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• 3061. [Image] Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview

  	Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Close

• 3062. [Image] Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  	Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2001, 2005 Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, Pediastrum, and cyanobacterial akinetes. These results were used to reconstruct changes in water quality in Upper Klamath Lake over the last 150 years. The results showed that there was substantial mixing of the upper 10 cm of sediment, representing the previous 20 to 30 years. However, below that, 210Pb activity declined monotonically, allowing reasonable dating for the period from about 1850 to 1970. The sediment accumulation rates (SAR) showed a substantial increase in the 20th century. The increase in SAR corresponded with increases in erosional input from the watershed as represented by the increases in sediment concentrations of Ti and Al. The upper 20 cm of sediment (representing the last 150 years) also showed increases in C, N, P, and 15N. The increases in nutrient concentrations may be affected to various degrees by diagenetic reactions within the sediments, although the changes in concentrations also were marked by changes in the N:P ratio and in a qualitative change in the source of N as reflected in increasing S15N. The diatoms showed modest changes, particularly in the upper sediments, with increases in Asterionellaformosa, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and S. parvus. Pediastrum, a green alga, was well-preserved in the sediments and exhibited a sharp decline in relative abundance in the upper sediments. Total cyanobacteria, as represented by preserved akinetes, exhibited only minor changes in the last 1000 years. However, a taxon which was formerly not present in the lake 150 years ago, Aphanizomenon, has shown major increases in recent decades. Although the mixing in the upper sediments prevents high-resolution temporal analysis of the recent history (e.g. last 30 years) of Upper Klamath Lake, the results demonstrate that major changes in water quality likely have occurred leading to a major modification of the phytoplankton assemblage. The changes in sediment composition are consistent with land use activities during this period that include substantial deforestation, drainage of wetlands, and agricultural activities associated with livestock and irrigated cropland. Title: Recent paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 2001, 2005 Recent Paleolimnology of Upper Klamath Lake Eilers et al. 2001 ABSTRACT Sediment cores were collected from Upper Klamath Lake in October, 1998 and analyzed for 210Pb, 14C, 15N, N, P, C, Ti, Al, diatoms, Pediastrum, and cyanobacterial akinetes. These results were used to reconstruct changes in water quality in Upper Klamath Lake over the last 150 years. The results showed that there was substantial mixing of the upper 10 cm of sediment, representing the previous 20 to 30 years. However, below that, 210Pb activity declined monotonically, allowing reasonable dating for the period from about 1850 to 1970. The sediment accumulation rates (SAR) showed a substantial increase in the 20th century. The increase in SAR corresponded with increases in erosional input from the watershed as represented by the increases in sediment concentrations of Ti and Al. The upper 20 cm of sediment (representing the last 150 years) also showed increases in C, N, P, and 15N. The increases in nutrient concentrations may be affected to various degrees by diagenetic reactions within the sediments, although the changes in concentrations also were marked by changes in the N:P ratio and in a qualitative change in the source of N as reflected in increasing S15N. The diatoms showed modest changes, particularly in the upper sediments, with increases in Asterionellaformosa, Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and S. parvus. Pediastrum, a green alga, was well-preserved in the sediments and exhibited a sharp decline in relative abundance in the upper sediments. Total cyanobacteria, as represented by preserved akinetes, exhibited only minor changes in the last 1000 years. However, a taxon which was formerly not present in the lake 150 years ago, Aphanizomenon, has shown major increases in recent decades. Although the mixing in the upper sediments prevents high-resolution temporal analysis of the recent history (e.g. last 30 years) of Upper Klamath Lake, the results demonstrate that major changes in water quality likely have occurred leading to a major modification of the phytoplankton assemblage. The changes in sediment composition are consistent with land use activities during this period that include substantial deforestation, drainage of wetlands, and agricultural activities associated with livestock and irrigated cropland. Close

• 3063. [Article] Spatial Segregation of the Sexes in a Salt Marsh Grass Distichlis spicata (Poaceae)

