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• 11. [Article] Headwater stream characterization : an energy and physical approach to stream temperature using distributed temperature sensing

  Headwater streams are an integral part of the ecological health of the greater stream network as they provide valuable biological habitat, provide upwards to 95% of total in channel flow, while providing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Headwater stream characterization : an energy and physical approach to stream temperature using distributed temperature sensing Author: Roth, Travis R. Headwater streams are an integral part of the ecological health of the greater stream network as they provide valuable biological habitat, provide upwards to 95% of total in channel flow, while providing downstream reaches with important constituents such as sediment and woody debris. Small headwater streams are particularly susceptible to anthropogenic and natural disturbances that affect their runoff production, chemical make-up, and thermal regime. Based on their position in the drainage basin and contribution to stream flow, heat energy transfer within a small mountain stream helps establish the thermal regime of the downstream lower order streams. However, headwater catchment thermal function remains poorly understood. Stream temperature is a manifestation of the environment through which it flows and the mechanisms by which it reaches the stream. Subsurface process controls, such as local soil properties, bedrock topography, and lateral flow discharge play an important role in headwater stream generation. Study outcomes are a result of vigorous field experimental work at the Watershed 07 (WS07) stream at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest (HJA) located in the Western Cascades, Oregon. Bedrock Topography was delineated through the use of a dynamic cone penetrometer, local lateral inflow sources were identified and quantified through the application of a salt tracer, and the energy budget was characterized through the use of Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) technology. High gradient, low volume streams such as WS07 provide unique challenges for DTS deployment which require extensive post-calibration data analysis. An automated cable submersion identification process was developed and was carried out on the collected temperature data with 32.8 % (379 of 1155) of measured temperature points identified as "in-water". Uncertainty propagation analysis associated with DTS measurement was calculated to be 0.21 °C. Salt tracer application found that 2 localized lateral inflow discharge to the stream accounted for 15% and 16% of total discharge in the upper section of the stream. Downstream lateral inflows exhibited incremental additions to stream discharge on the order of 5%. Stream discharge increased by 1.13 l/s from the upper section to the start of the lower section, an increase of 45%. Substantial lateral inflows provided reduction of stream temperatures in the lower section. Using DTS technology we measured stream temperature as a validation method for a physically based energy balance stream temperature model to characterize energy controls on stream temperature. Analysis of model performance was determined through root mean square error with reported values of 0.38 °C and 0.32 °C for the upper and lower section, respectively. Total energy inputs into the upper and lower sections of the stream were 302 W/m² and 210 W/m². Primary energy balance components were found to be solar radiation, atmospheric longwave radiation, and bed conduction. Solar radiation accounted for 63% of total energy flux into the stream in the upper section and 28% in the lower section. This is primarily a result of the distinct vegetation differences between the two reaches. Atmospheric longwave radiation contributed 27% and 26% of total energy flux in the upper and lower sections, respectively. While bed conduction made up 11% and 24% of the total flux in the upper and lower sections. Title: Headwater stream characterization : an energy and physical approach to stream temperature using distributed temperature sensing Author: Roth, Travis R. Headwater streams are an integral part of the ecological health of the greater stream network as they provide valuable biological habitat, provide upwards to 95% of total in channel flow, while providing downstream reaches with important constituents such as sediment and woody debris. Small headwater streams are particularly susceptible to anthropogenic and natural disturbances that affect their runoff production, chemical make-up, and thermal regime. Based on their position in the drainage basin and contribution to stream flow, heat energy transfer within a small mountain stream helps establish the thermal regime of the downstream lower order streams. However, headwater catchment thermal function remains poorly understood. Stream temperature is a manifestation of the environment through which it flows and the mechanisms by which it reaches the stream. Subsurface process controls, such as local soil properties, bedrock topography, and lateral flow discharge play an important role in headwater stream generation. Study outcomes are a result of vigorous field experimental work at the Watershed 07 (WS07) stream at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest (HJA) located in the Western Cascades, Oregon. Bedrock Topography was delineated through the use of a dynamic cone penetrometer, local lateral inflow sources were identified and quantified through the application of a salt tracer, and the energy budget was characterized through the use of Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) technology. High gradient, low volume streams such as WS07 provide unique challenges for DTS deployment which require extensive post-calibration data analysis. An automated cable submersion identification process was developed and was carried out on the collected temperature data with 32.8 % (379 of 1155) of measured temperature points identified as "in-water". Uncertainty propagation analysis associated with DTS measurement was calculated to be 0.21 °C. Salt tracer application found that 2 localized lateral inflow discharge to the stream accounted for 15% and 16% of total discharge in the upper section of the stream. Downstream lateral inflows exhibited incremental additions to stream discharge on the order of 5%. Stream discharge increased by 1.13 l/s from the upper section to the start of the lower section, an increase of 45%. Substantial lateral inflows provided reduction of stream temperatures in the lower section. Using DTS technology we measured stream temperature as a validation method for a physically based energy balance stream temperature model to characterize energy controls on stream temperature. Analysis of model performance was determined through root mean square error with reported values of 0.38 °C and 0.32 °C for the upper and lower section, respectively. Total energy inputs into the upper and lower sections of the stream were 302 W/m² and 210 W/m². Primary energy balance components were found to be solar radiation, atmospheric longwave radiation, and bed conduction. Solar radiation accounted for 63% of total energy flux into the stream in the upper section and 28% in the lower section. This is primarily a result of the distinct vegetation differences between the two reaches. Atmospheric longwave radiation contributed 27% and 26% of total energy flux in the upper and lower sections, respectively. While bed conduction made up 11% and 24% of the total flux in the upper and lower sections. Close

• 12. [Article] Can air temperature be used to project influences of climate change on stream temperature?

