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• 11. [Image] Field Electrochemical Measurements of Corrosion Characteristics of Materials in Hypersaline Geothermal Brine

  	A flow cell (with appropriate accessories) was developed for use in short-term testing of the corrosion behavior of materials in approximately 100{sup 0}C, hypersaline geothermal brine. The apparatus was ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Field Electrochemical Measurements of Corrosion Characteristics of Materials in Hypersaline Geothermal Brine Author: Harrar, J.E. Year: 1977 A flow cell (with appropriate accessories) was developed for use in short-term testing of the corrosion behavior of materials in approximately 100{sup 0}C, hypersaline geothermal brine. The apparatus was designed to accommodate commercial (Petrolite) corrosion measurement equipment and conducted experiments on-line at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Test Station in the Salton Sea Geothermal Field. The apparatus also permitted direct readings of corrosion potentials, solution redox potential (E{sub h}), brine flow rate, pH, and temperature. Estimates of general corrosion rates were obtained by the linear polarization resistance technique and from measurements of complete potentiodynamic polarization curves. The latter also afforded predictions of pitting susceptibilities of active-passive type materials. Twenty-two alloys (with various heat treatments) were tested and readily grouped according to general corrosion resistances in acidified hypersaline (approximately 4 M chloride) brine. Especially promising in regard to corrosion resistance-vs-cost is the series of low Cr--Mo steels. Prescaling of materials in unacidified (pH approximately 5.7) brine prior to exposure to acidified (pH 2 to 4.5) brine was found to be beneficial in reducing corrosion rates at 100{sup 0}C Title: Field Electrochemical Measurements of Corrosion Characteristics of Materials in Hypersaline Geothermal Brine Author: Harrar, J.E. Year: 1977 A flow cell (with appropriate accessories) was developed for use in short-term testing of the corrosion behavior of materials in approximately 100{sup 0}C, hypersaline geothermal brine. The apparatus was designed to accommodate commercial (Petrolite) corrosion measurement equipment and conducted experiments on-line at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Test Station in the Salton Sea Geothermal Field. The apparatus also permitted direct readings of corrosion potentials, solution redox potential (E{sub h}), brine flow rate, pH, and temperature. Estimates of general corrosion rates were obtained by the linear polarization resistance technique and from measurements of complete potentiodynamic polarization curves. The latter also afforded predictions of pitting susceptibilities of active-passive type materials. Twenty-two alloys (with various heat treatments) were tested and readily grouped according to general corrosion resistances in acidified hypersaline (approximately 4 M chloride) brine. Especially promising in regard to corrosion resistance-vs-cost is the series of low Cr--Mo steels. Prescaling of materials in unacidified (pH approximately 5.7) brine prior to exposure to acidified (pH 2 to 4.5) brine was found to be beneficial in reducing corrosion rates at 100{sup 0}C Close

• 12. [Image] Geopressured Energy Resource Evaluation

  	The geopressured aquifers that extend along the northern Gulf of Mexico are a large, perhaps the largest, potential source of geothermal energy and natural gas in the US. Because of the high cost of completing ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geopressured Energy Resource Evaluation Author: Samuels, G. Year: 1979 The geopressured aquifers that extend along the northern Gulf of Mexico are a large, perhaps the largest, potential source of geothermal energy and natural gas in the US. Because of the high cost of completing wells into these formations and their relatively low temperatures (200 to 400 F), the utilization of the geothermal energy will be highly depend on, and of secondary importance to, the value of the methane. The economics of extracting either the geothermal energy or natural gas from these aquifers does not look promising. The combined requirements of high well flow rates (40,000 bbl/day), long life (20 years), and the necessity for close well spacing to minimize the cost of the collection system may be incompatible with the actual characteristics of the reservoirs. These factors place such stringent requirements on the reservoir size, permeability, and compressibility, or specific storage coefficient, that the number of promising production areas may be severely limited Title: Geopressured Energy Resource Evaluation Author: Samuels, G. Year: 1979 The geopressured aquifers that extend along the northern Gulf of Mexico are a large, perhaps the largest, potential source of geothermal energy and natural gas in the US. Because of the high cost of completing wells into these formations and their relatively low temperatures (200 to 400 F), the utilization of the geothermal energy will be highly depend on, and of secondary importance to, the value of the methane. The economics of extracting either the geothermal energy or natural gas from these aquifers does not look promising. The combined requirements of high well flow rates (40,000 bbl/day), long life (20 years), and the necessity for close well spacing to minimize the cost of the collection system may be incompatible with the actual characteristics of the reservoirs. These factors place such stringent requirements on the reservoir size, permeability, and compressibility, or specific storage coefficient, that the number of promising production areas may be severely limited Close