  Understanding the maintenance of sexual systems is of great interest to evolutionary and ecological biologists because plant systems are extremely varied. Plant sexual systems have evolved to include not ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Spatial Segregation of the Sexes in a Salt Marsh Grass Distichlis spicata (Poaceae) Author: Mercer, Charlene Ashley Year: 2010 Understanding the maintenance of sexual systems is of great interest to evolutionary and ecological biologists because plant systems are extremely varied. Plant sexual systems have evolved to include not only complete plants with both male and female reproduction occurring on one plant (i.e., monoecious and hermaphroditic) but also plants with male and female function on separate plants (dioecious). The dioecious reproductive system can be used to test theories on niche differentiation given that having separate plants potentially allows for the exploitation of a broader niche. This increase in the realized niche is due to the ability for separate sexes to occupy different niches, which may occur in different physical habitats. Some dioecious plants have been shown to occur in areas biased to nearly 100% male or nearly 100% female, called spatial segregation of the sexes (SSS). Occupying a broader niche could increase fitness in some species when the separation is used for one sex to gain access to resources that increase reproductive success and/or if the separation inhibits deleterious competition. These two mechanisms have been previously proposed for the evolution of SSS in dioecious plants. The first mechanism suggests that males and females have evolved to occupy different niches due to differences in reproduction (sexual specialization). The hypothesis for the sexual specialization mechanism is that females should have higher fitness in female-majority sites and males should have higher fitness in male-majority sites. The second mechanism states that males and females occupy different niches due to competition between the sexes (niche partitioning). The hypothesis for niche partitioning states that inter-sexual competition should decrease fitness more than intra-sexual competition. These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. In our research we use the salt-marsh grass Distichlis spicata as our study species because this plant is dioecious and because molecular markers have been developed to determine the sex of juvenile plants. These molecular markers are important for testing the niche partitioning hypothesis for SSS in juveniles. Furthermore, previous work in California has shown that plants occur in areas nearly 100% female and nearly 100% male called spatial segregation of the sexes (SSS). The previous research also showed that female-majority sites were higher in soil phosphorus than male-majority sites. We conduct all research, presented in the proceeding chapters, on Distichlis spicata in the Sand Lake estuary near Pacific City, Oregon and in the laboratory at Portland State University. In Chapter 1 we used field data to answer two questions: (1) Does Distichlis spicata exhibit SSS in Oregon, and (2) If SSS is occurring, do differences occur in plant form and function (sexual specialization) in reproductive female and male plants in female-majority and male-majority sites? We used a sex ratio survey and collected field data on reproductive males and females. Our results show that there are female-majority and male-majority areas and SSS is occurring in the Sand Lake Estuary. Results from our native plant data suggest that reproductive females perform better in female-majority sites compared to male-majority sites which could suggest that sexual specialization is occurring in females. We currently have a long term field reciprocal transplant experiment in place to further address this hypothesis. In Chapter 2 we use field dada to address the following questions: (1) Does site-specific soil nutrient content occur in August, when females have set seed? (2) Does sex-specific mycorrhizal colonization occur in reproductively mature plants? (3) Does sex-specific mycorrhizal colonization vary seasonally in natural populations? Inside the roots of D. spicata a symbiotic relationship is formed between plant and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AM). The AM- plant relationship has been shown to thrive in phosphorus limited areas because the mycorrhizal fungus increases nutrient access to the plant. We analyzed the results of the field soil nutrient content and mycorrhizal colonization in roots of native Distichlis spicata from male-majority and female-majority sites. The root colonization included staining roots with trypan blue and viewing sections of the roots under the microscope. Our results show that female- majority sites are higher in phosphorus and are found to have higher AM colonization than male- majority sites in the field. In Chapter 3 we then reciprocally transplanted D. spicata plants in the field to address the following questions: (1) Does niche partitioning occur in D. spicata, and (2) If niche partitioning is occurring, which plants are competing more? Our reciprocal transplant experiment included seeds grown in intra-sexual, inter-sexual and no competition in cones, planted directly into the field, and allowed to grow for 15 months. After the 15 months was over we measured survival, dry weight and root/shoot ratio. The design of the experiment was to determine the effects of competition (intra-sexual and inter-sexual) and no competition on (single male and female) on survival, biomass and root/shoot ratios. Our results show that niche partitioning is occurring and plants in inter-sexual competition have significantly less biomass then intra-sexual competitors. In, Chapter 4, we conduct a laboratory experiment to address the following questions: (1) Do plants show plasticity in their response to root exudates of the competing plant in regards to the sexual phenotype of the competitor? (2) Do plants show plasticity in their response to root exudates of the competing plant with respect to the relatedness of the competitor? We use sterile seeds grown in 24-well plates containing liquid media. For each competing plant, we picked plants up out of the wells and into the competing plants wells so that plants only experienced media that the competing plant had grown. At no time do roots ever come into contact with one another. We measured primary root length, number of lateral roots, the number of root hairs, root/shoot ratio and total dry weight. We analyzed the study two different ways, one for sexual type competition (inter-sexual, intra-sexual, none) and for plant relationship (KIN, STRANGER and OWN). The results for the sexual type competition found that inter-sexual competition was greater for root/shoot ratio and dry weight. The results for plant relationship competition found that kin plants had a significantly greater number of lateral roots and a significantly longer primary root. The last chapter, Chapter 5, includes a summary of our conclusions. Our study found SSS occurring in the Sand Lake Estuary in Oregon with female-majority sites higher in phosphorus and root colonization higher in percent colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi compared to male-majority sites. Based on the sexual specialization hypothesis as a mechanism for SSS, we found that females had greater fitness in female-majority sites compared to male-majority sites, suggesting that sexual specialization is occurring in reproductive females. We then tested the niche partitioning hypothesis for SSS, and we found consistent lab and field results suggesting that niche partitioning due to inter-sexual competition is an explanation for why females and males D. spicata plants spatially segregate themselves at the juvenile life history stage. Furthermore, we found that plants that have the same mother had a significantly greater number of lateral roots and a significantly longer primary root. These results suggest that KIN plants respond differently to one another compared to plants paired with a plant not from the same mother (STRANGER) or when the plant is alone (OWN). Title: Spatial Segregation of the Sexes in a Salt Marsh Grass Distichlis spicata (Poaceae) Author: Mercer, Charlene Ashley Year: 2010 Understanding the maintenance of sexual systems is of great interest to evolutionary and ecological biologists because plant systems are extremely varied. Plant sexual systems have evolved to include not only complete plants with both male and female reproduction occurring on one plant (i.e., monoecious and hermaphroditic) but also plants with male and female function on separate plants (dioecious). The dioecious reproductive system can be used to test theories on niche differentiation given that having separate plants potentially allows for the exploitation of a broader niche. This increase in the realized niche is due to the ability for separate sexes to occupy different niches, which may occur in different physical habitats. Some dioecious plants have been shown to occur in areas biased to nearly 100% male or nearly 100% female, called spatial segregation of the sexes (SSS). Occupying a broader niche could increase fitness in some species when the separation is used for one sex to gain access to resources that increase reproductive success and/or if the separation inhibits deleterious competition. These two mechanisms have been previously proposed for the evolution of SSS in dioecious plants. The first mechanism suggests that males and females have evolved to occupy different niches due to differences in reproduction (sexual specialization). The hypothesis for the sexual specialization mechanism is that females should have higher fitness in female-majority sites and males should have higher fitness in male-majority sites. The second mechanism states that males and females occupy different niches due to competition between the sexes (niche partitioning). The hypothesis for niche partitioning states that inter-sexual competition should decrease fitness more than intra-sexual competition. These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. In our research we use the salt-marsh grass Distichlis spicata as our study species because this plant is dioecious and because molecular markers have been developed to determine the sex of juvenile plants. These molecular markers are important for testing the niche partitioning hypothesis for SSS in juveniles. Furthermore, previous work in California has shown that plants occur in areas nearly 100% female and nearly 100% male called spatial segregation of the sexes (SSS). The previous research also showed that female-majority sites were higher in soil phosphorus than male-majority sites. We conduct all research, presented in the proceeding chapters, on Distichlis spicata in the Sand Lake estuary near Pacific City, Oregon and in the laboratory at Portland State University. In Chapter 1 we used field data to answer two questions: (1) Does Distichlis spicata exhibit SSS in Oregon, and (2) If SSS is occurring, do differences occur in plant form and function (sexual specialization) in reproductive female and male plants in female-majority and male-majority sites? We used a sex ratio survey and collected field data on reproductive males and females. Our results show that there are female-majority and male-majority areas and SSS is occurring in the Sand Lake Estuary. Results from our native plant data suggest that reproductive females perform better in female-majority sites compared to male-majority sites which could suggest that sexual specialization is occurring in females. We currently have a long term field reciprocal transplant experiment in place to further address this hypothesis. In Chapter 2 we use field dada to address the following questions: (1) Does site-specific soil nutrient content occur in August, when females have set seed? (2) Does sex-specific mycorrhizal colonization occur in reproductively mature plants? (3) Does sex-specific mycorrhizal colonization vary seasonally in natural populations? Inside the roots of D. spicata a symbiotic relationship is formed between plant and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AM). The AM- plant relationship has been shown to thrive in phosphorus limited areas because the mycorrhizal fungus increases nutrient access to the plant. We analyzed the results of the field soil nutrient content and mycorrhizal colonization in roots of native Distichlis spicata from male-majority and female-majority sites. The root colonization included staining roots with trypan blue and viewing sections of the roots under the microscope. Our results show that female- majority sites are higher in phosphorus and are found to have higher AM colonization than male- majority sites in the field. In Chapter 3 we then reciprocally transplanted D. spicata plants in the field to address the following questions: (1) Does niche partitioning occur in D. spicata, and (2) If niche partitioning is occurring, which plants are competing more? Our reciprocal transplant experiment included seeds grown in intra-sexual, inter-sexual and no competition in cones, planted directly into the field, and allowed to grow for 15 months. After the 15 months was over we measured survival, dry weight and root/shoot ratio. The design of the experiment was to determine the effects of competition (intra-sexual and inter-sexual) and no competition on (single male and female) on survival, biomass and root/shoot ratios. Our results show that niche partitioning is occurring and plants in inter-sexual competition have significantly less biomass then intra-sexual competitors. In, Chapter 4, we conduct a laboratory experiment to address the following questions: (1) Do plants show plasticity in their response to root exudates of the competing plant in regards to the sexual phenotype of the competitor? (2) Do plants show plasticity in their response to root exudates of the competing plant with respect to the relatedness of the competitor? We use sterile seeds grown in 24-well plates containing liquid media. For each competing plant, we picked plants up out of the wells and into the competing plants wells so that plants only experienced media that the competing plant had grown. At no time do roots ever come into contact with one another. We measured primary root length, number of lateral roots, the number of root hairs, root/shoot ratio and total dry weight. We analyzed the study two different ways, one for sexual type competition (inter-sexual, intra-sexual, none) and for plant relationship (KIN, STRANGER and OWN). The results for the sexual type competition found that inter-sexual competition was greater for root/shoot ratio and dry weight. The results for plant relationship competition found that kin plants had a significantly greater number of lateral roots and a significantly longer primary root. The last chapter, Chapter 5, includes a summary of our conclusions. Our study found SSS occurring in the Sand Lake Estuary in Oregon with female-majority sites higher in phosphorus and root colonization higher in percent colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi compared to male-majority sites. Based on the sexual specialization hypothesis as a mechanism for SSS, we found that females had greater fitness in female-majority sites compared to male-majority sites, suggesting that sexual specialization is occurring in reproductive females. We then tested the niche partitioning hypothesis for SSS, and we found consistent lab and field results suggesting that niche partitioning due to inter-sexual competition is an explanation for why females and males D. spicata plants spatially segregate themselves at the juvenile life history stage. Furthermore, we found that plants that have the same mother had a significantly greater number of lateral roots and a significantly longer primary root. These results suggest that KIN plants respond differently to one another compared to plants paired with a plant not from the same mother (STRANGER) or when the plant is alone (OWN). Close

• 3064. [Article] The geology of the Elk Mountain-Porter Ridge area, Clatsop County, northwest Oregon

