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19201. [Article] International river basin management in the face of change : Syr Darya Basin case study
The conflict over water resources exploitation and sharing in the Aral Sea Basin is one of the most pressing environmental issues yet to be resolved in Central Asia. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- International river basin management in the face of change : Syr Darya Basin case study
- Author:
- Pak, Mariya
The conflict over water resources exploitation and sharing in the Aral Sea Basin is one of the most pressing environmental issues yet to be resolved in Central Asia. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 and establishment of the New Independent States (NIS) within the Aral Sea Bain led to conflicting interests vested in water resources with no mediator to solve these water issues. Presently, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya upstream states of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan desire to employ water resources for hydropower; while downstream Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan wish to continue practicing irrigated agriculture. This scarce and over-allocated resource, facing the needs of a growing population and climate change uncertainties, should be managed collaboratively and sustainably to be able to meet and withstand the upcoming challenges. This dissertation examines water management practices in the face of government regime change both in large and small river basins within Central Asia by analyzing international water agreements, correspondence between water managers, official reports, maps, and other archival documents. The analysis shows the inter-republican dynamics in water sector starting from 1950s up to early 2000s. The analysis of water relations within the Syr Darya Basin shows that there are different approaches to the change in political regime in both large and small basins. The results reveal that conflict over water resources in Central Asia existed long before the fall of the Soviet Union both in the large Syr Darya Basin, as well as within its small tributaries. The Soviet planned economy, along with the basin planning framework, set competition for water between the riparian states. Analysis of the infrastructure construction negotiations in these small shared tributaries showed that the former Soviet Republics used non-cooperative negotiation strategies to outcompete their rivals. This dissertation calls for regional cooperation in water management as it is shown that hydro-political competition in the basin may lead only to short term benefits, on the long run however, it is proven lead to heavy economic, social, political, and environmental costs.
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19202. [Article] Evaluation of popcorn cultivars as resistant rotation crops to Columbia root-knot nematode : a systems approach
This study examined the management situation for the Columbiaroot-knot nematode (Meloidogyne chitwoodi) in potato, using an approach with systems thinking and interactive meetings. The focus of current ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Evaluation of popcorn cultivars as resistant rotation crops to Columbia root-knot nematode : a systems approach
- Author:
- Cardwell, Derek
This study examined the management situation for the Columbiaroot-knot nematode (Meloidogyne chitwoodi) in potato, using an approach with systems thinking and interactive meetings. The focus of current research for control of this nematode was evaluated. Control practices include crop rotation, and this study also evaluated popcorn cultivars for their potential as resistant rotation crops. Popcorn cultivars were grown in M. chitwoodi race 1 infested soil at the Hermiston Agricultural Research and Extension Center (HAREC), Hermiston, OR. Soil samples were taken soon after planting (initial) and before harvest (final), and the number of M. chitwoodi juveniles / 250 g dry soil was calculated for each sample. A reproduction index was calculated for the nematode reproduction on each cultivar: R value = initial / final population. Cultivars were categorized as good, poor- and nonhosts depending on their R values. Popcorn cultivars were also tested for their host status in the greenhouse. Plants were inoculated with approximately 5000 M. chitwoodi eggs (initial), and after 55 days, eggs were extracted from the roots (final). In the field and greenhouse tests, field corn (FC) cv Pioneer 3578 was tested as a good host check. Among cultivars tested in both the field and greenhouse, the seven with the lowest R values as % of FC 3578 were: WOC 9508 (4%), W206 (16%), WOX 9512 (23%), Robust 33-77 (30%), Robust 20-70 (38%), and WOC 9504 (42%). Cultivars more susceptible than field corn were (R values as % of FC 3578 - mean of field, greenhouse tests): W 104 (119%) and Robust 90477 (102%). Popcorn cultivars WOC 9531, WOC 9556, WOX 9528, and WOX 9511 were more resistant than field corn but still need to be also tested in the field. Cultivars with R values < 1.0 in field tests can be functional in decreasing or stabilizing nematode populations, thus increasing the effectiveness of prepotato nematicides or winter cover crops. This nematode pest situation was analyzed with use of diagrams showing interacting components of the system. This system includes people, nematodes, and potatoes. Issues and questions emerged as the situation was viewed in a systems manner. Some of these issues and questions were the foci of a Farmer-Scientist Focus Session conducted on June 28th, 1995 in Hermiston, OR. Participants included growers, researchers, and extension educators. The meeting was interactive and facilitated the expression of ideas, perspectives, and concerns of the crop rotation possibilities for controlling M. chitwoodi. The opportunities and challenges using non-host crops in potato rotations were discussed. Growers expressed desire for more agronomic information about currently available poor- and non-host cultivars. They did not emphasize a need for a more diverse selection of resistant cultivars. From the grower's perspective, the main opportunity of resistant crop rotation is the integration of suppressive winter cover crops. The main challenge is the small market size for most non-host crops. Additional interactive meetings are needed to stimulate the creation of new ideas and to refine the vision and direction of research in a cooperative manner.
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19203. [Article] Expert system prototype for food aid distribution
Numerous investigative reports have cited the problems of inefficient food aid distribution by various international disaster relief agencies. These problems not only deprive the disaster victims of life ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Expert system prototype for food aid distribution
- Author:
- Singh, Neeta
Numerous investigative reports have cited the problems of inefficient food aid distribution by various international disaster relief agencies. These problems not only deprive the disaster victims of life giving support, but can also discourage potential sources of contributions. Lack of a feedback process has been attributed as a cause of organizational inefficiencies in these agencies. Existing old-fashioned distribution processes failed to incorporate present day tools for advanced process control. Investigations of food distribution organizations revealed a need for a state-of-the-art monitoring system. Typically, these systems incorporate an expert knowledge base which aids an adaptive decision making process. This research identified data related to food aid monitoring and evaluation processes of various international organizations. It then applied an artificial intelligence based expert system to develop a prototype for those processes. Existing data related to monitoring and evaluation program cycles were obtained from two international food relief organizations. An expert system shell called CLIPS (©NASA) was utilized to develop a prototype system named FAM (Food Aid Monitor) for monitoring and evaluating food aid distribution. FAM, a rule based expert system, uses facts and heuristic rules to provide advice regarding food aid monitoring and evaluation processes at various stages of an operation. The FAM was evaluated and validated by three expert panels checking the prototype system for: (1) completeness and relevancy, by a faculty expert panel; (2) consistency, (3) correctness, (4) and precision, by a software engineering expert panel; and (5) usability, by a field expert panel. The faculty panel identified some modifications to the original set of rules. Their review indicated a relatively complete set of rules and high rule relevancy to the knowledge base. Upon revision of the rule source code by the researcher, the software experts validated the prototype in two iterations. The panel determined a system accuracy of approximately 95% and 100% in the two iterations. This exceeded the initial objective of the research. Finally, usability experts commented upon the generic nature of the prototype and indicated a belief that the system might have an overall positive impact on the stages of monitoring and evaluating food aid distribution.
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Forward pricing is a marketing tool available to Pacific Northwest white wheat growers for reducing price risk. The cash forward contract is the traditional pricing mechanism used for this purpose. In ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Temporal price relationships in cash forward and futures markets for white wheat
- Author:
- Sanguanruang, Santisuk
Forward pricing is a marketing tool available to Pacific Northwest white wheat growers for reducing price risk. The cash forward contract is the traditional pricing mechanism used for this purpose. In September 1984, another option for forward pricing was made available through the introduction of a new futures market for white wheat traded at the Minneapolis Grain Exchange. This research analyzes price behavior in these two forward pricing markets in 1985 from two perspectives. Using the efficient market hypothesis, this study first evaluates the temporal price relationships in each market. Second, the research measures the relationships between the two markets in light of the concept of causality. Prices in an efficient market should reflect all available information. In this research, the weak form test for the efficient market hypothesis, known as the random walk model, assessed pricing efficiency in both markets. The random walk hypothesis holds when successive price changes are independent. Based on the evidence of statistically insignificant autocorrelation coefficients, the futures market was efficient under the random walk hypothesis. There were no systematic patterns in the price movements. In contrast, in all delivery time periods except December, the cash forward market exhibited nonrandomness in price changes. The analysis on the relationship between the two markets was made using Granger's definition of causality. Using ordinary least squares regression, this research evaluated the causal link between the two price series with two parallel tests, the direct Granger's and the Sims'. Strong causality ran from futures prices (FT) to cash forward prices (CF) in the September harvest time delivery period. Some causality from FT to CF lingered into the December and March storage month delivery periods. There were no causal relationships in other delivery periods except a feedback from CF to FT in the March period. Despite low trading activity, futures prices were found to represent an efficient market. Thus, they accurately reflected market signals concerning the supply of, and demand for, white wheat. On the contrary, nonrandomness found in cash forward prices suggests inefficiency in this market. The causality found from FT to CF is consistent with the expectation. Farm level forward pricing activity is greatest for harvest (August/September) and immediate post-harvest delivery months. This causes buyers of cash forward contracts to pursue price risk management. Thus, futures prices were used as references, or hedges, in setting cash forward prices in these delivery time periods. The irregular causality pattern between the two markets implies a changing market environment, possibly caused by differing price determination processes over time. Serial dependence in cash forward prices may be providing misleading signals about the white wheat market. However, the weak form test used here could not estimate the magnitude of the inefficiency.