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Institute ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Can air temperature be used to project influences of climate change on stream temperature? Author: Arismendi, Ivan, Johnson, Sherri L., Safeeq, Mohammad, Dunham, Jason B. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Institute of Physics Publishing and can be found at: http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/. Title: Can air temperature be used to project influences of climate change on stream temperature? Author: Arismendi, Ivan, Johnson, Sherri L., Safeeq, Mohammad, Dunham, Jason B. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Institute of Physics Publishing and can be found at: http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/. Close

• 13. [Article] Forest road hydrology : the influence of forest roads on stream flow at stream crossings

  The management of existing forest road systems is an issue of growing importance and public debate. Roads can alter the hydrologic processes in a watershed especially at stream crossing culverts where ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forest road hydrology : the influence of forest roads on stream flow at stream crossings Author: Toman, Elizabeth Myers The management of existing forest road systems is an issue of growing importance and public debate. Roads can alter the hydrologic processes in a watershed especially at stream crossing culverts where road ditches channel runoff directly into the stream. The objective of this study was to determine how surface runoff from roads augments natural stream flow at stream crossing culverts. This study took place within an 824 ha watershed in the foothills of the Oregon Coast Range approximately three miles west of Corvallis, Oregon. Sixteen stream crossing culverts were selected for study. Discharge was measured from October 2002 through May 2003 at each stream and at the adjoining ditch(es). Hydrographs for both stream flow and ditch flow were analyzed for five storms that occurred during the winter 2002-2003. The interaction of the road with subsurface flow from the hillslope caused the hydrology of the road segment to be classified as either “intermittent” or “ephemeral.” Peak flow and total runoff at the stream crossing culverts was compared with the magnitude and timing of peak flow and total runoff in the adjoining ditch(es). Forest roads were found to alter the flow paths of water through the Oak Creek watershed. The road altered storm runoff and peak flow at the stream crossing culverts seventy-four times out of seventy-eight opportunities during five storms. The amount of the change depended primarily on whether or not the road cutslope intercepted subsurface flow. Contributions of intercepted subsurface runoff to the stream were greater than contributions of surface runoff by an order of magnitude. In the Oak Creek watershed, 56 percent of the road cutslopes adjacent to streams intercepted subsurface flow. Intercepted subsurface flow was more connected in time to stream flow than surface runoff. Ditch flow, on average, contributed the most volume on the rising limb of the stream hydrograph at the culvert. Flow responses at individual culvert locations were highly variable and could not be predicted using traditional topographic variables. Title: Forest road hydrology : the influence of forest roads on stream flow at stream crossings Author: Toman, Elizabeth Myers The management of existing forest road systems is an issue of growing importance and public debate. Roads can alter the hydrologic processes in a watershed especially at stream crossing culverts where road ditches channel runoff directly into the stream. The objective of this study was to determine how surface runoff from roads augments natural stream flow at stream crossing culverts. This study took place within an 824 ha watershed in the foothills of the Oregon Coast Range approximately three miles west of Corvallis, Oregon. Sixteen stream crossing culverts were selected for study. Discharge was measured from October 2002 through May 2003 at each stream and at the adjoining ditch(es). Hydrographs for both stream flow and ditch flow were analyzed for five storms that occurred during the winter 2002-2003. The interaction of the road with subsurface flow from the hillslope caused the hydrology of the road segment to be classified as either “intermittent” or “ephemeral.” Peak flow and total runoff at the stream crossing culverts was compared with the magnitude and timing of peak flow and total runoff in the adjoining ditch(es). Forest roads were found to alter the flow paths of water through the Oak Creek watershed. The road altered storm runoff and peak flow at the stream crossing culverts seventy-four times out of seventy-eight opportunities during five storms. The amount of the change depended primarily on whether or not the road cutslope intercepted subsurface flow. Contributions of intercepted subsurface runoff to the stream were greater than contributions of surface runoff by an order of magnitude. In the Oak Creek watershed, 56 percent of the road cutslopes adjacent to streams intercepted subsurface flow. Intercepted subsurface flow was more connected in time to stream flow than surface runoff. Ditch flow, on average, contributed the most volume on the rising limb of the stream hydrograph at the culvert. Flow responses at individual culvert locations were highly variable and could not be predicted using traditional topographic variables. Close

• 14. [Article] The population dynamics and reproductive strategy of the stream snail Oxytrema silicula (Gould) in relation to stream order