  Eight Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic units crop out in the thesis area. From oldest to youngest they are the: Sager Creek formation (informal); Pittsburg Bluff Formation; Northrup Creek formation (informal); ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The geology of the Elk Mountain-Porter Ridge area, Clatsop County, northwest Oregon Author: Goalen, Jeffrey Scott Eight Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic units crop out in the thesis area. From oldest to youngest they are the: Sager Creek formation (informal); Pittsburg Bluff Formation; Northrup Creek formation (informal); Smuggler Cove formation (informal); Wickiup Mountain and Cannon Beach members (both informal) of the Astoria Formation; the Grande Ronde Basalt, and Frenchman Springs Member of the Wanapum Basalt, both of the Columbia River Basalt Group. Also, areally limited, unnamed sedimentary strata interbedded between flows of the Columbia River Basalt Group crop out in the study area. Quaternary deposits consist of alluvium, colluvium, and landslide debris. Rhythmically-bedded, foram-bearing, carbonaceous to micaceous mudstone and graded, fine-grained, feldspathic turbidite sandstone are the dominant lithologies of the upper Eocene (Refugian) Sager Creek formation. Plane-laminae and climbing ripple-laminae typical of Bouma b,c, and d intervals are common in the thin turbidite sandstone beds. Contemporaneous, rare, thick, sandstones may represent submarine feeder channels that supplied the more widespread, thinly-bedded overbank turbidite sandstones. Foraminiferal paleobathymetry indicates that deposition was in bathyal water depths. Sager Creek deposition was followed by a regression or offlap of the late Eocene to early Oligocene (Refugian) sea as indicated by the molluscan fossils and thick, bioturbated sandstone of the predominantly shallow-marine Pittsburg Bluff Formation. The lower part of the formation consists of outer shelf, glauconitic, fossiliferous sandstone and subordinate mudstone. Higher in the section are middle-shelf, fine-grained, bioturbated, tuffaceous, arkosic sandstones. These sandstones contain minor glauconite, wave- and storm-generated molluscan shell hash beds, carbonized wood fragments, and calcareous concretions. Deposition occurred in 20 - 50 m open-marine shelf water depths; however, the depositional environment may have shallowed to a bay-like setting (Moore, 1982, written communication). The upper part of the unit consists of thin- to medium-bedded, carbonaceous siltstone and mudstone with minor ashfall tuffs. Therefore, deposition of the Pittsburg Bluff Formation occurred as a shallowing-upward, then deepening depositional episode, punctuated by contemporaneous, intermittent eruption of nearby calc-alkaline western Cascade volcanoes. The deep-marine Oligocene to lower Miocene (Zemorrian to Saucesian) Northrup Creek formation is predominantly composed of thinly-laminated mudstone interbedded with thin, very fine-grained, graded, micaceous arkosic sandstone. Bouma c-d-e and a-b-e sequences are common in the turbidite sandstone; Bouma a-e intervals occur locally in sandstone/mudstone couplets. Paleocurrent indicators suggest that the predominant transport direction of these turbidite deposits was northeast to southwest. Abraded, carbonaceous plant debris and mica are abundant in the sandstone laminations. The upper part of the formation consists of thick, mollusk-bearing, moderately- to well-sorted, arkosic sandstone and minor polymict grit beds. A shallowing-upward, high-energy, shallow-marine shelf environment of deposition is indicated for the upper part of the formation. Contemporaneous with shelf and slope deposition of the Sager Creek, Pittsburg Bluff and Northrup Creek formations, the deep-water late Eocene to early Miocene Smuggler Cove formation was deposited as a distal or lateral correlative in a low-energy, outer shelf to slope setting. This foram-bearing unit consists of thick, bioturbated, bathyal, tuffaceous mudstone and siltstone with minor thin- to thick-bedded ashfall and current-reworked tuff. A marine onlap is indicated by the conformable relationship between the upper sandstone unit of the Northrup Creek formation and the overlying Smuggler Cove formation in the eastern part of the thesis area. The overlying lower to middle Miocene Astoria Formation contains two members in the thesis area: a high-energy, shallow shelf, fine- to medium-grained, fossiliferous, micaceous arkosic sandstone (Wickiup Mountain member), and an overlying, thinly-laminated, deepmarine mudstone (Cannon Beach member). Diatom floras indicate that a thermal "oceanographic irregularity" (water warmer than normal) may have occurred during deposition of the Cannon Beach member. At least six, and possibly eight, flows of the middle Miocene Grande Ronde Basalt (Columbia River Basalt Group) are present in the thesis area. Individual flows have been ascribed to the (N1?), R2, and N2 magnetozones. Geochemically, the flows consist of low MgO high Ti02, low MgO low Ti02, and high MgO subtypes. These subaerial to submarine flows are correlated to Mangan and others (1986) chemical subtypes 2D, 5C, 5A, and 4A of the Columbia Plateau-derived Grande Ronde Basalt of eastern Washington and eastern Oregon. The correlations are based on similarity of age, major element chemistry, stratigraphic position, and magnetic polarity. Field evidence suggests that thick, submarine pillow and breccia complexes generated sufficient pressure to autoinvasively inject into the Eocene to middle Miocene sedimentary strata of the Plympton/Porter ridge and Elk Mountain areas. This process apparently formed many randomly-oriented dike- and sill-like intrusions in the western part of the thesis area. However, in the eastern and central parts of the thesis area, three sub-parallel dikes (the Northrup, Beneke, and Fishhawk Falls dikes) extend along linear trends for tens of kilometers. This suggests that their emplacement was, in part, influenced by earlier or contemporaneous regional tectonism. At least two, and as many as five, flows of the Frenchman Springs Member of the Wanapum Basalt occur in the thesis area: one to two abundantly plagioclase-phyric Basalt of Ginkgo flow(s), and one to three Basalt of Sand Hollow flows (terminology after Beeson and Tolan, 1985). These flows consist of subaqueous pillow palagonite breccia and vesicular, columnar-jointed, subaerial basalt. No Frenchman Springs flows are invasive in the thesis area. Local middle Miocene sedimentary interbeds between flows of Grande Ronde and Frenchman Springs Basalt are lithologically and sedimentologically diverse. Common lithologies are fine- to mediumgrained, arkosic sandstone, coarse-grained basaltic sandstone, and structureless mudstone. Depositional environments represented by these strata are fluvial, marginal-marine, and shallow-marine. Thicknesses of individual interbeds range from 0.2 to 50 m. The thesis area is located on the northwest flank of the Oregon Coast Range anticline, adjacent to the Nehalem Arch. Large-scale northeast-trending oblique to strike-slip left-lateral faults coupled with northwest-trending oblique to strike-slip right-lateral faults dominate the structure of the area. These faults may have formed as conjugate shears (Riedel shear) caused by north-south compressive stress related to the oblique subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath the North American Plate. Five episodes of deformation are suggested by faults, dike orientations, unconformities, and other geological relationships within the thesis area: a late Eocene north-south compressional episode, an early Oligocene to early Miocene uplift, a middle Miocene northwest-southeast extensional episode, a post-middle Miocene to Pliocene (?) north-south compressional episode, and a north-south extensional event that occurred between the post-middle Miocene and Recent. Although crushed rock (for road and revetment construction) is currently the primary mineral resource within the thesis area, several potential fault traps on this northwest flank of the Nehalem Arch may contain significant reserves of natural gas. This conclusion is based upon field, laboratory, and subsurface (well) data. The Clark and Wilson sandstone of the middle to late Eocene Cowlitz Formation, the producing unit at the nearby Mist gas field, represents the most attractive target horizon. Additionally, the porous and permeable