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• 51. [Article] A systems analysis model for minimizing the flow of biotically productive land into irreversible uses

  Many of the natural resource problems facing man in the present era are so large and complicated that no one discipline provides an adequate approach for their solutions. As an example, the relationships of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A systems analysis model for minimizing the flow of biotically productive land into irreversible uses Author: Hollingshead, Anne Huston, 1925- Many of the natural resource problems facing man in the present era are so large and complicated that no one discipline provides an adequate approach for their solutions. As an example, the relationships of man to the land resource base can best be understood when they are considered holistically rather than in fragments. General systems analysis offers an appropriate scientific method to use when trying to solve these problems, for there are many variables which must be considered. A systems model which can be used as a framework toward sound decision-making regarding land uses at all levels of government is presented in this thesis in order that several goals can be achieved: provision for keeping options open for as many choices as possible for land uses in the future; innovations and incremental decision-making to be contained within a large, long-term framework; and provision for rational land uses--ecologically manageable, economically sound, and culturally permissible. The first phase of the study entails a review of the literature on General System Theory, a theory based upon similarities in structure or organization of systems, not upon similarities of substantitve matter. In addition, major land uses are described and placed in a continuum which ranges from the most reversible land uses (those which provide for biotic production) to those uses which are the most irreversible. The second phase of the study is concerned with identifying the variables (inputs) which are considered in building the model and with understanding the relationships which exist between the variables. Each variable is placed within a subsystem, i.e. , economic, political, geometric, land-capability, or behavioral. The relationships between other variables in its subsystem are ascertained for each input as well as its relationships with variables in other subsystems. Primacy is of great significance in systems analysis, and an important step is the determination of those variables which are of greatest concern in minimizing the flow of biotically productive land into irreversible uses. The third phase comprises the building of the general model, the interlinking of all the variables from the five subsystems into one complex system; it is a unique system of its own and is termed the Man/ Land system. The political and land-capability subsystems are pictured on the large model as they should be in order that land waste be minimized, and the behavioral and economic systems are pictured as they exist right now. Thus, the model is not a description of the present state of affairs. Its purpose is to show the flows between the subsystems. The final phase of the study is an analysis of the general model which suggests that there exists a hierarchy of subsystems within the Man/Land system--a priority listing--if the goal of man to conserve his biotically productive land is to be achieved. Finite space and land capability impose a set of natural boundaries upon man and occupy first place in the hierarchy. Knowledge of man's physical and spatial world affects the behavioral subsystem, which occupies the second place in the hierarchy. Attitudes and customs which reflect that man is a part of nature rather than dominant over nature influence the political subsystem, third in the hierarchy. It, in turn, sets the limits within which the economic system can operate, a structure based upon conservation rather than exploitation. The entire system is based upon an ecosystem approach, for although there is a hierarchy of priorities for emphasis in decision making, all of the variables are interrelated. The foregoing hierarchy is a radical departure from American priorities at the present time. Title: A systems analysis model for minimizing the flow of biotically productive land into irreversible uses Author: Hollingshead, Anne Huston, 1925- Many of the natural resource problems facing man in the present era are so large and complicated that no one discipline provides an adequate approach for their solutions. As an example, the relationships of man to the land resource base can best be understood when they are considered holistically rather than in fragments. General systems analysis offers an appropriate scientific method to use when trying to solve these problems, for there are many variables which must be considered. A systems model which can be used as a framework toward sound decision-making regarding land uses at all levels of government is presented in this thesis in order that several goals can be achieved: provision for keeping options open for as many choices as possible for land uses in the future; innovations and incremental decision-making to be contained within a large, long-term framework; and provision for rational land uses--ecologically manageable, economically sound, and culturally permissible. The first phase of the study entails a review of the literature on General System Theory, a theory based upon similarities in structure or organization of systems, not upon similarities of substantitve matter. In addition, major land uses are described and placed in a continuum which ranges from the most reversible land uses (those which provide for biotic production) to those uses which are the most irreversible. The second phase of the study is concerned with identifying the variables (inputs) which are considered in building the model and with understanding the relationships which exist between the variables. Each variable is placed within a subsystem, i.e. , economic, political, geometric, land-capability, or behavioral. The relationships between other variables in its subsystem are ascertained for each input as well as its relationships with variables in other subsystems. Primacy is of great significance in systems analysis, and an important step is the determination of those variables which are of greatest concern in minimizing the flow of biotically productive land into irreversible uses. The third phase comprises the building of the general model, the interlinking of all the variables from the five subsystems into one complex system; it is a unique system of its own and is termed the Man/ Land system. The political and land-capability subsystems are pictured on the large model as they should be in order that land waste be minimized, and the behavioral and economic systems are pictured as they exist right now. Thus, the model is not a description of the present state of affairs. Its purpose is to show the flows between the subsystems. The final phase of the study is an analysis of the general model which suggests that there exists a hierarchy of subsystems within the Man/Land system--a priority listing--if the goal of man to conserve his biotically productive land is to be achieved. Finite space and land capability impose a set of natural boundaries upon man and occupy first place in the hierarchy. Knowledge of man's physical and spatial world affects the behavioral subsystem, which occupies the second place in the hierarchy. Attitudes and customs which reflect that man is a part of nature rather than dominant over nature influence the political subsystem, third in the hierarchy. It, in turn, sets the limits within which the economic system can operate, a structure based upon conservation rather than exploitation. The entire system is based upon an ecosystem approach, for although there is a hierarchy of priorities for emphasis in decision making, all of the variables are interrelated. The foregoing hierarchy is a radical departure from American priorities at the present time. Close

• 52. [Article] Conservation of Sidalcea nelsoniana through habitat management : effects of burning, mowing, and altered flooding regime on a rare Willamette Valley perennial

  Active habitat management plays a key role in the preservation of native ecosystems and rare species, especially in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, where natural succession to woodlands threatens the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conservation of Sidalcea nelsoniana through habitat management : effects of burning, mowing, and altered flooding regime on a rare Willamette Valley perennial Author: Bartels, Marilynn R. Active habitat management plays a key role in the preservation of native ecosystems and rare species, especially in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, where natural succession to woodlands threatens the few wetland prairies remaining after 150 years of agriculture and urbanization. Sidalcea nelsoniana, listed as threatened under the federal Endangered Species Act, is native to these wetland prairies. The studies described here provide basic information about the habitat requirements and tolerances of S. nelsoniana while testing for the first time the impact of specific management techniques on its growth and reproduction. The effects of prescribed burning and mowing on S. nelsoniana and its habitat were investigated in a field population at W.L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge near Corvallis, Oregon. Measurements of S. nelsoniana and aspects of the surrounding vegetation were recorded during the summer of 1998 within 112 permanent S. nelsoniana-centered quadrats. Burning and mowing treatments were applied in the fall of 1998 and the same measurements of S. nelsoniana and the surrounding vegetation were recorded during the summer of 1999. Treatments had no direct effects on S. nelsoniana performance, but burning and mowing reduced canopy cover, a primary goal of prairie maintenance and restoration. Because perennials often respond slowly to changes in habitat, effects of these manipulations may be more evident in future years. Wetland species may also be sensitive to site hydrology, so maintaining the proper water regime is another important component of wetland prairie management and restoration. A second experimental study evaluated the flooding tolerance of S. nelsoniana. Rhizome fragments were transplanted into pots exposed to four flooding conditions: drained soil, saturated soil with no standing water, standing water from mid-November through mid-April and standing water from mid-November through mid-June. Plants with drained soil died as the spring rains declined, and plants flooded past April died by mid-June. Plants in saturated soils and those flooded until mid-April were most successful. These two treatments most closely match conditions found in Willamette Valley wetland prairies, including S. nelsoniana sites, and suggest that the current distribution of S. nelsoniana approximately matches its hydrologic requirements. Management plans to flood a S. nelsoniana site beyond mid-April might harm this protected species. Title: Conservation of Sidalcea nelsoniana through habitat management : effects of burning, mowing, and altered flooding regime on a rare Willamette Valley perennial Author: Bartels, Marilynn R. Active habitat management plays a key role in the preservation of native ecosystems and rare species, especially in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, where natural succession to woodlands threatens the few wetland prairies remaining after 150 years of agriculture and urbanization. Sidalcea nelsoniana, listed as threatened under the federal Endangered Species Act, is native to these wetland prairies. The studies described here provide basic information about the habitat requirements and tolerances of S. nelsoniana while testing for the first time the impact of specific management techniques on its growth and reproduction. The effects of prescribed burning and mowing on S. nelsoniana and its habitat were investigated in a field population at W.L. Finley National Wildlife Refuge near Corvallis, Oregon. Measurements of S. nelsoniana and aspects of the surrounding vegetation were recorded during the summer of 1998 within 112 permanent S. nelsoniana-centered quadrats. Burning and mowing treatments were applied in the fall of 1998 and the same measurements of S. nelsoniana and the surrounding vegetation were recorded during the summer of 1999. Treatments had no direct effects on S. nelsoniana performance, but burning and mowing reduced canopy cover, a primary goal of prairie maintenance and restoration. Because perennials often respond slowly to changes in habitat, effects of these manipulations may be more evident in future years. Wetland species may also be sensitive to site hydrology, so maintaining the proper water regime is another important component of wetland prairie management and restoration. A second experimental study evaluated the flooding tolerance of S. nelsoniana. Rhizome fragments were transplanted into pots exposed to four flooding conditions: drained soil, saturated soil with no standing water, standing water from mid-November through mid-April and standing water from mid-November through mid-June. Plants with drained soil died as the spring rains declined, and plants flooded past April died by mid-June. Plants in saturated soils and those flooded until mid-April were most successful. These two treatments most closely match conditions found in Willamette Valley wetland prairies, including S. nelsoniana sites, and suggest that the current distribution of S. nelsoniana approximately matches its hydrologic requirements. Management plans to flood a S. nelsoniana site beyond mid-April might harm this protected species. Close

• 53. [Article] Forest macro-arthropods as potential indicators of ecosystem conditions in Western Idaho : an analysis of community composition, biological diversity, and community structure

  Adaptive ecosystem management is a new paradigm for managing federal forests which requires regular monitoring of ecosystem function and diversity to measure the effects of management. Managers need new ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forest macro-arthropods as potential indicators of ecosystem conditions in Western Idaho : an analysis of community composition, biological diversity, and community structure Author: Ruby, Margaret E. Adaptive ecosystem management is a new paradigm for managing federal forests which requires regular monitoring of ecosystem function and diversity to measure the effects of management. Managers need new strategies and tools to help them assess their progress in maintaining healthy, productive and biologically diverse forests. Biomonitoring of select forest macro-arthropod species can provide useful information on the effects of management on forest biodiversity and ecosystem function. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to inventory the macro-arthropod community and important environmental variables in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area within the Payette National Forest (PNF) in Western Idaho; (2) to compare measures of community composition, diversity, and structure in forest macro-arthropod communities between patches of different sizes and treatment; and (3) to assist PNF managers in their ecosystem management efforts by providing principles to guide the use of macro-arthropods as indicators of changing forest conditions. Transects with pitfall traps were used to collect macro-arthropods at 22 sites in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area during the summer of 1994. Five forest patch types in Abies grandis habitat types were sampled. Intact forest patches of 100 or more hectares, and large patches of 50-100 hectares, ranged in age between 50 and 250 years old with multistoried structure. Small patches up to 10 hectares were remnants or fragments of formerly intact forest isolated by logging. A plantation patch was 15 years old with patchy understory and forb cover. Clearcut patches had little or no overstory, and variable understory, and forb layers. At each transect, soil samples were collected and six environmental descriptor variables were analyzed according to patch treatment and patch size. These site descriptors were: basal area (ft²/acre); percent canopy cover for the overstory, understory; and forb layers; litter depth (cm), and percent soil moisture content. Differences detected using an ANOVA and T-tests are discussed in the Results section. Arthropod community composition, diversity, and structure were described according to relative abundance, and four measures of diversity. They were also described by membership in seventeen orders and/or super-families; ten functional groups; two disperser classes (long or short distance); and three species indicator classes. A total of 5455 macro-arthropod individuals, representing 17 orders and/or super-families and 219 species were collected in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area. While macro-arthropod fauna relative abundance did not vary significantly by treatment (ANOVA p<0.3), it did vary significantly by patch size (ANOVA p<0.03). Fauna relative abundance was 35% greater in clearcut patches than in large patches (T-test p<0.09). Fauna relative abundance in small patches was twice that of intact (T-test p<0.03) and large (T-test p<0.02) patches. Taxonomic diversity (number of genera/taxa) of beetle, ant, and bug taxa differed significantly according to treatment type(each ANOVA p<0.05). For the top four taxa (beetles, ants, spiders, and bugs), taxonomic diversity was highest in the plantation and clearcut patches. Ants and bugs had their highest taxonomic diversity in the plantation patch (separate T-tests p<0.05) while the taxonomic diversity of beetles was highest in clear-cut patches (T-test p<0.05). Beetle and ant taxonomic diversity varied significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p<0.05). For beetles and bugs, small patches were twice as diverse as intact patches (separate T-tests p<0.04) and 1.5 times that of large patches. Ant diversity was similarly distributed amongst the patch sizes, with significant differences between small and intact and between small and large patches (separate T-tests p<0.05). Of the four species diversity measures employed, only two, [alpha] and JK1 (both measures of richness), were found to vary significantly by patch treatment and size. Evenness (E) and the Shannon Diversity Index (H') failed to detect differences in the majority of tests. Fauna [alpha] and JK1 differed significantly by treatment type (each ANOVA p<0.05). Richness in clearcut patches was nearly twice in intact and large patches, followed by plantation and large patches. Fauna [alpha] and JKl also differed significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p <0.001), with small patch fauna twice as rich as that in large and intact patches (separate T-tests p <0.01). Of the top four functional groups, predators were the most abundant and had the highest taxonomic diversity (number of genera/functional group), followed by herbivores, fungivores and parasites. Predators and herbivores showed increasing taxonomic diversity with decreasing patch size, from intact to large to small (ANOVA p< 0.05). Similarly, predators and herbivores exhibited increasing taxonomic diversity with increasing levels of management: from intact and large to plantation and clear-cuts (ANOVA p< 0.05). Predators and herbivores were most numerous in the managed and small patches. Fungivore taxonomic diversity was also highest in the small and managed patches, though neither patch size nor treatment differences were significant (ANOVA p<0.85). Parasite taxonomic diversity differed by patch size with highest generic diversity in the small patches (ANOVA p<0.l) and by treatment type with generic diversity highest in plantations and clearcuts followed in order by large and intact patches (ANOVA p<0.l). Twice as many genera were long distance dispersers as were short distance dispersers. Relative abundance of long distance dispersers varied significantly by patch treatment and patch size (each ANOVA p<0.0l). Long distance dispersers were most numerous in clear-cut patches, followed in order by plantation, small, large, and intact patches. Relative abundance of short distance dispersers was not significantly different between treatment types (ANOVA p<0.20) but was significantly different between patch sizes (ANOVA p<0.0l). Short distance dispersers were most numerous in small patches followed by plantation, large, and intact and least numerous in clearcut patches. An indicator species analysis of 121 Bear Creek and Indian Creek genera (Dufrene and Legendre 1997), revealed sub-groups of species with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" or affiliation for specific patch types. When intact and large patches were pooled and analyzed against all treated patches (plantation and clearcut patches), a list of 36 genera with 75 to 100 percent "perfect affiliation" for intact or large patches was produced (MRPP p<0.05). Small patches had 42 indicators with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" when compared with the pooled intact and large patches (MRPP p<0.l). Conclusions Macro-arthropod community composition, diversity and structure did vary, usually significantly, by patch treatment and size. Useful measures of generic diversity include richness estimators [alpha], [beta], and JK1. Examination of taxonomic diversity was also useful, especially for the more mobile arthropods. Pitfall traps provided copious data on the structure of the community in regards to predators and herbivores. Pitfalls, however, did not provide much information about the status of fungivores and parasites in the various different patches. Another trapping method such as the berlaise funnel, would likely provide more information about those functional groups which are likely operating at a finer scale of resolution than that tested by the pitfall trap. Employing both methods would provide a much better assessment of the community of arthropods living on the forest floor. The indicator species analysis program also provided very useful lists of species which are affiliated with particular patch conditions. Taken together, these measures could be adopted for use by forest managers to allow them to assess and monitor the effects of a management regime on the structure and composition of macro-arthropod communities as part of a comprehensive adaptive management plan. Title: Forest macro-arthropods as potential indicators of ecosystem conditions in Western Idaho : an analysis of community composition, biological diversity, and community structure Author: Ruby, Margaret E. Adaptive ecosystem management is a new paradigm for managing federal forests which requires regular monitoring of ecosystem function and diversity to measure the effects of management. Managers need new strategies and tools to help them assess their progress in maintaining healthy, productive and biologically diverse forests. Biomonitoring of select forest macro-arthropod species can provide useful information on the effects of management on forest biodiversity and ecosystem function. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to inventory the macro-arthropod community and important environmental variables in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area within the Payette National Forest (PNF) in Western Idaho; (2) to compare measures of community composition, diversity, and structure in forest macro-arthropod communities between patches of different sizes and treatment; and (3) to assist PNF managers in their ecosystem management efforts by providing principles to guide the use of macro-arthropods as indicators of changing forest conditions. Transects with pitfall traps were used to collect macro-arthropods at 22 sites in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area during the summer of 1994. Five forest patch types in Abies grandis habitat types were sampled. Intact forest patches of 100 or more hectares, and large patches of 50-100 hectares, ranged in age between 50 and 250 years old with multistoried structure. Small patches up to 10 hectares were remnants or fragments of formerly intact forest isolated by logging. A plantation patch was 15 years old with patchy understory and forb cover. Clearcut patches had little or no overstory, and variable understory, and forb layers. At each transect, soil samples were collected and six environmental descriptor variables were analyzed according to patch treatment and patch size. These site descriptors were: basal area (ft²/acre); percent canopy cover for the overstory, understory; and forb layers; litter depth (cm), and percent soil moisture content. Differences detected using an ANOVA and T-tests are discussed in the Results section. Arthropod community composition, diversity, and structure were described according to relative abundance, and four measures of diversity. They were also described by membership in seventeen orders and/or super-families; ten functional groups; two disperser classes (long or short distance); and three species indicator classes. A total of 5455 macro-arthropod individuals, representing 17 orders and/or super-families and 219 species were collected in the Bear Creek and Indian Creek study area. While macro-arthropod fauna relative abundance did not vary significantly by treatment (ANOVA p<0.3), it did vary significantly by patch size (ANOVA p<0.03). Fauna relative abundance was 35% greater in clearcut patches than in large patches (T-test p<0.09). Fauna relative abundance in small patches was twice that of intact (T-test p<0.03) and large (T-test p<0.02) patches. Taxonomic diversity (number of genera/taxa) of beetle, ant, and bug taxa differed significantly according to treatment type(each ANOVA p<0.05). For the top four taxa (beetles, ants, spiders, and bugs), taxonomic diversity was highest in the plantation and clearcut patches. Ants and bugs had their highest taxonomic diversity in the plantation patch (separate T-tests p<0.05) while the taxonomic diversity of beetles was highest in clear-cut patches (T-test p<0.05). Beetle and ant taxonomic diversity varied significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p<0.05). For beetles and bugs, small patches were twice as diverse as intact patches (separate T-tests p<0.04) and 1.5 times that of large patches. Ant diversity was similarly distributed amongst the patch sizes, with significant differences between small and intact and between small and large patches (separate T-tests p<0.05). Of the four species diversity measures employed, only two, [alpha] and JK1 (both measures of richness), were found to vary significantly by patch treatment and size. Evenness (E) and the Shannon Diversity Index (H') failed to detect differences in the majority of tests. Fauna [alpha] and JK1 differed significantly by treatment type (each ANOVA p<0.05). Richness in clearcut patches was nearly twice in intact and large patches, followed by plantation and large patches. Fauna [alpha] and JKl also differed significantly by patch size (each ANOVA p <0.001), with small patch fauna twice as rich as that in large and intact patches (separate T-tests p <0.01). Of the top four functional groups, predators were the most abundant and had the highest taxonomic diversity (number of genera/functional group), followed by herbivores, fungivores and parasites. Predators and herbivores showed increasing taxonomic diversity with decreasing patch size, from intact to large to small (ANOVA p< 0.05). Similarly, predators and herbivores exhibited increasing taxonomic diversity with increasing levels of management: from intact and large to plantation and clear-cuts (ANOVA p< 0.05). Predators and herbivores were most numerous in the managed and small patches. Fungivore taxonomic diversity was also highest in the small and managed patches, though neither patch size nor treatment differences were significant (ANOVA p<0.85). Parasite taxonomic diversity differed by patch size with highest generic diversity in the small patches (ANOVA p<0.l) and by treatment type with generic diversity highest in plantations and clearcuts followed in order by large and intact patches (ANOVA p<0.l). Twice as many genera were long distance dispersers as were short distance dispersers. Relative abundance of long distance dispersers varied significantly by patch treatment and patch size (each ANOVA p<0.0l). Long distance dispersers were most numerous in clear-cut patches, followed in order by plantation, small, large, and intact patches. Relative abundance of short distance dispersers was not significantly different between treatment types (ANOVA p<0.20) but was significantly different between patch sizes (ANOVA p<0.0l). Short distance dispersers were most numerous in small patches followed by plantation, large, and intact and least numerous in clearcut patches. An indicator species analysis of 121 Bear Creek and Indian Creek genera (Dufrene and Legendre 1997), revealed sub-groups of species with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" or affiliation for specific patch types. When intact and large patches were pooled and analyzed against all treated patches (plantation and clearcut patches), a list of 36 genera with 75 to 100 percent "perfect affiliation" for intact or large patches was produced (MRPP p<0.05). Small patches had 42 indicators with 75 to 100 percent "perfect indication" when compared with the pooled intact and large patches (MRPP p<0.l). Conclusions Macro-arthropod community composition, diversity and structure did vary, usually significantly, by patch treatment and size. Useful measures of generic diversity include richness estimators [alpha], [beta], and JK1. Examination of taxonomic diversity was also useful, especially for the more mobile arthropods. Pitfall traps provided copious data on the structure of the community in regards to predators and herbivores. Pitfalls, however, did not provide much information about the status of fungivores and parasites in the various different patches. Another trapping method such as the berlaise funnel, would likely provide more information about those functional groups which are likely operating at a finer scale of resolution than that tested by the pitfall trap. Employing both methods would provide a much better assessment of the community of arthropods living on the forest floor. The indicator species analysis program also provided very useful lists of species which are affiliated with particular patch conditions. Taken together, these measures could be adopted for use by forest managers to allow them to assess and monitor the effects of a management regime on the structure and composition of macro-arthropod communities as part of a comprehensive adaptive management plan. Close