  The population dynamics and reproductive strategies of the stream snail Oxytrema silicula were examined in four coastal streams in Oregon representing a small first order stream, a wider third order stream ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The population dynamics and reproductive strategy of the stream snail Oxytrema silicula (Gould) in relation to stream order Author: Diamond, J. (Jerome), 1951- The population dynamics and reproductive strategies of the stream snail Oxytrema silicula were examined in four coastal streams in Oregon representing a small first order stream, a wider third order stream and a fourth and sixth order stream. Samples were taken in each type of stream bottom for each stream every three months for one year. During each sampling period several characteristics of the population were determined including snail densities for each stream and each of five predetermined weight classes, sex ratio, reproductive activity, fecundity and apparent mortality. In addition, sediment type, water depth and type of cover, if any, were determined for each sampling point. Snail densities were generally highest in the summer and fall following the egg hatch in the late spring. During any sampling period, snail abundance was greater on gravel and cobble substrates than on sand or silt substrates. Only larger sized snails (greater than 9 mm in length) were found on the latter with smaller snails being concentrated in the shallow, rocky areas. Highest densities were always recorded on allochthonous materials in the stream such as leaves, twigs and flowers. On the basis of the CLUSTER and multivariate analyses, it was determined that stream depth was the most important environmental parameter of the ones measured determining the observed distribution of snails in the stream. Subsequent substrate preference experiments supported this conclusion. As stream order increases, several changes occur in the population structure and reproductive output of O. silicula. Mean density, apparent mortality and fecundity decrease with increasing stream width while mean biomass, and the proportion of larger snails increase. Mortality, as measured by numbers of empty shells and dead snails observed, was usually highest following the winter freshets. Dead snails representing all size classes were recorded in both the first and third order streams while dead snails in the fourth and six order streams were usually in the largest size classes. The shell:biomass ratio of the larger weight snails in each stream (those weighing more than 300 mg total fresh weight) increases with increasing stream order. Thus, relatively more of the total weight of larger snails in larger streams is shell. Perhaps this is indirectly related to the increase in the incidence of gonadal parasitism of O. silicula with stream width which may also be a possible selection force maintaining the relatively low densities and fecundity for snails inhabiting larger streams. Preliminary evidence using isolated snails both from Oak Creek (third order) and Salmon Creek (fourth order) suggested no inherent difference in reproductive capabilities between the two snail populations. Furthermore, results of short-term feeding experiments indicated that snail growth and timing of reproductive maturity are directly related to food abundance and perhaps food quality. Other environmental parameters such as temperature and stream flow rates are believed to be important in regulating the growth and reproductive activity of 0. silicula. These results suggest that reproductive strategies and resulting population structure of O. silicula are due to a high level of phenotypic plasticity which is at least partly controlled by environmental factors such as flow rates, temperature and competitive interactions. Title: The population dynamics and reproductive strategy of the stream snail Oxytrema silicula (Gould) in relation to stream order Author: Diamond, J. (Jerome), 1951- The population dynamics and reproductive strategies of the stream snail Oxytrema silicula were examined in four coastal streams in Oregon representing a small first order stream, a wider third order stream and a fourth and sixth order stream. Samples were taken in each type of stream bottom for each stream every three months for one year. During each sampling period several characteristics of the population were determined including snail densities for each stream and each of five predetermined weight classes, sex ratio, reproductive activity, fecundity and apparent mortality. In addition, sediment type, water depth and type of cover, if any, were determined for each sampling point. Snail densities were generally highest in the summer and fall following the egg hatch in the late spring. During any sampling period, snail abundance was greater on gravel and cobble substrates than on sand or silt substrates. Only larger sized snails (greater than 9 mm in length) were found on the latter with smaller snails being concentrated in the shallow, rocky areas. Highest densities were always recorded on allochthonous materials in the stream such as leaves, twigs and flowers. On the basis of the CLUSTER and multivariate analyses, it was determined that stream depth was the most important environmental parameter of the ones measured determining the observed distribution of snails in the stream. Subsequent substrate preference experiments supported this conclusion. As stream order increases, several changes occur in the population structure and reproductive output of O. silicula. Mean density, apparent mortality and fecundity decrease with increasing stream width while mean biomass, and the proportion of larger snails increase. Mortality, as measured by numbers of empty shells and dead snails observed, was usually highest following the winter freshets. Dead snails representing all size classes were recorded in both the first and third order streams while dead snails in the fourth and six order streams were usually in the largest size classes. The shell:biomass ratio of the larger weight snails in each stream (those weighing more than 300 mg total fresh weight) increases with increasing stream order. Thus, relatively more of the total weight of larger snails in larger streams is shell. Perhaps this is indirectly related to the increase in the incidence of gonadal parasitism of O. silicula with stream width which may also be a possible selection force maintaining the relatively low densities and fecundity for snails inhabiting larger streams. Preliminary evidence using isolated snails both from Oak Creek (third order) and Salmon Creek (fourth order) suggested no inherent difference in reproductive capabilities between the two snail populations. Furthermore, results of short-term feeding experiments indicated that snail growth and timing of reproductive maturity are directly related to food abundance and perhaps food quality. Other environmental parameters such as temperature and stream flow rates are believed to be important in regulating the growth and reproductive activity of 0. silicula. These results suggest that reproductive strategies and resulting population structure of O. silicula are due to a high level of phenotypic plasticity which is at least partly controlled by environmental factors such as flow rates, temperature and competitive interactions. Close

• 15. [Article] Effects of elevated temperature on juvenile Coho salmon and benthic invertebrates in model stream communities

  Juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum)) and aquatic invertebrates were subjected to experimentally increased, but naturally fluctuating, temperatures in a model stream channel. Coho of the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of elevated temperature on juvenile Coho salmon and benthic invertebrates in model stream communities Author: Iverson, Ronald Albert Juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum)) and aquatic invertebrates were subjected to experimentally increased, but naturally fluctuating, temperatures in a model stream channel. Coho of the 1969, 1970, and 1971 year classes were reared in the heated model stream and in an unheated control stream, both located at the Oak Creek laboratory west of Corvallis, Oregon. The average increment of experimental over control temperature was 4.3 C over the entire experimental period of 22 months. Temperatures in the control stream were generally favorable for growth of coho if food organisms were scarce, while temperatures in the heated stream were favorable for growth if food organisms were abundant. Coho of the 1969 year class were reared for one winter as yearlings, and total production of this group was approximately the same in the two streams. Coho of the 1970 year class were reared from small fry to smolts over a one-year period. In this group, total production in the control stream was approximately twice as great as in the heated stream. While population size was nearly the same in the two streams, coho in the control stream grew much more rapidly than in the heated stream. Total production of coho of the 1971 year class, which were reared from the egg stage, was approximately five times as great in the control as in the heated stream when the experiment was terminated in August 1971. The difference in production resulted from larger population size and higher growth rate in the control stream. Production of aquatic stages of insects was approximately twice as great in the control as in the heated stream over the period May 1970-May 1971. This difference between streams was especially marked in mayfly and stonefly nymphs, which were the most abundant insects in both streams, and which appeared to be the major sources of food for coho. The reduced growth rates of coho in the heated as compared to the control stream probably resulted from effects of temperature on the invertebrate food supply as well as from direct effects of temperature on the coho in raising their standard metabolic rates so that energy available for growth was reduced. Winter growth rates of coho in the heated stream were generally higher than in the control, probably as a result of an increase in appetite with increased temperature. Winter growth rates of the 1969 year class were high, probably because young coho fry were available as food. Winter growth rates of coho of the 1970 year class, which had a more natural food supply, were low in both streams. The insect fauna of the Oak Creek area is probably adapted to cool water temperatures, and this adaptation presumably contributed to the reduced insect production in the heated model stream. If heat tolerant species of insects were present in or able to migrate into a stream receiving a heated effluent, the simplication of the invertebrate fauna caused by the thermal pollution might increase the amount of food available to the top carnivore. Such heat-tolerant forms apparently were not present in the model streams or, if present, were not able to contribute significantly to total production. Title: Effects of elevated temperature on juvenile Coho salmon and benthic invertebrates in model stream communities Author: Iverson, Ronald Albert Juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum)) and aquatic invertebrates were subjected to experimentally increased, but naturally fluctuating, temperatures in a model stream channel. Coho of the 1969, 1970, and 1971 year classes were reared in the heated model stream and in an unheated control stream, both located at the Oak Creek laboratory west of Corvallis, Oregon. The average increment of experimental over control temperature was 4.3 C over the entire experimental period of 22 months. Temperatures in the control stream were generally favorable for growth of coho if food organisms were scarce, while temperatures in the heated stream were favorable for growth if food organisms were abundant. Coho of the 1969 year class were reared for one winter as yearlings, and total production of this group was approximately the same in the two streams. Coho of the 1970 year class were reared from small fry to smolts over a one-year period. In this group, total production in the control stream was approximately twice as great as in the heated stream. While population size was nearly the same in the two streams, coho in the control stream grew much more rapidly than in the heated stream. Total production of coho of the 1971 year class, which were reared from the egg stage, was approximately five times as great in the control as in the heated stream when the experiment was terminated in August 1971. The difference in production resulted from larger population size and higher growth rate in the control stream. Production of aquatic stages of insects was approximately twice as great in the control as in the heated stream over the period May 1970-May 1971. This difference between streams was especially marked in mayfly and stonefly nymphs, which were the most abundant insects in both streams, and which appeared to be the major sources of food for coho. The reduced growth rates of coho in the heated as compared to the control stream probably resulted from effects of temperature on the invertebrate food supply as well as from direct effects of temperature on the coho in raising their standard metabolic rates so that energy available for growth was reduced. Winter growth rates of coho in the heated stream were generally higher than in the control, probably as a result of an increase in appetite with increased temperature. Winter growth rates of the 1969 year class were high, probably because young coho fry were available as food. Winter growth rates of coho of the 1970 year class, which had a more natural food supply, were low in both streams. The insect fauna of the Oak Creek area is probably adapted to cool water temperatures, and this adaptation presumably contributed to the reduced insect production in the heated model stream. If heat tolerant species of insects were present in or able to migrate into a stream receiving a heated effluent, the simplication of the invertebrate fauna caused by the thermal pollution might increase the amount of food available to the top carnivore. Such heat-tolerant forms apparently were not present in the model streams or, if present, were not able to contribute significantly to total production. Close