upper sandstone unit of the Northrup Creek formation could contain shallow hydrocarbon reserves beneath the northern part of the area. Title: The geology of the Elk Mountain-Porter Ridge area, Clatsop County, northwest Oregon Author: Goalen, Jeffrey Scott Eight Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic units crop out in the thesis area. From oldest to youngest they are the: Sager Creek formation (informal); Pittsburg Bluff Formation; Northrup Creek formation (informal); Smuggler Cove formation (informal); Wickiup Mountain and Cannon Beach members (both informal) of the Astoria Formation; the Grande Ronde Basalt, and Frenchman Springs Member of the Wanapum Basalt, both of the Columbia River Basalt Group. Also, areally limited, unnamed sedimentary strata interbedded between flows of the Columbia River Basalt Group crop out in the study area. Quaternary deposits consist of alluvium, colluvium, and landslide debris. Rhythmically-bedded, foram-bearing, carbonaceous to micaceous mudstone and graded, fine-grained, feldspathic turbidite sandstone are the dominant lithologies of the upper Eocene (Refugian) Sager Creek formation. Plane-laminae and climbing ripple-laminae typical of Bouma b,c, and d intervals are common in the thin turbidite sandstone beds. Contemporaneous, rare, thick, sandstones may represent submarine feeder channels that supplied the more widespread, thinly-bedded overbank turbidite sandstones. Foraminiferal paleobathymetry indicates that deposition was in bathyal water depths. Sager Creek deposition was followed by a regression or offlap of the late Eocene to early Oligocene (Refugian) sea as indicated by the molluscan fossils and thick, bioturbated sandstone of the predominantly shallow-marine Pittsburg Bluff Formation. The lower part of the formation consists of outer shelf, glauconitic, fossiliferous sandstone and subordinate mudstone. Higher in the section are middle-shelf, fine-grained, bioturbated, tuffaceous, arkosic sandstones. These sandstones contain minor glauconite, wave- and storm-generated molluscan shell hash beds, carbonized wood fragments, and calcareous concretions. Deposition occurred in 20 - 50 m open-marine shelf water depths; however, the depositional environment may have shallowed to a bay-like setting (Moore, 1982, written communication). The upper part of the unit consists of thin- to medium-bedded, carbonaceous siltstone and mudstone with minor ashfall tuffs. Therefore, deposition of the Pittsburg Bluff Formation occurred as a shallowing-upward, then deepening depositional episode, punctuated by contemporaneous, intermittent eruption of nearby calc-alkaline western Cascade volcanoes. The deep-marine Oligocene to lower Miocene (Zemorrian to Saucesian) Northrup Creek formation is predominantly composed of thinly-laminated mudstone interbedded with thin, very fine-grained, graded, micaceous arkosic sandstone. Bouma c-d-e and a-b-e sequences are common in the turbidite sandstone; Bouma a-e intervals occur locally in sandstone/mudstone couplets. Paleocurrent indicators suggest that the predominant transport direction of these turbidite deposits was northeast to southwest. Abraded, carbonaceous plant debris and mica are abundant in the sandstone laminations. The upper part of the formation consists of thick, mollusk-bearing, moderately- to well-sorted, arkosic sandstone and minor polymict grit beds. A shallowing-upward, high-energy, shallow-marine shelf environment of deposition is indicated for the upper part of the formation. Contemporaneous with shelf and slope deposition of the Sager Creek, Pittsburg Bluff and Northrup Creek formations, the deep-water late Eocene to early Miocene Smuggler Cove formation was deposited as a distal or lateral correlative in a low-energy, outer shelf to slope setting. This foram-bearing unit consists of thick, bioturbated, bathyal, tuffaceous mudstone and siltstone with minor thin- to thick-bedded ashfall and current-reworked tuff. A marine onlap is indicated by the conformable relationship between the upper sandstone unit of the Northrup Creek formation and the overlying Smuggler Cove formation in the eastern part of the thesis area. The overlying lower to middle Miocene Astoria Formation contains two members in the thesis area: a high-energy, shallow shelf, fine- to medium-grained, fossiliferous, micaceous arkosic sandstone (Wickiup Mountain member), and an overlying, thinly-laminated, deepmarine mudstone (Cannon Beach member). Diatom floras indicate that a thermal "oceanographic irregularity" (water warmer than normal) may have occurred during deposition of the Cannon Beach member. At least six, and possibly eight, flows of the middle Miocene Grande Ronde Basalt (Columbia River Basalt Group) are present in the thesis area. Individual flows have been ascribed to the (N1?), R2, and N2 magnetozones. Geochemically, the flows consist of low MgO high Ti02, low MgO low Ti02, and high MgO subtypes. These subaerial to submarine flows are correlated to Mangan and others (1986) chemical subtypes 2D, 5C, 5A, and 4A of the Columbia Plateau-derived Grande Ronde Basalt of eastern Washington and eastern Oregon. The correlations are based on similarity of age, major element chemistry, stratigraphic position, and magnetic polarity. Field evidence suggests that thick, submarine pillow and breccia complexes generated sufficient pressure to autoinvasively inject into the Eocene to middle Miocene sedimentary strata of the Plympton/Porter ridge and Elk Mountain areas. This process apparently formed many randomly-oriented dike- and sill-like intrusions in the western part of the thesis area. However, in the eastern and central parts of the thesis area, three sub-parallel dikes (the Northrup, Beneke, and Fishhawk Falls dikes) extend along linear trends for tens of kilometers. This suggests that their emplacement was, in part, influenced by earlier or contemporaneous regional tectonism. At least two, and as many as five, flows of the Frenchman Springs Member of the Wanapum Basalt occur in the thesis area: one to two abundantly plagioclase-phyric Basalt of Ginkgo flow(s), and one to three Basalt of Sand Hollow flows (terminology after Beeson and Tolan, 1985). These flows consist of subaqueous pillow palagonite breccia and vesicular, columnar-jointed, subaerial basalt. No Frenchman Springs flows are invasive in the thesis area. Local middle Miocene sedimentary interbeds between flows of Grande Ronde and Frenchman Springs Basalt are lithologically and sedimentologically diverse. Common lithologies are fine- to mediumgrained, arkosic sandstone, coarse-grained basaltic sandstone, and structureless mudstone. Depositional environments represented by these strata are fluvial, marginal-marine, and shallow-marine. Thicknesses of individual interbeds range from 0.2 to 50 m. The thesis area is located on the northwest flank of the Oregon Coast Range anticline, adjacent to the Nehalem Arch. Large-scale northeast-trending oblique to strike-slip left-lateral faults coupled with northwest-trending oblique to strike-slip right-lateral faults dominate the structure of the area. These faults may have formed as conjugate shears (Riedel shear) caused by north-south compressive stress related to the oblique subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath the North American Plate. Five episodes of deformation are suggested by faults, dike orientations, unconformities, and other geological relationships within the thesis area: a late Eocene north-south compressional episode, an early Oligocene to early Miocene uplift, a middle Miocene northwest-southeast extensional episode, a post-middle Miocene to Pliocene (?) north-south compressional episode, and a north-south extensional event that occurred between the post-middle Miocene and Recent. Although crushed rock (for road and revetment construction) is currently the primary mineral resource within the thesis area, several potential fault traps on this northwest flank of the Nehalem Arch may contain significant reserves of natural gas. This conclusion is based upon field, laboratory, and subsurface (well) data. The Clark and Wilson sandstone of the middle to late Eocene Cowlitz Formation, the producing unit at the nearby Mist gas field, represents the most attractive target horizon. Additionally, the porous and permeable upper sandstone unit of the Northrup Creek formation could contain shallow hydrocarbon reserves beneath the northern part of the area. Close