• 54. [Article] Mixed-Severity Fire Effects on Biological Legacies and Vegetation Response in Pseudotsuga Forests of Western Oregon's Central Cascades, USA

  Mixed-severity fire occurrence is increasingly recognized in Pseudotsuga forests of the Pacific Northwest, but questions remain about how tree mortality varies, and forest structure is altered, across ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Mixed-Severity Fire Effects on Biological Legacies and Vegetation Response in Pseudotsuga Forests of Western Oregon's Central Cascades, USA Author: Dunn, Christopher J. Mixed-severity fire occurrence is increasingly recognized in Pseudotsuga forests of the Pacific Northwest, but questions remain about how tree mortality varies, and forest structure is altered, across the disturbance gradient observed in these fires. Therefore, we sampled live and dead biological legacies at 45 one ha plots, with four 0.10 ha nested plots, stratified across an unburned, low, moderate and high-severity fire gradient. We used severity estimates based on differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR), and captured a disturbance gradient, but plots in our low-severity class underestimated fire effects because of misclassification or delayed mortality. We estimated probability of mortality for shade-intolerant (Douglas-fir, incense-cedar, sugar pine) and shade-tolerant (western hemlock, western redcedar, true fir) trees from 5,079 sampled trees and snags. The probability of mortality was higher for shade-tolerant species across all fire-severity classes, and decreased with increasing DBH except for western hemlock. Only large, shade-intolerant trees survived high-severity fire. Post-fire snag fall and fragmentation were estimated from 2,746 sampled snags and logs. The probability of snag fall decreased with increasing DBH for all species, and was positively correlated with fire severity, except for Douglas-fir that had a higher probability following low-severity fire. Snag fragmentation was positively correlated with DBH and fire severity for all species. We also estimated the coefficient of variation within- and among-plots by fire severity class, as well as across all sampled conditions. Structural attributes varied more within- than among-plots, likely a result of increasing sub-hectare patchy mortality as fire intensity increased. Although vertical and horizontal structural diversity increased at sub-hectare scales, the coefficient of variation was highest for all structural attributes when compared across all fire severity classes. Therefore, the range of fire effects observed in mixed-severity fires may be functionally important in creating structural complexity across landscapes, which is an important attribute of old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. Understory vegetation response to mixed-severity fires has not been characterized for these forests even though the majority of vegetation diversity is found in these vegetation layers. Therefore, we sampled forest structure (1000 m² circular plots) and understory vegetation (100 m² plots) at 168 collocated plots stratified across unburned, low, moderate and high-severity conditions 10 years (Tiller Complex) and 22 years (Warner Fire) post-fire. We focused on shrub species, but sampled forbs, graminoids, ferns and moss as functional groups. Offsite colonization and fire stimulated soil seedbanks increased the total species richness from 23 to 46. The life-history strategies of residual and colonizing species resulted in three dominant species response-curves to the magnitude of disturbance: 1) 'disturbance-sensitive', when relative abundance was highest in unburned plots and continued to decline with increasing fire severity, 2) 'disturbance-stimulated', when relative abundance was highest following low or moderate-severity fire and 3) 'disturbance-amplified', when relative abundance increased with increasing fire severity. Residual and colonizing species assemblages promoted five or six distinct understory communities, dominantly driven by legacy tree basal area rather than the proportion of basal area killed. Understory communities were rarely associated with one disturbance severity class as fire refugia, variation in overstory and understory fire severity, and compensatory conditions offset fire effects. Early-seral habitats were the most different from unburned forests, but were not the only post-fire conditions important across these burned landscapes. Interactions among live and dead forest structures following low or moderate-severity fire, and the vegetation response to these conditions, are also unique to the post-fire landscape and likely important for various wildlife species. Therefore, if ecological forestry paradigms focus dominantly on creating old-growth structure or early-seral habitats, they might exclude important conditions that contribute to the landscape structural complexity created by mixed-severity fires. Additionally, tree regeneration response to mixed-severity fires has not been characterized for these forests even though they offer insight into one aspect of the resilience of these ecosystems to disturbance. Therefore, we sampled forest structure (1000 m² circular plots) and regeneration dynamics (100 m² plots) at 168 collocated plots stratified across unburned, low, moderate and high-severity conditions 10 years (Tiller Complex) and 22 years (Warner Fire) post-fire. The largest marginal increase in tree mortality (stems ha⁻¹) occurred between unburned and low-severity fires, given preferential mortality of small trees and shade-tolerant species, but basal area mortality had the largest marginal increase moving from moderate to high-severity. Pairwise comparisons of legacy tree basal area between low and moderate-severity weren’t as significant as other comparisons, but did capture a gradient of increasing fire effects. Quadratic mean diameter and canopy base height were positively correlated with fire severity as incrementally larger trees were killed and canopy ascension followed. Regeneration density increased regardless of severity, relative to unburned forests (median density of 1,384 trees ha⁻¹), but the highest median density (16,220 trees ha⁻¹) followed low-severity fire at the Tiller Complex and moderate-severity fire (14,472 trees ha⁻¹) at Warner Fire. Plot-level average species richness was highest following these same fire severity classes, supporting the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis. Statistically distinct regeneration communities occurred across the fire severity gradient at both fire sites. The relative abundance of shade-tolerant tree species decreased as fire severity increased, except for a divergent response following stand-initiation at the Warner Fire. While divergent successional pathways were evident within a couple decades following stand-initiation, low or moderate-severity fires also modified successional trajectories and may be the most functionally important disturbance magnitude because it has the greatest potential to increase compositional and structural diversity. Incorporating mixed-severity fire effects into landscape management of Pseudotsuga forests could increase structural complexity at stand and landscape-scales. Title: Mixed-Severity Fire Effects on Biological Legacies and Vegetation Response in Pseudotsuga Forests of Western Oregon's Central Cascades, USA Author: Dunn, Christopher J. Mixed-severity fire occurrence is increasingly recognized in Pseudotsuga forests of the Pacific Northwest, but questions remain about how tree mortality varies, and forest structure is altered, across the disturbance gradient observed in these fires. Therefore, we sampled live and dead biological legacies at 45 one ha plots, with four 0.10 ha nested plots, stratified across an unburned, low, moderate and high-severity fire gradient. We used severity estimates based on differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR), and captured a disturbance gradient, but plots in our low-severity class underestimated fire effects because of misclassification or delayed mortality. We estimated probability of mortality for shade-intolerant (Douglas-fir, incense-cedar, sugar pine) and shade-tolerant (western hemlock, western redcedar, true fir) trees from 5,079 sampled trees and snags. The probability of mortality was higher for shade-tolerant species across all fire-severity classes, and decreased with increasing DBH except for western hemlock. Only large, shade-intolerant trees survived high-severity fire. Post-fire snag fall and fragmentation were estimated from 2,746 sampled snags and logs. The probability of snag fall decreased with increasing DBH for all species, and was positively correlated with fire severity, except for Douglas-fir that had a higher probability following low-severity fire. Snag fragmentation was positively correlated with DBH and fire severity for all species. We also estimated the coefficient of variation within- and among-plots by fire severity class, as well as across all sampled conditions. Structural attributes varied more within- than among-plots, likely a result of increasing sub-hectare patchy mortality as fire intensity increased. Although vertical and horizontal structural diversity increased at sub-hectare scales, the coefficient of variation was highest for all structural attributes when compared across all fire severity classes. Therefore, the range of fire effects observed in mixed-severity fires may be functionally important in creating structural complexity across landscapes, which is an important attribute of old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. Understory vegetation response to mixed-severity fires has not been characterized for these forests even though the majority of vegetation diversity is found in these vegetation layers. Therefore, we sampled forest structure (1000 m² circular plots) and understory vegetation (100 m² plots) at 168 collocated plots stratified across unburned, low, moderate and high-severity conditions 10 years (Tiller Complex) and 22 years (Warner Fire) post-fire. We focused on shrub species, but sampled forbs, graminoids, ferns and moss as functional groups. Offsite colonization and fire stimulated soil seedbanks increased the total species richness from 23 to 46. The life-history strategies of residual and colonizing species resulted in three dominant species response-curves to the magnitude of disturbance: 1) 'disturbance-sensitive', when relative abundance was highest in unburned plots and continued to decline with increasing fire severity, 2) 'disturbance-stimulated', when relative abundance was highest following low or moderate-severity fire and 3) 'disturbance-amplified', when relative abundance increased with increasing fire severity. Residual and colonizing species assemblages promoted five or six distinct understory communities, dominantly driven by legacy tree basal area rather than the proportion of basal area killed. Understory communities were rarely associated with one disturbance severity class as fire refugia, variation in overstory and understory fire severity, and compensatory conditions offset fire effects. Early-seral habitats were the most different from unburned forests, but were not the only post-fire conditions important across these burned landscapes. Interactions among live and dead forest structures following low or moderate-severity fire, and the vegetation response to these conditions, are also unique to the post-fire landscape and likely important for various wildlife species. Therefore, if ecological forestry paradigms focus dominantly on creating old-growth structure or early-seral habitats, they might exclude important conditions that contribute to the landscape structural complexity created by mixed-severity fires. Additionally, tree regeneration response to mixed-severity fires has not been characterized for these forests even though they offer insight into one aspect of the resilience of these ecosystems to disturbance. Therefore, we sampled forest structure (1000 m² circular plots) and regeneration dynamics (100 m² plots) at 168 collocated plots stratified across unburned, low, moderate and high-severity conditions 10 years (Tiller Complex) and 22 years (Warner Fire) post-fire. The largest marginal increase in tree mortality (stems ha⁻¹) occurred between unburned and low-severity fires, given preferential mortality of small trees and shade-tolerant species, but basal area mortality had the largest marginal increase moving from moderate to high-severity. Pairwise comparisons of legacy tree basal area between low and moderate-severity weren’t as significant as other comparisons, but did capture a gradient of increasing fire effects. Quadratic mean diameter and canopy base height were positively correlated with fire severity as incrementally larger trees were killed and canopy ascension followed. Regeneration density increased regardless of severity, relative to unburned forests (median density of 1,384 trees ha⁻¹), but the highest median density (16,220 trees ha⁻¹) followed low-severity fire at the Tiller Complex and moderate-severity fire (14,472 trees ha⁻¹) at Warner Fire. Plot-level average species richness was highest following these same fire severity classes, supporting the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis. Statistically distinct regeneration communities occurred across the fire severity gradient at both fire sites. The relative abundance of shade-tolerant tree species decreased as fire severity increased, except for a divergent response following stand-initiation at the Warner Fire. While divergent successional pathways were evident within a couple decades following stand-initiation, low or moderate-severity fires also modified successional trajectories and may be the most functionally important disturbance magnitude because it has the greatest potential to increase compositional and structural diversity. Incorporating mixed-severity fire effects into landscape management of Pseudotsuga forests could increase structural complexity at stand and landscape-scales. Close

• 55. [Image] Klamath Basin GIS directory

  	The Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) - Humboldt State University Geographic Information Systems Work Group (HSU-GIS Group) was established to support ERO's mission to develop an ecosystem ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Basin GIS directory Year: 1995, 2005 The Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) - Humboldt State University Geographic Information Systems Work Group (HSU-GIS Group) was established to support ERO's mission to develop an ecosystem restoration strategy for the Klamath Basin and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services responsibilities to the President's Forest Plan. Priorities for developing GIS seamless layers for the basin are established by ERO in consultation with bioregional cooperators : Fish & Wildlife Service-Klamath/Central Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Forest Service - Regions 5 & 6, Bureau of Land Management- California & Oregon, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Geological Survey, California & Oregon state agencies, tribal governments, and various other publics. Comprehensive seamless co-registered data layers are needed for bioregional research, planning and management. The needed GIS data layers include political & administrative boundaries; lithospheric,hydrographic & atmospheric elements; plant & animal community characteristics; socio-economic components; and descriptive landscape statistics including temporal dimensions. The ERO-HSU GIS Group's primary geographic domain is the 10.5 million acre Klamath Province as described in the President's Forest Plan for northern California & southern Oregon. The Province includes the Klamath -Trinity River hydrobasins as well as the Smith River watershed. While gathering and editing public domain data sets for the Klamath Province, the GIS Group has also compiled data layers for the larger Klamath Economic Zone which extends from the northern crest of the Rogue River watershed in Oregon southward to the southern crest of the Russian River watershed, just north of the San Francisco Bay area. The work of the ERO-HSU GIS Group is threefold: (1) development and dissemination of spatial analysis products with our first efforts directed at compiling existing information; (2) research on ecosystem assessment methodology; and (3) education & training of agency personnel and graduate students. The completed GIS layers and resulting map products are available upon request. By early 1996, an information dissemination mechanism will be in-place using the INTERNET as part of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The data development work is currently established at three scales: 1:100,000, 1:24,000 and 1:12,000. We have assembled small scale data layers (1:100,000) for the Klamath Province & the Klamath Economic Zone. In the near future, we will concentrate solely upon the more detailed GIS data layers at a medium scale (1:24,000), based on USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle maps. Subsequently, we will integrate stream habitat information at large scale Title: Klamath Basin GIS directory Year: 1995, 2005 The Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) - Humboldt State University Geographic Information Systems Work Group (HSU-GIS Group) was established to support ERO's mission to develop an ecosystem restoration strategy for the Klamath Basin and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services responsibilities to the President's Forest Plan. Priorities for developing GIS seamless layers for the basin are established by ERO in consultation with bioregional cooperators : Fish & Wildlife Service-Klamath/Central Pacific Coastal Ecoregion, Forest Service - Regions 5 & 6, Bureau of Land Management- California & Oregon, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Geological Survey, California & Oregon state agencies, tribal governments, and various other publics. Comprehensive seamless co-registered data layers are needed for bioregional research, planning and management. The needed GIS data layers include political & administrative boundaries; lithospheric,hydrographic & atmospheric elements; plant & animal community characteristics; socio-economic components; and descriptive landscape statistics including temporal dimensions. The ERO-HSU GIS Group's primary geographic domain is the 10.5 million acre Klamath Province as described in the President's Forest Plan for northern California & southern Oregon. The Province includes the Klamath -Trinity River hydrobasins as well as the Smith River watershed. While gathering and editing public domain data sets for the Klamath Province, the GIS Group has also compiled data layers for the larger Klamath Economic Zone which extends from the northern crest of the Rogue River watershed in Oregon southward to the southern crest of the Russian River watershed, just north of the San Francisco Bay area. The work of the ERO-HSU GIS Group is threefold: (1) development and dissemination of spatial analysis products with our first efforts directed at compiling existing information; (2) research on ecosystem assessment methodology; and (3) education & training of agency personnel and graduate students. The completed GIS layers and resulting map products are available upon request. By early 1996, an information dissemination mechanism will be in-place using the INTERNET as part of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The data development work is currently established at three scales: 1:100,000, 1:24,000 and 1:12,000. We have assembled small scale data layers (1:100,000) for the Klamath Province & the Klamath Economic Zone. In the near future, we will concentrate solely upon the more detailed GIS data layers at a medium scale (1:24,000), based on USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle maps. Subsequently, we will integrate stream habitat information at large scale Close

• 56. [Article] Wildlife Health in Managed Forests : Immunity and Infectious Diseases in Wild Rodents of Oregon