• 13. [Image] Project history: Klamath Project, Oregon-California, 1964

  	Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes financial documents, organization chart, photographs, maps, water quality reports, and agricultural economics; Includes index; Title covers: calendar years ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Project history: Klamath Project, Oregon-California, 1964 Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 1964, 2008, 2006 Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes financial documents, organization chart, photographs, maps, water quality reports, and agricultural economics; Includes index; Title covers: calendar years for 1963-; Some issues are missing.; Description is based on: Project history: Klamath Project, Oregon-California 1963; Dates of the beginning year(s) of publication are derived from the May 1, 1903 to December 31, 1912, History of the Klamath Project and from the volume information on later volumes (v. 35) Klamath District and Klamath Project annual history for 1945, dated December 1, 1946 Title: Project history: Klamath Project, Oregon-California, 1964 Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation Year: 1964, 2008, 2006 Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes financial documents, organization chart, photographs, maps, water quality reports, and agricultural economics; Includes index; Title covers: calendar years for 1963-; Some issues are missing.; Description is based on: Project history: Klamath Project, Oregon-California 1963; Dates of the beginning year(s) of publication are derived from the May 1, 1903 to December 31, 1912, History of the Klamath Project and from the volume information on later volumes (v. 35) Klamath District and Klamath Project annual history for 1945, dated December 1, 1946 Close

• 14. [Image] Utilization of geothermal energy for methane production for J. A. Albertson Land and Cattle Company

  	To utilize the geothermal energy in the area of its 30,000-head cattle feedlot, J.A. Albertson Land and Cattle Co. is considering the development of an integrated geothermal/bioconversion system that would ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Utilization of geothermal energy for methane production for J. A. Albertson Land and Cattle Company Author: Bissell, R.R. Year: 1980 To utilize the geothermal energy in the area of its 30,000-head cattle feedlot, J.A. Albertson Land and Cattle Co. is considering the development of an integrated geothermal/bioconversion system that would use the cattle manure as a feedstock for an anaerobic-digestion plant to produce methane plus a digester-residue cattle-feed supplement. The feedlot lies within a high-temperature gradient and heat-flow area associated with the Western Snake River basin in Malheur Co., Oregon. The three digesters designed for the process will operate mesophilically (at 98/sup 0/F) with a 20-day retention time. To make up the digesters' heat losses, the geothermal water source will need to be about 135/sup 0/F and have a flow rate of 120-240 gpm, depending on the size ultimately selected for the facility. If the digester residue replaces alfalfa hay in the cattle's current rations, its value will amount to $1.15 million/yr. Burning the methane in engine/generator sets would produce 985-1970 kW of electric power that could be either sold or used as a day-to-day substitute for the geothermal heat. An economic analysis of the system is presented; DOE/ET/27230-T2 Title: Utilization of geothermal energy for methane production for J. A. Albertson Land and Cattle Company Author: Bissell, R.R. Year: 1980 To utilize the geothermal energy in the area of its 30,000-head cattle feedlot, J.A. Albertson Land and Cattle Co. is considering the development of an integrated geothermal/bioconversion system that would use the cattle manure as a feedstock for an anaerobic-digestion plant to produce methane plus a digester-residue cattle-feed supplement. The feedlot lies within a high-temperature gradient and heat-flow area associated with the Western Snake River basin in Malheur Co., Oregon. The three digesters designed for the process will operate mesophilically (at 98/sup 0/F) with a 20-day retention time. To make up the digesters' heat losses, the geothermal water source will need to be about 135/sup 0/F and have a flow rate of 120-240 gpm, depending on the size ultimately selected for the facility. If the digester residue replaces alfalfa hay in the cattle's current rations, its value will amount to $1.15 million/yr. Burning the methane in engine/generator sets would produce 985-1970 kW of electric power that could be either sold or used as a day-to-day substitute for the geothermal heat. An economic analysis of the system is presented; DOE/ET/27230-T2 Close