• 3065. [Article] Identifying factors driving sensitivity to fragmentation in forest breeding songbirds

  Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest threats to biodiversity worldwide. Fragmentation impacts landscape configuration, resulting in a larger number of patches that are smaller in size and further ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Identifying factors driving sensitivity to fragmentation in forest breeding songbirds Author: Valente, Jonathon J. Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest threats to biodiversity worldwide. Fragmentation impacts landscape configuration, resulting in a larger number of patches that are smaller in size and further apart from one another. Island biogeography and metapopulation theory predict populations in these remnant patches should be smaller, have higher extinction rates, and be less likely to receive immigrants from other populations. However, empirical data frequently do not conform with these theoretical predictions, leading to assertions that this model is too simplistic to describe distributions and dynamics of fragmented populations. However, others believe that landscape configuration effects have been poorly tested and modeled to date. In this dissertation, I use breeding bird data collected in a fragmented forest landscape to explore this lack of congruence between theory and reality. I first test the hypothesis that heterogeneity in the detectability of mobile species due to temporary emigration from sample sites can produce biased estimates of metapopulation rates. Next, I test for idiosyncrasies in the effects of forest loss and fragmentation on species belonging to different ecological trait groups. Lastly, I examine whether fragmentation actually reduces the functional connectivity of landscapes for species identified as fragmentation-sensitive. Dynamic occupancy models are popular for estimating metapopulation dynamic rates (colonization and extinction) from repeated presence/absence surveys of unmarked animals. This approach assumes closure among repeated samples within primary periods, allowing estimation of dynamic rates between these periods. However, the impact of temporary emigration (reversible changes in sampling availability) on dynamic rate estimates has not been tested. In Chapter 2, I use simulated data to investigate the degree to which temporary emigration could mislead researchers interested in quantifying metapopulation rates. I then compared results from three avian point count datasets to evaluate the likelihood that temporary emigration confounds estimates of dynamics for 19 species under a popular sampling protocol. Simulated experiments indicated that when secondary periods were open to temporary emigration, presence of dynamics was identified ≥ 95.1% of the time, and dynamic rate estimates were accurate. However, dynamic rates were biased when secondary periods were closed to temporary emigration. In empirical datasets, dynamic occupancy models had greater support than closed models for all species when secondary sampling periods occurred in immediate succession (i.e., 3 samples within 10 minutes); however, my results suggest that this is because these estimates were heavily influenced by temporary emigration. When counts within a primary period were separated by 24-48 hours, I found evidence of dynamics for less than half of these species. I recommend an alternative sampling approach that allows accurate estimation of dynamic rates when temporary emigration is of no interest, and introduce a novel model for estimating both processes simultaneously in rare cases where they are both of biological interest. Concern for violating the occupancy modeling closure assumption has led to widespread recommendations that samples within primary periods be conducted extremely close in time. However, these results indicate this is not the best approach when interest is in quantifying dynamic rates. While dynamic occupancy models provide estimates of ‘colonization’ and ‘extinction,’ these values do not inherently represent dynamics unless temporary emigration has been explicitly modeled or accounted for with sampling design. Naivete to this fact can result in incorrect conclusions about biological processes. While theory predicts that fragmentation should negatively influence biodiversity, empirical support of this idea is weak in terrestrial systems. However, tests of fragmentation effects are typically confounded with landscape composition and potentially obscured by imperfect detection. In Chapter 3, I used multi-species occupancy models and a mensurative experimental design to test competing hypotheses about how forest fragmentation influences distributions of breeding forest bird species and communities. During the breeding seasons of 2011-2013, we recorded over 80,000 bird detections in 202 forest fragments using a sampling design that isolated the effects of patch size per se from the effects of forest amount (2 km), edge, local vegetation, and sample area. I modeled the effects of these covariates on distributions of individual species categorized by ecological trait groups (i.e., forest, forest interior, or forest edge). Though my results indicated little effect of patch size on total species richness, increasing patch size tended to have a positive effect on interior species, and a negative effect on edge species. The effects of total forest amount were much more variable, and actually had a negative influence on many species, particularly cavity nesters. My results do not support theoretical predictions that forest patch size should positively influence bird species richness. However, composition of bird communities does shift toward edge species from interior species with decreasing patch size. Maintaining large forest patches is thus critical for supporting forest interior species, which tend to be of greater conservation concern. Maintenance of metapopulations requires movement of dispersers among resource patches. The degree to which a landscape facilitates or impedes such movements is defined as functional connectivity. Habitat fragmentation may reduce the functional connectivity of a landscape, but empirical linkages between distribution patterns and movement ability are lacking. In Chapter 4, I use experimental translocations to test whether forest fragmentation impedes movement of two species identified as fragmentation-sensitive in Chapter 3: Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) and Ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla). I also tested for behavioral changes in translocated birds and evaluated whether fragmentation effects differed between behavioral modes. Over two breeding seasons, we translocated 35 Wood Thrush and 19 Ovenbirds (1-1.2 km) across landscapes spanning a fragmentation gradient and recorded their movement paths using VHF transmitters and receivers. Eighty-seven percent of individuals returned successfully, taking as long as 72.2 hours. Movement patterns of 96% of successful birds indicated two distinct behavioral modes: exploring, characterized by short, undirected movements and course reversals; and homing, characterized by large, fast steps towards their home territories. Forest composition and configuration had no effect on homing time or path straightness for either species. However, at a finer scale, I found that both preferred to take steps that minimized their exposure to non-forested gaps. My results demonstrate that movement limitation could drive or exacerbate fragmentation sensitivity for these birds. Further, while fragmentation effects did not differ between behavioral modes, my results highlight the need to link the dichotomous behaviors of translocated animals with natural movement processes. Despite this knowledge gap, results from our study suggest that maintaining contiguous habitat or corridors may improve functional connectivity for fragmentation-sensitive birds. Title: Identifying factors driving sensitivity to fragmentation in forest breeding songbirds Author: Valente, Jonathon J. Habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest threats to biodiversity worldwide. Fragmentation impacts landscape configuration, resulting in a larger number of patches that are smaller in size and further apart from one another. Island biogeography and metapopulation theory predict populations in these remnant patches should be smaller, have higher extinction rates, and be less likely to receive immigrants from other populations. However, empirical data frequently do not conform with these theoretical predictions, leading to assertions that this model is too simplistic to describe distributions and dynamics of fragmented populations. However, others believe that landscape configuration effects have been poorly tested and modeled to date. In this dissertation, I use breeding bird data collected in a fragmented forest landscape to explore this lack of congruence between theory and reality. I first test the hypothesis that heterogeneity in the detectability of mobile species due to temporary emigration from sample sites can produce biased estimates of metapopulation rates. Next, I test for idiosyncrasies in the effects of forest loss and fragmentation on species belonging to different ecological trait groups. Lastly, I examine whether fragmentation actually reduces the functional connectivity of landscapes for species identified as fragmentation-sensitive. Dynamic occupancy models are popular for estimating metapopulation dynamic rates (colonization and extinction) from repeated presence/absence surveys of unmarked animals. This approach assumes closure among repeated samples within primary periods, allowing estimation of dynamic rates between these periods. However, the impact of temporary emigration (reversible changes in sampling availability) on dynamic rate estimates has not been tested. In Chapter 2, I use simulated data to investigate the degree to which temporary emigration could mislead researchers interested in quantifying metapopulation rates. I then compared results from three avian point count datasets to evaluate the likelihood that temporary emigration confounds estimates of dynamics for 19 species under a popular sampling protocol. Simulated experiments indicated that when secondary periods were open to temporary emigration, presence of dynamics was identified ≥ 95.1% of the time, and dynamic rate estimates were accurate. However, dynamic rates were biased when secondary periods were closed to temporary emigration. In empirical datasets, dynamic occupancy models had greater support than closed models for all species when secondary sampling periods occurred in immediate succession (i.e., 3 samples within 10 minutes); however, my results suggest that this is because these estimates were heavily influenced by temporary emigration. When counts within a primary period were separated by 24-48 hours, I found evidence of dynamics for less than half of these species. I recommend an alternative sampling approach that allows accurate estimation of dynamic rates when temporary emigration is of no interest, and introduce a novel model for estimating both processes simultaneously in rare cases where they are both of biological interest. Concern for violating the occupancy modeling closure assumption has led to widespread recommendations that samples within primary periods be conducted extremely close in time. However, these results indicate this is not the best approach when interest is in quantifying dynamic rates. While dynamic occupancy models provide estimates of ‘colonization’ and ‘extinction,’ these values do not inherently represent dynamics unless temporary emigration has been explicitly modeled or accounted for with sampling design. Naivete to this fact can result in incorrect conclusions about biological processes. While theory predicts that fragmentation should negatively influence biodiversity, empirical support of this idea is weak in terrestrial systems. However, tests of fragmentation effects are typically confounded with landscape composition and potentially obscured by imperfect detection. In Chapter 3, I used multi-species occupancy models and a mensurative experimental design to test competing hypotheses about how forest fragmentation influences distributions of breeding forest bird species and communities. During the breeding seasons of 2011-2013, we recorded over 80,000 bird detections in 202 forest fragments using a sampling design that isolated the effects of patch size per se from the effects of forest amount (2 km), edge, local vegetation, and sample area. I modeled the effects of these covariates on distributions of individual species categorized by ecological trait groups (i.e., forest, forest interior, or forest edge). Though my results indicated little effect of patch size on total species richness, increasing patch size tended to have a positive effect on interior species, and a negative effect on edge species. The effects of total forest amount were much more variable, and actually had a negative influence on many species, particularly cavity nesters. My results do not support theoretical predictions that forest patch size should positively influence bird species richness. However, composition of bird communities does shift toward edge species from interior species with decreasing patch size. Maintaining large forest patches is thus critical for supporting forest interior species, which tend to be of greater conservation concern. Maintenance of metapopulations requires movement of dispersers among resource patches. The degree to which a landscape facilitates or impedes such movements is defined as functional connectivity. Habitat fragmentation may reduce the functional connectivity of a landscape, but empirical linkages between distribution patterns and movement ability are lacking. In Chapter 4, I use experimental translocations to test whether forest fragmentation impedes movement of two species identified as fragmentation-sensitive in Chapter 3: Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) and Ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla). I also tested for behavioral changes in translocated birds and evaluated whether fragmentation effects differed between behavioral modes. Over two breeding seasons, we translocated 35 Wood Thrush and 19 Ovenbirds (1-1.2 km) across landscapes spanning a fragmentation gradient and recorded their movement paths using VHF transmitters and receivers. Eighty-seven percent of individuals returned successfully, taking as long as 72.2 hours. Movement patterns of 96% of successful birds indicated two distinct behavioral modes: exploring, characterized by short, undirected movements and course reversals; and homing, characterized by large, fast steps towards their home territories. Forest composition and configuration had no effect on homing time or path straightness for either species. However, at a finer scale, I found that both preferred to take steps that minimized their exposure to non-forested gaps. My results demonstrate that movement limitation could drive or exacerbate fragmentation sensitivity for these birds. Further, while fragmentation effects did not differ between behavioral modes, my results highlight the need to link the dichotomous behaviors of translocated animals with natural movement processes. Despite this knowledge gap, results from our study suggest that maintaining contiguous habitat or corridors may improve functional connectivity for fragmentation-sensitive birds. Close

• 3066. [Article] Hood River Bull Trout Abundance, Life History, and Habitat Connectivity, 2007 Progress Reports 2007