  With continual and worldwide human population growth, our impact on the natural environment expands and intensifies every day. We consume natural resources, burn fossil fuels, and release toxic compounds ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Wildlife Health in Managed Forests : Immunity and Infectious Diseases in Wild Rodents of Oregon Author: Hanselmann, Rhea With continual and worldwide human population growth, our impact on the natural environment expands and intensifies every day. We consume natural resources, burn fossil fuels, and release toxic compounds into the air, water, and earth. We build roads that fragment the landscape, construct new settlements, and develop agricultural lands in previously undisturbed areas. And, we introduce non-native species, which compete with and/or prey on native ones. Our actions change the composition of ecosystems by effacing natural environments and decimating plant and animal populations. We have reached a time of unprecedented anthropogenic environmental change. And, while we recognize, and work feverishly to mitigate, countless consequences of our actions, we still lack a profound understanding of just as many of the corollaries of the environmental changes we provoke. One thing we do know is that human-induced changes in environmental conditions can affect health – from individual organisms, to plant and animal populations, all the way to the level of the ecosystem. Yet, the mechanisms underlying such adverse health outcomes are only partially understood. For instance, we know that alterations in the structure of plant and animal communities, the distribution and demographics of populations, and the abundance of individuals can influence the emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases. Which species are present in a community, where, when, and in what numbers can all determine the dynamics of pathogens, lead to disease outbreaks, and provide opportunities for spillover into new species. However, given the many environmental-, population-, and organism-level factors involved, and the complexity by which these variables interact, detecting and predicting the ultimate consequences for the health of animal, including human, populations remains difficult. Wild animals play important roles in numerous infectious disease cycles, many of which are shared with humans. Considering this and the well-documented effects that human activity can have on wildlife populations, studying the impacts of anthropogenic environmental change on health in wildlife is highly relevant. To understand how human-induced environmental changes affect wildlife health and to make predictions about potential regional or even global consequences for the dynamics of infectious diseases, however, we first need to understand patterns at a local scale. Here, I describe variation in immune function in captive and wild rodent species native to managed forests in northwestern Oregon, and examine how intensive forest management practices affect these and other physiological processes, and the prevalence of infectious diseases, in a large-scale field experiment. In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, I present baseline data on simple immune parameters in an iconic inhabitant of old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest, the red tree vole (Arborimus longicaudus). I show that both body condition and age are important for immune defenses in this species. Translating these findings to wild populations leads me to predict that degradation of habitat may affect red tree voles not only at the population scale, as is currently the case, but that less obvious consequences for the health of individuals surviving in disturbed or suboptimal habitat are also possible. It is important, therefore, that efforts to conserve this species consider adverse effects of present forest management practices on red tree vole health, as potentially increased disease susceptibility could have detrimental outcomes for this species. In Chapters 3 and 4, I took advantage of a rare and large-scale experiment to test my predictions regarding the negative consequences of habitat degradation for individual animals in more ubiquitous rodent species known for their resilience to environmental disturbance. I investigated the effects of intensive forest management on stress, health, and immunity (Chapter 3), and on the prevalence of infectious diseases transmissible to humans (Chapter 4) in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), Townsend chipmunks (Tamias townsendii), and creeping voles (Microtus oregoni) inhabiting managed forest plots in northwestern Oregon. The experimental design employed allowed me to test the effect of regionally representative forest management practices on health and disease outcomes with important implications for public health. In Chapter 3, I present results which suggest that intensive forest management can have complex, but highly context-dependent effects on the health of wild deer mice. Intensive forest management can shape animals’ condition and reproductive activity, increase levels of stress hormone, and stimulate some but depress other immune responses. However, deer mice are only able to respond to the extreme stressor of this disturbance when underlying environmental conditions are favorable. When inhabiting inherently harsh habitat, mice appear unable to cope with additional disturbance imposed by intensive forest management, and only the fittest mice survive. Finally, in Chapter 4, I identify moderate prevalence of two important and potentially fatal human infections in rodents inhabiting managed forests in northwestern Oregon. In deer mouse populations, Sin Nombre virus was clustered spatially, and prevalence varied between years. But, in the focus of highest infection, the proportion of infected mice, albeit low, appeared to increase with intensity of forest management. For Leptospirosis, I found a similar pattern in creeping voles, but did not observe an association between infection prevalence and forest management in deer mice or chipmunks. I conclude that forest management may drive infectious disease patterns, but that the direction and magnitude of such effects depends on the host-pathogen system. Taken together, my findings indicate that wild animal health can suffer from declines in habitat quality associated with forest management. For a near-threatened species such as the red tree vole, decreases in the availability of food and nesting habitat have the potential to change susceptibility to infection, which could facilitate disease invasion and further threaten populations. For wild animals that serve as reservoirs for human infections, especially abundant and apparently resilient species, impaired health can drive the dynamics of pathogens and increase the risk of transmission to humans and other animals. Although many more questions remain, my work contributes to our understanding of the effects of anthropogenic environmental change for wildlife and human health. Title: Wildlife Health in Managed Forests : Immunity and Infectious Diseases in Wild Rodents of Oregon Author: Hanselmann, Rhea With continual and worldwide human population growth, our impact on the natural environment expands and intensifies every day. We consume natural resources, burn fossil fuels, and release toxic compounds into the air, water, and earth. We build roads that fragment the landscape, construct new settlements, and develop agricultural lands in previously undisturbed areas. And, we introduce non-native species, which compete with and/or prey on native ones. Our actions change the composition of ecosystems by effacing natural environments and decimating plant and animal populations. We have reached a time of unprecedented anthropogenic environmental change. And, while we recognize, and work feverishly to mitigate, countless consequences of our actions, we still lack a profound understanding of just as many of the corollaries of the environmental changes we provoke. One thing we do know is that human-induced changes in environmental conditions can affect health – from individual organisms, to plant and animal populations, all the way to the level of the ecosystem. Yet, the mechanisms underlying such adverse health outcomes are only partially understood. For instance, we know that alterations in the structure of plant and animal communities, the distribution and demographics of populations, and the abundance of individuals can influence the emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases. Which species are present in a community, where, when, and in what numbers can all determine the dynamics of pathogens, lead to disease outbreaks, and provide opportunities for spillover into new species. However, given the many environmental-, population-, and organism-level factors involved, and the complexity by which these variables interact, detecting and predicting the ultimate consequences for the health of animal, including human, populations remains difficult. Wild animals play important roles in numerous infectious disease cycles, many of which are shared with humans. Considering this and the well-documented effects that human activity can have on wildlife populations, studying the impacts of anthropogenic environmental change on health in wildlife is highly relevant. To understand how human-induced environmental changes affect wildlife health and to make predictions about potential regional or even global consequences for the dynamics of infectious diseases, however, we first need to understand patterns at a local scale. Here, I describe variation in immune function in captive and wild rodent species native to managed forests in northwestern Oregon, and examine how intensive forest management practices affect these and other physiological processes, and the prevalence of infectious diseases, in a large-scale field experiment. In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, I present baseline data on simple immune parameters in an iconic inhabitant of old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest, the red tree vole (Arborimus longicaudus). I show that both body condition and age are important for immune defenses in this species. Translating these findings to wild populations leads me to predict that degradation of habitat may affect red tree voles not only at the population scale, as is currently the case, but that less obvious consequences for the health of individuals surviving in disturbed or suboptimal habitat are also possible. It is important, therefore, that efforts to conserve this species consider adverse effects of present forest management practices on red tree vole health, as potentially increased disease susceptibility could have detrimental outcomes for this species. In Chapters 3 and 4, I took advantage of a rare and large-scale experiment to test my predictions regarding the negative consequences of habitat degradation for individual animals in more ubiquitous rodent species known for their resilience to environmental disturbance. I investigated the effects of intensive forest management on stress, health, and immunity (Chapter 3), and on the prevalence of infectious diseases transmissible to humans (Chapter 4) in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), Townsend chipmunks (Tamias townsendii), and creeping voles (Microtus oregoni) inhabiting managed forest plots in northwestern Oregon. The experimental design employed allowed me to test the effect of regionally representative forest management practices on health and disease outcomes with important implications for public health. In Chapter 3, I present results which suggest that intensive forest management can have complex, but highly context-dependent effects on the health of wild deer mice. Intensive forest management can shape animals’ condition and reproductive activity, increase levels of stress hormone, and stimulate some but depress other immune responses. However, deer mice are only able to respond to the extreme stressor of this disturbance when underlying environmental conditions are favorable. When inhabiting inherently harsh habitat, mice appear unable to cope with additional disturbance imposed by intensive forest management, and only the fittest mice survive. Finally, in Chapter 4, I identify moderate prevalence of two important and potentially fatal human infections in rodents inhabiting managed forests in northwestern Oregon. In deer mouse populations, Sin Nombre virus was clustered spatially, and prevalence varied between years. But, in the focus of highest infection, the proportion of infected mice, albeit low, appeared to increase with intensity of forest management. For Leptospirosis, I found a similar pattern in creeping voles, but did not observe an association between infection prevalence and forest management in deer mice or chipmunks. I conclude that forest management may drive infectious disease patterns, but that the direction and magnitude of such effects depends on the host-pathogen system. Taken together, my findings indicate that wild animal health can suffer from declines in habitat quality associated with forest management. For a near-threatened species such as the red tree vole, decreases in the availability of food and nesting habitat have the potential to change susceptibility to infection, which could facilitate disease invasion and further threaten populations. For wild animals that serve as reservoirs for human infections, especially abundant and apparently resilient species, impaired health can drive the dynamics of pathogens and increase the risk of transmission to humans and other animals. Although many more questions remain, my work contributes to our understanding of the effects of anthropogenic environmental change for wildlife and human health. Close

• 57. [Article] Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Basin : An Examination of their Distribution, Recovery from Disturbance and Restoration

  We are at risk of losing the sagebrush steppe in the floristic Great Basin to the invasion of Bromus tectorum L., cheatgrass. The floristic Great Basin includes the Central Basin and Range, the Northern ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Basin : An Examination of their Distribution, Recovery from Disturbance and Restoration Author: Condon, Lea A. We are at risk of losing the sagebrush steppe in the floristic Great Basin to the invasion of Bromus tectorum L., cheatgrass. The floristic Great Basin includes the Central Basin and Range, the Northern Basin and Range, and the Snake River Plain. The Great Basin receives most of its precipitation as winter snow and experiences hot and dry summers. Early accounts of invasion by cheatgrass associated it with farming and grazing practices. The non-farmed areas in the region are still actively grazed and referred to as rangelands. On invaded sites, cheatgrass changes the flammability of fuels on invaded landscapes, across the Great Basin, from coarser fuels that are widely spaced to fine fuels that are continuous, filling interspaces between perennial plants. The fuel load created by cheatgrass regenerates annually. This has resulted in a change in the fire regime of the Great Basin from infrequent, small fires to more frequent large fires. In arid lands globally, soil interspaces between perennial plants are typically filled by biological soil crusts (biocrusts). This is also true for ecoregions in and surrounding the Great Basin. Biocrusts are known to influence many ecosystem processes that cheatgrass influences, specifically nutrient cycling and availability of soil moisture. However, little work has been done on biocrusts of the Great Basin and to my knowledge, no one had restored biocrusts within the Great Basin. I attempt to fill some of this knowledge "interspace" by relating biocrust presence to disturbances and cheatgrass invasion and to demonstrate the potential for biocrust restoration within this region. Previous work in eastern Oregon demonstrated relationships between declines in biocrusts and increases in cheatgrass with increasing grazing intensity, soil temperature, and decreasing soil moisture. Grazing intensity influences the cover of biocrusts as well as the abundance and composition of native bunchgrasses. Native bunchgrasses influence the interspace gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation which is directly associated with the cover of cheatgrass. In a region where grazing records may be incomplete and may exist in various forms of data, having a simple indicator of grazing impacts would be useful. It is also crucial that we have an understanding of what leads to loss of site resistance to cheatgrass. This previous work suggested that cover of biocrusts, in addition to bunchgrass composition, were associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass. In Chapter 2, I used current grazing records from a range of suspected grazing intensities, to examine the ability of both biocrusts and perennial vegetation to maintain site resistance to cheatgrass after fire. I examined the ability of mosses and lichens to maintain site resistance separately given that these are two very different kinds of organisms. Mosses are non-vascular plants and early colonizers of sites in primary succession. Lichens have a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthesizing partner, a cyanobacteria, an algae or both. Using structural equation models, I corroborated that perennial vegetation and lichens are associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass and that mosses are associated with and may facilitate both lichens and perennial herbaceous vegetation. Also in Chapter 2, I identified that burned sites were associated with increased grazing pressure by livestock as shown by increases in cow dung density and increases in gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation. The Great Basin is managed for cover of perennial vegetation but it could also be managed for morphogroups of biocrusts. Considering morphogroups of biocrusts, which were shown in the Chapter 2 to be important for site resilience and resistance, I wanted to determine if there were site characteristics associated with biocrust distribution and recovery from disturbance, across the Great Basin. Outside of the Great Basin on the Columbia Plateau, others had found that mosses were still present on disturbed sites whereas lichens were often lost. In addition, biocrust species were more associated with soil properties than with grazing by livestock. Given that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region, I wanted to know if the same relationships between biocrusts, soil properties and disturbance were true in the Great Basin. I found that cover of the lichen component of biocrusts was higher on sites that were both ungrazed and unburned. Factors related to disturbance characteristics were correlated with the recovery of biocrusts, even after accounting for time since fire. Factors related to disturbance, a composite of grazing and fire, were more important for structuring the cover and composition of morphogroups as opposed to environmental conditions. Lichens were the most sensitive morphogroup, compared to tall mosses, followed by short mosses which were favored by some disturbance but reduced in cover immediately after fire. Perennial grasses were also favored by some disturbance and perennial forbs did not show an obvious relationship with a disturbance gradient. Chapter 3 highlights that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region so much so that the effects of one on the abundances of morphogroups could not be separated from the other. Given the observed contributions of biocrusts to site resilience and resistance, I wanted to know if we could restore biocrusts in the field. Others have grown mosses in a lab setting but this was the first study to restore mosses in the Great Basin. I tested the influence of factors that are commonly used in the field of restoration for facilitating plant establishment. I tested the influence of season of inoculation (fall versus spring), the addition of organic matter (in the form of jute net), irrigation (in the spring season) and the climatic setting of moss the collection sites (for moss propagation), in comparison to the experiment site (warm, dry versus cool, moist) on moss growth. I used two moss species: a ruderal (Bryum argenteum) and a later successional species (Syntrichia ruralis). Moss cover increased when the climatic setting of the collection site matched the experiment site. Mosses were facilitated by the addition of the organic jute netting, putting on most of their growth in winter. Although there is still a great deal of work to be done developing moss material for restoration and working out inoculation rates of moss fragments, similar to seeding rates, land managers have another tool to consider when rehabilitating sites after disturbance. Managing the Great Basin for biocrusts in the presence of grazing and fire will not only increase site resistance to cheatgrass but it will add to the conservation of ecosystem functions related to nutrient cycling, hydrologic cycling and soil erosion. Site resistance will be improved with increased periods of rest from grazing following fire. The lichen component of biocrusts is a more sensitive indicator of disturbance when compared with mosses or perennial vegetation but we are currently actively managing for perennial vegetation and not biocrusts. The moss component of biocrusts can be successfully restored in the Great Basin, without irrigation. This dissertation shows that land managers should consider a suite of organisms, in addition to perennial plants to achieve management goals and maintain site resistance to cheatgrass. Title: Biological Soil Crusts of the Great Basin : An Examination of their Distribution, Recovery from Disturbance and Restoration Author: Condon, Lea A. We are at risk of losing the sagebrush steppe in the floristic Great Basin to the invasion of Bromus tectorum L., cheatgrass. The floristic Great Basin includes the Central Basin and Range, the Northern Basin and Range, and the Snake River Plain. The Great Basin receives most of its precipitation as winter snow and experiences hot and dry summers. Early accounts of invasion by cheatgrass associated it with farming and grazing practices. The non-farmed areas in the region are still actively grazed and referred to as rangelands. On invaded sites, cheatgrass changes the flammability of fuels on invaded landscapes, across the Great Basin, from coarser fuels that are widely spaced to fine fuels that are continuous, filling interspaces between perennial plants. The fuel load created by cheatgrass regenerates annually. This has resulted in a change in the fire regime of the Great Basin from infrequent, small fires to more frequent large fires. In arid lands globally, soil interspaces between perennial plants are typically filled by biological soil crusts (biocrusts). This is also true for ecoregions in and surrounding the Great Basin. Biocrusts are known to influence many ecosystem processes that cheatgrass influences, specifically nutrient cycling and availability of soil moisture. However, little work has been done on biocrusts of the Great Basin and to my knowledge, no one had restored biocrusts within the Great Basin. I attempt to fill some of this knowledge "interspace" by relating biocrust presence to disturbances and cheatgrass invasion and to demonstrate the potential for biocrust restoration within this region. Previous work in eastern Oregon demonstrated relationships between declines in biocrusts and increases in cheatgrass with increasing grazing intensity, soil temperature, and decreasing soil moisture. Grazing intensity influences the cover of biocrusts as well as the abundance and composition of native bunchgrasses. Native bunchgrasses influence the interspace gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation which is directly associated with the cover of cheatgrass. In a region where grazing records may be incomplete and may exist in various forms of data, having a simple indicator of grazing impacts would be useful. It is also crucial that we have an understanding of what leads to loss of site resistance to cheatgrass. This previous work suggested that cover of biocrusts, in addition to bunchgrass composition, were associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass. In Chapter 2, I used current grazing records from a range of suspected grazing intensities, to examine the ability of both biocrusts and perennial vegetation to maintain site resistance to cheatgrass after fire. I examined the ability of mosses and lichens to maintain site resistance separately given that these are two very different kinds of organisms. Mosses are non-vascular plants and early colonizers of sites in primary succession. Lichens have a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthesizing partner, a cyanobacteria, an algae or both. Using structural equation models, I corroborated that perennial vegetation and lichens are associated with increased site resistance to cheatgrass and that mosses are associated with and may facilitate both lichens and perennial herbaceous vegetation. Also in Chapter 2, I identified that burned sites were associated with increased grazing pressure by livestock as shown by increases in cow dung density and increases in gap size between perennial herbaceous vegetation. The Great Basin is managed for cover of perennial vegetation but it could also be managed for morphogroups of biocrusts. Considering morphogroups of biocrusts, which were shown in the Chapter 2 to be important for site resilience and resistance, I wanted to determine if there were site characteristics associated with biocrust distribution and recovery from disturbance, across the Great Basin. Outside of the Great Basin on the Columbia Plateau, others had found that mosses were still present on disturbed sites whereas lichens were often lost. In addition, biocrust species were more associated with soil properties than with grazing by livestock. Given that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region, I wanted to know if the same relationships between biocrusts, soil properties and disturbance were true in the Great Basin. I found that cover of the lichen component of biocrusts was higher on sites that were both ungrazed and unburned. Factors related to disturbance characteristics were correlated with the recovery of biocrusts, even after accounting for time since fire. Factors related to disturbance, a composite of grazing and fire, were more important for structuring the cover and composition of morphogroups as opposed to environmental conditions. Lichens were the most sensitive morphogroup, compared to tall mosses, followed by short mosses which were favored by some disturbance but reduced in cover immediately after fire. Perennial grasses were also favored by some disturbance and perennial forbs did not show an obvious relationship with a disturbance gradient. Chapter 3 highlights that grazing by livestock and fire are common disturbances across the region so much so that the effects of one on the abundances of morphogroups could not be separated from the other. Given the observed contributions of biocrusts to site resilience and resistance, I wanted to know if we could restore biocrusts in the field. Others have grown mosses in a lab setting but this was the first study to restore mosses in the Great Basin. I tested the influence of factors that are commonly used in the field of restoration for facilitating plant establishment. I tested the influence of season of inoculation (fall versus spring), the addition of organic matter (in the form of jute net), irrigation (in the spring season) and the climatic setting of moss the collection sites (for moss propagation), in comparison to the experiment site (warm, dry versus cool, moist) on moss growth. I used two moss species: a ruderal (Bryum argenteum) and a later successional species (Syntrichia ruralis). Moss cover increased when the climatic setting of the collection site matched the experiment site. Mosses were facilitated by the addition of the organic jute netting, putting on most of their growth in winter. Although there is still a great deal of work to be done developing moss material for restoration and working out inoculation rates of moss fragments, similar to seeding rates, land managers have another tool to consider when rehabilitating sites after disturbance. Managing the Great Basin for biocrusts in the presence of grazing and fire will not only increase site resistance to cheatgrass but it will add to the conservation of ecosystem functions related to nutrient cycling, hydrologic cycling and soil erosion. Site resistance will be improved with increased periods of rest from grazing following fire. The lichen component of biocrusts is a more sensitive indicator of disturbance when compared with mosses or perennial vegetation but we are currently actively managing for perennial vegetation and not biocrusts. The moss component of biocrusts can be successfully restored in the Great Basin, without irrigation. This dissertation shows that land managers should consider a suite of organisms, in addition to perennial plants to achieve management goals and maintain site resistance to cheatgrass. Close

• 58. [Article] Historical change in channel form and riparian vegetation of the McKenzie River, Oregon