• 15. [Image] Development of the high-temperature redox electrode. Interim report ending March 1980

  	The oxidation-reduction (known as redox) electrode was studied in a pH range corresponding to that found in a CO/sub 2/-silicate buffered system at temperatures ranging from 100 to 250/sup 0/C. Oxidizing ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Development of the high-temperature redox electrode. Interim report ending March 1980 Author: Danielson, M.J. Year: 1980 The oxidation-reduction (known as redox) electrode was studied in a pH range corresponding to that found in a CO/sub 2/-silicate buffered system at temperatures ranging from 100 to 250/sup 0/C. Oxidizing conditions were created by injecting oxygen; the greatest reducing conditions, by using hydrogen. The sulfur system (H/sub 2/S, HS/sup -/, S/sup 2/) was not examined at this time, but future work will include this system since it is an important component of the geothermal brine. Both a platinized platinum (Pt-Pt) and a bare platinum (Pt-foil) electrode respond to the redox environment. The response does not appear to indicate thermodynamic equilibrium with the chemical environment; instead a mixed potential response is indicated. The difference in potential between a strong oxidizing environment (0.4-ppM O/sub 2/) and a strong reducing environment (0.5-atm H/sub 2/) is typically > 1 volt at all temperatures. The magnitude of this response makes the platinum electrode a suitable sensor for continuous monitoring of the geothermal environment for oxygen intrusions. The platinized platinum redox electrode is superior to the bare platinum electrode; PNL-3377 Title: Development of the high-temperature redox electrode. Interim report ending March 1980 Author: Danielson, M.J. Year: 1980 The oxidation-reduction (known as redox) electrode was studied in a pH range corresponding to that found in a CO/sub 2/-silicate buffered system at temperatures ranging from 100 to 250/sup 0/C. Oxidizing conditions were created by injecting oxygen; the greatest reducing conditions, by using hydrogen. The sulfur system (H/sub 2/S, HS/sup -/, S/sup 2/) was not examined at this time, but future work will include this system since it is an important component of the geothermal brine. Both a platinized platinum (Pt-Pt) and a bare platinum (Pt-foil) electrode respond to the redox environment. The response does not appear to indicate thermodynamic equilibrium with the chemical environment; instead a mixed potential response is indicated. The difference in potential between a strong oxidizing environment (0.4-ppM O/sub 2/) and a strong reducing environment (0.5-atm H/sub 2/) is typically > 1 volt at all temperatures. The magnitude of this response makes the platinum electrode a suitable sensor for continuous monitoring of the geothermal environment for oxygen intrusions. The platinized platinum redox electrode is superior to the bare platinum electrode; PNL-3377 Close

• 16. [Image] Annual Report on the Project to Design and Experimentally Test an Improved Geothermal Drill Bit