  Abstract -- Hood River bull trout are thought to exist as two independent reproductive units (USFWS 2004), known as local populations (Rieman and McIntyre 1995). The Clear Branch local population is isolated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hood River Bull Trout Abundance, Life History, and Habitat Connectivity, 2007 Progress Reports 2007 Abstract -- Hood River bull trout are thought to exist as two independent reproductive units (USFWS 2004), known as local populations (Rieman and McIntyre 1995). The Clear Branch local population is isolated above Clear Branch Dam, which provides limited downstream fish passage during infrequent and sporadic periods of spill and no upstream passage. Bull trout in this population inhabit Laurance Lake Reservoir and tributaries upstream of Clear Branch Dam. The Hood River local population occurs in the mainstem Hood River and Middle Fork Hood River downstream of the Clear Branch Dam and a small number of adult bull trout migrate each year into the Hood River from the Columbia River (Figure 1). The status of both populations is extremely precarious. The Clear Branch population is at risk of a random extinction event due to low numbers, negative interactions with non-native smallmouth bass, isolation and limited spawning habitat (USFWS, 1998). The Hood River population also appears to be small and is threatened by passage barriers, unscreened irrigation systems, impaired water quality and periodic siltation of spawning substrate by glacial outbursts. Clear Branch bull trout spawn in Clear Branch and Pinnacle Creek. After rearing in these two natal streams for an unknown time period, most are believed to migrate downstream to Laurance Lake Reservoir. Clear Branch bull trout have been documented passing over the dam spillway during high water events (Pribyl et al. 1996) and may provide a recruitment source for the Hood River local population. Adult bull trout tagged at Powerdale Dam have been observed at Coe Branch irrigation diversion and in a trap at the base of Clear Branch dam. These fish may have been attempting to reach spawning areas located upstream of the dam. However, the success of bull trout migrating downstream via the spillway or the possibility of successfully navigating through the diversion network has never been determined. Depending on the water year, the Middle Fork Irrigation District (MFID) may not spill at all, or the timing of the spill may not coincide with the timing of downstream migration, which is currently unknown (East Fork Hood River and Middle Fork Hood River Watershed analysis). Smallmouth bass were discovered in Lake Laurance Reservoir in the 1990s. Creel surveys have shown that large adult bass are caught occasionally in the reservoir and schools of bass fry have been seen by district fish biologist (Rod French, ODFW, personal communication), suggesting that they are spawning successfully. This illegal introduction poses a potential threat to the Clear Branch bull trout population, but its magnitude is unknown because the bass population size and degree of interaction between the two species are unknown. Bull trout and smallmouth bass have significantly different temperature preferences and tolerances, with bull trout being one of the most sensitive coldwater species and bass being a warm water species. Lake Laurance, a relatively high-altitude reservoir at 890 m (2,920 feet), does not provide ideal bass habitat so these two species may have largely non-overlapping distributions or differing activity periods (Terry Shrader, ODFW warmwater fish biologist, personal communication). However, based on past reservoir temperature data (Berger et al. 2005), there are periods in the reservoir when there is potential for bull trout and bass interaction: periods when bull trout are susceptible to bass predation and when juvenile fish might compete for resources. Spawning activity of the Hood River local population has been observed in a few locations within the Middle Fork of Hood River (Figure 1). Although consistent and extensive spawning areas for this population are not known, some of the locations where juvenile rearing or potential bull trout redds have been observed include the Middle Fork Hood River and some of its tributaries: Bear Creek, Compass Creek and Coe Branch (USFWS 2004). However, Coe Branch, Compass Creek, and the Middle Fork are glacial streams with a high volume of sand and silt which may compromise spawning success. No bull trout spawning or rearing has been observed on the East and West Forks of Hood River. The Middle Fork and mainstem Hood River provide foraging, migration and overwintering habitat. Hood River bull trout are also known to migrate into the Columbia River. Two bull trout tagged at Powerdale Dam (RK 7.2 of mainstem Hood River) were recovered near Drano Lake in Washington State; and one was captured 11 kilometers downstream of the confluence of the Hood and Columbia Rivers (USFWS 2004). Every year (usually between May and July), adult bull trout, presumably migrating upstream from the Columbia River, are captured and anchor tagged at Powerdale Dam. Although some of these tagged fish have been observed upstream (one in Coe Branch and three below Clear Branch dam), the spawning destination of fluvial adults within the Hood River basin is largely unknown. Dispersing juvenile bull trout and migrating adults in this local population are threatened by flow diversions with inadequate screening and passage facilities. Several structures are suspected to impede upstream migration or entrain juvenile and adult bull trout into irrigation works (Pribyl et al. 1996, HRWG 1999). These structures include: the diversion at Clear Branch Dam (passage and screening), Coe Branch (passage and screening), and the Farmers Irrigation District diversion (screening) on the mainstem Hood River (HRWG 1999). However, little research has been conducted to assess the impacts of these structures on migrating bull trout. Beyond a general knowledge of the distribution of Hood River bull trout and the nature of anthropogenic factors that potentially restrict their life history and habitat connectivity, little is known about this recovery unit. Baseline information about adult abundance is lacking for both local populations, the potential of a source (Clear Branch) and sink (Hood River) relationship between the two local populations has not been explored, and the migratory life history of adult fish caught at Powerdale Dam is unknown. The degree to which irrigation and hydropower diversions hamper connectivity within the Hood River basin is also poorly understood. Migratory life histories have been viewed as key to species persistence (Rieman and McIntyre 1995; Dunham and Rieman 1999), and understanding movement patterns and associated habitat requirements are critical to maintaining those migratory forms (Muhlfeld and Morotz 2005; Hostettler 2005). Gaining this information is also critical to evaluating bull trout recovery in the Hood River Subbasin (Coccoli 2004). The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) initiated a study in 2006 to improve our understanding of the abundance, life history, and potential limiting factors of the bull trout in this recovery unit. This report describes findings for the first two years of the study (2006-2007). Specific study objectives for the first two years were: 1. Determine the migratory life history of Hood River bull trout and assess the potential impacts of flow diversions and two new falls on the Middle Fork Hood River (scoured by the November 2006 glacial outburst) on bull trout migrations. 2. Determine current distribution of bull trout reproduction and early rearing in historical and potential bull trout streams in the Hood River Subbasin. 3. Determine the juvenile and adult life history the Clear Branch local population and develop a statistically reliable and cost-effective protocol for monitoring the abundance of adult Clear Branch bull trout. 4. Assess the potential impact of smallmouth bass on bull trout in Laurance Lake Reservoir. Title: Hood River Bull Trout Abundance, Life History, and Habitat Connectivity, 2007 Progress Reports 2007 Abstract -- Hood River bull trout are thought to exist as two independent reproductive units (USFWS 2004), known as local populations (Rieman and McIntyre 1995). The Clear Branch local population is isolated above Clear Branch Dam, which provides limited downstream fish passage during infrequent and sporadic periods of spill and no upstream passage. Bull trout in this population inhabit Laurance Lake Reservoir and tributaries upstream of Clear Branch Dam. The Hood River local population occurs in the mainstem Hood River and Middle Fork Hood River downstream of the Clear Branch Dam and a small number of adult bull trout migrate each year into the Hood River from the Columbia River (Figure 1). The status of both populations is extremely precarious. The Clear Branch population is at risk of a random extinction event due to low numbers, negative interactions with non-native smallmouth bass, isolation and limited spawning habitat (USFWS, 1998). The Hood River population also appears to be small and is threatened by passage barriers, unscreened irrigation systems, impaired water quality and periodic siltation of spawning substrate by glacial outbursts. Clear Branch bull trout spawn in Clear Branch and Pinnacle Creek. After rearing in these two natal streams for an unknown time period, most are believed to migrate downstream to Laurance Lake Reservoir. Clear Branch bull trout have been documented passing over the dam spillway during high water events (Pribyl et al. 1996) and may provide a recruitment source for the Hood River local population. Adult bull trout tagged at Powerdale Dam have been observed at Coe Branch irrigation diversion and in a trap at the base of Clear Branch dam. These fish may have been attempting to reach spawning areas located upstream of the dam. However, the success of bull trout migrating downstream via the spillway or the possibility of successfully navigating through the diversion network has never been determined. Depending on the water year, the Middle Fork Irrigation District (MFID) may not spill at all, or the timing of the spill may not coincide with the timing of downstream migration, which is currently unknown (East Fork Hood River and Middle Fork Hood River Watershed analysis). Smallmouth bass were discovered in Lake Laurance Reservoir in the 1990s. Creel surveys have shown that large adult bass are caught occasionally in the reservoir and schools of bass fry have been seen by district fish biologist (Rod French, ODFW, personal communication), suggesting that they are spawning successfully. This illegal introduction poses a potential threat to the Clear Branch bull trout population, but its magnitude is unknown because the bass population size and degree of interaction between the two species are unknown. Bull trout and smallmouth bass have significantly different temperature preferences and tolerances, with bull trout being one of the most sensitive coldwater species and bass being a warm water species. Lake Laurance, a relatively high-altitude reservoir at 890 m (2,920 feet), does not provide ideal bass habitat so these two species may have largely non-overlapping distributions or differing activity periods (Terry Shrader, ODFW warmwater fish biologist, personal communication). However, based on past reservoir temperature data (Berger et al. 2005), there are periods in the reservoir when there is potential for bull trout and bass interaction: periods when bull trout are susceptible to bass predation and when juvenile fish might compete for resources. Spawning activity of the Hood River local population has been observed in a few locations within the Middle Fork of Hood River (Figure 1). Although consistent and extensive spawning areas for this population are not known, some of the locations where juvenile rearing or potential bull trout redds have been observed include the Middle Fork Hood River and some of its tributaries: Bear Creek, Compass Creek and Coe Branch (USFWS 2004). However, Coe Branch, Compass Creek, and the Middle Fork are glacial streams with a high volume of sand and silt which may compromise spawning success. No bull trout spawning or rearing has been observed on the East and West Forks of Hood River. The Middle Fork and mainstem Hood River provide foraging, migration and overwintering habitat. Hood River bull trout are also known to migrate into the Columbia River. Two bull trout tagged at Powerdale Dam (RK 7.2 of mainstem Hood River) were recovered near Drano Lake in Washington State; and one was captured 11 kilometers downstream of the confluence of the Hood and Columbia Rivers (USFWS 2004). Every year (usually between May and July), adult bull trout, presumably migrating upstream from the Columbia River, are captured and anchor tagged at Powerdale Dam. Although some of these tagged fish have been observed upstream (one in Coe Branch and three below Clear Branch dam), the spawning destination of fluvial adults within the Hood River basin is largely unknown. Dispersing juvenile bull trout and migrating adults in this local population are threatened by flow diversions with inadequate screening and passage facilities. Several structures are suspected to impede upstream migration or entrain juvenile and adult bull trout into irrigation works (Pribyl et al. 1996, HRWG 1999). These structures include: the diversion at Clear Branch Dam (passage and screening), Coe Branch (passage and screening), and the Farmers Irrigation District diversion (screening) on the mainstem Hood River (HRWG 1999). However, little research has been conducted to assess the impacts of these structures on migrating bull trout. Beyond a general knowledge of the distribution of Hood River bull trout and the nature of anthropogenic factors that potentially restrict their life history and habitat connectivity, little is known about this recovery unit. Baseline information about adult abundance is lacking for both local populations, the potential of a source (Clear Branch) and sink (Hood River) relationship between the two local populations has not been explored, and the migratory life history of adult fish caught at Powerdale Dam is unknown. The degree to which irrigation and hydropower diversions hamper connectivity within the Hood River basin is also poorly understood. Migratory life histories have been viewed as key to species persistence (Rieman and McIntyre 1995; Dunham and Rieman 1999), and understanding movement patterns and associated habitat requirements are critical to maintaining those migratory forms (Muhlfeld and Morotz 2005; Hostettler 2005). Gaining this information is also critical to evaluating bull trout recovery in the Hood River Subbasin (Coccoli 2004). The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) initiated a study in 2006 to improve our understanding of the abundance, life history, and potential limiting factors of the bull trout in this recovery unit. This report describes findings for the first two years of the study (2006-2007). Specific study objectives for the first two years were: 1. Determine the migratory life history of Hood River bull trout and assess the potential impacts of flow diversions and two new falls on the Middle Fork Hood River (scoured by the November 2006 glacial outburst) on bull trout migrations. 2. Determine current distribution of bull trout reproduction and early rearing in historical and potential bull trout streams in the Hood River Subbasin. 3. Determine the juvenile and adult life history the Clear Branch local population and develop a statistically reliable and cost-effective protocol for monitoring the abundance of adult Clear Branch bull trout. 4. Assess the potential impact of smallmouth bass on bull trout in Laurance Lake Reservoir. Close