  This study examined channel structure and position and riparian vegetation and land use on the upper 70 km of the McKenzie River, Oregon in the 1940s, compared the 1940s conditions to present conditions, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Historical change in channel form and riparian vegetation of the McKenzie River, Oregon Author: Minear, Paula J. This study examined channel structure and position and riparian vegetation and land use on the upper 70 km of the McKenzie River, Oregon in the 1940s, compared the 1940s conditions to present conditions, and explored the processes driving change in this system and the implications for aquatic habitat. The hydrologic record was analyzed, and field surveys were conducted and compared to historical habitat surveys. Riparian characteristics and channel features were digitized from aerial photographs from 1945/49 and 1986 and imported into Arcinfo GIS for analysis. Types of data digitized from the aerial photos included locations and length or area of wetted channel, active channel, tributaries, side channels, large woody debris, exposed gravel bars, roads, and dominant vegetation or land use within 200 m of the active channel. Construction of dams on the mainstem Mckenzie River and two major tributaries, Blue River and South Fork, in the 1960s has altered the flow regime and sediment supply to the mainstem Mckenzie, decreasing the frequency, mean and variation of peak flows, reducing the competence of flows to move existing bedload, and cutting off sediment from over half of the drainage area. Mean peak flows decreased 44% and competence of peak flows with a 2-yr recurrence interval declined approximately 29% after dams were constructed upriver. Adjustments to reduced sediment supply and flow alteration by dams in this system included 57% decrease in exposed gravel bars, 40% decrease in side channel length, and possible substrate coarsening (as compared to historical estimates). Channel straightening occurred in each of three instances of channel change during the study period, and sinuosity decreased one half of the amount needed to produce a straight channel in the most susceptible, unconstrained reach. Human actions prior to high flow events played a role in the direction of channel change in each case. Over the entire study area, 7% of the main channel changed position by 30 m or more and little or no change in channel position was noted in reaches constrained by valley floors. Additional channel constraint has been produced by road construction near the channel and riprapping for roads, bridges, and residences. Less large woody debris was observed in the 1986 channel than in the 1949 channel, indicating a reduction in pool-forming agents and channel roughness elements. Frequency of large pools ([greater than or equal to] 2 m depth and >40 m² area) decreased 19% over the study area. The greatest loss in pools (73%) was noted in the unconstrained reach that exhibited two areas of channel change and an increase in exposed gravel bars. Increased human use of the riparian area for roads and residential purposes has led to an increased fragmentation of the riparian landscape. Density of residential or developed patches within the riparian area has increased 215% as more and smaller areas are converted from natural vegetation to human use. Riparian area devoted to roads and residential uses has nearly doubled since the 1940s. Mean vegetation or land-use patch size has decreased from 2.2 ha to 1.6 ha as larger patches have been sub-divided, and patch and edge densities have increased. Agriculture and clearcuts for timber removal have decreased within the riparian area while continuing upslope. Riparian area in mature conifers has decreased 44% from levels in the 1940s while hardwoods have increased 45% in the riparian area. Future wood loading to the channel is reduced by a decline in mature riparian vegetation, especially mature conifers. Channel and riparian changes noted in this study have implications for fish populations. Channel straightening, reduction in side channels, and loss of pool-forming agents reduce habitat heterogeneity and off-channel refugia. Ecosystem management of watersheds requires evaluation of conditions across scales of time and space. The use of GIS in this study made it possible to detect changes in channel form and riparian conditions during four decades, along a 70-m channel and 90-m riparian area and to analyze the large data sets relevant to understanding functions and change in channels and riparian areas. Title: Historical change in channel form and riparian vegetation of the McKenzie River, Oregon Author: Minear, Paula J. This study examined channel structure and position and riparian vegetation and land use on the upper 70 km of the McKenzie River, Oregon in the 1940s, compared the 1940s conditions to present conditions, and explored the processes driving change in this system and the implications for aquatic habitat. The hydrologic record was analyzed, and field surveys were conducted and compared to historical habitat surveys. Riparian characteristics and channel features were digitized from aerial photographs from 1945/49 and 1986 and imported into Arcinfo GIS for analysis. Types of data digitized from the aerial photos included locations and length or area of wetted channel, active channel, tributaries, side channels, large woody debris, exposed gravel bars, roads, and dominant vegetation or land use within 200 m of the active channel. Construction of dams on the mainstem Mckenzie River and two major tributaries, Blue River and South Fork, in the 1960s has altered the flow regime and sediment supply to the mainstem Mckenzie, decreasing the frequency, mean and variation of peak flows, reducing the competence of flows to move existing bedload, and cutting off sediment from over half of the drainage area. Mean peak flows decreased 44% and competence of peak flows with a 2-yr recurrence interval declined approximately 29% after dams were constructed upriver. Adjustments to reduced sediment supply and flow alteration by dams in this system included 57% decrease in exposed gravel bars, 40% decrease in side channel length, and possible substrate coarsening (as compared to historical estimates). Channel straightening occurred in each of three instances of channel change during the study period, and sinuosity decreased one half of the amount needed to produce a straight channel in the most susceptible, unconstrained reach. Human actions prior to high flow events played a role in the direction of channel change in each case. Over the entire study area, 7% of the main channel changed position by 30 m or more and little or no change in channel position was noted in reaches constrained by valley floors. Additional channel constraint has been produced by road construction near the channel and riprapping for roads, bridges, and residences. Less large woody debris was observed in the 1986 channel than in the 1949 channel, indicating a reduction in pool-forming agents and channel roughness elements. Frequency of large pools ([greater than or equal to] 2 m depth and >40 m² area) decreased 19% over the study area. The greatest loss in pools (73%) was noted in the unconstrained reach that exhibited two areas of channel change and an increase in exposed gravel bars. Increased human use of the riparian area for roads and residential purposes has led to an increased fragmentation of the riparian landscape. Density of residential or developed patches within the riparian area has increased 215% as more and smaller areas are converted from natural vegetation to human use. Riparian area devoted to roads and residential uses has nearly doubled since the 1940s. Mean vegetation or land-use patch size has decreased from 2.2 ha to 1.6 ha as larger patches have been sub-divided, and patch and edge densities have increased. Agriculture and clearcuts for timber removal have decreased within the riparian area while continuing upslope. Riparian area in mature conifers has decreased 44% from levels in the 1940s while hardwoods have increased 45% in the riparian area. Future wood loading to the channel is reduced by a decline in mature riparian vegetation, especially mature conifers. Channel and riparian changes noted in this study have implications for fish populations. Channel straightening, reduction in side channels, and loss of pool-forming agents reduce habitat heterogeneity and off-channel refugia. Ecosystem management of watersheds requires evaluation of conditions across scales of time and space. The use of GIS in this study made it possible to detect changes in channel form and riparian conditions during four decades, along a 70-m channel and 90-m riparian area and to analyze the large data sets relevant to understanding functions and change in channels and riparian areas. Close

• 59. [Article] Comparing vegetation and soils of remnant and restored prairie wetlands in the northern Willamette Valley

  Native prairies of the Willamette Valley are considered among the rarest of Oregon's ecosystems (Clark and Wilson, 2001). As a result of agriculture conversion, urban development and cessation of native ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Comparing vegetation and soils of remnant and restored prairie wetlands in the northern Willamette Valley Author: Taylor, Sara M. Native prairies of the Willamette Valley are considered among the rarest of Oregon's ecosystems (Clark and Wilson, 2001). As a result of agriculture conversion, urban development and cessation of native burning, Willamette Valley prairies have become highly fragmented and invaded by non-native species, leaving little room for native plant diversity. Even though wetland prairie conservation and restoration has been a priority for many government agencies there is a need for research on what restoration techniques and management are necessary for increasing native species richness and abundance in remnant and restored wet prairie sites. In this research project, two studies were conducted. In the first study, data were collected on species presence and abundance from three 100m² randomized plots within three remnant wet prairies (Green Mountain, Gotter Prairie South, Knez) and three restored wet prairies (Hutchinson, Gotter Prairie North, Lovejoy) to answer the following research question, 'Are there differences between remnant and restored prairie plant communities with respect to the diversity and abundance of native species?' Analysis of variance and multivariate ordination techniques were used to assess the ecological differences between uncultivated, minimally-managed remnant wet prairies and newly-restored, highly managed wet prairies. Data on soils collected from agricultural sites (Westbrook, Zurcher, Gotter Prairie Ag), as well as the remnant and restored wet prairies mentioned above, were also used to compare soil quality and processes with the remnant and restored wetlands. Restored wet prairie had 23% higher native species cover than remnant prairie (p-value=0.089, N=6). Remnant and restored sites did not differ in native species richness (p-value=0.949, N=6). The relatively high per cent cover of native species at restored sites, (significant at the 10% level), suggests that land managers have successfully restored agricultural properties with an abundance of native species. The lack of significant difference in native species richness between remnant and restored sites also suggests that land managers have also been able to restore native plant diversity into former agricultural properties equivalent to some of the best intact remnant prairies within the Northern Willamette Valley in a short period of time (8 years or less). However, a non-metric scaling (NMS) ordination of the species matrix separated the remnant sites from the restored sites, suggesting that community composition distinguishes restored sites from remnants. The NMS results, which include environmental data in the analysis, also suggest that there is a positive correlation of percent soil moisture and percent soil organic matter associated with the remnant prairies and a positive correlation of management practices such as yearly chemical use, mowing, and clean crops, associated with the restored prairies. The location of Gotter Prairie North restoration within the ordination, between the remnant and restored sites, suggests an intermediate plant composition and soil quality. This could be attributed to intensive weed suppression and soil organic matter build up over time (8 years) in comparison to younger restored sites (3 and 4 years). Indicator species analysis identified many species with high indicator values (IVs) in the remnant prairies; Holcus lanatus, Deschampsia cespitosa, Carex densa and Phalaris arundinacea being the highest. The use of fire as a management tool produced only one species with a high IV (Camassia quamash). In the second study, three seeding treatments (Grass first, Grass and Forb together, Forb first) were compared within a 4 hectare experimental wet prairie unit to answer the research question „Which of the three seeding treatments used leads to the highest native species abundance and species richness?‟ Results from an analysis of variance indicated significant differences between treatments in native species richness for 2009 and 2010 (p-values=0.002 & 0.004 respectively) at the 5% level and native species abundance in 2010 only (p-value=0.099) at the 10% level. The Grass and Forb and Forb first treatments were highest in native species richness for 2009 and 2010, whereas the Grass and Forb and Grass first treatments were highest in native species abundance in 2010. A NMS ordination suggests that Juncus tenuis is one of the dominant species, in all seeding treatments, after one year of growth. Title: Comparing vegetation and soils of remnant and restored prairie wetlands in the northern Willamette Valley Author: Taylor, Sara M. Native prairies of the Willamette Valley are considered among the rarest of Oregon's ecosystems (Clark and Wilson, 2001). As a result of agriculture conversion, urban development and cessation of native burning, Willamette Valley prairies have become highly fragmented and invaded by non-native species, leaving little room for native plant diversity. Even though wetland prairie conservation and restoration has been a priority for many government agencies there is a need for research on what restoration techniques and management are necessary for increasing native species richness and abundance in remnant and restored wet prairie sites. In this research project, two studies were conducted. In the first study, data were collected on species presence and abundance from three 100m² randomized plots within three remnant wet prairies (Green Mountain, Gotter Prairie South, Knez) and three restored wet prairies (Hutchinson, Gotter Prairie North, Lovejoy) to answer the following research question, 'Are there differences between remnant and restored prairie plant communities with respect to the diversity and abundance of native species?' Analysis of variance and multivariate ordination techniques were used to assess the ecological differences between uncultivated, minimally-managed remnant wet prairies and newly-restored, highly managed wet prairies. Data on soils collected from agricultural sites (Westbrook, Zurcher, Gotter Prairie Ag), as well as the remnant and restored wet prairies mentioned above, were also used to compare soil quality and processes with the remnant and restored wetlands. Restored wet prairie had 23% higher native species cover than remnant prairie (p-value=0.089, N=6). Remnant and restored sites did not differ in native species richness (p-value=0.949, N=6). The relatively high per cent cover of native species at restored sites, (significant at the 10% level), suggests that land managers have successfully restored agricultural properties with an abundance of native species. The lack of significant difference in native species richness between remnant and restored sites also suggests that land managers have also been able to restore native plant diversity into former agricultural properties equivalent to some of the best intact remnant prairies within the Northern Willamette Valley in a short period of time (8 years or less). However, a non-metric scaling (NMS) ordination of the species matrix separated the remnant sites from the restored sites, suggesting that community composition distinguishes restored sites from remnants. The NMS results, which include environmental data in the analysis, also suggest that there is a positive correlation of percent soil moisture and percent soil organic matter associated with the remnant prairies and a positive correlation of management practices such as yearly chemical use, mowing, and clean crops, associated with the restored prairies. The location of Gotter Prairie North restoration within the ordination, between the remnant and restored sites, suggests an intermediate plant composition and soil quality. This could be attributed to intensive weed suppression and soil organic matter build up over time (8 years) in comparison to younger restored sites (3 and 4 years). Indicator species analysis identified many species with high indicator values (IVs) in the remnant prairies; Holcus lanatus, Deschampsia cespitosa, Carex densa and Phalaris arundinacea being the highest. The use of fire as a management tool produced only one species with a high IV (Camassia quamash). In the second study, three seeding treatments (Grass first, Grass and Forb together, Forb first) were compared within a 4 hectare experimental wet prairie unit to answer the research question „Which of the three seeding treatments used leads to the highest native species abundance and species richness?‟ Results from an analysis of variance indicated significant differences between treatments in native species richness for 2009 and 2010 (p-values=0.002 & 0.004 respectively) at the 5% level and native species abundance in 2010 only (p-value=0.099) at the 10% level. The Grass and Forb and Forb first treatments were highest in native species richness for 2009 and 2010, whereas the Grass and Forb and Grass first treatments were highest in native species abundance in 2010. A NMS ordination suggests that Juncus tenuis is one of the dominant species, in all seeding treatments, after one year of growth. Close

• 60. [Article] Using a species-centered approach to examine patterns and drivers of avian species richness in the Rogue Basin, Oregon

  The combined effects of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation pose a serious threat to Earth's biodiversity, imperiling even relatively common species. 'Habitat' is necessarily a species-specific ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Using a species-centered approach to examine patterns and drivers of avian species richness in the Rogue Basin, Oregon Author: Halstead, Katherine E. The combined effects of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation pose a serious threat to Earth's biodiversity, imperiling even relatively common species. 'Habitat' is necessarily a species-specific concept, and investigations of bird diversity relationships and subsequent efforts to prioritize conservation areas, are challenged by the difficulty of estimating complex habitat gradients for multiple species across broad spatial scales. Technologies such as fine-resolution remote sensing combined with enhanced species distribution modeling techniques hold promise for more accurate assessments of multi-species habitat distributions. In this research, I focused on forest bird species which utilize and/or are highly associated with threatened Oregon white oak and California black oak (Quercus garrayana and Q. kelloggii) vegetation types in the Rogue Basin of southwest Oregon. I created individual species distribution models (SDMs) for 48 bird species as a function of fine-resolution (30 x 30 m) remotely sensed land cover and other environmental variables using boosted regression tree (BRT) models. I then 'stacked' SDMs for spatially explicit regional estimates of multi-species avian richness. In my first chapter, I examined the potential for site-level species richness to be influenced by local vegetation and environmental conditions (e.g. the "local vegetation heterogeneity hypothesis") or by landscape-level dispersal potential (e.g. the "regional species pool hypothesis"). I summarized 'stacked' SDMs for indices of 1) habitat amount at a local scale relevant bird territory use and 2) habitat amount at a broad scale relevant to forest bird dispersal, and ask whether local- or landscape-scale habitat amount is relatively more important to site-level bird species richness. I hypothesized that greater importance of either habitat amount metric would indicate greater influence of local or landscape drivers to local richness. I found evidence that for a large pool of bird species with diverse habitat associations, landscape-scale habitat amount may be relatively more important to local (i.e., territory level) richness of forest birds than is local habitat amount. In contrast, for more specialized (i.e., oak-associated) guilds, local-scale habitat may be considerably more important than amount of habitat within the surrounding landscape. My results suggest the importance of local- and landscape-scale processes in structuring bird communities, supporting both 'local vegetation heterogeneity' and 'regional species pool' hypotheses. In my second chapter, I examined the relationships between landownership, oak vegetation distribution, and bird diversity, with the objective of determining which of five primary landownership types contribute most strongly to bird species habitat in the Rogue Basin. I asked whether individual bird species distributions and estimated richness are 'additive' or 'redundant' among land ownership types, hypothesizing that differences among owners will be apparent and related to the amount of oak-dominant vegetation held by each owner regionally. I found that estimated local mean species richness of oak-associated birds in private non-industrial (PNI) ownerships is approximately double that of other Rogue Basin public and private ownerships examined. This result may be driven by disproportionate PNI ownership of limited oak cover types, and/or by hypothesized variation in management goals and activities among owners which influence local vegetation structure. Relatively greater importance of territory-scale habitat to local oak-associated species richness suggests management for these species should maximize site-level habitat amount and quality. The importance of private non-industrial owners to oak-associated avian richness validates current focus on engaging private landowners in bird-focused oak conservation and restoration. Overall, my research links efforts to conserve avian habitat with efforts to understand multi-scale drivers of bird diversity, using a novel methodology that embraces the complexity of species' habitat gradients. Title: Using a species-centered approach to examine patterns and drivers of avian species richness in the Rogue Basin, Oregon Author: Halstead, Katherine E. The combined effects of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation pose a serious threat to Earth's biodiversity, imperiling even relatively common species. 'Habitat' is necessarily a species-specific concept, and investigations of bird diversity relationships and subsequent efforts to prioritize conservation areas, are challenged by the difficulty of estimating complex habitat gradients for multiple species across broad spatial scales. Technologies such as fine-resolution remote sensing combined with enhanced species distribution modeling techniques hold promise for more accurate assessments of multi-species habitat distributions. In this research, I focused on forest bird species which utilize and/or are highly associated with threatened Oregon white oak and California black oak (Quercus garrayana and Q. kelloggii) vegetation types in the Rogue Basin of southwest Oregon. I created individual species distribution models (SDMs) for 48 bird species as a function of fine-resolution (30 x 30 m) remotely sensed land cover and other environmental variables using boosted regression tree (BRT) models. I then 'stacked' SDMs for spatially explicit regional estimates of multi-species avian richness. In my first chapter, I examined the potential for site-level species richness to be influenced by local vegetation and environmental conditions (e.g. the "local vegetation heterogeneity hypothesis") or by landscape-level dispersal potential (e.g. the "regional species pool hypothesis"). I summarized 'stacked' SDMs for indices of 1) habitat amount at a local scale relevant bird territory use and 2) habitat amount at a broad scale relevant to forest bird dispersal, and ask whether local- or landscape-scale habitat amount is relatively more important to site-level bird species richness. I hypothesized that greater importance of either habitat amount metric would indicate greater influence of local or landscape drivers to local richness. I found evidence that for a large pool of bird species with diverse habitat associations, landscape-scale habitat amount may be relatively more important to local (i.e., territory level) richness of forest birds than is local habitat amount. In contrast, for more specialized (i.e., oak-associated) guilds, local-scale habitat may be considerably more important than amount of habitat within the surrounding landscape. My results suggest the importance of local- and landscape-scale processes in structuring bird communities, supporting both 'local vegetation heterogeneity' and 'regional species pool' hypotheses. In my second chapter, I examined the relationships between landownership, oak vegetation distribution, and bird diversity, with the objective of determining which of five primary landownership types contribute most strongly to bird species habitat in the Rogue Basin. I asked whether individual bird species distributions and estimated richness are 'additive' or 'redundant' among land ownership types, hypothesizing that differences among owners will be apparent and related to the amount of oak-dominant vegetation held by each owner regionally. I found that estimated local mean species richness of oak-associated birds in private non-industrial (PNI) ownerships is approximately double that of other Rogue Basin public and private ownerships examined. This result may be driven by disproportionate PNI ownership of limited oak cover types, and/or by hypothesized variation in management goals and activities among owners which influence local vegetation structure. Relatively greater importance of territory-scale habitat to local oak-associated species richness suggests management for these species should maximize site-level habitat amount and quality. The importance of private non-industrial owners to oak-associated avian richness validates current focus on engaging private landowners in bird-focused oak conservation and restoration. Overall, my research links efforts to conserve avian habitat with efforts to understand multi-scale drivers of bird diversity, using a novel methodology that embraces the complexity of species' habitat gradients. Close

• 61. [Article] The use of remote sensing for characterizing forests in wildlife habitat modeling