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19205. [Image] Resolving the Klamath
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19206. [Article] Historical change in channel form and riparian vegetation of the McKenzie River, Oregon
This study examined channel structure and position and riparian vegetation and land use on the upper 70 km of the McKenzie River, Oregon in the 1940s, compared the 1940s conditions to present conditions, ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Historical change in channel form and riparian vegetation of the McKenzie River, Oregon
- Author:
- Minear, Paula J.
This study examined channel structure and position and riparian vegetation and land use on the upper 70 km of the McKenzie River, Oregon in the 1940s, compared the 1940s conditions to present conditions, and explored the processes driving change in this system and the implications for aquatic habitat. The hydrologic record was analyzed, and field surveys were conducted and compared to historical habitat surveys. Riparian characteristics and channel features were digitized from aerial photographs from 1945/49 and 1986 and imported into Arcinfo GIS for analysis. Types of data digitized from the aerial photos included locations and length or area of wetted channel, active channel, tributaries, side channels, large woody debris, exposed gravel bars, roads, and dominant vegetation or land use within 200 m of the active channel. Construction of dams on the mainstem Mckenzie River and two major tributaries, Blue River and South Fork, in the 1960s has altered the flow regime and sediment supply to the mainstem Mckenzie, decreasing the frequency, mean and variation of peak flows, reducing the competence of flows to move existing bedload, and cutting off sediment from over half of the drainage area. Mean peak flows decreased 44% and competence of peak flows with a 2-yr recurrence interval declined approximately 29% after dams were constructed upriver. Adjustments to reduced sediment supply and flow alteration by dams in this system included 57% decrease in exposed gravel bars, 40% decrease in side channel length, and possible substrate coarsening (as compared to historical estimates). Channel straightening occurred in each of three instances of channel change during the study period, and sinuosity decreased one half of the amount needed to produce a straight channel in the most susceptible, unconstrained reach. Human actions prior to high flow events played a role in the direction of channel change in each case. Over the entire study area, 7% of the main channel changed position by 30 m or more and little or no change in channel position was noted in reaches constrained by valley floors. Additional channel constraint has been produced by road construction near the channel and riprapping for roads, bridges, and residences. Less large woody debris was observed in the 1986 channel than in the 1949 channel, indicating a reduction in pool-forming agents and channel roughness elements. Frequency of large pools ([greater than or equal to] 2 m depth and >40 m² area) decreased 19% over the study area. The greatest loss in pools (73%) was noted in the unconstrained reach that exhibited two areas of channel change and an increase in exposed gravel bars. Increased human use of the riparian area for roads and residential purposes has led to an increased fragmentation of the riparian landscape. Density of residential or developed patches within the riparian area has increased 215% as more and smaller areas are converted from natural vegetation to human use. Riparian area devoted to roads and residential uses has nearly doubled since the 1940s. Mean vegetation or land-use patch size has decreased from 2.2 ha to 1.6 ha as larger patches have been sub-divided, and patch and edge densities have increased. Agriculture and clearcuts for timber removal have decreased within the riparian area while continuing upslope. Riparian area in mature conifers has decreased 44% from levels in the 1940s while hardwoods have increased 45% in the riparian area. Future wood loading to the channel is reduced by a decline in mature riparian vegetation, especially mature conifers. Channel and riparian changes noted in this study have implications for fish populations. Channel straightening, reduction in side channels, and loss of pool-forming agents reduce habitat heterogeneity and off-channel refugia. Ecosystem management of watersheds requires evaluation of conditions across scales of time and space. The use of GIS in this study made it possible to detect changes in channel form and riparian conditions during four decades, along a 70-m channel and 90-m riparian area and to analyze the large data sets relevant to understanding functions and change in channels and riparian areas.
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The sagebrush steppe ecosystem of the Columbia Plateau has become degraded by a long history of alternative land use and associated perturbations. Protection of remnant stands of intact sagebrush steppe ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Geographic variation in distribution and cover of principle native and non-native plant species along gradients of topography, climate, and disturbance in protected-area sagebrush steppe communities of the Columbia Plateau
- Author:
- Esposito, Daniel M.
The sagebrush steppe ecosystem of the Columbia Plateau has become degraded by a long history of alternative land use and associated perturbations. Protection of remnant stands of intact sagebrush steppe currently relies upon their preservation within the nation's network of parks and protected-areas. The John Day Fossil Beds National Monument, located in central Oregon, and Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve, located in southeast Idaho provided a unique opportunity to examine the pattern of plant species distribution and invasion dynamics in two Columbia Plateau protected-area landscapes with a mixed history of alternative land management and protection. Non-metric multidimensional scaling and nonparametric multiplicative regression were applied to data from the National Park Service's Inventory and Monitoring program to investigate correlations of native and non-native plant species to environmental and landscape variables. Understanding how these patterns change at the landscape scale and identifying variation in these patterns between landscapes may improve efficacy in resource management planning. Principle native species reviewed included sagebrush species (Artemisia spp.), broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae), currants (Ribes spp.), desert sweet (Chamaebatiaria millefolium), dwarf goldenbush (Ericameria nana), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), bluegrass species (Poa spp.), sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda.), wheatgrass species (Agropyron spp.), Great Basin wildrye (Lymus cinereus), and squirreltail (Elymus elymoides). Principle non-native invasive species reviewed included cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae), and bulbous bluegrass (Poa bulbosa), tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum), and tansy mustard (Descurainia spp.). The distribution and relative cover of principle species within the John Day Fossil Beds National Monument were found correlated to combined effects of slope and aspect, representing a transition from steep south-facing slopes to steep north-facing slopes. Species cover and distribution were also found to be correlated to crop year precipitation, the amount of rain and snow falling between October and May. Individual species response along topographic gradients revealed higher relative cover of B. tectorum on the more xeric, south-facing slopes and an increase in the cover of P. spicata on more mesic, north-facing slopes. The relative cover of G. sarothrae and T. caput-medusae were found to increase with increasing crop year precipitation. The distribution and relative cover of principle species within Craters of the Moon National Monument were found correlated to a north to south spatial separation of sampling frames. This gradient represented a transition from higher elevation to lower elevation, decreasing moisture availability, and increasing proximity to alternative land use (i.e. grazing, agriculture) and transportation corridors. Individual species response along these topographic and environmental gradients revealed higher relative cover of non-native invasive species in southern portions of the monument and with positive correlation to the more xeric and disturbed portions of the Monument. The results of this study have increased the understanding of species cover distribution across environmental and topographic gradients within protected sagebrush steppe landscapes while providing insight into the applicability of resilience theory to Columbia Plateau ecology.
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19208. [Article] Breeding bird community composition in relation to riparian vegetation structure in grazed habitats
Riparian zones provide habitat for breeding birds in the semiarid western United States; however, there are few data available that address the effects of livestock grazing strategies on riparian habitats ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Breeding bird community composition in relation to riparian vegetation structure in grazed habitats
- Author:
- Sanders, Todd Alan
Riparian zones provide habitat for breeding birds in the semiarid western United States; however, there are few data available that address the effects of livestock grazing strategies on riparian habitats and avian communities. Documenting avian community composition in different riparian vegetation communities and relating vegetation communities to livestock grazing strategies may identify management alternatives that are sustainable from a wildlife habitat perspective, and may permit constructive coalitions between agricultural industry and environmental groups. I compared diurnal breeding bird abundance, individual species abundance, and species richness, and vegetation composition and structure among 12 streamside riparian areas of Bear and Silvies valleys in eastern Oregon during 1993 and 1994. Bird and vegetation data were collected along four replicate transects within each of three riparian vegetation communities characterized by vegetation structure: herbaceous, discontinuous willow (Salix spp.), and continuous willow. These riparian vegetation communities were grazed under summer season-long, summer short-duration, and fall short-duration livestock grazing strategies, respectively, >5 years before the study. Differences in riparian vegetation among communities were primarily related to shrub structure by experimental design. The continuous willow community had more shrub cover overall (P<0.001) and within each 1-m height interval from 0-4 m (P<0.013) than the herbaceous and discontinuous willow communities. The herbaceous community had no shrub cover >1 m in height. Willows extended farther (P=0.031) from the steam edge in the continuous willow community than in the discontinuous willow community. No willows were detected in the herbaceous community. I detected 4,016 birds representing 56 species along the transects. Total bird abundance was greater (P<0.001) in the continuous willow community than in the herbaceous and discontinuous willow communities. Species richness was inconsistent (P=0.034) between years within communities; it was greatest (P<0.037) in the continuous and discontinuous willow communities in 1993, and greatest (P<0.003) in the continuous willow community in 1994. Total bird abundance and species richness in 1994 increased with willow volume (r²>0.707, P<0.001). Of 23 bird species with >20 individual detections over both years, 13 species were most abundant in one or two vegetation communities (P<0.088). Seven species (yellow warbler [Dendroica petechia], song sparrow [Melospiza melodia], willow flycatcher [Empidonax traillii], American robin [Turdus migratorius], common snipe [Gallinago gallinago], bobolink [Dolichonyx oryzivorus], and Vaux's swift [Chaetura vauxi]) were most abundant in the continuous willow community. Three species (savannah sparrow [Passerculus sandwichensis], black tern [Chlidonias niger], and American wigeon [Anas americana]) were most abundant in the herbaceous community. Willets (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) were most abundant in the herbaceous and discontinuous willow communities whereas cinnamon teal (A. cyanoptera) were most abundant in the herbaceous and continuous willow communities. Red-winged blackbirds (Ageliaus phoeniceus) were inconsistent (P=0.032) between years within communities: they were most abundant in the continuous willow community in 1993, and most abundant in the continuous willow and herbaceous communities in 1994. Hydrophytic woody vegetation within semiarid rangeland environments increases structural complexity and is associated with avian abundance and diversity. Yellow warblers, willow flycatchers, and song sparrows, which depend on hydrophytic shrubs for nesting almost exclusively in the semiarid West, are especially threatened by the elimination or simplification of woody riparian vegetation. I suggest that riparian vegetation structure and composition, which is associated with avian abundance, species richness, riparian associate bird species, and landscape-level biological diversity, be maintained where possible. Seasonal light (<30% use) fall short-duration grazing seemed to be compatible with the maintenance of woody riparian vegetation whereas summer season-long and summer short-duration grazing is likely incompatible.