  	Progress is reported in a research and development program to design, build, and test an improved geothermal drill bit. The major tasks of the Phase I effort are entitled: failure mechanisms of existing ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Annual Report on the Project to Design and Experimentally Test an Improved Geothermal Drill Bit Author: Barker, L.M. Year: 1976 Progress is reported in a research and development program to design, build, and test an improved geothermal drill bit. The major tasks of the Phase I effort are entitled: failure mechanisms of existing bits; new steels and new bearing design; and new seals and lubricants. It appears that a significant gain in drill-bit life can be attained by the use of higher-temperature steels which retain more hardness at temperatures above 260/sup 0/C (500/sup 0/F). Such steels are available, and two research bits of high-temperature steels were made and will shortly be tested in a laboratory-simulated full-scale geothermal drilling environment. Two control bits of the same design, but made with conventional drill bit steels, were also obtained for identical laboratory test runs, so that the performance of the research bits can be meaningfully assessed. Base-line properties of the steels, such as hardness and fracture toughness as functions of temperature, are being measured to further assess the value of the high-temperature steels selected for the research bits. A geothermal test vessel was designed and fabricated in which the full-scale drill bits will be tested. The vessel is capable of temperature to 427/sup 0/C (800/sup 0/F) and pressures to 35 MPa (5,000 psi). Seal and lubrication designs were studied, and the state of the art in high-temperature seals and lubricants was assessed. Some candidate seals and lubricants have been obtained for testing, and others are being procured. In addition, a seal test vessel has been designed and will soon be completed which can simulate the geothermal drilling environment in full-scale testing of seal and lubricant designs and materials. (JGB) Title: Annual Report on the Project to Design and Experimentally Test an Improved Geothermal Drill Bit Author: Barker, L.M. Year: 1976 Progress is reported in a research and development program to design, build, and test an improved geothermal drill bit. The major tasks of the Phase I effort are entitled: failure mechanisms of existing bits; new steels and new bearing design; and new seals and lubricants. It appears that a significant gain in drill-bit life can be attained by the use of higher-temperature steels which retain more hardness at temperatures above 260/sup 0/C (500/sup 0/F). Such steels are available, and two research bits of high-temperature steels were made and will shortly be tested in a laboratory-simulated full-scale geothermal drilling environment. Two control bits of the same design, but made with conventional drill bit steels, were also obtained for identical laboratory test runs, so that the performance of the research bits can be meaningfully assessed. Base-line properties of the steels, such as hardness and fracture toughness as functions of temperature, are being measured to further assess the value of the high-temperature steels selected for the research bits. A geothermal test vessel was designed and fabricated in which the full-scale drill bits will be tested. The vessel is capable of temperature to 427/sup 0/C (800/sup 0/F) and pressures to 35 MPa (5,000 psi). Seal and lubrication designs were studied, and the state of the art in high-temperature seals and lubricants was assessed. Some candidate seals and lubricants have been obtained for testing, and others are being procured. In addition, a seal test vessel has been designed and will soon be completed which can simulate the geothermal drilling environment in full-scale testing of seal and lubricant designs and materials. (JGB) Close

• 17. [Image] Distribution and habitat use of bull trout following the removal of nonnative brook trout

  	ill.; Printout; Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2006; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 55-61)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution and habitat use of bull trout following the removal of nonnative brook trout Author: Renner, Dirk Year: 2005, 2009 ill.; Printout; Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2006; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 55-61) Title: Distribution and habitat use of bull trout following the removal of nonnative brook trout Author: Renner, Dirk Year: 2005, 2009 ill.; Printout; Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 2006; Includes bibliographical references (leaves 55-61) Close

• 18. [Image] Visibility in Oregon's wilderness and national park lands

  	ill., photos; Cover title; "September, 1985."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-51)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Visibility in Oregon's wilderness and national park lands Author: Oregon. Air Quality Division Year: 1985, 2010 ill., photos; Cover title; "September, 1985."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-51) Title: Visibility in Oregon's wilderness and national park lands Author: Oregon. Air Quality Division Year: 1985, 2010 ill., photos; Cover title; "September, 1985."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-51) Close