  Spatially explicit maps of habitat relationships have proven to be valuable tools for conservation and management applications including evaluating how and which species may be impacted by large scale ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The use of remote sensing for characterizing forests in wildlife habitat modeling Author: Vogeler, Jody C. Spatially explicit maps of habitat relationships have proven to be valuable tools for conservation and management applications including evaluating how and which species may be impacted by large scale climate change, ongoing fragmentation of habitat, and local land-use practices. Studies have turned to remote sensing datasets as a way to characterize vegetation for the examination of habitat selection and for mapping realized relationships across the landscape. Although the use of remote sensing in wildlife studies has increased in recent years, the use of these datasets is still limited and some data sources and methods are yet to be explored. The overall goal of this dissertation was to look at the state of the wildlife ecology discipline in the use of geospatial data for habitat mapping, and to advance this area through the fusion of remote sensing tools for the mapping of previously difficult to characterize forest metrics for inclusion in avian cavity-nester habitat models. Chapter 2 reviewed over 60 years of selected wildlife literature to examine the wildlife ecology disciple through historic trends and recent advances in the use of remote sensing for habitat characterization focusing on aspects of scale and the use of available technology. We discuss commonly used remote sensing data sources, point out recent advances in the use of geospatial data for characterizing forest wildlife habitat (the use of lidar data and the creation of spatially explicit habitat prediction maps), and provide future suggestions for increased utilization of available datasets (secondary lidar metrics and time series Landsat data). In chapters 3 and 4 we explored the use of remote sensing for characterizing forest components previously difficult to map across landscapes at scales relevant to local wildlife habitat selection. Chapter 3 found promise in the fusion of lidar structure and Landsat time series disturbance products in the modeling and mapping of post-fire snag and shrub distributions at fine scales and at size/cover thresholds relevant for habitat mapping applications for many wildlife species. The study was conducted within the 2003 B&B Fire Complex in central Oregon. Using 164 field calibration plots and remote sensing predictors, we modeled the presence/absence of snag classes (dbh ≥40cm, ≥50cm, and ≥75cm) and woody shrub cover resulting in 10m output predictive grid maps. Remote sensing predictors included various lidar structure and topography variables and Landsat time series products representing the pre-fire forest, disturbance magnitude, and current forest conditions. We were able to model and map all habitat metrics with acceptable predictive performance and low-moderate errors. The utility of these snag and shrub metrics for representing important nesting habitat features for a cavity-nesting species of conservation concern, the Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis), was demonstrated in Chapter 4. We were able to model nesting habitat with good accuracies according to multiple performance measures and then map realized relationships for this species of conservation concern in an identified source habitat type, providing a potential resource for local scale conservation and management efforts and adding to the regional knowledge of habitat selection for the Lewis's Woodpecker. To our knowledge, these chapters represent first attempts to fuse lidar and time series Landsat disturbance metrics in a post-fire landscape and for the mapping of snag and shrub distributions at scales relevant to avian cavity nesting habitat. Title: The use of remote sensing for characterizing forests in wildlife habitat modeling Author: Vogeler, Jody C. Spatially explicit maps of habitat relationships have proven to be valuable tools for conservation and management applications including evaluating how and which species may be impacted by large scale climate change, ongoing fragmentation of habitat, and local land-use practices. Studies have turned to remote sensing datasets as a way to characterize vegetation for the examination of habitat selection and for mapping realized relationships across the landscape. Although the use of remote sensing in wildlife studies has increased in recent years, the use of these datasets is still limited and some data sources and methods are yet to be explored. The overall goal of this dissertation was to look at the state of the wildlife ecology discipline in the use of geospatial data for habitat mapping, and to advance this area through the fusion of remote sensing tools for the mapping of previously difficult to characterize forest metrics for inclusion in avian cavity-nester habitat models. Chapter 2 reviewed over 60 years of selected wildlife literature to examine the wildlife ecology disciple through historic trends and recent advances in the use of remote sensing for habitat characterization focusing on aspects of scale and the use of available technology. We discuss commonly used remote sensing data sources, point out recent advances in the use of geospatial data for characterizing forest wildlife habitat (the use of lidar data and the creation of spatially explicit habitat prediction maps), and provide future suggestions for increased utilization of available datasets (secondary lidar metrics and time series Landsat data). In chapters 3 and 4 we explored the use of remote sensing for characterizing forest components previously difficult to map across landscapes at scales relevant to local wildlife habitat selection. Chapter 3 found promise in the fusion of lidar structure and Landsat time series disturbance products in the modeling and mapping of post-fire snag and shrub distributions at fine scales and at size/cover thresholds relevant for habitat mapping applications for many wildlife species. The study was conducted within the 2003 B&B Fire Complex in central Oregon. Using 164 field calibration plots and remote sensing predictors, we modeled the presence/absence of snag classes (dbh ≥40cm, ≥50cm, and ≥75cm) and woody shrub cover resulting in 10m output predictive grid maps. Remote sensing predictors included various lidar structure and topography variables and Landsat time series products representing the pre-fire forest, disturbance magnitude, and current forest conditions. We were able to model and map all habitat metrics with acceptable predictive performance and low-moderate errors. The utility of these snag and shrub metrics for representing important nesting habitat features for a cavity-nesting species of conservation concern, the Lewis's Woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis), was demonstrated in Chapter 4. We were able to model nesting habitat with good accuracies according to multiple performance measures and then map realized relationships for this species of conservation concern in an identified source habitat type, providing a potential resource for local scale conservation and management efforts and adding to the regional knowledge of habitat selection for the Lewis's Woodpecker. To our knowledge, these chapters represent first attempts to fuse lidar and time series Landsat disturbance metrics in a post-fire landscape and for the mapping of snag and shrub distributions at scales relevant to avian cavity nesting habitat. Close

• 62. [Article] Characterization of fungal and bacterial communities associated with mat-forming ectomycorrhizal fungi from old-growth stands in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest

  Mat-forming ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi represent a prevalent constituent of many temperate forest ecosystems and create dramatic changes in soil structure and chemistry. EcM mat soil have been shown to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Characterization of fungal and bacterial communities associated with mat-forming ectomycorrhizal fungi from old-growth stands in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest Author: Hesse, Cedar N. Mat-forming ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi represent a prevalent constituent of many temperate forest ecosystems and create dramatic changes in soil structure and chemistry. EcM mat soil have been shown to have increased microbial respiration rates and have been hypothesized to harbor unique assemblages of fungi and bacteria. The objectives of this dissertation were to characterize and examine the fungal and bacterial communities associated with EcM mats in old-growth forests of the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest located in the Oregon Cascades. Additionally, this work assessed the application of traditional, emerging, and novel molecular sampling techniques for determining microbial communities of environmental samples. This research investigated the microbial communities associated with two common EcM mat genera found in old-growth Douglas fir stands in the Pacific Northwest; Piloderma (Atheliales, Basidiomycota) and Ramaria (Gomphales, Basidiomycota). Soil samples were collected from Piloderma and Ramaria mats and surrounding non- mat soil for molecular analysis of nucleic acids. First, a comparative study was conducted to determine the most appropriate rDNA molecular sampling technique for microbial community characterization. Two next-generation sequencing methods, Roche 454 pyrosequencing and Illumina-based environmental sequencing, the latter developed by the author, were compared to a more traditional sequencing approach, i.e., Sanger sequencing of clone libraries. These findings informed the subsequent sampling of the fungal ITS and bacterial 16S rDNA fragment with 454 pyrosequencing to determine the microbial communities within mat and non-mat soils. Second, this work utilized a pyrosequencing approach to explore fungal community structure in EcM mat and non-mat soils. This work concluded that differences in microbial communities do exist between Piloderma mat, Ramaria mat, and non-mat soils, but the differences are largely quantitative with relatively few distinct taxonomic shifts in microbial constituents. Piloderma, Ramaria and Russula, in addition to being the dominant taxa found on mycorrhizal root tips, were found to be the most abundant taxa in bulk soils within their respective mat types or non-mat sample. The background fungal communities within the EcM mats in this study exhibited considerable taxonomic overlap with the exception of Piloderma vs. non-mat comparisons; Russula species dominated nonmat soils but tended to be excluded or significantly underrepresented in Piloderma mats. Lastly, this study explored the bacterial communities associated with Piloderma and Ramaria mats using lower- coverage 454-Jr pyrosequencing. Bacterial communities exhibited significant structure as a function of mat-type, soil horizon and pH, but this finding should be interpreted with respect to the nonrandom distribution of Piloderma-mats in the O- horizon and the Ramaria-mats in the A-horizon, and the tendancy for EcM mats to be more acidic than surrounding soils. Nonetheless, the total microbial (bacterial and fungal) community was typically dominated by the mat-forming taxa, or Russula, in the case of non-mat soils. While the presence of Piloderma mats did enrich or restrict some bacterial groups, soil pH was also found to be a significant driver of bacterial richness and taxonomic diversity. Fungal and bacterial richness were also found to be positively related to one another, regardless of soil horizon or EcM mat type. This work, taken together, contributes to the understanding of hyperdiversity and heterogeneity of microbial communities of temperate forest soils and highlights the potential for fungal and bacterial communities to be influenced by the presence of EcM mats. Title: Characterization of fungal and bacterial communities associated with mat-forming ectomycorrhizal fungi from old-growth stands in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest Author: Hesse, Cedar N. Mat-forming ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi represent a prevalent constituent of many temperate forest ecosystems and create dramatic changes in soil structure and chemistry. EcM mat soil have been shown to have increased microbial respiration rates and have been hypothesized to harbor unique assemblages of fungi and bacteria. The objectives of this dissertation were to characterize and examine the fungal and bacterial communities associated with EcM mats in old-growth forests of the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest located in the Oregon Cascades. Additionally, this work assessed the application of traditional, emerging, and novel molecular sampling techniques for determining microbial communities of environmental samples. This research investigated the microbial communities associated with two common EcM mat genera found in old-growth Douglas fir stands in the Pacific Northwest; Piloderma (Atheliales, Basidiomycota) and Ramaria (Gomphales, Basidiomycota). Soil samples were collected from Piloderma and Ramaria mats and surrounding non- mat soil for molecular analysis of nucleic acids. First, a comparative study was conducted to determine the most appropriate rDNA molecular sampling technique for microbial community characterization. Two next-generation sequencing methods, Roche 454 pyrosequencing and Illumina-based environmental sequencing, the latter developed by the author, were compared to a more traditional sequencing approach, i.e., Sanger sequencing of clone libraries. These findings informed the subsequent sampling of the fungal ITS and bacterial 16S rDNA fragment with 454 pyrosequencing to determine the microbial communities within mat and non-mat soils. Second, this work utilized a pyrosequencing approach to explore fungal community structure in EcM mat and non-mat soils. This work concluded that differences in microbial communities do exist between Piloderma mat, Ramaria mat, and non-mat soils, but the differences are largely quantitative with relatively few distinct taxonomic shifts in microbial constituents. Piloderma, Ramaria and Russula, in addition to being the dominant taxa found on mycorrhizal root tips, were found to be the most abundant taxa in bulk soils within their respective mat types or non-mat sample. The background fungal communities within the EcM mats in this study exhibited considerable taxonomic overlap with the exception of Piloderma vs. non-mat comparisons; Russula species dominated nonmat soils but tended to be excluded or significantly underrepresented in Piloderma mats. Lastly, this study explored the bacterial communities associated with Piloderma and Ramaria mats using lower- coverage 454-Jr pyrosequencing. Bacterial communities exhibited significant structure as a function of mat-type, soil horizon and pH, but this finding should be interpreted with respect to the nonrandom distribution of Piloderma-mats in the O- horizon and the Ramaria-mats in the A-horizon, and the tendancy for EcM mats to be more acidic than surrounding soils. Nonetheless, the total microbial (bacterial and fungal) community was typically dominated by the mat-forming taxa, or Russula, in the case of non-mat soils. While the presence of Piloderma mats did enrich or restrict some bacterial groups, soil pH was also found to be a significant driver of bacterial richness and taxonomic diversity. Fungal and bacterial richness were also found to be positively related to one another, regardless of soil horizon or EcM mat type. This work, taken together, contributes to the understanding of hyperdiversity and heterogeneity of microbial communities of temperate forest soils and highlights the potential for fungal and bacterial communities to be influenced by the presence of EcM mats. Close

• 63. [Image] Research information needs on terrestrial vertebrate species of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great basins: research, development, and application database

  	"September 1997"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 24)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Research information needs on terrestrial vertebrate species of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great basins: research, development, and application database Author: Marcot, Bruce G. Year: 1997, 2005, 2004 "September 1997"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 24) Title: Research information needs on terrestrial vertebrate species of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great basins: research, development, and application database Author: Marcot, Bruce G. Year: 1997, 2005, 2004 "September 1997"; Includes bibliographical references (p. 24) Close

• 64. [Image] An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2]

  	Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nations National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nations BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nations population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Title: An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 2] Author: Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.) Year: 1997, 2008, 2005 Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 2. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nations National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nations BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nations population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem. Close

• 65. [Image] Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010

  	Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010 Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office. Year: 2000, 2005, 2004 Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem. Title: Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010 Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office. Year: 2000, 2005, 2004 Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem. Close

• 66. [Image] Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft

  	Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office Year: 1994, 2004 Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35) Title: Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft Author: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office Year: 1994, 2004 Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35) Close

• 67. [Image] Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Title: Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Author: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management. Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin. Close

• 68. [Image] The Oregon conservation strategy

  	v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Title: The Oregon conservation strategy Year: 2006 v, 419 p.; col.ill.; col.maps; "February 2006"; Foreword by Marla Rae, Chair, Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission Close

• 69. [Image] The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference

  	Cover title; "March 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference Year: 1999, 2004 Cover title; "March 1999." Title: The Third Klamath Basin Watershed Restoration and Research Conference Year: 1999, 2004 Cover title; "March 1999." Close

• 70. [Image] Making the ESA work better: implementing the 10 point plan - and beyond

  	19p.; ill.; Cover title; "June 1997"; "Reprint September 1998"; [Washington, D.C.]: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1999
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Making the ESA work better: implementing the 10 point plan - and beyond Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 19p.; ill.; Cover title; "June 1997"; "Reprint September 1998"; [Washington, D.C.]: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1999 Title: Making the ESA work better: implementing the 10 point plan - and beyond Year: 1998, 2006, 2005 19p.; ill.; Cover title; "June 1997"; "Reprint September 1998"; [Washington, D.C.]: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 1999 Close

• 71. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker

  	The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes to designate critical habitat for the Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris), two species federally listed ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes to designate critical habitat for the Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris), two species federally listed as endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973. as amended (Act). Both species are large, long-lived fish endemic to the Upper Klamath River Basin of Oregon and California. The proposed designation includes a total of approximately 182,400 hectares (456,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the shortnose sucker and approximately 170,000 hectares (424,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the Lost River sucker. This proposed critical habitat designation would result in additional review requirements under section 7 of the Act with regard to Federal agency actions. Section 4 of the Act requires the Service to consider economic costs and benefits prior to making a final decision on the size and scope of critical habitat Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Year: 1994, 2008, 2005 The Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes to designate critical habitat for the Lost River sucker {Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris), two species federally listed as endangered pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973. as amended (Act). Both species are large, long-lived fish endemic to the Upper Klamath River Basin of Oregon and California. The proposed designation includes a total of approximately 182,400 hectares (456,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the shortnose sucker and approximately 170,000 hectares (424,000 acres) of stream, river, lake, and shoreline areas as critical habitat for the Lost River sucker. This proposed critical habitat designation would result in additional review requirements under section 7 of the Act with regard to Federal agency actions. Section 4 of the Act requires the Service to consider economic costs and benefits prior to making a final decision on the size and scope of critical habitat Close

• 72. [Image] Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999

  	"December 10, 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Title: Defining and evaluating recovery of OCN coho salmon stocks : implications for rebuilding stocks under the Oregon Plan : summary of a workshop organized by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team, August 4-5, 1999 Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) Year: 1999, 2005 "December 10, 1999." Close

• 73. [Image] Gerber-Willow Valley Watershed Analysis

  	x, 386 p., ill., maps (some col.); Cover title; "July 2003"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Gerber-Willow Valley Watershed Analysis Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Klamath Falls Resource Area Office; U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; Fremont-Winema National Forests; Modoc National Forest Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 x, 386 p., ill., maps (some col.); Cover title; "July 2003" Title: Gerber-Willow Valley Watershed Analysis Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Klamath Falls Resource Area Office; U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; Fremont-Winema National Forests; Modoc National Forest Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 x, 386 p., ill., maps (some col.); Cover title; "July 2003" Close

• 74. [Image] Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005

  	iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Close

• 75. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Review of Native Species That are Candidates or Proposed for Listing as Endangered or Threatened

  	In this Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR), we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), present an updated list of plant and animal species native to the United States that we regard as candidates ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Review of Native Species That are Candidates or Proposed for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Year: 2005, 2008 In this Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR), we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), present an updated list of plant and animal species native to the United States that we regard as candidates or have proposed for addition to the Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. Identification of candidate species can assist environmental planning efforts by providing advance notice of potential listings, allowing resource managers to alleviate threats and thereby possibly remove the need to list species as endangered or threatened. Even if we subsequently list a candidate species, the early notice provided here could result in more options for species management and recovery by prompting candidate conservation measures to alleviate threats to the species. Additional material that we relied on is available in the Species Assessment and Listing Priority Assignment Forms (species assessment forms, previously called candidate forms) for each candidate species. We request additional status information that may be available for the 286 candidate species. We will consider this information in preparing listing documents and future revisions to the notice of review, as it will help us in monitoring changes in the status of candidate species and in management for conserving them. Previous Notices of Review The Act directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on endangered and threatened plant species, which was published as House Document No. 94-51 Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Review of Native Species That are Candidates or Proposed for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Year: 2005, 2008 In this Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR), we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), present an updated list of plant and animal species native to the United States that we regard as candidates or have proposed for addition to the Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. Identification of candidate species can assist environmental planning efforts by providing advance notice of potential listings, allowing resource managers to alleviate threats and thereby possibly remove the need to list species as endangered or threatened. Even if we subsequently list a candidate species, the early notice provided here could result in more options for species management and recovery by prompting candidate conservation measures to alleviate threats to the species. Additional material that we relied on is available in the Species Assessment and Listing Priority Assignment Forms (species assessment forms, previously called candidate forms) for each candidate species. We request additional status information that may be available for the 286 candidate species. We will consider this information in preparing listing documents and future revisions to the notice of review, as it will help us in monitoring changes in the status of candidate species and in management for conserving them. Previous Notices of Review The Act directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on endangered and threatened plant species, which was published as House Document No. 94-51 Close

• 76. [Image] Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998

  	ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998 Author: Campbell, S. G Year: 2001, 2007, 2005 ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs. Title: Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998 Author: Campbell, S. G Year: 2001, 2007, 2005 ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs. Close

• 77. [Image] Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission

  	"February 2004."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "February 2004." Title: Recovery strategy for California Coho salmon : report to the California Fish and Game Commission Author: California. Dept. of Fish and Game Year: 2004, 2005 "February 2004." Close

• 78. [Image] Draft upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments. Volume 2 - Appendices

  	"BLM/OR/WA/PL-02/038+1792"--P. [2] of cover; Cover title; Includes bibliographical references (v. 2, p. 219-228) and index
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Draft upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments. Volume 2 - Appendices Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2003, 2004 "BLM/OR/WA/PL-02/038+1792"--P. [2] of cover; Cover title; Includes bibliographical references (v. 2, p. 219-228) and index Title: Draft upper Klamath River management plan environmental impact statement and resource management plan amendments. Volume 2 - Appendices Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 2003, 2004 "BLM/OR/WA/PL-02/038+1792"--P. [2] of cover; Cover title; Includes bibliographical references (v. 2, p. 219-228) and index Close