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19209. [Image] Visibility in Oregon's wilderness and national park lands
ill., photos; Cover title; "September, 1985."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-51)Citation -
"July 2003."; "GAO-03-514."
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19211. [Image] Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway
Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Seeking refuge: making space for migratory waterfowl and wetlands along the Pacific Flyway
- Author:
- Wilson, Robert Michael
- Year:
- 2003, 2005, 2004
Abstract "Seeking Refuge" examines the history of migratory waterfowl management along the Pacific Flyway, the westernmost of four main migration routes in North America. Drawing on approaches from historical geography and environmental history, this study shows how wildlife officials developed migratory bird refuges in Oregon and California, where over 60 percent of Pacific Flyway waterfowl winter. During the early-twentieth century, reclamation and river diking eliminated most of the wetlands in the birds' wintering range. Bird enthusiasts such as bird watchers and duck hunters successfully lobbied for the creation of wildlife refuges in a few areas along the flyway. These early refuges failed to protect waterfowl habitat and they were severely degraded by reclamation. In the 1930s and 1940s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and its predecessor, the Bureau of Biological Survey, undertook an ambitious program to resurrect these sanctuaries and to create new ones. Many farmers opposed these refuges out of fear that waterfowl would damage crops. To respond to these concerns and to ensure an adequate food supply for the birds, the FWS raised rice, barley, and other grains. The agency adopted many of the technologies of modern, industrial agriculture including synthetic herbicides and insecticides such as 2, 4-D and DDT. By the 1960s, the refuges had become largely mirrors of the surrounding irrigated farmlands, the main difference being that the FWS raised grain for waterfowl rather than for market. Refuges could not escape the agricultural settings in which they were embedded. As units within the irrigated countryside, Pacific Flyway refuges were often at the mercy of nearby farmers and federal reclamation agencies. Poor water quality and insufficient supplies of water often hampered FWS efforts to manage refuges. In the late-twentieth century, reduced water supply due to diversions to California municipalities and to sustain endangered fish species affected the amount of water reaching refuges. This dissertation has other goals. First, it critiques the anthropocentrism of most historical geography by focusing on how political, cultural, and ecological factors affected wildlife. Second, it contributes to the literature on the state's role in environmental protection by investigating the overlapping, and often contradictory, spaces within which wildlife managers implemented environmental regulations.
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"Serial no. 107-39."
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Water management and endangered species issues in the Klamath Basin : oversight field hearing before the Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Seventh Congress, first session, June 16, 2001 in Klamath Falls, Oregon
- Author:
- United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources
- Year:
- 2002, 2005, 2004
"Serial no. 107-39."
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19213. [Article] An economic analysis of farms producing grass seed in the Willamette Valley, with special attention to the cultural practice of field burning
Grass seed producers in Oregon's Willamette Valley have employed the cultural practice of post-harvest open field burning since the mid-1940's for purposes of field sanitation and crop residue disposal ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- An economic analysis of farms producing grass seed in the Willamette Valley, with special attention to the cultural practice of field burning
- Author:
- Fisher, Douglas Earl
Grass seed producers in Oregon's Willamette Valley have employed the cultural practice of post-harvest open field burning since the mid-1940's for purposes of field sanitation and crop residue disposal This practice creates environmental quality problems of air pollution during the late summer Recent public concern over the valley's environmental quality has focused attention on the grass seed industry, resulting in measures passed by the 1971 state legislature to ban open field burning in Oregon by January 1, 1975. Several economic issues are raised by the prospect of field burning curtailment. These include identification of: (1) alternatives to open burning, and their associated costs; (2) income effects resulting from possible increases in production costs, reduction in seed yields and changes in seed quality; (3) possible loss of comparative advantage now enjoyed by Willamette Valley farmers; and, (4) possible organizational adjustments by farm operators including prospects for increased farm size and reduced farm numbers. This thesis is designed as a base study to provide descriptive information and an economic rationale as necessary precursors for evaluating possible and probable' economic consequences of a burning ban to the grass seed industry. The Willamette Valley was separated into five seed-production regions, based on soil characteristics and urban.influences. A ten percent random sample was drawn from the population of farm operators raising grass seed. Major grass seed types studied include Highland bentgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, fine fescue, tall fescue, orchard grass, annual ryegrass, and perennial ryegrass. Descriptive data includes farm family characteristics, income sources, age, family labor, farm organization, and resource returns. Analysis of data identified wide variability in resource use. A significant component involved large differences in operating costs for machinery, labor, fertilizer, and chemicals within each seed type. This suggests internal adjustments in resource use efficiency and cost management are necessary for high-cost farms to survive in the short run regardless of whether or not a burning ban threat exists. Some farms are successfully competing now and will continue to do so with limited operating resource adjustments. Orchardgrass and Kentucky bluegrass generally provided highest net returns, while ryegrasses earned lowest returns of the seven seed types, suggesting some adjustment opportunities for substitution between seed types. Inter-enterprise adjustments will be determined by the number of grass seed crops, other non-grass crops, and livestock choices available. Cost advantages of complementary enterprises were evident, with adjustments in this direction determined by market accessibility, soil limitations, and managerial constraints. These limitations suggest limited adjustment, in general, toward non-grass and livestock enterprise choices. Pronounced cost advantages occurred to farms over 300 acres in size, suggesting that long run adjustments will likely include farm enlargement and reduction of farm numbers. Farm location, topography,-, and proximity to urban areas are also expected to affect direction and magnitude of adjustments. Farms in Region 1, Clackamas and Multnomah counties, faced with topography limitations and urban pressures, will likely shift resources to more intensive . farm and non-farm uses. Linn, Benton, and Lane county grass seed producers are expected to intensify specialization in grass seed production with an increase in average farm size. In Washington and Yamhill counties where grass seed production serves primarily as complementary and/or supplementary enterprises, the trend toward production of proprietary grass seed varieties is expected. In Polk and Marion counties where soil and topographical characteristics dominate resource use and enterprise choices, probable adjustment impacts are less obvious and are expected to vary widely from farm to farm. Imposition of a burning ban, felt primarily in the form of increased production costs, will undoubtedly hasten the farm organizational adjustments specified above.
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Executive Summary The Institute for Natural Resources (INR) received funding from the Bullitt Foundation in 2009 for Financing Mechanisms that Advance Ecosystem Services Markets and Promote Rural Sustainability. ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Local Ecosystem Services Marketplaces: Public Utilities as Development Drivers
- Author:
- Lurie, Sue, Duncan, Sally, Fishler, Hillary, Bennet, Drew, Institute for Natural Resources
Executive Summary The Institute for Natural Resources (INR) received funding from the Bullitt Foundation in 2009 for Financing Mechanisms that Advance Ecosystem Services Markets and Promote Rural Sustainability. 1 That research strongly suggested that, at least for the short- and possibly medium-term, payment for ecosystem services (PES) may best be framed at the local and regional levels. INR therefore proposed examining policy and program options that could facilitate and support local and regional marketplaces, pertaining to all forms of PES, rather than more narrowly conceived credit markets. To pursue this approach, INR proposed expanding its work with the Eugene Water and Electric Board (EWEB). EWEB is the chief supplier of water for the city of Eugene, Oregon, and its source water protection program coordinator is in the process of developing an innovative voluntary incentive program (VIP) to maintain and restore healthy riparian forests along the McKenzie River. EWEB’s envisioned VIP is a distinct departure from typical restoration and PES models in that it gives highest payment—or dividend—priority to those properties with intact, healthy riparian forests. In other words, it pays for good stewardship, not for restoration. It can be a model for other utilities, which could duplicate or adapt the program in part or in full depending on variables such as watershed ownership patterns, authorizing authorities for such programs, potential partners, and other features. INR’s Bullitt Foundation funding has used the EWEB program to examine institutional aspects that act as both opportunities and constraints to greater public utility PES program development and administration. Also in 2011, INR was awarded a National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) grant to examine public utilities as local PES marketplace drivers. The research includes a case study of the EWEB program, examining funding and structural aspects, testing PES buyers’ and sellers’ preferences and developing a corporate engagement model. Concurrent work on the two projects has enabled INR to leverage information from each to mutually enrich the knowledge and context for both projects. Few, if any, legislative or legal barriers surfaced during our research. However, a number of pivotal institutional issues have emerged; most are administrative and funding related. While there was consistent interest in the concept of PES, there was fairly consistent lack of knowledge and support regarding the use of PES and green or living infrastructure as a cost avoidance strategy and lack of knowledge regarding how to create and fund such programs. (Note that this report uses the terms “green infrastructure” and “living infrastructure” interchangeably. Both refer in this case to the targeted riparian forests doing the job of supporting the utility’s clean drinking water requirements.) Interviews and focus groups provided information for the following recommendations. Greater details can be found in the body of the report. • Knowledge regarding how to design a PES program is a resource. Although many utilities may have heard about PES and living infrastructure, staff may not know where to turn for help and information. • Education for inreach (internal management communications) as well as public outreach will be critical to building support for funding and implementing EWEB-like programs. • Utilities might benefit from expanding the partnership concept to other organizations and agencies that might not be part of the watershed investment district or partnership. This could include larger landowners, other utilities, or additional investors. • All utilities potentially face different resource constraints such as technical support or funding. Larger utilities working with and mentoring the smaller systems can provide comprehensive program ownership and subsequent source protection awareness and actions, to help them face staff, ratepayer base and budget constraints. Regardless of partnership opportunities, utilities and other organizations should think about how PES might be integrated strategically with or into other programs. • Program design should proceed whether or not funding is immediately available, but always with funding options in mind. An effective approach may be to design the program first in concert with landowners and potential partners and follow that with stakeholder education. • Finding the right price point as well as other potential non-monetary incentives to encourage participation is a variable that will be area specific and will differ among landowner types and available alternatives. • Interested utilities will need to acquire realistic valuation of the ecosystem services the program will use. • Creating a watershed investment partnership or similar interorganizational collaborative arrangements will help all partners add capacities and increase efficiencies through sharing program funding for infrastructure, aligning goals, and utilizing existing competencies.