• 19. [Image] Geothermal Direct Contact Heat Exchange Final Report

  	Sufficient work has been done to date to establish geothermal energy as a significant source for meeting our future energy needs. At the present time there are only a few geothermal power plants in operation; ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geothermal Direct Contact Heat Exchange Final Report Author: Sims, A.V. Year: 1976 Sufficient work has been done to date to establish geothermal energy as a significant source for meeting our future energy needs. At the present time there are only a few geothermal power plants in operation; in the United States, The Geysers field is the only location of commercial importance. The Geysers field is a vapor dominated reservoir, producing steam that is used directly in steam turbines. Such reservoirs are comparatively rare, and represent only a small portion of the available geothermal energy. Dry rock or magma sources are a potentially much larger source of geothermal energy, but the technology for utilizing these resources has not been developed. Liquid dominated reservoirs are a major source of geothermal energy and technology is available for exploiting them. Thus, liquid dominated reservoirs are the geothermal energy resource of major interest at this time. The principal power generation processes being considered for use with liquid dominated geothermal reservoirs are the binary, the flashed steam, and the direct contact; although many variations within the general classifications are possible. The flashed steam process is probably the simplest and is suitable for use with heavy scaling brines. The capital cost for the plant is probably lowest of the three, but brine usage for unit of power produced tends to be high. The binary process appears to be more efficient, but depends on the use of shell and tube heat exchangers for transferring heat from the brine to the working fluid. The use of such exchangers is impractical for brines with heavy scaling characteristics, and in any event the cost of the exchangers is a large part of the total plant cost. The direct contact binary process offers the possibility of reduced plant cost, good efficiency, and suitability for use with scaling brines. The process is, however, the least developed of the three and presents areas of technological uncertainty. The work reported here is a preliminary investigation of some of the technical and economic aspects of the direct contact process, and was undertaken in order to evaluate the commercial potential of the process. The work consisted of laboratory tests, a conceptual design, a 50 MWe plant design, an economic study, and a pilot plant program. The laboratory tests were made to obtain enough information to develop a realistic preliminary plant design. A glass direct contact heat exchange column was designed, constructed, and operated to get information on general performance characteristics, tray efficiencies, sizing correlations, and temperature approaches. A hot water-normal hexane system was used to permit operation in a glass column at atmospheric pressure. The physical characteristics of this system are close to those proposed for the commercial plant so the answers obtained are applicable to the commercial system. Hydrocarbon stripping tests were made using a glass column and nitrogen as stripping gas in order to establish the feasibility of recovering hydrocarbon from spent hot water. The tests showed that more work is needed in this area but that hydrocarbon stripping is feasible. Solubility tests were conducted to determine the effect of temperature, and brine composition on the solubility of three hydrocarbons. This information was needed to evaluate the impact of hydrocarbon losses on the cost of power production. A computer program was developed to aid in the evaluation of various possible direct contact thermodynamic cycles. The effect of operating variables on power production was evaluated; including the effect of brine inlet temperature, operating pressure, condensing temperature and choice of working fluid. After a general investigation, an optimum cycle was found for a specific site, the Heber field. The Heber field, located in the Imperial Valley of Southern California, was chosen as representative of a medium temperature low salinity reservoir with excellent commercial potential. As part of the conceptual design, studies were made on the prevention of working fluid loss in rejected hot water and in noncondensable gases, and the elimination of particulates in expander inlet gas. The studies were used to establish practical solutions to these important design problems, at least for the preliminary design. The results of the conceptual design were used to develop a preliminary design for a 50 MWe (delivered) plant. The plant was sized for 50MWe since preliminary studies made as part of another project had established this as an economic size. An estimated capital cost was developed for the 50 MWe plant, for use in the economic study. The economic study made use of a considerable body of information developed as part of a project done for the Electric Power Research Institute by Holt/Procon, a joint venture of The Ben Holt Co. and Procon Incorporated. This information included plant and operating costs for a closed loop binary and a two-stage flashed steam process as well as costs for brine production and power transmission. The same methods and factors were used for the direct contact process. Thus, it was possible to obtain a comparison among the three processes on a consistent basis. The relative values obtained should be relatively accurate. Since the process shows promise, a pilot plant program was prepared outlining areas for future work Title: Geothermal Direct Contact Heat Exchange Final Report Author: Sims, A.V. Year: 1976 Sufficient work has been done to date to establish geothermal energy as a significant source for meeting our future energy needs. At the present time there are only a few geothermal power plants in operation; in the United States, The Geysers