• 79. [Image] Annual program summary 2004

  	Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Table of Contents ANNUAL PROGRAM SUMMARY 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Summary of Accomplishments 3 3.0 Budget and Employment 6 4.0 Land ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Annual program summary 2004 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office District Year: 2005 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Table of Contents ANNUAL PROGRAM SUMMARY 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Summary of Accomplishments 3 3.0 Budget and Employment 6 4.0 Land Use Allocations within the Klamath Falls Resource Area 6 Late-Successional Reserves and Assessments 8 Matrix 8 5.0 Aquatic Conservation Strategy 9 Riparian Reserves 9 Watershed Analysis and Key Watersheds 9 Watershed Restoration 10 Roads 10 Riparian Habitat Enhancement 10 Stream Restoration 11 6.0 Air Quality 11 7.0 Water and Soils 11 Water - Project Implementation 11 Soils - Project Implementation 12 Water - Inventory and Monitoring 12 Soils -Inventory and Monitoring 13 State-listed Clean Water Act 303d Streams 13 RMP Best Management Practices 13 8.0 Terrestrial Species and Habitat Management 14 Survey and Manage Species 14 Threatened/Endangered Species 14 Northern Spotted Owl 14 Bald Eagle 14 Special Status Species-Animals 15 Peregrine Falcon 15 Yellow Rails 15 Bats 15 Northern Goshawk 15 Oregon Spotted Frog 15 Sage Grouse 16 vii Klamath Falls Resource Area Mollusks 16 Great Gray Owl 16 Special Status Species - Plants 16 Other Species of Concern 17 Neotropical Migratory Landbirds 17 Terrestrial Habitat Management 17 Nest Sites, Activity Centers, and Rookeries 17 Big Game Habitat 19 9.0 Aquatic Species and Habitat Management 19 Threatened/Endangered Species 19 Lost River and Shortnose Suckers 19 Bull Trout 20 Endangered Species Act Consultation 20 Aquatic Habitat Restoration 20 Klamath River Hydroelectric Facility Relicensing 21 10.0 Pathogen, Disease, and Pest Management 21 11.0 Weed Management 22 Inventories 22 Control 22 12.0 Special Areas/Management 23 Wild and Scenic Rivers 23 Wilderness 23 Areas of Critical Environmental Concern 23 Tunnel Creek Special Botanical Area 24 Klamath Canyon ACEC 24 Old Baldy Research Natural Area 24 Wood River Wetland ACEC 24 Environmental Education Areas 25 13.0 Cultural Resources 26 14.0 Visual Resources 26 15.0 Rural Interface Areas 26 16.0 Socioeconomic Conditions 27 Jobs-in-the-Woods 28 17.0 Environmental Justice 30 18.0 Recreation 30 Recreation Pipeline Restoration Funds 30 Recreation Projects 31 viii Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Recreation Fee Demonstration Project 31 Status of Recreation Plans 32 Volunteer Activities 32 Tourism 33 19.0 Forest Management and Timber Resources 33 Silvicultural Prescriptions 33 Timber Sale Planning 34 FY 2004 Timber Sale Accomplishments 34 Status of Sold & Awarded Klamath Falls RMP Timber Sales 35 Forest Development Activities 39 Stewardship Contracting 42 20.0 Special Forest Products 42 21.0 Energy and Minerals 43 22.0 Land Tenure Adjustments 44 23.0 Access and Rights-of-Way 45 24.0 Transportation and Roads 45 25.0 Hazardous Materials 46 26.0 Wildfire/Fuels Management 46 27.0 Law Enforcement 47 28.0 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 48 Fiscal Year 2004 Summary 49 Fiscal Years 1996-2004 Summary 50 Wild Horse Management 51 29.0 Cadastral Survey 52 30.0 Education and Outreach 52 31.0 Research 56 32.0 Coordination and Consultation 58 Federal Agencies 58 State of Oregon 58 Counties 59 Cities 59 Tribes 59 IX Klamath Falls Resource Area Watershed Councils 59 Chartered Advisory Groups 60 Other Local Coordination and Cooperation 61 33.0 National Environmental Policy Act Analysis and Documentation 63 NEPA documentation 63 Klamath Falls Resource Area Environmental Documentation 63 Protests and Appeals 63 34.0 Plan Evaluations 64 Third Year Evaluation 64 Eighth Year Evaluation 64 35.0 Plan Maintenance 65 36.0 Plan Amendments 72 Plan Revision 76 MONITORING REPORT Introduction 79 All Land Use Allocations 83 Late-Successional Reserves 86 Matrix 88 Riparian Reserves 92 Air Quality 95 Water and Soils 96 Terrestrial Species Habitat 101 Special Status and SEIS Special Attention Species Habitat 106 Aquatic Species Habitat 110 Noxious Weeds 112 Special Areas 113 Wild and Scenic Rivers 115 Cultural Resources Including American Indian Values 116 Visual Resources 118 Rural Interface Areas 119 Socioeconomic Conditions 120 Recreation 121 Forest Management and Timber Resources 121 Special Forest/Natural Products 122 Wildfire / Fuels Management 124 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 124 GLOSSARY/ACRONYMS 129 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 List of Tables Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments 4 Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments (Cont.).5 Table 3.1 - Resource Area Budget Fiscal Year 2004 6 Table 4.1 - Land Use Allocation 8 Table 5.1 - Watershed Analysis Schedule 10 Table 5.2-Watershed Analysis Status Fiscal Year 2004 10 Table 6.1 -Air Quality Management Fiscal Year 2004 11 Table 7.1 - Watershed Activity Fiscal Year 2004 12 Table 7.2 - KFRA Clean Water Act 303(d) Water Bodies 13 Table 8.1a - BLM /KFRA Special Status Species Designations Summary -Animals 18 Table 8.1b - BLM (KFRA) Special Status Species Designations Summary - Plants 18 Table 8.2 - Terrestrial Habitat Monitoring Fiscal Year 2004 18 Table 8.3 - Monitoring for Nest Sites, Activity Centers, Rookeries, Special Habitats 18 Table 9.1 -Aquatic Habitat/ Fish Passage Management Fiscal Year 2004 19 Table 11.1 - Managed Weed Species 20 Table 12.1 - Special Management Areas 25 Table 13.1 - Cultural Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 26 Table 16.1 - Total Payments in Lieu of Taxes and Acres by County for FY 2004 28 Table 16.2 - O&C Payments To Counties FY 2004 29 Table 16.3 - Jobs in the Woods Program Fiscal Year 2004 29 Table 18.1 - Recreation Statistics Fiscal Year 2004 30 Table 18.2 - Recreation Fee Demonstration Project Fiscal Year 2004 32 Table 19.1 - Klamath Falls Timber Sale Volume (MBF) and Acres FY 2004 35 Table 19.2-Timber Volume Sold in FY 2004 36 Table 19.3 - Harvest Activity for FY 2004 36 Table 19.4 - Planned Timber Sales (FY 2005 & 2006) 36 Table 19.5 - Status of Sold and Awarded Timber Sales 37 Table 19.6 - Summary of Volume Sold 38 Table 19.7 -Volume and Acres Sold by Allocations 38 Table 19.8 - Timber Sales Sold by Harvest Types 38 Table 19.9 - Timber Sale Acres Sold by Age Class 39 Table 19.10 - Forest Development Activities 41 Table 20.1 - Special Forest Products Fiscal Year 2004 43 Table 21.1 - Energy and Minerals Management Fiscal Year 2004 44 Table 22.1 - Land Use Tenure Adjustments Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 24.1 - Roads and Transportation Management Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 25.1 - Hazardous Materials Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 26.1 - Fire and Fuels Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 27.1 - Law Enforcement Fiscal Year 2004 47 Table 28.1 - Range Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 48 Table 29.1 -Cadastral Survey Summary Fiscal Year 2004 52 Table 30.1 - Environmental Education/Outreach Program Summary FY2004 54 Table 30.2 - Environmental Education/Outreach Special Events FY2004 55 Table 30.3 - Environmental Education/Outreach Programs & Tours FY 2004 56 Table 32.1 - Challenge Cost Share Fiscal Year 2004 62 XI Klamath Falls Resource Area Table 33.1 - NEPA Analyses and Documentation Fiscal Year 2004 64 Table 36.1 - Redefined Survey and Manage Categories 74 Table M.I - Projects Monitored FY 2004 80 Table M-2 - FY 2004 Implementation Monitoring Selection Categories 81 Table M-3 - Comparison of Projected vs. Actual Harvest Volume (MMBF)/Acres to Date 82 Table M-4 - Timber Sale Volume and Acres Offered (Entire Resource Area) 83 Table M-5 - Timber Sale Monitoring Summary 89 Table M-6 - Post Treatment Stand Characteristics for West Grenada Timber Sale - FY 2004 90 Table M-7 - Status of Watershed Analysis 98 List of Figures Figure 1 - General Location Map 2 Figure 2 - KFRA Land Allocations 7 Xll Title: Annual program summary 2004 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office District Year: 2005 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Table of Contents ANNUAL PROGRAM SUMMARY 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Summary of Accomplishments 3 3.0 Budget and Employment 6 4.0 Land Use Allocations within the Klamath Falls Resource Area 6 Late-Successional Reserves and Assessments 8 Matrix 8 5.0 Aquatic Conservation Strategy 9 Riparian Reserves 9 Watershed Analysis and Key Watersheds 9 Watershed Restoration 10 Roads 10 Riparian Habitat Enhancement 10 Stream Restoration 11 6.0 Air Quality 11 7.0 Water and Soils 11 Water - Project Implementation 11 Soils - Project Implementation 12 Water - Inventory and Monitoring 12 Soils -Inventory and Monitoring 13 State-listed Clean Water Act 303d Streams 13 RMP Best Management Practices 13 8.0 Terrestrial Species and Habitat Management 14 Survey and Manage Species 14 Threatened/Endangered Species 14 Northern Spotted Owl 14 Bald Eagle 14 Special Status Species-Animals 15 Peregrine Falcon 15 Yellow Rails 15 Bats 15 Northern Goshawk 15 Oregon Spotted Frog 15 Sage Grouse 16 vii Klamath Falls Resource Area Mollusks 16 Great Gray Owl 16 Special Status Species - Plants 16 Other Species of Concern 17 Neotropical Migratory Landbirds 17 Terrestrial Habitat Management 17 Nest Sites, Activity Centers, and Rookeries 17 Big Game Habitat 19 9.0 Aquatic Species and Habitat Management 19 Threatened/Endangered Species 19 Lost River and Shortnose Suckers 19 Bull Trout 20 Endangered Species Act Consultation 20 Aquatic Habitat Restoration 20 Klamath River Hydroelectric Facility Relicensing 21 10.0 Pathogen, Disease, and Pest Management 21 11.0 Weed Management 22 Inventories 22 Control 22 12.0 Special Areas/Management 23 Wild and Scenic Rivers 23 Wilderness 23 Areas of Critical Environmental Concern 23 Tunnel Creek Special Botanical Area 24 Klamath Canyon ACEC 24 Old Baldy Research Natural Area 24 Wood River Wetland ACEC 24 Environmental Education Areas 25 13.0 Cultural Resources 26 14.0 Visual Resources 26 15.0 Rural Interface Areas 26 16.0 Socioeconomic Conditions 27 Jobs-in-the-Woods 28 17.0 Environmental Justice 30 18.0 Recreation 30 Recreation Pipeline Restoration Funds 30 Recreation Projects 31 viii Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 Recreation Fee Demonstration Project 31 Status of Recreation Plans 32 Volunteer Activities 32 Tourism 33 19.0 Forest Management and Timber Resources 33 Silvicultural Prescriptions 33 Timber Sale Planning 34 FY 2004 Timber Sale Accomplishments 34 Status of Sold & Awarded Klamath Falls RMP Timber Sales 35 Forest Development Activities 39 Stewardship Contracting 42 20.0 Special Forest Products 42 21.0 Energy and Minerals 43 22.0 Land Tenure Adjustments 44 23.0 Access and Rights-of-Way 45 24.0 Transportation and Roads 45 25.0 Hazardous Materials 46 26.0 Wildfire/Fuels Management 46 27.0 Law Enforcement 47 28.0 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 48 Fiscal Year 2004 Summary 49 Fiscal Years 1996-2004 Summary 50 Wild Horse Management 51 29.0 Cadastral Survey 52 30.0 Education and Outreach 52 31.0 Research 56 32.0 Coordination and Consultation 58 Federal Agencies 58 State of Oregon 58 Counties 59 Cities 59 Tribes 59 IX Klamath Falls Resource Area Watershed Councils 59 Chartered Advisory Groups 60 Other Local Coordination and Cooperation 61 33.0 National Environmental Policy Act Analysis and Documentation 63 NEPA documentation 63 Klamath Falls Resource Area Environmental Documentation 63 Protests and Appeals 63 34.0 Plan Evaluations 64 Third Year Evaluation 64 Eighth Year Evaluation 64 35.0 Plan Maintenance 65 36.0 Plan Amendments 72 Plan Revision 76 MONITORING REPORT Introduction 79 All Land Use Allocations 83 Late-Successional Reserves 86 Matrix 88 Riparian Reserves 92 Air Quality 95 Water and Soils 96 Terrestrial Species Habitat 101 Special Status and SEIS Special Attention Species Habitat 106 Aquatic Species Habitat 110 Noxious Weeds 112 Special Areas 113 Wild and Scenic Rivers 115 Cultural Resources Including American Indian Values 116 Visual Resources 118 Rural Interface Areas 119 Socioeconomic Conditions 120 Recreation 121 Forest Management and Timber Resources 121 Special Forest/Natural Products 122 Wildfire / Fuels Management 124 Rangeland Resources / Grazing Management 124 GLOSSARY/ACRONYMS 129 Annual Program Summary and Monitoring Report - FY2004 List of Tables Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments 4 Table 2.1 - Summary of Resource Management Actions, Directions, and Accomplishments (Cont.).5 Table 3.1 - Resource Area Budget Fiscal Year 2004 6 Table 4.1 - Land Use Allocation 8 Table 5.1 - Watershed Analysis Schedule 10 Table 5.2-Watershed Analysis Status Fiscal Year 2004 10 Table 6.1 -Air Quality Management Fiscal Year 2004 11 Table 7.1 - Watershed Activity Fiscal Year 2004 12 Table 7.2 - KFRA Clean Water Act 303(d) Water Bodies 13 Table 8.1a - BLM /KFRA Special Status Species Designations Summary -Animals 18 Table 8.1b - BLM (KFRA) Special Status Species Designations Summary - Plants 18 Table 8.2 - Terrestrial Habitat Monitoring Fiscal Year 2004 18 Table 8.3 - Monitoring for Nest Sites, Activity Centers, Rookeries, Special Habitats 18 Table 9.1 -Aquatic Habitat/ Fish Passage Management Fiscal Year 2004 19 Table 11.1 - Managed Weed Species 20 Table 12.1 - Special Management Areas 25 Table 13.1 - Cultural Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 26 Table 16.1 - Total Payments in Lieu of Taxes and Acres by County for FY 2004 28 Table 16.2 - O&C Payments To Counties FY 2004 29 Table 16.3 - Jobs in the Woods Program Fiscal Year 2004 29 Table 18.1 - Recreation Statistics Fiscal Year 2004 30 Table 18.2 - Recreation Fee Demonstration Project Fiscal Year 2004 32 Table 19.1 - Klamath Falls Timber Sale Volume (MBF) and Acres FY 2004 35 Table 19.2-Timber Volume Sold in FY 2004 36 Table 19.3 - Harvest Activity for FY 2004 36 Table 19.4 - Planned Timber Sales (FY 2005 & 2006) 36 Table 19.5 - Status of Sold and Awarded Timber Sales 37 Table 19.6 - Summary of Volume Sold 38 Table 19.7 -Volume and Acres Sold by Allocations 38 Table 19.8 - Timber Sales Sold by Harvest Types 38 Table 19.9 - Timber Sale Acres Sold by Age Class 39 Table 19.10 - Forest Development Activities 41 Table 20.1 - Special Forest Products Fiscal Year 2004 43 Table 21.1 - Energy and Minerals Management Fiscal Year 2004 44 Table 22.1 - Land Use Tenure Adjustments Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 24.1 - Roads and Transportation Management Fiscal Year 2004 45 Table 25.1 - Hazardous Materials Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 26.1 - Fire and Fuels Management Fiscal Year 2004 46 Table 27.1 - Law Enforcement Fiscal Year 2004 47 Table 28.1 - Range Resources Management Fiscal Year 2004 48 Table 29.1 -Cadastral Survey Summary Fiscal Year 2004 52 Table 30.1 - Environmental Education/Outreach Program Summary FY2004 54 Table 30.2 - Environmental Education/Outreach Special Events FY2004 55 Table 30.3 - Environmental Education/Outreach Programs & Tours FY 2004 56 Table 32.1 - Challenge Cost Share Fiscal Year 2004 62 XI Klamath Falls Resource Area Table 33.1 - NEPA Analyses and Documentation Fiscal Year 2004 64 Table 36.1 - Redefined Survey and Manage Categories 74 Table M.I - Projects Monitored FY 2004 80 Table M-2 - FY 2004 Implementation Monitoring Selection Categories 81 Table M-3 - Comparison of Projected vs. Actual Harvest Volume (MMBF)/Acres to Date 82 Table M-4 - Timber Sale Volume and Acres Offered (Entire Resource Area) 83 Table M-5 - Timber Sale Monitoring Summary 89 Table M-6 - Post Treatment Stand Characteristics for West Grenada Timber Sale - FY 2004 90 Table M-7 - Status of Watershed Analysis 98 List of Figures Figure 1 - General Location Map 2 Figure 2 - KFRA Land Allocations 7 Xll Close

• 80. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status of the Shortnose Sucker and the Lost River Sucker

  	The Service determines endangered status for the shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus), fishes restricted to the Klamath Basin of south-central Oregon and ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status of the Shortnose Sucker and the Lost River Sucker Author: Williams, Jack E. Year: 1988, 2008, 2005 The Service determines endangered status for the shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus), fishes restricted to the Klamath Basin of south-central Oregon and north-central California. Dams, draining of marshes, diversion of rivers and dredging of lakes have reduced the range and numbers of both species by more than 95 percent. Remaining populations are composed of older individuals with little or no successful recruitment for many years. Both species are jeopardized by continued loss of habitat, hybridization with more common closely related species, competition and predation by exotic species, and insularization of remaining habitats. This rule implements the protection provided by the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, for the shortnose sucker and Lost River sucker Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status of the Shortnose Sucker and the Lost River Sucker Author: Williams, Jack E. Year: 1988, 2008, 2005 The Service determines endangered status for the shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus), fishes restricted to the Klamath Basin of south-central Oregon and north-central California. Dams, draining of marshes, diversion of rivers and dredging of lakes have reduced the range and numbers of both species by more than 95 percent. Remaining populations are composed of older individuals with little or no successful recruitment for many years. Both species are jeopardized by continued loss of habitat, hybridization with more common closely related species, competition and predation by exotic species, and insularization of remaining habitats. This rule implements the protection provided by the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, for the shortnose sucker and Lost River sucker Close

• 81. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of Revised 90-Day Petition Finding and Initiation of a 5-Year Status Review of the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker

  	We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), announce a revised 90-day finding for a petition to remove the Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) throughout ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of Revised 90-Day Petition Finding and Initiation of a 5-Year Status Review of the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Author: Larsen, Ron Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), announce a revised 90-day finding for a petition to remove the Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) throughout their ranges from the Federal List of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife and Plants (List), pursuant to the Endangered Species Act (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). We find that the petition does not present substantial scientific or commercial information indicating that delisting of the Lost River and shortnose suckers may be warranted. As a result of the 1995, 1996, and 1997 fish die-offs, the endangered suckers experienced significant losses of thousands of adult suckers and have not recovered. Although the petition and information in our files do not provide new information relevant to the status of the Lost River and shortnose suckers, we are initiating a 5-year review of these species under section 4(c)(2)(A) of the Act to consider any new information that has become available as a result of recent actions to reduce threats to the species, and to provide the States, tribes, agencies, university researchers, and the public an opportunity to provide information on the status of the species. We are requesting any new information on the Lost River and shortnose suckers since their original listing as endangered species in 1988 (53 FR 27130) Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Notice of Revised 90-Day Petition Finding and Initiation of a 5-Year Status Review of the Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker Author: Larsen, Ron Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), announce a revised 90-day finding for a petition to remove the Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus) and shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) throughout their ranges from the Federal List of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife and Plants (List), pursuant to the Endangered Species Act (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). We find that the petition does not present substantial scientific or commercial information indicating that delisting of the Lost River and shortnose suckers may be warranted. As a result of the 1995, 1996, and 1997 fish die-offs, the endangered suckers experienced significant losses of thousands of adult suckers and have not recovered. Although the petition and information in our files do not provide new information relevant to the status of the Lost River and shortnose suckers, we are initiating a 5-year review of these species under section 4(c)(2)(A) of the Act to consider any new information that has become available as a result of recent actions to reduce threats to the species, and to provide the States, tribes, agencies, university researchers, and the public an opportunity to provide information on the status of the species. We are requesting any new information on the Lost River and shortnose suckers since their original listing as endangered species in 1988 (53 FR 27130) Close