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19215. [Image] EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon
SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- EPA 314 clean lakes program: phase I diagnostic/feasibility project: Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon
- Author:
- Klamath Consulting Service, Inc
- Year:
- 1983, 2006, 2005
SUMMARY PROBLEM DEFINITION Upper Klamath Lake, a 90,000 acre body of water located in south-central Oregon, is eutrophic and has reached a stage where summer algal and macrophyte productivity causes severe aesthetic problems and often renders the lake unusable as a recreational site. The problem is a natural one; it has not been caused by man's carelessness and cannot be turned around by regulation. Upper Klamath Lake is quite shallow, warming rapidly in the summer, and the waters carry a naturally occurring high nutrient load. Algal growth is extensive, predominently APHANEZOMENON FLOS-AQUAE, a blue-green algae prevalent in eutrophic waters. These organisms form dense mats that become very odorous as they decay. Numerous macrophytes (aquatic weeds) are indigenous to the lake, but the major problem is with P0TAM06ET0N CRISPUS, which forms long floating fonds that tangle boat motors and prevent passage. The Pelican Bay channel has an extensive growth of this weed.
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19216. [Article] Vegetation and Small Mammal Responses to Western Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) Control in Eastern Oregon
Shrub-steppe ecosystems of western North America provide habitat for many wildlife species, are important components of public and private rangelands, and offer recreational opportunities for millions ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Vegetation and Small Mammal Responses to Western Juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) Control in Eastern Oregon
- Author:
- Morozumi, Corinne N.
Shrub-steppe ecosystems of western North America provide habitat for many wildlife species, are important components of public and private rangelands, and offer recreational opportunities for millions of people. They are some of the most vulnerable ecosystems in the United States and have been altered by human activities such as livestock grazing, active fire suppression, conversion to agriculture, and urbanization of the west. Since the late 1800s woody encroachment of piñon-juniper species has also contributed to the loss of shrub-steppe habitat. Presently, land managers remove woody tree species in order to recover shrub-steppe although it is unclear how responses to these management activities differ due to site-specific conditions and existing woodland development. I studied post juniper-thinning responses in eastern Oregon at a wildlife area important as winter range for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). I investigated vegetative responses to western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) thinning across a woodland development gradient and tested for interactive effects of juniper cutting and cattle exclusion. In addition, I explored plant and small mammal successional dynamics after juniper thinning and examined plant community responses within microhabitats created by the felled trees. I compared vegetative responses to juniper thinning as well as cattle exclusion among sites where juniper were subordinate (Phase I), co-dominant (Phase II), and dominant to shrubs and grasses (Phase III, sensu Miller et al. 2005). At the Phase I site, thinning did not increase herbaceous biomass while thinned plots at the Phase II site had 2.71 times more median herbaceous biomass (99.17% CI: 1.37 to 5.37 times more biomass) than unthinned plots. Conversely, herbaceous biomass at the Phase III juniper woodland site was 0.36 times lower in thinned plots when compared to unthinned plots (99.17% CI: 0.17 to 0.78 times less biomass). Unfortunately, many of the responses were driven by exotic species release. Where juniper were subordinate (Phase I), mean percent cover by exotic grass increased by 24.58 percentage points in thinned plots as compared to unthinned plots (98.30% CI: 0.27 to 48.90 percentage points higher). Thinning at the Phase II site increased mean exotic grass cover by an estimated 28.47 percentage points as compared to mean exotic cover in the same plots before treatment (98.30% CI: 4.15 to 52.79 percentage points higher cover). Median native bunchgrass cover at this site was 5.06 times greater after juniper treatment (99.7% CI: 1.78 to 14.35 times higher percent cover). I found few main or interactive effects of cattle exclosure after one year of treatment. Responses to grazing exclosure may take longer to develop. These results indicate that sites within the wildlife area respond differently to juniper management and that exotic grass control will be key to successful shrub-steppe recovery. In addition, I used a time-since-juniper thinning chronoseries consisting of plots cut in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, and an adjacent uncut control to explore how shrub-steppe flora and fauna are responding to juniper treatment through time. Shrub cover and seedling density were low in each plot. I recorded the highest seedling abundance (mean of 0.25 seedlings) in the uncut control plot. Median grass cover in the uncut control was 9.50% while in the most recently treated plot (2012) it was 26.75%. Small mammal relative abundance and diversity was low across all time-since-treatment plots though highest in the plot with the greatest time-since-treatment. Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) was the most abundant species in all plots and accounted for 70-95% of all unique captures. Least chipmunk (Tamias minimus) were present in the plot with greatest time-since-treatment indicating the potential recovery of key native shrubs since these small mammals perform an important seed dispersal role. I also investigated how potential microhabitats created by the felled juniper might support different plant communities. I assessed plant responses within zones created by 1) the felled tree (canopy zone), 2) the original duff zone, and 3) the between - tree interspace zone. The three zones had different plant community compositions as analyzed multivariately with non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS). Canopy and duff zones were forb - dominated and had less exotic grass invasion while interspace zones were heavily invested with medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and ventenata (Ventenata dubia). Exotic herbaceous productivity was lowest under the standing trees of the control plot and high in the interspace of all plots with juniper thinning. In the 2012 cut plot, grass cover was 27.90 percentage points less in the canopy zone compared to the interspace zone (98.75% CI: 17.64 to 38.16 percentage points less grass cover). In the uncut control, median native biomass was 2.08 times greater under the standing trees compared to the interspace (96.25% CI: 1.09 to 3.97 times more biomass). Results from the time-since-treatment chronoseries indicated that exotic grass dominance might be limiting shrub-steppe recovery. Active restoration of shrubs and native grasses may be necessary to address the dominance of exotic grass after juniper thinning. Positive signs of habitat recovery included small mammal responses though I was unable to calculate population estimates due to plot size.
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19217. [Article] Linking greater sage-grouse habitat use and suitability across spatiotemporal scales in central Oregon
Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) habitat research has historically focused on fine-scale (0.007 - 0.032 ha) vegetation structure and composition immediately surrounding sites selected by ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Linking greater sage-grouse habitat use and suitability across spatiotemporal scales in central Oregon
- Author:
- Freese, Mark T.
Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) habitat research has historically focused on fine-scale (0.007 - 0.032 ha) vegetation structure and composition immediately surrounding sites selected by birds. However, little work has evaluated vegetation attributes important for Greater Sage-grouse at a landscape-scale or identified landscape attributes that influence habitat use patterns. Habitat use patterns by Greater Sage-grouse are complex and can occur across relatively large heterogeneous landscapes. This creates a major challenge for managers to interpret and predict habitat use patterns as well as to evaluate habitat suitability and prioritize habitats that are in need of ecological restoration. The goals of this research were to evaluate plot-level habitat characteristics found to be important in sustaining Greater Sage-grouse populations at a landscape-level and to identify landscape-level attributes associated with bird occurrence. Specific questions this research addressed were: 1) what is the variation in vegetation composition and structure at the plot versus landscape-level, 2) how does topography influence the distribution of vegetation composition and structure, and 3) what attributes at the landscape-level are most closely associated with Greater Sage-grouse habitat use? To address these questions we selected a 31,416 ha area in central Oregon surrounding a Greater Sage-grouse lek with a population that has been relatively stable since 1987. In February 2006, 50 Greater Sage-grouse were trapped, radio collared, and then tracked for two consecutive years. Four-hundred eighty bird UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate location points were recorded for the entire population of birds during the duration of this study. Each collared Greater Sage-grouse was located on average every 15 ± 0.56 (mean ± SE) days, ranging from 1 to 154 days. Vegetation for the entire study area was mapped by cover types, which were defined by the dominant shrub species. When shrubs were not present in the plant community, cover types were separated by other surface characteristics such as bare ground, water, meadow, etc. A total of 23 cover types were delineated. Cover types were mapped using 0.5-m NAIP (National Agricultural Imagery Program) imagery. In addition to cover type, a set of biophysical predictor variables were created for the entire study area in a GIS (Geographic Information System) to evaluate the association with Greater Sage-grouse location points. These variables included elevation, slope, aspect, curvature, solar radiation, ruggedness index, northing, easting, and distance from roads, leks, and mesic habitats. A stratified random sample with cover types serving as the stratum was used to select random locations for sampling plot-level habitat variables. A total of 352 plots were sampled from 18 cover types across the study area with a minimum of 15 plots per cover type. Vegetation measurements collected were similar to those reported in the habitat guidelines developed by Connelly et al. (2000) and the Bureau of Land Management et al. (2000). Measurements included vegetation cover, height, and density of forbs recognized as important Greater Sage-grouse food species. Plot elevation, slope, aspect, curvature and landscape position were also recorded. Summary statistics were used to describe means and ranges within and between cover types. A combination of multiple linear regression and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to evaluate the effects of topographic attributes on the distribution of vegetation composition and structure. To address the third question, maximum entropy software was used to develop models that predict Greater Sage-grouse seasonal habitat use, generate maps from those models, and describe the shapes of the response curves as it relates Greater Sage-grouse habitat preference to individual landscape predictor variables. Total shrub canopy cover across all cover types averaged 19.4%, ranging from 11.6 to 27.7%. Big (mountain and Wyoming) and low sagebrush canopy cover commonly varied between 2.6 and 16 fold within cover types. Deep-rooted perennial tussock grass cover averaged across all upland plots, was 26.7%, ranging from less than 1% to over 50%. Vegetation cover, Greater Sage-grouse food forb density, and sagebrush and grass height were significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with topographic attributes. Cover for the different plant life forms and food forb density increased with elevation. Cover for most of the herbaceous life forms was also greater on north than south aspects. Compared to Connelly et al. (2000) and the BLM et al. (2000) habitat guidelines, < 1% of the study area satisfied breeding and nesting guideline criteria, while < 31% satisfied the brood-rearing guideline criteria. Although most of the study area did not meet habitat recommendations presented in the guidelines, patches imbedded throughout the study area did and most areas satisfied many but not all of the guideline requirements. These results suggests that evaluating only mean values of community structure, both within and among cover types across the study area, limited the ability to fully identify patch variability and landscape heterogeneity as it relates to habitat suitability across large areas. Maximum entropy results suggest Greater Sage-grouse habitat use during the breeding season increases near leks and within cover types of low sagebrush and low sagebrush/mountain big sagebrush complexes. Preferred summer habitat includes areas relatively high in elevation, distances that are close to leks, and within or a close proximity to habitats that harbor succulent vegetation through much of the summer. With Greater Sage-grouse utilizing resources within expansive landscapes, understanding the attributes that can be applied at a landscape-scale that attract disproportionate levels of habitat use can help managers predict where birds are likely to occur across the landscape. With the ability to discriminate between areas that Greater Sage-grouse are likely to use or avoid, managers can allocate limited resources to more effectively create, manipulate, and administer habitat conservation efforts where bird use is predicted and prioritize areas across the landscape in need of ecological restoration.
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Multipurpose management of hydrosystems face a number of uncertainties related to hydrologic variability and nonstationarity. Anticipated air temperature increases in the Pacific Northwest region are projected ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Water scarcity and reservoir reliability in basins affected by climate and land use change : impacts of hydrogeology, sensitivities, and uncertainties in the Santiam River Basin, Oregon
- Author:
- Mateus, M. Cristina
Multipurpose management of hydrosystems face a number of uncertainties related to hydrologic variability and nonstationarity. Anticipated air temperature increases in the Pacific Northwest region are projected to alter the timing and quantity of streamflow associated with precipitation shifting from snow to rain, including shorter winter runoff periods, earlier spring runoff, and longer and drier summers. Changes in land use, such as urbanization, can reduce infiltration and groundwater recharge, thus lowering base-flow levels. Furthermore, these future changes in water supply are likely to vary across catchments with sensitivity to climate and land use changes. In this dissertation, I investigate hydrosystem sensitivities to climate and land use change considering modeling uncertainty across two different hydrologic settings in the Santiam River Basin in Oregon (Chapter 2), the reliability of reservoirs to accommodate these changes given current operating procedures (Chapter 3), and the performance of alternative reservoir operations scenarios in mitigating projected future hydrologic changes (Chapter 4). This research is based on modeled future streamflows forced by temperature and precipitation projections from eight global climate models and two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios. To represent the uncertainty associated with future streamflow, I apply global climate model projections to a groundwater-surface water model (GSFLOW), coupled with a formal Bayesian uncertainty analysis. The land use changes were simulated in GSFLOW by adjusting model parameters based on the proportion of change in land use area within hydrologic response units. I apply streamflow projections as inputs to a reservoir operation model (HEC-ResSim) to analyze reservoir system reliability under future climate. I then use historical records to identify what outcomes are unacceptable to stakeholders, a condition labeled as vulnerable, and establish thresholds of reservoir reliability. I then use projections of future hydrology to identify the likelihood of the system being pushed to that vulnerable state under current and alternate reservoir operations. Modeling and analysis is conducted in the North and South Santiam River basin, Oregon. The North Santiam sub-basin is sourced by the High Cascades, with high elevations but low in relief, deep groundwater and spring-dominated drainage system that sustain base flow during the dry summer months. In contrast, the South Santiam sub-basin is entirely sourced by the Western Cascades geology, with steep drainage network and relatively impermeable rock that generates rapid runoff responses, high peak flows, high flow variability and little groundwater storage. In the context of water scarcity, Chapter 2 presents an analysis of the influence of climate and land use change on the future availability of water resources across sub-basins with different hydrogeological and land use characteristics. In this analysis, I investigate how sub-basin characteristics, including elevation, intensity of water demands, and apparent intensity of groundwater interactions, contribute to hydrologic sensitivity, to climate and land use change response, and to water scarcity. Across the entire SRB, water demand exerts the strongest influence on basin sensitivity to water scarcity, regardless of hydrogeology, with the highest demand located in the lower reaches dominated by agricultural and urban land uses. Results highlight how seasonal runoff responses to climate and land use change vary across sub-basins with differences in hydrogeology, land use, and elevation. In Chapter 3, I investigate the impact and importance of climate-related uncertainties and hydrologic variability on reliability and sensitivity of current reservoir operations for meeting water resources objectives. I assess whether and how projected future changes in the timing and quantity of water resources affect the reliability of reservoir systems to meet flood management, spring and summer environmental flows, and hydropower generation objectives. I evaluate which sub-basin and reservoir operations are more sensitive to hydrologic variability, and the sensitivity of different elements of reservoir operations to climate variability. Despite projected increases in winter flows and decreases in summer flows, results suggested little evidence of a response in reservoir operation performance to a warming climate, with the exception of summer flow targets in the SSB. Independent of climate impacts, historical prioritization of reservoir operations appeared to impact reliability, suggesting areas where operation performance may be improved. Results also highlighted how hydrologic uncertainty is likely to complicate planning for climate change in basins with substantial groundwater interactions. In Chapter 4, I apply a bottom-up approach to identify reservoir system sensitivities and vulnerabilities to changes in operations considering hydrologic variability and uncertainty. I compare historical reservoir reliability to projected future reliability to evaluate how well climate information can capture historical conditions that determine when the system is in a vulnerable state, and evaluate the effectiveness of implementing variable rule curves to current reservoir operations. Results highlight the poor fit between coupled GCM and hydrologic models and historical summer streamflows in this basin. Results illustrate how increases in air temperature appear to reduce the reliability of meeting summer flow targets, but have negligible impacts on reservoir refilling and flooding. Variable rule curves appear to mitigate the impact of atmospheric warming on summer target reliability to some extent, without compromising flood risk. Across the two hydrogeologic settings, results indicate that the mixed groundwater-surface water basin has higher sensitivity to changes in climate and reservoir operations than the basin with streamflows derived primarily from surface water. The studies presented herein provide useful information about the causes (e.g. climate change, land use change, water demands) and degree of future changes in the performance of hydrosystem, as well as the potential benefits of changes in reservoir operations. The results highlight several important conclusions. First, in addition to hydrogeology and elevation, considering water demands is a key mechanism needed to translate the analysis of atmospheric warming on low flows into the impacts on people. Second, the impact of climate variability on reservoir reliability was only evident for summer low flow targets. However, implementing variable rule curves to current reservoir operations appears to be an effective strategy to reduce the impact of atmospheric warming on summer target reliability, without increasing the risk of flooding. Finally, higher sensitivity to changes in climate and reservoir operations were projected for the mixed groundwater-surface water basin than the basin sourced primarily from surface water. Though, higher uncertainty is related with the basin with substantial groundwater interactions complicating the planning for climate change because water resources may be less predictable at these locations. While the results from this study are specific to the Santiam River Basin in Oregon, USA, the analyses and general findings regarding governing mechanisms for vulnerability to climate and land use change will be relevant to hydrosystems with similar hydrogeologic characteristics around the world.