• 16. [Article] Summertime water temperature trends in Steamboat Creek Basin, Umpqua National Forest

  The Steamboat Creek basin drains 227 mi² (588 km²) of steep forested terrain into the North Umpqua River of Southwest Oregon, 39 mi (63 km) northeast of Roseburg. Summer base flows for Steamboat Creek ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summertime water temperature trends in Steamboat Creek Basin, Umpqua National Forest Author: Holaday, Steven A. The Steamboat Creek basin drains 227 mi² (588 km²) of steep forested terrain into the North Umpqua River of Southwest Oregon, 39 mi (63 km) northeast of Roseburg. Summer base flows for Steamboat Creek average 83 cfs (2.35 m³/sec). Steamboat Creek and its tributaries are considered important to the production of summer-run steelhead; the basin has been closed to angling since 1932. Harvesting has occurred in every subdrainage of the Steamboat Creek basin. Trees were routinely removed from riparian areas when harvesting in the basin began in 1955. Since the mid-1970s to early-1980s, however, buffer strips were left adjacent to streams. In addition, the floods of 1964-65 caused significant damage to riparian vegetation in the basin. This study was undertaken to: (1) determine long-term trends over the period 1969-90 of summertime water temperatures in the mainstem of Steamboat Creek, selected tributaries, and in Boulder Creek, an unharvested control stream in an adjacent watershed and (2) evaluate spacial patterns of maximum water temperatures in the Steamboat Creek basin during the summer of 1990. Significant (P≤0.10) trends of decreasing maximum daily summertime stream temperatures on Steamboat Creek and tributaries occurred from 1969-90. In contrast, an unharvested control stream showed a small, but nonsignificant, increasing trend in stream temperatures. The largest decrease in maximum stream temperatures (7 to 11°F, 3.9 to 6.1°C) occurred on small streams with summer base flows less than 6 cfs (0.17 m³/sec). These streams also had the highest proportion of stream length adjacent to harvesting activities before 1974. The smallest decrease in maximum stream temperatures (0 to 3°F, 0 to 1.7°C) occurred on streams with little or no history of timber harvest activity along riparian areas, or at locations where summer base flows were greater than 15 cfs (0.42 m³/sec). Since no trends in either air temperature or streamflow were apparent over the 1969-90 period, regrowth of riparian vegetation that was previously removed by flooding, debris torrents, or streamside harvesting, appears to be the major cause of trends in decreasing maximum summer stream temperature. Regrowth of riparian vegetation provides shade over small streams, decreasing energy input to the stream from solar radiation. Maximum daily stream temperatures in lower Steamboat Creek did not change significantly during the 1969-90 study period and stream temperature data in 1960 indicates that maximum stream temperatures in lower Steamboat Creek have historically been high. Any cooling effects by groundwater or tributaries are largely negated by the large volume of water in the main channel. Also, the large stream width renders riparian vegetation relatively ineffective in protecting the stream from solar radiation. Minimum stream temperatures decreased during the 1969-90 study period for all of the long-term stations in the Steamboat Creek basin while the control stream showed a slight increasing trend. Similarly, diurnal stream temperature fluctuations decreased for several tributaries. Title: Summertime water temperature trends in Steamboat Creek Basin, Umpqua National Forest Author: Holaday, Steven A. The Steamboat Creek basin drains 227 mi² (588 km²) of steep forested terrain into the North Umpqua River of Southwest Oregon, 39 mi (63 km) northeast of Roseburg. Summer base flows for Steamboat Creek average 83 cfs (2.35 m³/sec). Steamboat Creek and its tributaries are considered important to the production of summer-run steelhead; the basin has been closed to angling since 1932. Harvesting has occurred in every subdrainage of the Steamboat Creek basin. Trees were routinely removed from riparian areas when harvesting in the basin began in 1955. Since the mid-1970s to early-1980s, however, buffer strips were left adjacent to streams. In addition, the floods of 1964-65 caused significant damage to riparian vegetation in the basin. This study was undertaken to: (1) determine long-term trends over the period 1969-90 of summertime water temperatures in the mainstem of Steamboat Creek, selected tributaries, and in Boulder Creek, an unharvested control stream in an adjacent watershed and (2) evaluate spacial patterns of maximum water temperatures in the Steamboat Creek basin during the summer of 1990. Significant (P≤0.10) trends of decreasing maximum daily summertime stream temperatures on Steamboat Creek and tributaries occurred from 1969-90. In contrast, an unharvested control stream showed a small, but nonsignificant, increasing trend in stream temperatures. The largest decrease in maximum stream temperatures (7 to 11°F, 3.9 to 6.1°C) occurred on small streams with summer base flows less than 6 cfs (0.17 m³/sec). These streams also had the highest proportion of stream length adjacent to harvesting activities before 1974. The smallest decrease in maximum stream temperatures (0 to 3°F, 0 to 1.7°C) occurred on streams with little or no history of timber harvest activity along riparian areas, or at locations where summer base flows were greater than 15 cfs (0.42 m³/sec). Since no trends in either air temperature or streamflow were apparent over the 1969-90 period, regrowth of riparian vegetation that was previously removed by flooding, debris torrents, or streamside harvesting, appears to be the major cause of trends in decreasing maximum summer stream temperature. Regrowth of riparian vegetation provides shade over small streams, decreasing energy input to the stream from solar radiation. Maximum daily stream temperatures in lower Steamboat Creek did not change significantly during the 1969-90 study period and stream temperature data in 1960 indicates that maximum stream temperatures in lower Steamboat Creek have historically been high. Any cooling effects by groundwater or tributaries are largely negated by the large volume of water in the main channel. Also, the large stream width renders riparian vegetation relatively ineffective in protecting the stream from solar radiation. Minimum stream temperatures decreased during the 1969-90 study period for all of the long-term stations in the Steamboat Creek basin while the control stream showed a slight increasing trend. Similarly, diurnal stream temperature fluctuations decreased for several tributaries. Close