• 3067. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 90-Day Finding on a Petition to Delist the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker

  	Only portions of issues of the Federal Register are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographical reference; 50 CFR Part 17; Action: Notice of 90-day petition finding; “FR Doc. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 90-Day Finding on a Petition to Delist the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Only portions of issues of the Federal Register are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographical reference; 50 CFR Part 17; Action: Notice of 90-day petition finding; “FR Doc. 02-12123 Filed 5-13-02: 8:45 a.m.;” See the Federal Register at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/advanced.html Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of 90-Day Finding on a Petition to Delist the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Only portions of issues of the Federal Register are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Includes bibliographical reference; 50 CFR Part 17; Action: Notice of 90-day petition finding; “FR Doc. 02-12123 Filed 5-13-02: 8:45 a.m.;” See the Federal Register at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/advanced.html Close

• 3068. [Image] The Water Report - The role of science in the ESA

  	Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Water Report - The role of science in the ESA Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2004, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Title: The Water Report - The role of science in the ESA Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2004, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Close

• 3069. [Image] Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues

  	Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues Author: Kostow, Kathryn Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure because different species tend to look very similar through most of their life cycle, and they have not been well-studied in Oregon. Lampreys occur in the Columbia Basin, including the lower Snake River, along the Oregon coast, in the upper Klamath Basin, and in Goose Lake Basin in southeastern Oregon. They all begin life in fresh water where juveniles burrow into silt and filter feed on algae. As some species approach adulthood they migrate to the ocean or to lakes where they briefly become ecto-parasites, feeding on other live fishes by attaching to them with sucker disc mouths. Other species remain non-parasitic. In addition to some enigmatic species identities, we generally have very little information about the detailed distributions, life histories and basic biology of lampreys. Lampreys became a conservation concern in the early 1990s when tribal co-managers and some Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) staff noted that populations of Pacific Lampreys, Lampetra tridentata, were apparently declining to perilously low numbers. Pacific Lampreys were listed as an Oregon State sensitive species in 1993 and were given further legal protected status by the state in 1997 (OAR 635-044-0130). Lamprey status is difficult to assess for several reasons: 1) Most observations of lampreys in fresh water are of juveniles and it is difficult to tell the various species apart, even to the extent that the various species are currently clearly designated; 2) Data on lamprey is only collected incidental to monitoring of salmonids. The design and efficiency of the data collection effort is not always adequate for lampreys; and 3) We have very few historic data sets for lampreys. Therefore we often cannot determine how the abundances and distributions we see now compare with those in the past. The limited data that we have suggests that lampreys have declined through many parts of their ranges. The most precipitous declines appear to be in the upper Columbia and Snake basins where we have some historic data from mainstem dam counts. Pacific Lampreys have declined to only about 200 adults annually passing the Snake River dams. We also have evidence of declines of Pacific Lampreys in the lower Columbia and on the Oregon coast, although our data is quite limited. We have little to no information about any of the other species of lampreys. We are not even sure whether some of the recognized species, like the River Lamprey (L. ayresi), is still present in Oregon. This paper concludes with a Problem Analysis for Oregon lampreys. Our biggest problem is poor information, ranging from not knowing basic species identity to having inefficient or no systematic monitoring of lamprey abundance and distribution. ODFW continued an annual harvest on Pacific Lamprey in the Willamette Basin in 2001, but we lack the necessary information to assess the affects of the harvest on the population. Major habitat problems that affect lampreys include upstream passage over artificial barriers, a need for lamprey-friendly screening of water diversions, and urban and agricultural development of low-gradient flood plain habitats. Title: Oregon lampreys : natural history, status, and analysis of management issues Author: Kostow, Kathryn Year: 2002, 2008, 2005 Executive Summary The jawless lampreys are remnants of the oldest vertebrates in the world. Oregon has somewhere between eight and a dozen species of these primitive fishes. Their taxonomy is obscure because different species tend to look very similar through most of their life cycle, and they have not been well-studied in Oregon. Lampreys occur in the Columbia Basin, including the lower Snake River, along the Oregon coast, in the upper Klamath Basin, and in Goose Lake Basin in southeastern Oregon. They all begin life in fresh water where juveniles burrow into silt and filter feed on algae. As some species approach adulthood they migrate to the ocean or to lakes where they briefly become ecto-parasites, feeding on other live fishes by attaching to them with sucker disc mouths. Other species remain non-parasitic. In addition to some enigmatic species identities, we generally have very little information about the detailed distributions, life histories and basic biology of lampreys. Lampreys became a conservation concern in the early 1990s when tribal co-managers and some Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) staff noted that populations of Pacific Lampreys, Lampetra tridentata, were apparently declining to perilously low numbers. Pacific Lampreys were listed as an Oregon State sensitive species in 1993 and were given further legal protected status by the state in 1997 (OAR 635-044-0130). Lamprey status is difficult to assess for several reasons: 1) Most observations of lampreys in fresh water are of juveniles and it is difficult to tell the various species apart, even to the extent that the various species are currently clearly designated; 2) Data on lamprey is only collected incidental to monitoring of salmonids. The design and efficiency of the data collection effort is not always adequate for lampreys; and 3) We have very few historic data sets for lampreys. Therefore we often cannot determine how the abundances and distributions we see now compare with those in the past. The limited data that we have suggests that lampreys have declined through many parts of their ranges. The most precipitous declines appear to be in the upper Columbia and Snake basins where we have some historic data from mainstem dam counts. Pacific Lampreys have declined to only about 200 adults annually passing the Snake River dams. We also have evidence of declines of Pacific Lampreys in the lower Columbia and on the Oregon coast, although our data is quite limited. We have little to no information about any of the other species of lampreys. We are not even sure whether some of the recognized species, like the River Lamprey (L. ayresi), is still present in Oregon. This paper concludes with a Problem Analysis for Oregon lampreys. Our biggest problem is poor information, ranging from not knowing basic species identity to having inefficient or no systematic monitoring of lamprey abundance and distribution. ODFW continued an annual harvest on Pacific Lamprey in the Willamette Basin in 2001, but we lack the necessary information to assess the affects of the harvest on the population. Major habitat problems that affect lampreys include upstream passage over artificial barriers, a need for lamprey-friendly screening of water diversions, and urban and agricultural development of low-gradient flood plain habitats. Close