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Metropolitan areas today must dispose large volumes of sewage sludge produced during the wastewater treatment process. This research was conducted to study the effect of large applications of municipal ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Nitrogen and heavy metal distribution in soils utilized as sludge disposal sites
- Author:
- Prothero, Gary Lewis
Metropolitan areas today must dispose large volumes of sewage sludge produced during the wastewater treatment process. This research was conducted to study the effect of large applications of municipal sewage sludge on (a) the distribution of N and trace elements (Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn) in the soil profile, (b) the uptake of these elements by plants growing on the sludge-treated soil, and (c) the potential for groundwater contamination. Five sludge disposal sites in the Willamette Valley were selected for the project, Milwaukie, Eugene, Hillsboro, Forest Grove, and Woodburn, Oregon. The soils were sampled quarterly, July, 1974, December, March, and June, 1975, as a function of depth. Surface soil samples (8 to 10 cores) were collected in September, 1974, from each disposal location to determine the uniformity and amount of sludge applied. Plant samples from the disposal area and water samples from wells adjacent to each area were also collected. The soil, plant, water, and sludge samples were analyzed for total N, NH₄-N, NO3-N, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn; the water, plant, and sludges were also analyzed for P. The soil samples collected during the winter, spring, and summer, 1975, were analyzed for NH₄-N and NO₃-N. An estimated 500, 290, 96, 72, and 20 dry m tons /ha of sludge were applied to the Eugene, Hillsboro, Forest Grove, Woodburn, and Milwaukie disposal areas, respectively. The total N and P content of the five sludges ranged from 3.9 to 6. 3% and 0.5 to 2. 9%, respectively. The inorganic N was primarily in the form of NH₄-N. The trace element (Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn) content of the sewage sludge fell within general ranges reported for municipal sludges, except for the Cr content (17, 700 ppm) of the Milwaukie sludge. The Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, NH₄-N, NO₃-N, and total N content increased in the surface soil of each sludge disposal area. The Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn, NH₄-N and total N content of the treated soils compared closely to the control soils below 50 cm in the soil profile suggesting restricted movement of heavy metals. The NO₃-N content in the soil profile increased with the sludge application rate. The NO₃-N level of the Eugene and Hillsboro disposal areas was as high as 120 and 20 ppm, respectively. During the winter and spring, 1975, increased rainfall and cooler temperatures combined to decrease the NO₃-N content in the surface soil and increase NO₃-N levels in the lower soil horizons. The pH of the surface soil at the Eugene and Hillsboro disposal areas decreased from pH values of 6.4 to 4.6 and pH 4.8 to 4.4, respectively, a result of the nitrification reaction. The pH values of the other disposal areas compared closely to the control soil. The N and Zn content of the grass growing on the sludge-treated areas increased at the high sludge application rate compared to the grasses growing in the control area. The Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and P concentration increased in the grass sampled from the Eugene disposal area, while the Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and P content of grasses from the other sludge - treated areas compared more closely to the grasses from the control areas. The lower pH at the Eugene disposal area and the high sludge application rate combined to enhance the trace element uptake by plants. The NO₃-N, NH₄-N, P, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn content in the water samples from the Eugene, Milwaukie, Forest Grove, and Woodburn disposal areas were below the Public Health Service drinking water limits. The long-term disposal of municipal sewage sludges on agricultural land appears to be a viable waste disposal method, providing the sludge application rate and metal content are not excessively high. In any land disposal program for sewage sludge, the heavy metal accumulation in the soil surface and plants growing in the sludge-treated soil should be monitored.
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19220. [Article] The fertilizer value of shrimp and crab processing wastes
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 prohibits the discharge of seafood processing solid wastes into navigable waters after July 1, 1977. Oregon shrimp and crab processors must use ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The fertilizer value of shrimp and crab processing wastes
- Author:
- Costa, Robert Edward
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 prohibits the discharge of seafood processing solid wastes into navigable waters after July 1, 1977. Oregon shrimp and crab processors must use other methods of disposal for the 15 to 30 million pounds of solid waste generated annually. The application of shrimp and crab wastes to nearby agricultural land can consume the wastes generated at major processing ports. As they came from the processing plant, shrimp and crab solid wastes contained 1.3% to 1.6% N, 0.47% to 0.54% P, other nutrients, 7% to 14% CaCO₃ equivalent, and 64% to 78% water. A greenhouse experiment was established to determine the effects of 1) grinding the wastes, 2) surface vs. incorporated waste applications, and 3) waste applications vs. inorganic N applied at equivalent N rates (56, 168, and 336 kg N/ha) with applications of P, S, and lime supplied with the inorganic N only. The fertilizer materials were applied on two coastal soils, and two pasture crops were grown. Forage yields and the P concentration in 'Potomac' orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) were significantly higher with incorporated waste applications than with surface waste applications. Application method did not affect the P concentration in New Zealand white clover (Trifolium repens L. ). The difference in crop response between application methods would assumably be less under field conditions than was measured in the greenhouse. Grinding crab waste significantly increased forage yields when the waste was surface applied, but not when incorporated with the soil. Unground shrimp waste gave significantly higher forage yields than ground shrimp waste. No significant difference occurred in the forage yields, the N uptake by orchardgrass, or the P concentrations in orchardgrass and white clover among applications of shrimp waste, crab waste, and inorganic nutrients with lime. Applications of shrimp and crab wastes increased white clover yields over the control by a factor of more than 3.5 on Knappa silt loam (pH 4.9 - 5.0) but did not measurably increase the soil pH. It was assumed that the wastes, in the immediate area of the shell material, increased the availability of Ca, P, S, and Mo, decreased soluble soil Al, and allowed effective rhizobial nodulation and N fixation. Increasing application rates of shrimp and crab wastes to Knappa and Nehalem silt loams significantly increased the extractable soil P and Ca, and significantly decreased the extractable soil K after 28 weeks of orchardgrass growth. No consistent effect on soil pH was measured. In a second greenhouse experiment, N rates of 165 and 330 kg/ha and P rates of 61 and 122 kg/ha were supplied by shrimp waste and by inorganic sources to a limed coastal soil in a 2 x 2 x 2 complete factorial arrangement. Applications of shrimp waste resulted in significantly higher orchardgrass yields and P uptake than applications of the inorganic nutrients, but no significant difference occurred in the N uptake. In an irrigated coastal pasture, fresh shrimp waste was applied at 6,726, 17,936, and 35,872 kg/ha and ammonium phosphate (16-20-0 15 S) was applied at 224 and 448 kg/ha and a stand of orchardgrass was established. Forage yields were higher with shrimp waste than with ammonium phosphate. Shrimp waste applications beyond 17,936 kg/ha did not further increase the forage yield or P uptake. Shrimp waste applications increased extractable soil P, SO₄ -S, soluble salts, and NO₃ -N, but resulted in a depletion of soil K when measured at the end of the growing season. Shrimp and crab processing wastes are effective sources of N and P for crop plants and should be applied at rates necessary to supply the recommended rates of N.
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19221. [Article] Effects of dispersion and parent population density on enclosed populations of Microtus montanus (Peale)
This field investigation was designed to further the understanding of the significant influence which parent population density, as well as dispersion, have on the dynamics of enclosed populations of the ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Effects of dispersion and parent population density on enclosed populations of Microtus montanus (Peale)
- Author:
- Smith, Jerome Stafford
This field investigation was designed to further the understanding of the significant influence which parent population density, as well as dispersion, have on the dynamics of enclosed populations of the montane vole, Microtus montanus (Peale). The study was conducted in Klamath County, Oregon from June, 1963 to February, 1964. The objectives were to investigate possible effects of parent population density on such characteristics of the ensuing generations as density, reproduction, survival, and movement, and to determine the effects of dispersion on a population. Four one-quarter acre enclosures were used during this study. Two contained voles from a 1962 high parent population density (E 4 and E 6) and two contained voles from a 1962 low parent population density (E 5 and E 7). A means for mice to disperse was provided in two enclosures (E 5 and E 6), one enclosing mice from a low parent population, the other, mice from a high parent population. All population characteristics were determined by live trapping from three to five days at two to six week intervals. The enclosed populations had comparable peak densities during December, with the exception of E 4 which was significantly lower than E 7. The ratio of increase was greatest in E 4 and E 6. E 6 supported the largest number of mice and E 4 the smallest. Males were dominant in E 4 and E 7 through most of the study. Females were dominant in E 5 throughout the study and in E 6 until December. E 5 and E 6 supported a larger percentage of young animals than did E 4 or E 7. E 4 had the highest average percent of females perforate, pregnant, and with mammary glands large or lactating; E 6 had the next highest percentages and E 5 and E 7 the smallest. Reproduction stopped in all enclosures after the November trapping period. All enclosures had very good survival through December but poor survival through January. The poor January survival was probably due to the presence of tularemia within the enclosures. E 4 and E 6 had consistently better cohort survival throughout the study than did E 5 and E 7. Juveniles survived best in all enclosures until August, after which time the sub-adults and adults had the better survival rate. E 6 had statistically better mean survival through December than did E 4 or E 7, and through January than either E 5 or E 7. The dispersal ramps captured 2.73 times more animals from E 6 than from E 5. During the study juvenile and sub-adult females and sub-adult and adult males were the only age classes of mice captured in the ramps until November when adult females were first caught. Most sacrificed dispersal males were found to be in breeding condition while only a few of the females had bred. Captures per ramp day were generally density dependent. Some differences observed in the population characteristics of the four enclosures can be attributed to parent population density and /or dispersion. High parent population density did not adversely affect reproductive potential or the survival of a vole after it had become established in a population. Prenatal mortality and the amount of wounding, an indication of intraspecific strife, was greatest in the enclosure with mice from a high parent population density and where dispersion was not allowed. Where dispersion was allowed recruitment was high, survival was good, and the amount of wounding was low regardless of parent population density. It is suggested that animals from a high parent population are selected for aggressiveness which eventually causes a disruption of the social structure. Dispersal tends to maintain a stable social structure until populations become dense, at which time dispersion is a less effective regulatory mechanism.