• 17. [Article] AI - Stream Habitat Conditions in Western Oregon, 1999

  Abstract -- The physical habitat of a stream forms the template from which the biological community can develop. The structure and complexity of the stream habitat influences the species composition, distribution, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: AI - Stream Habitat Conditions in Western Oregon, 1999 Abstract -- The physical habitat of a stream forms the template from which the biological community can develop. The structure and complexity of the stream habitat influences the species composition, distribution, and production of the fish community. Assessing the status of stream habitat conditions in coastal Oregon streams is important for monitoring the effects of landscape and aquatic management practices on the character of riparian stream habitat. Comprehensive habitat assessments are also important for watershed assessments, restoration planning, and for studying the relationship between stream habitat, fish abundance, and fish distribution. The goals of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OPSW) Habitat Monitoring Program are to 1) provide an annual update on the status of stream habitat in Western Oregon, and 2) track trends in habitat over time. This report on stream habitat conditions covers sampling that occurred between June and October of 1999. The report is grouped into six different areas: • Current habitat status by Gene Conservation Area (GCA) • The status of habitat in relation to landscape variables • An assessment of the high quality habitat existing on the landscape • A comparison of 1998 and 1999 stream conditions • An analysis of habitat variable precision • An assessment of fish distribution outside of known coho salmon distribution Title: AI - Stream Habitat Conditions in Western Oregon, 1999 Abstract -- The physical habitat of a stream forms the template from which the biological community can develop. The structure and complexity of the stream habitat influences the species composition, distribution, and production of the fish community. Assessing the status of stream habitat conditions in coastal Oregon streams is important for monitoring the effects of landscape and aquatic management practices on the character of riparian stream habitat. Comprehensive habitat assessments are also important for watershed assessments, restoration planning, and for studying the relationship between stream habitat, fish abundance, and fish distribution. The goals of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OPSW) Habitat Monitoring Program are to 1) provide an annual update on the status of stream habitat in Western Oregon, and 2) track trends in habitat over time. This report on stream habitat conditions covers sampling that occurred between June and October of 1999. The report is grouped into six different areas: • Current habitat status by Gene Conservation Area (GCA) • The status of habitat in relation to landscape variables • An assessment of the high quality habitat existing on the landscape • A comparison of 1998 and 1999 stream conditions • An analysis of habitat variable precision • An assessment of fish distribution outside of known coho salmon distribution Close

• 18. [Article] Temperature prediction using energy budget techniques on small mountain streams