• 82. [Image] Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status

  	EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status Author: Buchanan, David V; Hanson, Mary L; Hooton, Robert M Year: 1997, 2007, 2005 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River systems. No bull trout have been observed in Oregon's coastal systems. A total of 69 bull trout populations in 12 basins are currently identified in Oregon. A comparison of the 1991 bull trout status (Ratliff and Ho well 1992) to the revised 1996 status found that 7 populations were newly discovered and 1 population showed a positive or upgraded status while 22 populations showed a negative or downgraded status. The general downgrading of 32% of Oregon's bull trout populations appears largely due to increased survey efforts and increased survey accuracy rather than reduced numbers or distribution. However, three populations in the upper Klamath Basin, two in the Walla Walla Basin, and one in the Willamette Basin showed decreases in estimated population abundance or distribution. Some Oregon river basins have bull trout populations at extreme risk of extinction. This statewide status review listed only 19% of the bull trout populations in Oregon with a ulow risk of extinction" or "of special concern." Therefore, 81% of Oregon's bull trout populations are considered to be at a "moderate risk of extinction," "high risk of extinction," or "probably extinct." Populations in the Hood, Klamath, and Powder basins, as well as the Odell Lake population in the Deschutes basin, which contain only a few remaining bull trout, are examples of populations having a "moderate" or "high risk" of extinction. Approximately 55% of current bull trout distribution occurs on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. A much smaller proportion occurs on Bureau of Land Management managed lands (2%). Only 16% of current bull trout distribution occurs within a protected area defined as Wilderness, Wild and Scenic River, or within a National Park. The Northwest Forest Plan, Inland Native Fish Strategy, and Interim Strategies for Managing Anadromous Fish-producing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of California have provided increased protection for bull trout habitat depending on their scope and geographic areas affected, and the extent to which they are being effectively implemented in watersheds containing bull trout. Recent reduction in timber production on National Forests (up to 50% in western Oregon National Forests and over 30% in eastern Oregon National Forests) should help improve riparian and stream habitat conditions for bull trout. The remaining bull trout distribution occurs on private, state, or tribal owned lands. A comparison of approximately 39 locations throughout the state with protective angling regulations on bull trout (in some areas more than one bull trout population is protected by one regulation) shows that all state managed areas were upgraded in a protective angling status or at least maintained in 1996 compared to 1989. Restrictive angling regulations prohibit angler harvest of all bull trout populations in Oregon except for one in the Deschutes Basin. Restrictive bull trout angling regulation changes (including the elimination of bull Vll trout harvest in all spawning areas) may be the major reasons why the Metolius River/Lake Billy Chinook and mainstem McKenzie River populations have shown significant increases in abundance. Statewide stocking of non-native brook trout, including the high lakes stocking program, has been discontinued in locations where managers believe brook trout could migrate downstream and potentially interact with native bull trout. Hatchery stocking of legal rainbow trout to promote recreational fisheries has been discontinued in most locations near bull trout populations to avoid incidental catch of bull trout. The spatial and temporal distributions of bull trout reported for each river basin in this status report should be used as an accurate baseline for fisheries managers. Current distribution and relative change of distribution should be useful indicators of population health and status. The GIS maps in this report provide a template to add new layers of data such as critical spawning and juvenile rearing areas, or as a method to compare distribution changes through time. Length frequency data are presented for most Oregon bull trout populations. This should provide estimates for the presence of multiple age classes and the percent of fluvial size life history component. Vlll Title: Status of Oregon's bull trout : distribution, life history, limiting factors, management considerations, and status Author: Buchanan, David V; Hanson, Mary L; Hooton, Robert M Year: 1997, 2007, 2005 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Limited historical references indicate that bull trout Salvelinus confluentus in Oregon were once widely spread throughout at least 12 basins in the Klamath River and Columbia River systems. No bull trout have been observed in Oregon's coastal systems. A total of 69 bull trout populations in 12 basins are currently identified in Oregon. A comparison of the 1991 bull trout status (Ratliff and Ho well 1992) to the revised 1996 status found that 7 populations were newly discovered and 1 population showed a positive or upgraded status while 22 populations showed a negative or downgraded status. The general downgrading of 32% of Oregon's bull trout populations appears largely due to increased survey efforts and increased survey accuracy rather than reduced numbers or distribution. However, three populations in the upper Klamath Basin, two in the Walla Walla Basin, and one in the Willamette Basin showed decreases in estimated population abundance or distribution. Some Oregon river basins have bull trout populations at extreme risk of extinction. This statewide status review listed only 19% of the bull trout populations in Oregon with a ulow risk of extinction" or "of special concern." Therefore, 81% of Oregon's bull trout populations are considered to be at a "moderate risk of extinction," "high risk of extinction," or "probably extinct." Populations in the Hood, Klamath, and Powder basins, as well as the Odell Lake population in the Deschutes basin, which contain only a few remaining bull trout, are examples of populations having a "moderate" or "high risk" of extinction. Approximately 55% of current bull trout distribution occurs on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. A much smaller proportion occurs on Bureau of Land Management managed lands (2%). Only 16% of current bull trout distribution occurs within a protected area defined as Wilderness, Wild and Scenic River, or within a National Park. The Northwest Forest Plan, Inland Native Fish Strategy, and Interim Strategies for Managing Anadromous Fish-producing Watersheds in Eastern Oregon and Washington, Idaho, and Portions of California have provided increased protection for bull trout habitat depending on their scope and geographic areas affected, and the extent to which they are being effectively implemented in watersheds containing bull trout. Recent reduction in timber production on National Forests (up to 50% in western Oregon National Forests and over 30% in eastern Oregon National Forests) should help improve riparian and stream habitat conditions for bull trout. The remaining bull trout distribution occurs on private, state, or tribal owned lands. A comparison of approximately 39 locations throughout the state with protective angling regulations on bull trout (in some areas more than one bull trout population is protected by one regulation) shows that all state managed areas were upgraded in a protective angling status or at least maintained in 1996 compared to 1989. Restrictive angling regulations prohibit angler harvest of all bull trout populations in Oregon except for one in the Deschutes Basin. Restrictive bull trout angling regulation changes (including the elimination of bull Vll trout harvest in all spawning areas) may be the major reasons why the Metolius River/Lake Billy Chinook and mainstem McKenzie River populations have shown significant increases in abundance. Statewide stocking of non-native brook trout, including the high lakes stocking program, has been discontinued in locations where managers believe brook trout could migrate downstream and potentially interact with native bull trout. Hatchery stocking of legal rainbow trout to promote recreational fisheries has been discontinued in most locations near bull trout populations to avoid incidental catch of bull trout. The spatial and temporal distributions of bull trout reported for each river basin in this status report should be used as an accurate baseline for fisheries managers. Current distribution and relative change of distribution should be useful indicators of population health and status. The GIS maps in this report provide a template to add new layers of data such as critical spawning and juvenile rearing areas, or as a method to compare distribution changes through time. Length frequency data are presented for most Oregon bull trout populations. This should provide estimates for the presence of multiple age classes and the percent of fluvial size life history component. Vlll Close

• 83. [Image] Land use and vegetation community changes at Beswick Ranch, Klamath River Canyon, California from 1955 to 2003 : focus on relationship between the irrigation and the vegetation and the land use cover

  	Humans have altered the Klamath River Canyon in many ways. This study focuses on the years from 1955 to 2003. One substantial alteration is the conversion of terraces into irrigated pastures for agriculture ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Land use and vegetation community changes at Beswick Ranch, Klamath River Canyon, California from 1955 to 2003 : focus on relationship between the irrigation and the vegetation and the land use cover Author: Bilka, Monika N. Year: 2002, 2005 Humans have altered the Klamath River Canyon in many ways. This study focuses on the years from 1955 to 2003. One substantial alteration is the conversion of terraces into irrigated pastures for agriculture and cattle ranching. This research project explains the relationships between the irrigation network and the vegetation and land use cover patterns that existed in the past and that exist today at Beswick Ranch. Data sources such as aerial photographs, maps, and other historical information are used to create Geographic Information System (GIS) maps and models of the area. Due to time constraints, the final maps and models are not complete at this time. However, the completed models were synthesized with observational data to come to preliminary conclusions. While the ditches of Shovel Creek Pasture have undergone little to no change at all since 1955, ranchers have added ditches to Faye Pasture. Ranch workers have also increased the amount of agricultural land use cover and decreased in tree cover of Faye Pasture. Conversely, ranchers increased the tree cover and non-agricultural land cover, and they have decreased the agricultural cover. The GIS coverages of Shovel Pasture remain in the preliminary stage, and further analyses of the calculated areas of land use cover and ditch lengths are needed to complete this study. In partnership with PacifiCorp and the BLM, this project aims to provide information about the impacts of the current and historical irrigation systems used on the pastures and riparian zones within this reach of the Klamath River Canyon from 1955 to 2003. Even at this stage, the preliminary coverages provide insight into the relationships between irrigation, vegetation communities, and land use cover that have occurred during the study period. Title: Land use and vegetation community changes at Beswick Ranch, Klamath River Canyon, California from 1955 to 2003 : focus on relationship between the irrigation and the vegetation and the land use cover Author: Bilka, Monika N. Year: 2002, 2005 Humans have altered the Klamath River Canyon in many ways. This study focuses on the years from 1955 to 2003. One substantial alteration is the conversion of terraces into irrigated pastures for agriculture and cattle ranching. This research project explains the relationships between the irrigation network and the vegetation and land use cover patterns that existed in the past and that exist today at Beswick Ranch. Data sources such as aerial photographs, maps, and other historical information are used to create Geographic Information System (GIS) maps and models of the area. Due to time constraints, the final maps and models are not complete at this time. However, the completed models were synthesized with observational data to come to preliminary conclusions. While the ditches of Shovel Creek Pasture have undergone little to no change at all since 1955, ranchers have added ditches to Faye Pasture. Ranch workers have also increased the amount of agricultural land use cover and decreased in tree cover of Faye Pasture. Conversely, ranchers increased the tree cover and non-agricultural land cover, and they have decreased the agricultural cover. The GIS coverages of Shovel Pasture remain in the preliminary stage, and further analyses of the calculated areas of land use cover and ditch lengths are needed to complete this study. In partnership with PacifiCorp and the BLM, this project aims to provide information about the impacts of the current and historical irrigation systems used on the pastures and riparian zones within this reach of the Klamath River Canyon from 1955 to 2003. Even at this stage, the preliminary coverages provide insight into the relationships between irrigation, vegetation communities, and land use cover that have occurred during the study period. Close

• 84. [Image] Distribution and biology of suckers in Lower Klamath reservoirs : 1999 final report

  	Abstract The objectives of this two-year study (1998-1999) were to document distribution, abundance, age class structure, recruitment success, and habitat use by all life history stages of shortnose and ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution and biology of suckers in Lower Klamath reservoirs : 1999 final report Author: Desjardins, Marc; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2000, 2005 Abstract The objectives of this two-year study (1998-1999) were to document distribution, abundance, age class structure, recruitment success, and habitat use by all life history stages of shortnose and Lost River suckers in three lower Klamath River hydroelectric reservoirs (J. C. Boyle, Copco, and Iron Gate). Lost River sucker catches were sporadic (only 3 adult individuals total) and the focus of our analyses, therefore, shifted to shortnose suckers. Adult and larval suckers were found in all reservoirs both years. All life history stages (larvae, juveniles and adults) were found in J. C. Boyle during both years and in Copco in 1999. Juvenile suckers were not found in Copco in 1998. The number of adult shortnose suckers was highest in Copco reservoir (n=165), followed by J.C. Boyle (n=50) and Iron Gate (n=22). Larger and older individuals dominated Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs and little size structure was detected. J. C. Boyle tended to have smaller adult shortnose suckers and many size classes were present. Unidentifiable larval suckers were most abundant in Copco reservoir where historic spawning of shortnose suckers has been documented. Larval suckers in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were most abundant in mid to late June before quickly disappearing from catches. J. C. Boyle larval suckers peaked in mid July, attained larger sizes, and were caught later in the season. It appeared that recruitment of young-of-the-year suckers only occurred in J. C. Boyle with downstream reservoirs recruiting older individuals, perhaps those that had earlier recruited to J. C. Boyle. Tagging studies could clarify adult recruitment dynamics and an additional study of juvenile recruitment would be needed to confirm these patterns. Predation pressure may be somewhat reduced in J. C. Boyle in comparison to the other reservoirs as its fish community was dominated by native fishes while communities in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were dominated by exotic predators. J. C. Boyle also possessed proportionally more littoral habitat, which suggests it may provide a more stable environment for young fishes. However, our sampling was inadequate to demonstrate such relationships due to high variance in larval and juvenile catches and potentially confounding habitat variables. One such variable was water level fluctuations, which could interact with habitat and resource availability in complex ways. For example, water level fluctuations, presumed to have a negative impact, were greatest in J. C. Boyle. Extrapolation from the literature suggests it should have had the poorest habitat for larval and juvenile suckers, but our results indicated J. C. Boyle had the most young suckers. Additional study of the relationships between water level fluctuations, habitat availability, the exotic fish community, and juvenile sucker recruitment would be needed to better understand early life history ecology of endangered lake suckers in these systems. Title: Distribution and biology of suckers in Lower Klamath reservoirs : 1999 final report Author: Desjardins, Marc; Markle, Douglas F. Year: 2000, 2005 Abstract The objectives of this two-year study (1998-1999) were to document distribution, abundance, age class structure, recruitment success, and habitat use by all life history stages of shortnose and Lost River suckers in three lower Klamath River hydroelectric reservoirs (J. C. Boyle, Copco, and Iron Gate). Lost River sucker catches were sporadic (only 3 adult individuals total) and the focus of our analyses, therefore, shifted to shortnose suckers. Adult and larval suckers were found in all reservoirs both years. All life history stages (larvae, juveniles and adults) were found in J. C. Boyle during both years and in Copco in 1999. Juvenile suckers were not found in Copco in 1998. The number of adult shortnose suckers was highest in Copco reservoir (n=165), followed by J.C. Boyle (n=50) and Iron Gate (n=22). Larger and older individuals dominated Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs and little size structure was detected. J. C. Boyle tended to have smaller adult shortnose suckers and many size classes were present. Unidentifiable larval suckers were most abundant in Copco reservoir where historic spawning of shortnose suckers has been documented. Larval suckers in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were most abundant in mid to late June before quickly disappearing from catches. J. C. Boyle larval suckers peaked in mid July, attained larger sizes, and were caught later in the season. It appeared that recruitment of young-of-the-year suckers only occurred in J. C. Boyle with downstream reservoirs recruiting older individuals, perhaps those that had earlier recruited to J. C. Boyle. Tagging studies could clarify adult recruitment dynamics and an additional study of juvenile recruitment would be needed to confirm these patterns. Predation pressure may be somewhat reduced in J. C. Boyle in comparison to the other reservoirs as its fish community was dominated by native fishes while communities in Copco and Iron Gate reservoirs were dominated by exotic predators. J. C. Boyle also possessed proportionally more littoral habitat, which suggests it may provide a more stable environment for young fishes. However, our sampling was inadequate to demonstrate such relationships due to high variance in larval and juvenile catches and potentially confounding habitat variables. One such variable was water level fluctuations, which could interact with habitat and resource availability in complex ways. For example, water level fluctuations, presumed to have a negative impact, were greatest in J. C. Boyle. Extrapolation from the literature suggests it should have had the poorest habitat for larval and juvenile suckers, but our results indicated J. C. Boyle had the most young suckers. Additional study of the relationships between water level fluctuations, habitat availability, the exotic fish community, and juvenile sucker recruitment would be needed to better understand early life history ecology of endangered lake suckers in these systems. Close

• 85. [Image] Undepleted natural flow of the upper Klamath River : natural inflow to, natural losses from, and natural outfall of Upper Klamath Lake to the Link River and of Lower Klamath Lake to the Klamath River at Keno

  	A monthly natural flow history was determined for the 1949 to 2000 period at the Keno gage of the Upper Klamath River basin in south-central Oregon. Included within the evaluation is an assessment of natural ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Undepleted natural flow of the upper Klamath River : natural inflow to, natural losses from, and natural outfall of Upper Klamath Lake to the Link River and of Lower Klamath Lake to the Klamath River at Keno Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Denver Office. Technical Service Center Year: 2005, 2004 A monthly natural flow history was determined for the 1949 to 2000 period at the Keno gage of the Upper Klamath River basin in south-central Oregon. Included within the evaluation is an assessment of natural flows for the same period at the outfall of Upper Klamath Lake, which forms the head of the Link River at Klamath Falls, Oregon. Flow past the Link River gage is tributary to the Klamath River above Lower Klamath Lake. These natural flows were determined using standard and accepted methods. Records used in developing this analysis were derived from stream-gaging records and from climatic records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Information was also obtained from published maps and reports, and file documents of the Klamath Area Office. Currently, received comments are being addressed and evaluation of elements related to these comments is in progress. The objective of this report is to provide a representative estimate of the monthly natural flow of the Upper Klamath River. Such an estimate is of the natural flow that would typically have occurred without the water-resources developments in the Upper Klamath Basin. A water-budget assessment was used in the determination of the natural flows. The assessment includes results from an evaluation of present-day irrigation depletions, and losses from reclaimed marshland, that have changed the natural inflow to, and resulting natural outfall from, Upper Klamath Lake. Also evaluated were losses to the natural inflow that would have been incurred due to pre-development marshland and evaporation associated with Upper Klamath Lake. The natural outfall from the lake comprised the natural flow of the Link River at Klamath Falls and also the consequent natural inflow to Lower Klamath Lake. Therefore, a similar evaluation was also completed for Lower Klamath Lake to estimate the natural flow of the Klamath River at Keno. The water-budget assessment was designed to simulate each lake as a natural water body within a stream-connected two-lake system. Much of the assessment was completed using Excel. Title: Undepleted natural flow of the upper Klamath River : natural inflow to, natural losses from, and natural outfall of Upper Klamath Lake to the Link River and of Lower Klamath Lake to the Klamath River at Keno Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Denver Office. Technical Service Center Year: 2005, 2004 A monthly natural flow history was determined for the 1949 to 2000 period at the Keno gage of the Upper Klamath River basin in south-central Oregon. Included within the evaluation is an assessment of natural flows for the same period at the outfall of Upper Klamath Lake, which forms the head of the Link River at Klamath Falls, Oregon. Flow past the Link River gage is tributary to the Klamath River above Lower Klamath Lake. These natural flows were determined using standard and accepted methods. Records used in developing this analysis were derived from stream-gaging records and from climatic records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Information was also obtained from published maps and reports, and file documents of the Klamath Area Office. Currently, received comments are being addressed and evaluation of elements related to these comments is in progress. The objective of this report is to provide a representative estimate of the monthly natural flow of the Upper Klamath River. Such an estimate is of the natural flow that would typically have occurred without the water-resources developments in the Upper Klamath Basin. A water-budget assessment was used in the determination of the natural flows. The assessment includes results from an evaluation of present-day irrigation depletions, and losses from reclaimed marshland, that have changed the natural inflow to, and resulting natural outfall from, Upper Klamath Lake. Also evaluated were losses to the natural inflow that would have been incurred due to pre-development marshland and evaporation associated with Upper Klamath Lake. The natural outfall from the lake comprised the natural flow of the Link River at Klamath Falls and also the consequent natural inflow to Lower Klamath Lake. Therefore, a similar evaluation was also completed for Lower Klamath Lake to estimate the natural flow of the Klamath River at Keno. The water-budget assessment was designed to simulate each lake as a natural water body within a stream-connected two-lake system. Much of the assessment was completed using Excel. Close

• 86. [Image] Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout

  	We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). For the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout, the critical habitat designation includes approximately 1,748 miles (mi) (2,813 kilometers (km)) of streams and 61,235 acres (ac) (24,781 hectares (ha)) of lakes and marshes. We solicited data and comments from the public on all aspects of the proposed rule, including data on economic and other impacts of the designation Title: Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River Populations of Bull Trout Year: 2004, 2008, 2005 We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), designate critical habitat for the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout {Salvelinus confluentus) pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). For the Klamath River and Columbia River populations of bull trout, the critical habitat designation includes approximately 1,748 miles (mi) (2,813 kilometers (km)) of streams and 61,235 acres (ac) (24,781 hectares (ha)) of lakes and marshes. We solicited data and comments from the public on all aspects of the proposed rule, including data on economic and other impacts of the designation Close

• 87. [Image] Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment

  	"May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment Year: 2000, 2005 "May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, 821 SE 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 and US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Tribes, PacifiCorp, Cell Tech International; Includes bibliographic references (p. 60-66) Title: Williamson River delta restoration project : environmental assessment Year: 2000, 2005 "May 2000"; From cover: Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture/Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2316 South 6th Street, Suite C, Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601. In Partnership with The Nature Conservancy, 821 SE 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 and US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Tribes, PacifiCorp, Cell Tech International; Includes bibliographic references (p. 60-66) Close

• 88. [Image] Water quality monitoring : technical guide book

  	"July 1999."
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water quality monitoring : technical guide book Author: Oregon. Governor's Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "July 1999." Title: Water quality monitoring : technical guide book Author: Oregon. Governor's Watershed Enhancement Board Year: 1999, 2005, 2004 "July 1999." Close