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19222. [Article] The impact of the Staggers Rail Act of 1980 on Pacific Northwest wheat transportation : a spatial equilibrium analysis
This study analyzes the impact of the 1980 Staggers Rail Act (SRA) on Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana) wheat transportation. A minimum cost uncapacitated transshipment network flow ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The impact of the Staggers Rail Act of 1980 on Pacific Northwest wheat transportation : a spatial equilibrium analysis
- Author:
- Cabeza, Felix
This study analyzes the impact of the 1980 Staggers Rail Act (SRA) on Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana) wheat transportation. A minimum cost uncapacitated transshipment network flow model is employed to simulate the origination and destination pattern of grain flows before (1977) and after (1985) the SRA. The grain transportation flow for those two years is compared and analyzed as a basis for measuring the impact of rail deregulation. The Transportation Simplex Algorithm is used to find the optimum (minimal cost) wheat transportation flow for the two time periods. Four modes of transportation—truck, barge, rail, and ocean carriers—are used to link a sample of inland grain elevators (source), barge terminals (transshipment), PNW ports on the Lower Columbia River and Puget Sound (transshipment), and foreign countries (sink). The empirical results indicate that the SRA has had a significant impact on modal distribution, overall transportation costs, and rate competition. Under the assumption of perfect information and profit maximizing behavior, and considering both single car and multicar rates, two-thirds of the total PNW wheat traffic should have moved by rail in 1985. This represents a significant increase compared to 1977, when this percentage was estimated at only 46.43 percent. This increase in rail modal share has come at the expense of truck-barge shipments. The truck-barge share of wheat transportation declined from 47.53 percent in 1977 to 25.66 percent in 1985. Most of this increase in rail shipment is the result of lower shipping costs offered through multicar rates. If only single car rail rates are considered in 1985, the rail market share is only 25.66 percent; while truckbarge market share is 66.60 percent. The volume of wheat exported through the Lower Columbia River ports and Puget Sound appears not to have been affected by the SRA. Overall wheat transportation cost decreased significantly over this time interval. In nominal terms, it cost an average of 5.32 percent less in 1985 than in 1977 to transport a metric ton of PNW wheat to the port terminals on the west coast. When adjusted for inflation, average wheat transportation cost decreased around 44 percent. Sensitivity analysis showed that the wheat transportation market in the PNW has been very competitive since 1977 with some apparent changes in market behavior. First, railroads had a greater ability in 1985 than in 1977, to capture wheat traffic from truck-barge by lowering rates. When rail rates are reduced by one percent, rail traffic increases 7.93 percent in the 1985 model and only 2.40 percent in the 1977 model. Rail rate increases, on the other hand, lead to higher traffic losses in 1977 than in 1985. For an increase of one percent in rail rates, rail traffic decreased 10.21 percent in 1977, and only 4.76 percent in 1985. The conclusion of this study is that there has been a significant diversion of wheat traffic from truck-barge to rail, during the period of rail deregulation. Overall transportation costs have also decreased, and the railroads ability to capture wheat traffic by reducing rates has been enhanced. It is concluded that the impact of the SRA on PNW wheat transportation is due largely to the introduction of multicar rates by the railroads serving the region. The implications of these findings are that railroad deregulation has provided many of the benefits expected by this legislation. Shippers are favored by the SRA because they are paying lower transportation costs. Railroads have benefited, to the extent that their market share has increased. Barge companies, however, have been adversely influenced by the SRA because they have lost their modal share of wheat traffic to railroads. Shippers, while benefiting from lower rates, seems now more vulnerable to the potential for future rail rate increases.
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19223. [Article] A study of the accuracy in the methods of sampling, preserving, and testing milk for fat at Oregon milk plants
A study was undertaken to determine, by methods and equipment, the variations between of sampling, preserving, and testing milk for fat during the various seasons of the year, and to try and solve the ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- A study of the accuracy in the methods of sampling, preserving, and testing milk for fat at Oregon milk plants
- Author:
- Robichaux, Roy Paul, 1909-
A study was undertaken to determine, by methods and equipment, the variations between of sampling, preserving, and testing milk for fat during the various seasons of the year, and to try and solve the problem whereby the sampling, preserving, and testing of milk for fat at milk plants could be more uniformly accomplished by different operators. During the period from May 1939 to April 1940 a total of 2064 tests by the Babcock method and 1032 tests by the Mojonnier method were made according to a standardized procedure. A total of 900 daily samples of milk, 12 five day-, 60 seven day-, and 60 fifteen-day composite samples of milk were included in the tests that comprised 10 complete "Units" over the different seasons of the year. Small decreases occurred in the fat percentages of composite samples as compared to the average of daily tests on the same samples of milk. These decreases amounted to 0.016, 0.021, and 0.027 for the five-, seven-, and fifteen-day composites respectively by the Babcock method of testing and 0.023, 0.021, and 0.055 for the three storage periods by the Mojonnier method of testing. The above decreases wore not found to be significant when the data was subjected to a statistical analysis. The Babcock results averaged approximately 0.075 higher in the percentage than the Mojonnier results on the same fresh samples of milk and also on the 5, and 7 day composites. The Babcock results averaged 0.104- higher than the Mojonnier on the 15-day composites. The differences obtained by the Babcock and Mojonnier methods of testing on both daily and composite samples of milk were found to be very significant. Numerous variations from standardized procedure were conducted to determine the effect of such variations on the final fat test. This comparative study included more than 2000 individual tests by the Babcock method and 165 individual determinations by the Mojonnier analysis. Results of these tests showed that: Variations in handling 7, and 15 day composites, such as, storage temperatures of 70° F. or above, not mixing the daily portions properly, and using unsterilized bottles, caused decreases from the average daily tests which amounted to between 0.04 and 0.14. Formalin did not prove to be superior to mercuric chloride as a preservative of milk samples, Saponin did not prevent the decline in the test of composite milk samples. Glymol added to the fat column to remove the upper meniscus in the Babcock test lowered the test by 0.192. The following variations in the Babcock testing technique were found to have a significant effect on the final results obtained: Varying the temperature of the milk above er below normal when measuring the portion for the tests; Using acid of unstandardized strength and incorrect temperature; Varying the temperature of reading the fat column above and below normal; Varying the speed of the centrifuge above or below the specified speed; Using test bottles that varied more than 0.015cc. from the correct capacity of 1.600 cc. in the calibrated portion. The following variations in the Babcock testing technique were found to have slight but noticeable effects on the final fat tests: Not using a proper lighting system to determine the exact position of the upper meniscus in reading the test; Adding water to the tests of such a temperature that the fat column migrated downward at least one inch in tempering at 138° F.; Using speeds of the centrifuge above that which was specified. Results of miscellaneous studies showed that: Duplicate tests by the Mojonnier method checked within an average variation of 0.0064 and a maximum variation of 0.015; Pasteurization of milk prevented the increased difference in results between the Babcock and Mojonnier methods of testing on samples stored for 15- days; Smaller differences were obtained on the same tests by different readers when read by the reading light than were obtained when the light was not used; Errors of 0.05 in reading the Babcock test were attributed to inability to determine the exact position of the top meniscus on the fat column; Dumping the milk in weigh vats at milk plants did not cause enough agitation to incorporate the cream sufficiently to obtain an accurate sample; Closer agreements were obtained with the Babcock and Mojonnier methods on the same sample of milk from Holstein and Ayrshire cows than were obtained on the milk from Jersey cows.