  This study is part of the Alsea Basin Logging-Aquatic Resources Study research program. It was initiated to determine the applicability of energy budget theory to stream temperature prediction on small forested ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Temperature prediction using energy budget techniques on small mountain streams Author: Brown, George Wallace, 1939- This study is part of the Alsea Basin Logging-Aquatic Resources Study research program. It was initiated to determine the applicability of energy budget theory to stream temperature prediction on small forested streams. The study was also designed to evaluate the energy budget technique as a tool in the management of mountain streams for the production of high quality water. Temperature predictions were made on four stretches of three streams in the Coast and Cascade Ranges in Oregon during the summers of 1965 and 1966. Three of these stretches were forested. The fourth was completely exposed to direct radiation. Stream temperature change occurring within a stretch of stream was determined by evaluating the radiative, evaporative, and conductive fluxes incident at the surface of the water as it moved down stream. Net radiation was measured directly. Evaporation was computed using a Dalton type equation. Conduction was determined with the Bowen ratio. These fluxes were then added to determine the net flux. Stream temperature change was computed as: [see pdf for equation] Stream temperature was predicted with varying degrees of accuracy on the four stretches. Tests suggested that the predictions could be improved slightly on long stretches by subdivision of the stretch and by separating data into daytime or nighttime units. Additional tests indicated that under a broken canopy. net radiation estimates, and thus stream temperature predictions, may be improved by measuring, or utilizing in the predictive equation, only the diffuse radiation penetrating the canopy. Integration of the net radiation recorded to include occasional spots of sunlight results in an overestimation of temperature change during sunny periods. A stream bottom may act as a heat sink during the day and as a heat source at night. This phenomenon was measured on one stretch. This helped explain predictive errors of about 10° F. The study on the open stretch showed that during the day, conductive and evaporative fluxes were small compared to the radiative flux. This led to modification of the original formula for predicting temperature maxima. This formula is: [see pdf for equation] This permits field personnel to make estimates of maximum temperature changes attainable by opening a stretch of stream. Title: Temperature prediction using energy budget techniques on small mountain streams Author: Brown, George Wallace, 1939- This study is part of the Alsea Basin Logging-Aquatic Resources Study research program. It was initiated to determine the applicability of energy budget theory to stream temperature prediction on small forested streams. The study was also designed to evaluate the energy budget technique as a tool in the management of mountain streams for the production of high quality water. Temperature predictions were made on four stretches of three streams in the Coast and Cascade Ranges in Oregon during the summers of 1965 and 1966. Three of these stretches were forested. The fourth was completely exposed to direct radiation. Stream temperature change occurring within a stretch of stream was determined by evaluating the radiative, evaporative, and conductive fluxes incident at the surface of the water as it moved down stream. Net radiation was measured directly. Evaporation was computed using a Dalton type equation. Conduction was determined with the Bowen ratio. These fluxes were then added to determine the net flux. Stream temperature change was computed as: [see pdf for equation] Stream temperature was predicted with varying degrees of accuracy on the four stretches. Tests suggested that the predictions could be improved slightly on long stretches by subdivision of the stretch and by separating data into daytime or nighttime units. Additional tests indicated that under a broken canopy. net radiation estimates, and thus stream temperature predictions, may be improved by measuring, or utilizing in the predictive equation, only the diffuse radiation penetrating the canopy. Integration of the net radiation recorded to include occasional spots of sunlight results in an overestimation of temperature change during sunny periods. A stream bottom may act as a heat sink during the day and as a heat source at night. This phenomenon was measured on one stretch. This helped explain predictive errors of about 10° F. The study on the open stretch showed that during the day, conductive and evaporative fluxes were small compared to the radiative flux. This led to modification of the original formula for predicting temperature maxima. This formula is: [see pdf for equation] This permits field personnel to make estimates of maximum temperature changes attainable by opening a stretch of stream. Close

• 19. [Article] Habrate: A Limiting Factors Model for Accessing Stream Habitat Quality for Salmon and Steelhead in the Deschutes River Basin, 2010. Information Reports Number 2010-03

  Abstract -- Fishery managers are commonly tasked with the basic question "Will the contemporary habitat above a barrier support the fish populations that historically resided in the watershed?" Managers ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Habrate: A Limiting Factors Model for Accessing Stream Habitat Quality for Salmon and Steelhead in the Deschutes River Basin, 2010. Information Reports Number 2010-03 Abstract -- Fishery managers are commonly tasked with the basic question "Will the contemporary habitat above a barrier support the fish populations that historically resided in the watershed?" Managers in central Oregon were confronted with that question in an effort to reestablish fish populations in 375 kilometers of stream above the Round Butte-Pelton Dam complex (Rkm 161) on the Deschutes River. Stream surveys had been conducted in most of the available stream habitat, but had not been synthesized in a form that allowed managers to view the quality and complexity of stream habitat in an easily-understandable fashion. In response, we developed a limiting factors model (HabRate) that assessed the potential quality of stream habitat using stream survey data for each juvenile life stage of salmon and steelhead. The model was developed for a specific application to the middle Deschutes River basin in Oregon, but was intended for general application to Pacific Northwest basins. To paramatize the model, we summarized available literature on salmonid habitat requirements. Habitat criteria were developed for discrete life history stages (i.e. spawning, egg survival, emergence, summer rearing, and winter rearing) and used to rate the quality of stream reaches as poor, fair, or good, based on attributes relating to stream substrate, habitat unit type, cover, gradient, temperature, and flow. Reach level summaries of stream habitat data were entered into MS Excel, and interpreted by a series of algorithms to provide a limiting factor assessment of potential egg-to-fry and fry-to-parr survival for each reach. Model output lists habitat quality by species and life stage for each reach of stream. The model is a decision making tool that is intended to provide a qualitative assessment of the habitat potential of stream reaches within a basin context. Design criteria for the model were simplicity, flexibility, and transparency. While HabRate was based on our interpretations of the published literature, specific criteria for habitat quality were structured to be easily adjusted where interpretations differ from ours. Information not common to standard stream survey designs, such as seasonal flow or temperature extremes can be included as input from professional judgment. The results were integrated into a GIS coverage coupled with the stream network and habitat data to provide a comprehensive map-based perspective of habitat quality in a watershed. Title: Habrate: A Limiting Factors Model for Accessing Stream Habitat Quality for Salmon and Steelhead in the Deschutes River Basin, 2010. Information Reports Number 2010-03 Abstract -- Fishery managers are commonly tasked with the basic question "Will the contemporary habitat above a barrier support the fish populations that historically resided in the watershed?" Managers in central Oregon were confronted with that question in an effort to reestablish fish populations in 375 kilometers of stream above the Round Butte-Pelton Dam complex (Rkm 161) on the Deschutes River. Stream surveys had been conducted in most of the available stream habitat, but had not been synthesized in a form that allowed managers to view the quality and complexity of stream habitat in an easily-understandable fashion. In response, we developed a limiting factors model (HabRate) that assessed the potential quality of stream habitat using stream survey data for each juvenile life stage of salmon and steelhead. The model was developed for a specific application to the middle Deschutes River basin in Oregon, but was intended for general application to Pacific Northwest basins. To paramatize the model, we summarized available literature on salmonid habitat requirements. Habitat criteria were developed for discrete life history stages (i.e. spawning, egg survival, emergence, summer rearing, and winter rearing) and used to rate the quality of stream reaches as poor, fair, or good, based on attributes relating to stream substrate, habitat unit type, cover, gradient, temperature, and flow. Reach level summaries of stream habitat data were entered into MS Excel, and interpreted by a series of algorithms to provide a limiting factor assessment of potential egg-to-fry and fry-to-parr survival for each reach. Model output lists habitat quality by species and life stage for each reach of stream. The model is a decision making tool that is intended to provide a qualitative assessment of the habitat potential of stream reaches within a basin context. Design criteria for the model were simplicity, flexibility, and transparency. While HabRate was based on our interpretations of the published literature, specific criteria for habitat quality were structured to be easily adjusted where interpretations differ from ours. Information not common to standard stream survey designs, such as seasonal flow or temperature extremes can be included as input from professional judgment. The results were integrated into a GIS coverage coupled with the stream network and habitat data to provide a comprehensive map-based perspective of habitat quality in a watershed. Close