field is the only location of commercial importance. The Geysers field is a vapor dominated reservoir, producing steam that is used directly in steam turbines. Such reservoirs are comparatively rare, and represent only a small portion of the available geothermal energy. Dry rock or magma sources are a potentially much larger source of geothermal energy, but the technology for utilizing these resources has not been developed. Liquid dominated reservoirs are a major source of geothermal energy and technology is available for exploiting them. Thus, liquid dominated reservoirs are the geothermal energy resource of major interest at this time. The principal power generation processes being considered for use with liquid dominated geothermal reservoirs are the binary, the flashed steam, and the direct contact; although many variations within the general classifications are possible. The flashed steam process is probably the simplest and is suitable for use with heavy scaling brines. The capital cost for the plant is probably lowest of the three, but brine usage for unit of power produced tends to be high. The binary process appears to be more efficient, but depends on the use of shell and tube heat exchangers for transferring heat from the brine to the working fluid. The use of such exchangers is impractical for brines with heavy scaling characteristics, and in any event the cost of the exchangers is a large part of the total plant cost. The direct contact binary process offers the possibility of reduced plant cost, good efficiency, and suitability for use with scaling brines. The process is, however, the least developed of the three and presents areas of technological uncertainty. The work reported here is a preliminary investigation of some of the technical and economic aspects of the direct contact process, and was undertaken in order to evaluate the commercial potential of the process. The work consisted of laboratory tests, a conceptual design, a 50 MWe plant design, an economic study, and a pilot plant program. The laboratory tests were made to obtain enough information to develop a realistic preliminary plant design. A glass direct contact heat exchange column was designed, constructed, and operated to get information on general performance characteristics, tray efficiencies, sizing correlations, and temperature approaches. A hot water-normal hexane system was used to permit operation in a glass column at atmospheric pressure. The physical characteristics of this system are close to those proposed for the commercial plant so the answers obtained are applicable to the commercial system. Hydrocarbon stripping tests were made using a glass column and nitrogen as stripping gas in order to establish the feasibility of recovering hydrocarbon from spent hot water. The tests showed that more work is needed in this area but that hydrocarbon stripping is feasible. Solubility tests were conducted to determine the effect of temperature, and brine composition on the solubility of three hydrocarbons. This information was needed to evaluate the impact of hydrocarbon losses on the cost of power production. A computer program was developed to aid in the evaluation of various possible direct contact thermodynamic cycles. The effect of operating variables on power production was evaluated; including the effect of brine inlet temperature, operating pressure, condensing temperature and choice of working fluid. After a general investigation, an optimum cycle was found for a specific site, the Heber field. The Heber field, located in the Imperial Valley of Southern California, was chosen as representative of a medium temperature low salinity reservoir with excellent commercial potential. As part of the conceptual design, studies were made on the prevention of working fluid loss in rejected hot water and in noncondensable gases, and the elimination of particulates in expander inlet gas. The studies were used to establish practical solutions to these important design problems, at least for the preliminary design. The results of the conceptual design were used to develop a preliminary design for a 50 MWe (delivered) plant. The plant was sized for 50MWe since preliminary studies made as part of another project had established this as an economic size. An estimated capital cost was developed for the 50 MWe plant, for use in the economic study. The economic study made use of a considerable body of information developed as part of a project done for the Electric Power Research Institute by Holt/Procon, a joint venture of The Ben Holt Co. and Procon Incorporated. This information included plant and operating costs for a closed loop binary and a two-stage flashed steam process as well as costs for brine production and power transmission. The same methods and factors were used for the direct contact process. Thus, it was possible to obtain a comparison among the three processes on a consistent basis. The relative values obtained should be relatively accurate. Since the process shows promise, a pilot plant program was prepared outlining areas for future work Close

• 20. [Image] Prescribed fire effects in the Panhandle area, Crater Lake National Park

  	ill., maps; Final report in partial satisfaction of cooperative agreement CA-9000-8-0007, subagreement 7, National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Region; "Autumn 1988."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Prescribed fire effects in the Panhandle area, Crater Lake National Park Author: Swezy, Michael; Agee, James K Year: 1988, 2008 ill., maps; Final report in partial satisfaction of cooperative agreement CA-9000-8-0007, subagreement 7, National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Region; "Autumn 1988." Title: Prescribed fire effects in the Panhandle area, Crater Lake National Park Author: Swezy, Michael; Agee, James K Year: 1988, 2008 ill., maps; Final report in partial satisfaction of cooperative agreement CA-9000-8-0007, subagreement 7, National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Region; "Autumn 1988." Close