lake and the effects of chronic toxicity ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Chronic toxicity of low dissolved oxygen concentrations, elevated pH, and elevated ammonia concentrations to lost river suckers (deltistes luxatus), and swimming performance of lost river suckers at various temperatures. Author: Meyer, Joseph S. Year: 2000, 2007, 2006 The study examines two species of sucker,the shortnose sucker(chasmistes brevirostrix), and the Lost River sucker,(deltisties luxatus) that inhabit Upper Klamath Lake and the effects of chronic toxicity and temperature changes. The study examines two species of sucker,the shortnose sucker(chasmistes brevirostrix), and the Lost River sucker,(deltisties luxatus) that inhabit Upper Klamath Lake and the effects of chronic toxicity and temperature changes. Title: Chronic toxicity of low dissolved oxygen concentrations, elevated pH, and elevated ammonia concentrations to lost river suckers (deltistes luxatus), and swimming performance of lost river suckers at various temperatures. Author: Meyer, Joseph S. Year: 2000, 2007, 2006 The study examines two species of sucker,the shortnose sucker(chasmistes brevirostrix), and the Lost River sucker,(deltisties luxatus) that inhabit Upper Klamath Lake and the effects of chronic toxicity and temperature changes. The study examines two species of sucker,the shortnose sucker(chasmistes brevirostrix), and the Lost River sucker,(deltisties luxatus) that inhabit Upper Klamath Lake and the effects of chronic toxicity and temperature changes. Close

• 399. [Image] Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005

  	iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Close

• 400. [Image] EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Klamath Consulting Service, Inc Year: 1983, 2006, 2005 SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed. Title: EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Klamath Consulting Service, Inc Year: 1983, 2006, 2005 SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed. Close