• 3070. [Image] Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status

  	EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status Author: Buchanan, David V; Hanson, Mary L; Hooton, Robert M Year: 1997, 2007, 2005 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River systems. No bull trout have been observed in Oregon's coastal systems. A total of 69 bull trout populations in 12 basins are currently identified in Oregon. A comparison of the 1991 bull trout status (Ratliff and Ho well 1992) to the revised 1996 status found that 7 populations were newly discovered and 1 population showed a positive or upgraded status while 22 populations showed a negative or downgraded status. The general downgrading of 32% of Oregon's bull trout populations appears largely due to increased survey efforts and increased survey accuracy rather than reduced numbers or distribution. However, three populations in the upper Klamath Basin, two in the Walla Walla Basin, and one in the Willamette Basin showed decreases in estimated population abundance or distribution. Some Oregon river basins have bull trout populations at extreme risk of extinction. This statewide status review listed only 19% of the bull trout populations in Oregon with a ulow risk of extinction" or "of special concern." Therefore, 81% of Oregon's bull trout populations are considered to be at a "moderate risk of extinction," "high risk of extinction," or "probably extinct." Populations in the Hood, Klamath, and Powder basins, as well as the Odell Lake population in the Deschutes basin, which contain only a few remaining bull trout, are examples of populations having a "moderate" or "high risk" of extinction. Approximately 55% of current bull trout distribution occurs on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. A much smaller proportion occurs on Bureau of Land Management managed lands (2%). Only 16% of current bull trout distribution occurs within a protected area defined as Wilderness, Wild and Scenic River, or within a National Park. The Northwest Forest Plan, Inland Native Fish Strategy, and Interim Strategies for Managing Anadromous Fish-producing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of California have provided increased protection for bull trout habitat depending on their scope and geographic areas affected, and the extent to which they are being effectively implemented in watersheds containing bull trout. Recent reduction in timber production on National Forests (up to 50% in western Oregon National Forests and over 30% in eastern Oregon National Forests) should help improve riparian and stream habitat conditions for bull trout. The remaining bull trout distribution occurs on private, state, or tribal owned lands. A comparison of approximately 39 locations throughout the state with protective angling regulations on bull trout (in some areas more than one bull trout population is protected by one regulation) shows that all state managed areas were upgraded in a protective angling status or at least maintained in 1996 compared to 1989. Restrictive angling regulations prohibit angler harvest of all bull trout populations in Oregon except for one in the Deschutes Basin. Restrictive bull trout angling regulation changes (including the elimination of bull Vll trout harvest in all spawning areas) may be the major reasons why the Metolius River/Lake Billy Chinook and mainstem McKenzie River populations have shown significant increases in abundance. Statewide stocking of non-native brook trout, including the high lakes stocking program, has been discontinued in locations where managers believe brook trout could migrate downstream and potentially interact with native bull trout. Hatchery stocking of legal rainbow trout to promote recreational fisheries has been discontinued in most locations near bull trout populations to avoid incidental catch of bull trout. The spatial and temporal distributions of bull trout reported for each river basin in this status report should be used as an accurate baseline for fisheries managers. Current distribution and relative change of distribution should be useful indicators of population health and status. The GIS maps in this report provide a template to add new layers of data such as critical spawning and juvenile rearing areas, or as a method to compare distribution changes through time. Length frequency data are presented for most Oregon bull trout populations. This should provide estimates for the presence of multiple age classes and the percent of fluvial size life history component. Vlll Title: Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status Author: Buchanan, David V; Hanson, Mary L; Hooton, Robert M Year: 1997, 2007, 2005 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River systems. No bull trout have been observed in Oregon's coastal systems. A total of 69 bull trout populations in 12 basins are currently identified in Oregon. A comparison of the 1991 bull trout status (Ratliff and Ho well 1992) to the revised 1996 status found that 7 populations were newly discovered and 1 population showed a positive or upgraded status while 22 populations showed a negative or downgraded status. The general downgrading of 32% of Oregon's bull trout populations appears largely due to increased survey efforts and increased survey accuracy rather than reduced numbers or distribution. However, three populations in the upper Klamath Basin, two in the Walla Walla Basin, and one in the Willamette Basin showed decreases in estimated population abundance or distribution. Some Oregon river basins have bull trout populations at extreme risk of extinction. This statewide status review listed only 19% of the bull trout populations in Oregon with a ulow risk of extinction" or "of special concern." Therefore, 81% of Oregon's bull trout populations are considered to be at a "moderate risk of extinction," "high risk of extinction," or "probably extinct." Populations in the Hood, Klamath, and Powder basins, as well as the Odell Lake population in the Deschutes basin, which contain only a few remaining bull trout, are examples of populations having a "moderate" or "high risk" of extinction. Approximately 55% of current bull trout distribution occurs on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. A much smaller proportion occurs on Bureau of Land Management managed lands (2%). Only 16% of current bull trout distribution occurs within a protected area defined as Wilderness, Wild and Scenic River, or within a National Park. The Northwest Forest Plan, Inland Native Fish Strategy, and Interim Strategies for Managing Anadromous Fish-producing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of California have provided increased protection for bull trout habitat depending on their scope and geographic areas affected, and the extent to which they are being effectively implemented in watersheds containing bull trout. Recent reduction in timber production on National Forests (up to 50% in western Oregon National Forests and over 30% in eastern Oregon National Forests) should help improve riparian and stream habitat conditions for bull trout. The remaining bull trout distribution occurs on private, state, or tribal owned lands. A comparison of approximately 39 locations throughout the state with protective angling regulations on bull trout (in some areas more than one bull trout population is protected by one regulation) shows that all state managed areas were upgraded in a protective angling status or at least maintained in 1996 compared to 1989. Restrictive angling regulations prohibit angler harvest of all bull trout populations in Oregon except for one in the Deschutes Basin. Restrictive bull trout angling regulation changes (including the elimination of bull Vll trout harvest in all spawning areas) may be the major reasons why the Metolius River/Lake Billy Chinook and mainstem McKenzie River populations have shown significant increases in abundance. Statewide stocking of non-native brook trout, including the high lakes stocking program, has been discontinued in locations where managers believe brook trout could migrate downstream and potentially interact with native bull trout. Hatchery stocking of legal rainbow trout to promote recreational fisheries has been discontinued in most locations near bull trout populations to avoid incidental catch of bull trout. The spatial and temporal distributions of bull trout reported for each river basin in this status report should be used as an accurate baseline for fisheries managers. Current distribution and relative change of distribution should be useful indicators of population health and status. The GIS maps in this report provide a template to add new layers of data such as critical spawning and juvenile rearing areas, or as a method to compare distribution changes through time. Length frequency data are presented for most Oregon bull trout populations. This should provide estimates for the presence of multiple age classes and the percent of fluvial size life history component. Vlll Close