• 20. [Article] Linkages among land use, riparian zones, and uptake and transformation of nitrate in stream ecosystems

  Land use alters the physical and biological structure of stream ecosystems and potentially alters their capacity to process nitrogen (N), an essential nutrient that has nearly doubled in abundance on the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Linkages among land use, riparian zones, and uptake and transformation of nitrate in stream ecosystems Author: Sobota, Daniel J. Land use alters the physical and biological structure of stream ecosystems and potentially alters their capacity to process nitrogen (N), an essential nutrient that has nearly doubled in abundance on the biosphere during the past century from human activities. In this dissertation, I quantified uptake and transformation of nitrate (NO₃⁻) in small (≤ third-order) streams and related these dynamics to aquatic ecosystem processes, including primary production and organic matter decomposition, and attributes of riparian zone structure and vegetation composition. I also analyze patterns of stream NO₃⁻ processing among three classes of adjacent land use practices (forest, agriculture, and urban). In Chapter 2, ambient rates of NO₃⁻ uptake and transformation were measured with 24-hr releases of ¹⁵N-labeled NO₃⁻ in nine stream reaches in the Willamette River Basin of western Oregon during summer low flow (July – August). Three reaches each were surrounded by forested, agricultural or urban land use. After standardizing reaches to a 500-m length, I estimated that ≥ 20% of tracer ¹⁵NO₃⁻ was taken up by detrital and autotrophic biomass in eight of the reaches. In the remaining stream, which had the largest discharge (120 L s⁻¹) in this study, only 8% of the tracer was taken up in 500 m. Tracer labeling of detritus and autotrophic biomass and a positive correlation (rs=0.81) of uptake with gross primary production suggested that assimilation was the dominant uptake pathway in all streams. Denitrification, dissimilatory reduction of NO₃⁻ to N₂ and N₂O gases, composed 3 – 15% of ¹⁵N budgets over 500 m in two agricultural reaches and in one urban reach dominated by large slowly-turning over pools. However, denitrification was below detection limit at five of the remaining six reaches. This study showed that pathways of stream NO₃⁻ uptake and transformation differed among streams adjacent to three diverse land use practices. In Chapter 3, I quantified effects of substrate nutritional quality and inorganic N loading (as NO₃⁻) on wood breakdown in western Oregon streams. Short-term (< 2 month) breakdown rates of wood substrates of high nutritional quality (Alnus rubra; red alder) and low quality (Pseudotsuga menziesii; Douglas-fir) increased with dissolved inorganic N (11 to 111 mg N L⁻¹) across six streams (p = 0.04), but this relationship was confounded with concurrent increases in stream temperature. Across the six streams, breakdown rates of red alder were consistently double that of Douglas-fir. A longer-term study (313 d) in a coniferous forest Oregon Cascades stream suggested effects of increased NO₃⁻ availability on wood breakdown became evident after cellulose and lignin components of woody tissues began to decompose (> 4 months of incubation). Average breakdown rates substrates enriched with NO₃⁻ were higher than those incubated in low NO₃⁻ conditions, but this difference was not statistically significant. However, microbial biofilm respiration rates and activity of two enzymes involved in the breakdown of woody tissues (beta-glucosidase and phenol oxidase) on red alder had significantly greater responses to NO₃⁻ additions than on Douglas-fir after four months of incubation in the stream. Results suggest that increases in N loading to streams bordered by riparian forests with fast-growing deciduous species could increase wood breakdown rates. On the other hand, increases to N loading may have a smaller effect on wood breakdown in streams surrounded by long-lived coniferous species. In Chapter 4, I quantified patterns of stream channel and riparian zone attributes for 72 streams equally distributed among forests or grasslands, agriculture, and urban land use practices on from eight major North American regions. I also related these patterns to stream NO₃⁻ uptake determined from ¹⁵NO₃⁻ tracer releases. Agricultural and urban streams had a simplified channel structure (low width-to-depth ratio, low variation in stream depth, and high stream banks) relative to forest or grassland streams. Agricultural and urban streams also had a significantly smaller median sediment diameter (D₅₀) and fraction of benthic sediments composed by silt than in forest and grassland streams. Overstory canopy cover over the channel and in the riparian zone was lowest for agricultural streams but did not significantly differ between forest or grassland streams and urban streams. A multiple regression model showed that stream NO₃⁻ uptake decreased with increasing canopy cover, but also increased with abundance of silt in benthic sediments. This suggested NO₃⁻ uptake was strongly influenced by in-stream primary production and extent of anoxic environments (conducive for denitrification). A multiple regression model for fractional NO₃⁻ uptake by denitrification further supported the concept that extent of anoxic environments influenced overall NO₃⁻ uptake in streams. Through these studies, I demonstrated that attributes of riparian zone structure and vegetation composition can strongly influence NO₃⁻ uptake and transformation in stream ecosystems by controlling organic matter dynamics. I also have shown that riparian zone attributes vary significantly among three different land use types (forest or grassland, agriculture, and urban). Similarly, pathways of NO₃⁻ uptake and effects of NO₃⁻ on wood breakdown did or were expected to differ among different land use types / riparian zone characteristics. However, other factors besides riparian attributes, particularly level of nutrient loading, alteration of stream channel physical structure, and basin position of the stream, must be considered in concert when evaluating effects of land use on riparian zone and stream ecosystem structure and function. Title: Linkages among land use, riparian zones, and uptake and transformation of nitrate in stream ecosystems Author: Sobota, Daniel J. Land use alters the physical and biological structure of stream ecosystems and potentially alters their capacity to process nitrogen (N), an essential nutrient that has nearly doubled in abundance on the biosphere during the past century from human activities. In this dissertation, I quantified uptake and transformation of nitrate (NO₃⁻) in small (≤ third-order) streams and related these dynamics to aquatic ecosystem processes, including primary production and organic matter decomposition, and attributes of riparian zone structure and vegetation composition. I also analyze patterns of stream NO₃⁻ processing among three classes of adjacent land use practices (forest, agriculture, and urban). In Chapter 2, ambient rates of NO₃⁻ uptake and transformation were measured with 24-hr releases of ¹⁵N-labeled NO₃⁻ in nine stream reaches in the Willamette River Basin of western Oregon during summer low flow (July – August). Three reaches each were surrounded by forested, agricultural or urban land use. After standardizing reaches to a 500-m length, I estimated that ≥ 20% of tracer ¹⁵NO₃⁻ was taken up by detrital and autotrophic biomass in eight of the reaches. In the remaining stream, which had the largest discharge (120 L s⁻¹) in this study, only 8% of the tracer was taken up in 500 m. Tracer labeling of detritus and autotrophic biomass and a positive correlation (rs=0.81) of uptake with gross primary production suggested that assimilation was the dominant uptake pathway in all streams. Denitrification, dissimilatory reduction of NO₃⁻ to N₂ and N₂O gases, composed 3 – 15% of ¹⁵N budgets over 500 m in two agricultural reaches and in one urban reach dominated by large slowly-turning over pools. However, denitrification was below detection limit at five of the remaining six reaches. This study showed that pathways of stream NO₃⁻ uptake and transformation differed among streams adjacent to three diverse land use practices. In Chapter 3, I quantified effects of substrate nutritional quality and inorganic N loading (as NO₃⁻) on wood breakdown in western Oregon streams. Short-term (< 2 month) breakdown rates of wood substrates of high nutritional quality (Alnus rubra; red alder) and low quality (Pseudotsuga menziesii; Douglas-fir) increased with dissolved inorganic N (11 to 111 mg N L⁻¹) across six streams (p = 0.04), but this relationship was confounded with concurrent increases in stream temperature. Across the six streams, breakdown rates of red alder were consistently double that of Douglas-fir. A longer-term study (313 d) in a coniferous forest Oregon Cascades stream suggested effects of increased NO₃⁻ availability on wood breakdown became evident after cellulose and lignin components of woody tissues began to decompose (> 4 months of incubation). Average breakdown rates substrates enriched with NO₃⁻ were higher than those incubated in low NO₃⁻ conditions, but this difference was not statistically significant. However, microbial biofilm respiration rates and activity of two enzymes involved in the breakdown of woody tissues (beta-glucosidase and phenol oxidase) on red alder had significantly greater responses to NO₃⁻ additions than on Douglas-fir after four months of incubation in the stream. Results suggest that increases in N loading to streams bordered by riparian forests with fast-growing deciduous species could increase wood breakdown rates. On the other hand, increases to N loading may have a smaller effect on wood breakdown in streams surrounded by long-lived coniferous species. In Chapter 4, I quantified patterns of stream channel and riparian zone attributes for 72 streams equally distributed among forests or grasslands, agriculture, and urban land use practices on from eight major North American regions. I also related these patterns to stream NO₃⁻ uptake determined from ¹⁵NO₃⁻ tracer releases. Agricultural and urban streams had a simplified channel structure (low width-to-depth ratio, low variation in stream depth, and high stream banks) relative to forest or grassland streams. Agricultural and urban streams also had a significantly smaller median sediment diameter (D₅₀) and fraction of benthic sediments composed by silt than in forest and grassland streams. Overstory canopy cover over the channel and in the riparian zone was lowest for agricultural streams but did not significantly differ between forest or grassland streams and urban streams. A multiple regression model showed that stream NO₃⁻ uptake decreased with increasing canopy cover, but also increased with abundance of silt in benthic sediments. This suggested NO₃⁻ uptake was strongly influenced by in-stream primary production and extent of anoxic environments (conducive for denitrification). A multiple regression model for fractional NO₃⁻ uptake by denitrification further supported the concept that extent of anoxic environments influenced overall NO₃⁻ uptake in streams. Through these studies, I demonstrated that attributes of riparian zone structure and vegetation composition can strongly influence NO₃⁻ uptake and transformation in stream ecosystems by controlling organic matter dynamics. I also have shown that riparian zone attributes vary significantly among three different land use types (forest or grassland, agriculture, and urban). Similarly, pathways of NO₃⁻ uptake and effects of NO₃⁻ on wood breakdown did or were expected to differ among different land use types / riparian zone characteristics. However, other factors besides riparian attributes, particularly level of nutrient loading, alteration of stream channel physical structure, and basin position of the stream, must be considered in concert when evaluating effects of land use on riparian zone and stream ecosystem structure and function. Close