• 89. [Image] Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan

  	"December 1990"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Close

• 90. [Image] Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin

  	"Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Braunworth, William S. Year: 2003, 2004 "Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html Title: Water allocation in the Klamath Reclamation Project, 2001 : an assessment of natural resource, economic, social, and institutional issues with a focus on the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Braunworth, William S. Year: 2003, 2004 "Reprinted May 2003."; Includes bibliographical references; Also available at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/agcomwebfile/edmat/html/sr/sr1037/sr1037.html Close

• 91. [Image] Natural flow of the upper Klamath River

  	Executive Summary Executive Summary This report presents details of the investigation and results in estimating the natural flow of the upper Klamath River at Keno, Oregon. The area investigated includes ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Natural flow of the upper Klamath River Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Basin Area Office Year: 2005, 2008 Executive Summary Executive Summary This report presents details of the investigation and results in estimating the natural flow of the upper Klamath River at Keno, Oregon. The area investigated includes the Klamath River Basin above Keno, Oregon, primarily in Klamath County, with some areas of Siskiyou and Modoc Counties in California. The study area includes the Sprague, Williamson, and Wood River basins, as well as Upper Klamath and Lower Klamath Lakes. Objectives The current purpose of this study is to provide an estimate of the monthly natural flows in the upper Klamath River at Keno. This estimate of the natural flow represents typical flow without agricultural development in the Upper Klamath River Basin, including its tributaries. Study Approach This study used a water budget approach to assess the agricultural depletions and alterations to the natural flow. The approach was to evaluate the changes of agriculture from predevelopment conditions, estimate the effects of these changes, and restore the water budget to natural conditions by reversing the effects of agricultural development. Records used in this empirical assessment were derived from both stream gaging flow histories and from climatological records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Water Budget Description The water budget assessment of the watershed as a natural system includes an evaluation of hydrological changes related to agricultural development above the Keno gage. The water budget assessment includes: ? Natural inflow from the Sprague, Williamson, and Wood Rivers to Upper Klamath Lake ? Predevelopment evapotranspiration losses from marshes surrounding Upper Klamath Lake ? Predevelopment evaporation losses of the Upper Klamath Lake ? Natural flow at the outlet of Upper Klamath Lake into the Link River at Klamath Falls ? Resulting natural flow at Keno The processes developed in the water budget to evaluate the natural outflow of Upper Klamath Lake accounts for factors related to water resources developments XI Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River in the watershed that have affected inflow to the lake, and for losses due to natural condition of the lake. The water budget assessment of the watershed as a natural system includes an evaluation of hydrological changes related to agricultural development above the Keno gage. The results of the water budget assessment are given as average annual flows for two important stream gages, one located on the Link River at Klamath Falls and the other on the Klamath River at Keno. Evaluation of Predevelopment Conditions An evaluation of predevelopment conditions included an evaluation of changes to Upper Klamath Lake, agricultural developments in the Wood River, Sprague River, and Williamson River watersheds. Several basic elements were considered in this study: ? How had development changed the system ? Was information available about conditions before the changes occurred ? Were data available to assist in estimating changes to the natural system Evaluation of Current Conditions Period of Record The period of record considered in this investigation is the 52 years from 1949 to 2000. This period of record was chosen because hydrologic and climatological data were limited for the pre-1949 period and data beyond 2000 were not available when the study began. The water year convention (October through September) is used in this report. Crop and Marshland Evapotranspiration Analysis The modified Blaney-Criddle method was used to determine potential net evapotranspiration (ET) from crops, marshlands, and riparian zones. The method is empirical and the calculated values were adjusted based on other recent study findings and water limiting considerations. To estimate net ET water consumption by this method requires the following data: ? Location of irrigated lands, marshlands, and riparian zones ? Types of crops and number of acres for each crop ? Types and acreages of marshland and riparian vegetation, both existing and predevelopment ? Monthly precipitation and monthly average temperature for the period of record for each area Methods to Estimate Natural Flows Natural streamflow development included adjustment of gaged streamflow to natural flow, restoration of missing streamflow and climate data, making natural streamflow estimates in ungaged watersheds, assessing groundwater XII Executive Summary contributions, and estimating transit losses. Not all of these procedures were appropriate or possible in all subbasins of the study area. Records of historic flow may be adjusted to natural flow using crop net consumptive use and marshland evapotranspiration: natural flow = gaged flow + crop net consumptive use - reclaimed natural marshland net evapotranspiration Correlation analysis was used to restore missing values from monthly-value data records used in this study. The method is different from linear least-squares regression estimation. Data records used in this study include precipitation and average temperature histories, in addition to hydrologic records of streamflow and lake stage. Also, natural streamflow histories are required in ungaged watersheds to assess the natural inflow to Upper Klamath Lake. Sparse monthly flow records for streams heading on the east flank of the Cascades and flowing into the Wood River Valley or Pelican Bay area of Upper Klamath Lake required estimation techniques that used gaged histories from nearby river basins. These data were evaluated in statistical applications to yield natural flow estimates for these ungaged portions of the Klamath Basin. In a similar vein, groundwater contributions required temporal adjustments attributable to the climate signature evident in longer term records for similar groundwater discharges in neighboring watersheds. Transit losses for both surface water and groundwater contributions were also estimated in this study. Natural Lake Simulations Implementation of a water budget for Upper Klamath Lake required developing information about (1) the storage and inundation surface area characteristics of the lake, and (2) the discharge characteristics at the outflow point of the lake. These characteristics were evaluated in relation to the elevation, or stage, of the water surface of the lake. Additionally, discharge from the lake was also related to the stage. Estimating the outflow of a natural lake is accomplished using a water budget approach. A monthly summation of all elements in the water budget may be stated by the general form of the hydrologic equation: i = o + As where i = inflow to the lake o = outflow from the lake and As = change in storage of the lake XIII Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River For Upper Klamath Lake, the month-to-month water budget accounts for natural inflow, storage of water within each lake, resulting estimated lake stage, and discharge from each lake. In addition, open water surface evaporation and groundwater discharge to the lake from the regional aquifer were estimated. The water budget assessment was designed to simulate the lake as a natural water body. Materials and Data Researched and Used Data Sources Records used in this analysis were derived from both stream gaging flow histories and from climatological records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Information was also developed from published reports, file documents, and maps. Supporting information included documents from: ? Archives of the Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Basin Area Office ? Numerous U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Water Supply Papers regarding stream gaging records ? Compact disk databases containing digital records of gaged flow, lake stage records, and meteorological data Anecdotal items from newspaper articles or clipped from magazines were also reviewed. These sources consisted of narratives of past events or conditions, transcripts of interviews, newspaper accounts, books, diaries, and historical journals. These provided an impression of predevelopment conditions that can be compared to the empirical and scientific information gleaned from other sources. Other reviewed materials included unpublished and out-of-print scientific reports, historical maps, letters, books, journals, and photographs. Modeling Tools Results of the water budget assessment were accomplished using Excel?, a sophisticated spreadsheet available in the Microsoft Office for Windows software package. This model was chosen over other models because this study is unique. The computational modules built as the study developed represent a custom application of Excel? to the solution of estimating the natural flow conditions in the Upper Klamath River Basin. Klamath River at Keno Gaging Station For the simulation period, 1949 to 2000, the water balance for the Upper Klamath River Basin at Keno is described below. The natural outflow (discharge) from Upper Klamath Lake at Link River was computed in the water balance. Discharge at Keno was then calculated using a correlation relationship developed between historic measured Link River and Keno flows. Table S-l presents the estimated water balance and outflow developed for the Link River and Keno gages. XIV Executive Summary Table S-1. Estimated inflow and outflow developed for Link River and Keno gages Upper Klamath Lake Acre-feet Average annual natural inflow Average annual natural net loss 1,605,000 210,000 Resulting average annual natural outflow 1,395,000 Link River to Keno Average annual natural inflow 1,485,000 Resulting average annual natural outflow at Keno gage 1,306,000 Other Factors Considered The focus of this study is agricultural development in the Upper Klamath River Basin and its effects on natural flow conditions. Other watershed factors have changed since predevelopment. Some of these factors were considered, but are unaccounted-for in the assessment, such as changes in forest conditions or an extension of the flow histories before 1949. Model Review and Sensitivity Analysis Although this study uses best available hydrologic methods and data to either measure or estimate all inflows and outflows to the system, additional concerns have arisen in completing the work. Relationships regarding the significance of uncertainty are likely to be spatially and temporally variable. The key factor is the relative importance of each module in the transit losses suffered by inflows to the natural system. The significance of these influences to model sensitivity is related to time of year or length of time over which flows are evaluated. Model sensitivity is related to uncertainty in data regarding the most significant transit losses; namely, marsh evapotranspiration and open water evaporation. The natural flows developed at Keno are realized, in part, through a statistical rule based model rather than a physically based model. This construct within the model is for the segment from the Link River gage below Upper Klamath Lake, to the Keno gage below Lower Klamath Lake. Thus, sensitivity in testing the spatial and temporal variables within the Link River to Keno reach that affect the flow at Keno is problematic. xv Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River Summary Development of the natural flows at the Keno gage was accomplished using a spreadsheet modeling approach to resolve the water budget for the Upper Klamath River Basin under undeveloped watershed conditions. The resulting flow duration for simulated natural average monthly flows for Keno gage are described in Table S-2. The percentiles represent the flow exceedence ranges in monthly natural flow estimates at Keno solely due to record length. These percentiles are estimates for modeled baseline conditions and do not reflect data uncertainties for possible changes in evaporation, evapotranspiration, or other factors. Table S-2. Summary of simulated monthly flows at Keno in cfs % Time <= Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Annual % Time >= 10 648 1088 1216 1408 1647 1577 1670 1408 1168 631 520 560 1188 90 20 769 1159 1352 1472 1767 1689 2017 1721 1358 822 578 616 1429 80 30 857 1255 1453 1667 1925 1907 2125 2051 1664 964 706 720 1528 70 40 974 1342 1625 1845 2016 2040 2477 2280 1890 1228 767 746 1607 60 50 1033 1455 1698 1964 2343 2133 2595 2649 2039 1349 873 854 1773 50 60 1131 1523 1803 2072 2410 2360 3009 2827 2388 1478 998 955 1903 40 70 1224 1576 1984 2196 2615 2703 3146 3131 2657 1706 1154 1049 2169 30 80 1304 1739 2049 2399 2829 3115 3615 3385 3104 2210 1351 1210 2347 20 90 1488 1815 2319 2659 3294 3367 3877 3707 3460 2923 1684 1412 2511 10 A simplified flowchart depicting the overall sources of included inflow and outflow variables has been completed as figure S-l, with average annual values shown from each source. XVI Title: Natural flow of the upper Klamath River Author: United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Basin Area Office Year: 2005, 2008 Executive Summary Executive Summary This report presents details of the investigation and results in estimating the natural flow of the upper Klamath River at Keno, Oregon. The area investigated includes the Klamath River Basin above Keno, Oregon, primarily in Klamath County, with some areas of Siskiyou and Modoc Counties in California. The study area includes the Sprague, Williamson, and Wood River basins, as well as Upper Klamath and Lower Klamath Lakes. Objectives The current purpose of this study is to provide an estimate of the monthly natural flows in the upper Klamath River at Keno. This estimate of the natural flow represents typical flow without agricultural development in the Upper Klamath River Basin, including its tributaries. Study Approach This study used a water budget approach to assess the agricultural depletions and alterations to the natural flow. The approach was to evaluate the changes of agriculture from predevelopment conditions, estimate the effects of these changes, and restore the water budget to natural conditions by reversing the effects of agricultural development. Records used in this empirical assessment were derived from both stream gaging flow histories and from climatological records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Water Budget Description The water budget assessment of the watershed as a natural system includes an evaluation of hydrological changes related to agricultural development above the Keno gage. The water budget assessment includes: ? Natural inflow from the Sprague, Williamson, and Wood Rivers to Upper Klamath Lake ? Predevelopment evapotranspiration losses from marshes surrounding Upper Klamath Lake ? Predevelopment evaporation losses of the Upper Klamath Lake ? Natural flow at the outlet of Upper Klamath Lake into the Link River at Klamath Falls ? Resulting natural flow at Keno The processes developed in the water budget to evaluate the natural outflow of Upper Klamath Lake accounts for factors related to water resources developments XI Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River in the watershed that have affected inflow to the lake, and for losses due to natural condition of the lake. The water budget assessment of the watershed as a natural system includes an evaluation of hydrological changes related to agricultural development above the Keno gage. The results of the water budget assessment are given as average annual flows for two important stream gages, one located on the Link River at Klamath Falls and the other on the Klamath River at Keno. Evaluation of Predevelopment Conditions An evaluation of predevelopment conditions included an evaluation of changes to Upper Klamath Lake, agricultural developments in the Wood River, Sprague River, and Williamson River watersheds. Several basic elements were considered in this study: ? How had development changed the system ? Was information available about conditions before the changes occurred ? Were data available to assist in estimating changes to the natural system Evaluation of Current Conditions Period of Record The period of record considered in this investigation is the 52 years from 1949 to 2000. This period of record was chosen because hydrologic and climatological data were limited for the pre-1949 period and data beyond 2000 were not available when the study began. The water year convention (October through September) is used in this report. Crop and Marshland Evapotranspiration Analysis The modified Blaney-Criddle method was used to determine potential net evapotranspiration (ET) from crops, marshlands, and riparian zones. The method is empirical and the calculated values were adjusted based on other recent study findings and water limiting considerations. To estimate net ET water consumption by this method requires the following data: ? Location of irrigated lands, marshlands, and riparian zones ? Types of crops and number of acres for each crop ? Types and acreages of marshland and riparian vegetation, both existing and predevelopment ? Monthly precipitation and monthly average temperature for the period of record for each area Methods to Estimate Natural Flows Natural streamflow development included adjustment of gaged streamflow to natural flow, restoration of missing streamflow and climate data, making natural streamflow estimates in ungaged watersheds, assessing groundwater XII Executive Summary contributions, and estimating transit losses. Not all of these procedures were appropriate or possible in all subbasins of the study area. Records of historic flow may be adjusted to natural flow using crop net consumptive use and marshland evapotranspiration: natural flow = gaged flow + crop net consumptive use - reclaimed natural marshland net evapotranspiration Correlation analysis was used to restore missing values from monthly-value data records used in this study. The method is different from linear least-squares regression estimation. Data records used in this study include precipitation and average temperature histories, in addition to hydrologic records of streamflow and lake stage. Also, natural streamflow histories are required in ungaged watersheds to assess the natural inflow to Upper Klamath Lake. Sparse monthly flow records for streams heading on the east flank of the Cascades and flowing into the Wood River Valley or Pelican Bay area of Upper Klamath Lake required estimation techniques that used gaged histories from nearby river basins. These data were evaluated in statistical applications to yield natural flow estimates for these ungaged portions of the Klamath Basin. In a similar vein, groundwater contributions required temporal adjustments attributable to the climate signature evident in longer term records for similar groundwater discharges in neighboring watersheds. Transit losses for both surface water and groundwater contributions were also estimated in this study. Natural Lake Simulations Implementation of a water budget for Upper Klamath Lake required developing information about (1) the storage and inundation surface area characteristics of the lake, and (2) the discharge characteristics at the outflow point of the lake. These characteristics were evaluated in relation to the elevation, or stage, of the water surface of the lake. Additionally, discharge from the lake was also related to the stage. Estimating the outflow of a natural lake is accomplished using a water budget approach. A monthly summation of all elements in the water budget may be stated by the general form of the hydrologic equation: i = o + As where i = inflow to the lake o = outflow from the lake and As = change in storage of the lake XIII Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River For Upper Klamath Lake, the month-to-month water budget accounts for natural inflow, storage of water within each lake, resulting estimated lake stage, and discharge from each lake. In addition, open water surface evaporation and groundwater discharge to the lake from the regional aquifer were estimated. The water budget assessment was designed to simulate the lake as a natural water body. Materials and Data Researched and Used Data Sources Records used in this analysis were derived from both stream gaging flow histories and from climatological records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Information was also developed from published reports, file documents, and maps. Supporting information included documents from: ? Archives of the Bureau of Reclamation Klamath Basin Area Office ? Numerous U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Water Supply Papers regarding stream gaging records ? Compact disk databases containing digital records of gaged flow, lake stage records, and meteorological data Anecdotal items from newspaper articles or clipped from magazines were also reviewed. These sources consisted of narratives of past events or conditions, transcripts of interviews, newspaper accounts, books, diaries, and historical journals. These provided an impression of predevelopment conditions that can be compared to the empirical and scientific information gleaned from other sources. Other reviewed materials included unpublished and out-of-print scientific reports, historical maps, letters, books, journals, and photographs. Modeling Tools Results of the water budget assessment were accomplished using Excel?, a sophisticated spreadsheet available in the Microsoft Office for Windows software package. This model was chosen over other models because this study is unique. The computational modules built as the study developed represent a custom application of Excel? to the solution of estimating the natural flow conditions in the Upper Klamath River Basin. Klamath River at Keno Gaging Station For the simulation period, 1949 to 2000, the water balance for the Upper Klamath River Basin at Keno is described below. The natural outflow (discharge) from Upper Klamath Lake at Link River was computed in the water balance. Discharge at Keno was then calculated using a correlation relationship developed between historic measured Link River and Keno flows. Table S-l presents the estimated water balance and outflow developed for the Link River and Keno gages. XIV Executive Summary Table S-1. Estimated inflow and outflow developed for Link River and Keno gages Upper Klamath Lake Acre-feet Average annual natural inflow Average annual natural net loss 1,605,000 210,000 Resulting average annual natural outflow 1,395,000 Link River to Keno Average annual natural inflow 1,485,000 Resulting average annual natural outflow at Keno gage 1,306,000 Other Factors Considered The focus of this study is agricultural development in the Upper Klamath River Basin and its effects on natural flow conditions. Other watershed factors have changed since predevelopment. Some of these factors were considered, but are unaccounted-for in the assessment, such as changes in forest conditions or an extension of the flow histories before 1949. Model Review and Sensitivity Analysis Although this study uses best available hydrologic methods and data to either measure or estimate all inflows and outflows to the system, additional concerns have arisen in completing the work. Relationships regarding the significance of uncertainty are likely to be spatially and temporally variable. The key factor is the relative importance of each module in the transit losses suffered by inflows to the natural system. The significance of these influences to model sensitivity is related to time of year or length of time over which flows are evaluated. Model sensitivity is related to uncertainty in data regarding the most significant transit losses; namely, marsh evapotranspiration and open water evaporation. The natural flows developed at Keno are realized, in part, through a statistical rule based model rather than a physically based model. This construct within the model is for the segment from the Link River gage below Upper Klamath Lake, to the Keno gage below Lower Klamath Lake. Thus, sensitivity in testing the spatial and temporal variables within the Link River to Keno reach that affect the flow at Keno is problematic. xv Natural Flow of the Upper Klamath River Summary Development of the natural flows at the Keno gage was accomplished using a spreadsheet modeling approach to resolve the water budget for the Upper Klamath River Basin under undeveloped watershed conditions. The resulting flow duration for simulated natural average monthly flows for Keno gage are described in Table S-2. The percentiles represent the flow exceedence ranges in monthly natural flow estimates at Keno solely due to record length. These percentiles are estimates for modeled baseline conditions and do not reflect data uncertainties for possible changes in evaporation, evapotranspiration, or other factors. Table S-2. Summary of simulated monthly flows at Keno in cfs % Time <= Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Annual % Time >= 10 648 1088 1216 1408 1647 1577 1670 1408 1168 631 520 560 1188 90 20 769 1159 1352 1472 1767 1689 2017 1721 1358 822 578 616 1429 80 30 857 1255 1453 1667 1925 1907 2125 2051 1664 964 706 720 1528 70 40 974 1342 1625 1845 2016 2040 2477 2280 1890 1228 767 746 1607 60 50 1033 1455 1698 1964 2343 2133 2595 2649 2039 1349 873 854 1773 50 60 1131 1523 1803 2072 2410 2360 3009 2827 2388 1478 998 955 1903 40 70 1224 1576 1984 2196 2615 2703 3146 3131 2657 1706 1154 1049 2169 30 80 1304 1739 2049 2399 2829 3115 3615 3385 3104 2210 1351 1210 2347 20 90 1488 1815 2319 2659 3294 3367 3877 3707 3460 2923 1684 1412 2511 10 A simplified flowchart depicting the overall sources of included inflow and outflow variables has been completed as figure S-l, with average annual values shown from each source. XVI Close