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19225. [Image] Bull Trout, Salvelinus Confluentus... Draft Recovery Plan, Chapter 2, Klamath River Recovery Unit...U.S. Department Of The Interior
KLAMATH RIVER RECOVERY UNIT CHAPTER OF THE BULL TROUT RECOVERY PLAN EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CURRENT SPECIES STATUS Klamath River bull trout were listed as a distinct population segment ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Bull Trout, Salvelinus Confluentus... Draft Recovery Plan, Chapter 2, Klamath River Recovery Unit...U.S. Department Of The Interior
- Year:
- 2008, 2005
KLAMATH RIVER RECOVERY UNIT CHAPTER OF THE BULL TROUT RECOVERY PLAN EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CURRENT SPECIES STATUS Klamath River bull trout were listed as a distinct population segment in 1998 (63 FR 31647) because they are physically isolated from other bull trout by the Pacific Ocean and several small mountain ranges in central Oregon. Recovery of bull trout in the Klamath River Recovery Unit, which includes three core areas and nine currently identified local populations, will require cooperation from Federal, State, and local agencies, and Tribal and private entities. Within the Klamath River Recovery Unit, abundance has been severely reduced and remaining populations are fragmented. HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITING FACTORS Watershed disruption has played a major role in the decline of bull trout in the Klamath River basin. The effects of historical land use on fish habitat in the larger tributaries and mainstem rivers of the Klamath River basin have been profound. Channelization, water withdrawals, removal of streamside vegetation, and other disturbances have altered the aquatic environment by elevating water temperatures, reducing water quantity and quality, and increasing sedimentation. Changes in or disruptions to watershed processes that influence characteristics of stream channels have also influenced the dynamics and persistence of bull trout populations. Klamath River basin bull trout are threatened by habitat degradation, past and present land use management practices, agricultural water diversions, and competition or hybridization from normative brown and brook trout. As a result of past land and resource management practices, bull trout populations in the Klamath River Recovery Unit are small, disjunct, and face a high risk of extirpation. IV RECOVERY GOAL AND OBJECTIVES The goal of the bull trout recovery plan is to ensure the long-term persistence of self-sustaining, complex interacting groups of bull trout distributed across the species range, so that the species can be delisted. In order to recover bull trout in the Klamath River, the following objectives need to be met: ? Maintain current distribution of bull trout and restore distribution in previously occupied areas within the Klamath River Recovery Unit, as noted in Appendix A. ? Maintain stable or increasing trends in abundance of bull trout within the Klamath River. This objective includes the expression of all life history strategies including resident, fluvial, and adfluvial forms in the Upper Klamath Lake core area and resident and fluvial forms in the Sycan River and Upper Sprague River core areas. ? Restore and maintain suitable habitat conditions for all bull trout life history stages and strategies. In core areas and migration corridors, stable or upward trends in habitat quality are achieved through landscape-level adjustments in land management strategies designed to maintain and/or enhance structural and functional attributes of upslope, riparian, and fluvial systems. ? Conserve genetic diversity and provide opportunity for interchange of genetic material among appropriate core populations. RECOVERY CRITERIA Recovery criteria for the Klamath River Recovery Unit reflect the stated objectives and consideration of population and habitat characteristics within the recovery unit. Using four population and habitat elements, the Klamath River Recovery Unit Team categorized bull trout into three groups of relative risk: diminished, intermediate, and increased. Team members evaluated bull trout under current and potential recovered conditions based on the number of local populations, adult abundance, population trends and variability, and connectivity of the system. These elements were derived from the best scientific information available concerning bull trout population and habitat requirements. Evaluation of these elements under a recovered condition assumed that actions identified within this chapter had been implemented. 1. Distribution criteria will be met when current distribution of bull trout in the 12 local populations is maintained and distribution is expanded by establishing bull trout in areas identified as suitable for potential local populations. The number of existing local populations by core area are as follows: Upper Klamath Lake, 3; Sycan River, 2; and Upper Sprague River, 7. Achieving criterion 1 entails maintaining existing local populations and establishing additional potential local populations in all core areas in the recovery unit to maintain current and recovered distribution. To achieve criterion 1 and to ensure a core area population of no fewer than 100 adult bull trout, establishing at least 5 to 7 local populations in the Klamath Lake core area among 15 potential local populations (2 to 5 new local populations), at least 5 to 7 local populations in the Sycan River core area from among 15 potential local populations (3 to 5 new local populations), and at least 10 to 12 local populations in the Upper Sprague River core area from among 25 potential local populations (3 to 5 new local populations) is necessary. 2. Abundance criteria will be met when the estimated number of adult bull trout is at least 8,250 individuals distributed among the Upper Klamath Lake, Sycan River, and Upper Sprague River core areas, based on 10 years of monitoring data. 3. Trend criteria will be met when adult bull trout exhibit stable or increasing trends in abundance in the Upper Klamath Lake, Sycan River, and Upper Sprague River core areas, based on 2 generations (10 years) of monitoring data. VI 4. Connectivity criteria will be met when specific barriers to bull trout migration in the Klamath River Recovery Unit have been addressed. In the Klamath River Recovery Unit, this objective means addressing passage: 1) existing culverts that impede passage should be replaced, including those on Threemile Creek at U.S. Forest Service Road 110 crossing, Brownsworth Creek at U.S. Forest Service Road 34 crossing, and Brownsworth Creek both 0.75 mile and 1.25 miles above U.S. Forest Service Road 34; the culvert 0.25 mile below U.S. Forest Service Road 34 (to prevent repeated washout); the large-diameter culvert at the Boulder Creek road crossing; culverts in the upper Sycan River watershed that are identified in the Fremont National Forest inventory; and several in the North Fork Sprague River drainage, namely, on North Fork Sprague River (2), Boulder Creek (1), Dead Cow Creek (1), and Sheepy Creek (1); 2) fish passage structures should be installed at water diversions on bull trout streams, and barriers should be removed, including on Cherry, Sevenmile, Sun, and Threemile Creeks; 3) fish screens should be installed to prevent fish from entering diversion canals or pipes, including on Long, Deming, Threemile, Sun, Sevenmile, and Cherry Creeks; 4) manmade barriers and entrainment should be evaluated and remedied to promote migratory bull trout; priority watersheds include Threemile, Long, Deming, Sevenmile, Cherry, Sun, and Long Creeks. The Klamath River Recovery Unit team expects that the recovery process will be dynamic and will be refined as more information becomes available. Future adaptive management will play a major role in recovery implementation and refinement of recovery criteria. The recovery unit criteria listed above will be used to determine when the Klamath River Recovery Unit is fully contributing to recovery of the Klamath River population segment. vn ACTIONS NEEDED Recovery for bull trout will entail reducing threats to the long-term persistence of populations and their habitats, ensuring the security of multiple interacting groups of bull trout, and providing habitat and access to conditions that allow for the expression of various life history forms. The seven categories are listed in Chapter 1; tasks specific to this recovery unit are provided in this chapter. ESTIMATED COST OF RECOVERY Total cost of bull trout recovery in the Klamath River Recovery Unit is estimated at about $26 million spread over a 25-year recovery period. Successful recovery of bull trout in the recovery unit is contingent on removing threats from nonnative species, eliminating barriers to fish movement, and improving habitat conditions within the Klamath River basin. Total cost includes estimates of expenditures by local, Tribal, State, and Federal governments and by private business and individuals. Cost estimates are not provided for tasks which are normal agency responsibilities under existing authorities. The estimated costs are attributed to bull trout conservation, but other aquatic species will also benefit. ESTIMATED DATE OF RECOVERY Time required to achieve recovery depends on bull trout status, factors affecting bull trout, implementation and effectiveness of recovery tasks, and responses to recovery tasks. A tremendous amount of work will be required to restore impaired habitat, reconnect habitat, and eliminate threats from nonnative species. Three to five bull trout generations (15 to 25 years), or possibly longer, may be necessary before identified threats to the species can be significantly reduced and bull trout can be considered eligible for delisting. vin
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19226. [Image] The Water Report - Klamath FERC CA/OR: dam removal
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. FERC is an abbreviation for Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. See the full report at http://www.thew...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Water Report - Klamath FERC CA/OR: dam removal
- Author:
- Envirotech Publications
- Year:
- 2005, 2008, 2006
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. FERC is an abbreviation for Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
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19227. [Article] Forestry
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19228. [Article] The Japanese beef market in a disequilibrium econometrics framework : implications for the U.S. - Japan beef market access agreement
The success of the U.S. government in persuading Japan to liberalize the beef market is viewed as a relief to the U.S. beef industry. The economic benefit (to the U.S. beef producers!) of the trade liberalization ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Japanese beef market in a disequilibrium econometrics framework : implications for the U.S. - Japan beef market access agreement
- Author:
- Anteneh, Berhanu
The success of the U.S. government in persuading Japan to liberalize the beef market is viewed as a relief to the U.S. beef industry. The economic benefit (to the U.S. beef producers!) of the trade liberalization however is yet to be seen. The size of this benefit is determined, among others, by (a) the net change in Japan's retail price due to the liberalization, (b) the price elasticity of demand for the U.S. beef in Japan, (c) the degree of price rise in the world market, and (d) the export capacity of the domestic sector. Availability of alternative beef sources and the degree of substitutability between the U.S. beef and those alternatives affect factor (b) and factor (d) depends on the extent to which beef and other meat products substitute each other in the domestic market both in production and consumption. Evaluation of the U.S. - Japan Beef Market Access Agreement (BMAA) therefore has become a high policy profile. In the interest of assessing possible policy effects of BMAA, several researchers have attempted to parameterize and quantify the Japanese demand for beef. The fact that this market is (a) semi-isolated from the rest of the world by restrictive import quota, (b) managed domestically by government parastatal, and (c) characterized by multi- and intensely differentiated beef with no parallel historical data has made the choice of economic theory and methodology difficult. While most researchers (Group 1) relied on conventional method [e.g. 55; 125], others (Group 2) [2] contend that managed import market may better be explained by a model of political nature. By assuming the usual competitive market behavior, Group 1 underestimates possible implications of existing market structure for building and estimating conventional econometric models. Group 2, on the other hand, limits itself to normative analysis. Due to the absence of consensus among researchers regarding implications of policy-relevant parameters, the desirability of the BMAA is still an unsettled policy issue. The general purpose of this study has been to generate some further information on Japan's beef market. In pursuant of this objective, an attempt is made to (a) show how significant the beef quality issue is in evaluating that market, (b) test the market equilibrium hypothesis, and (c) upon the acceptance of the alternative (disequilibrium) hypothesis, estimate the structural parameters from a model specified in the light of imperfections in the market. This fills the void in previous studies. Drawing on existing literature, the beef quality categories are shown to have been narrowing and, in fact, converging to the two middle categories, medium and common grades. It is suggested that future market studies may benefit from concentrating on these two grades in assessing competitiveness and substitutability with domestic beef. Understanding the nature of this convergence (i.e whether the shift is attributable to changes in cost or preference structure) may contribute to sound policy making. Based on (a) increased concentration in production and distribution sectors, (b) government intervention in beef and related markets, (c) high degree heterogeneity in beef, and (d) short-run supply inflexibility due to long fattening period and restrictive import policy, the Japanese beef market was hypothesized to have been in disequilibria due to incomplete market information. In testing this hypothesis, two data sets were used -Statistical Yearbook and the Family Income and Expenditure Survey. For reference purposes, they are referred to as Market I and Market II respectively. The equilibrium hypothesis was tested for uniform and upward and downward differential adjustment speeds. The uniform adjustment rate estimated from the reduced form price equation supports the hypothesis in both markets. The structural equations were then adjusted in the light of the imperfections in the market and structural parameters estimated using non-linear three stage least squares. Both upward and downward adjustment speeds in Market I suggest perfect flexibility in prices on annual basis. In Market II, prices are found to have been flexible downward but rigid otherwise. The upward rigidity in prices suggest excess demand. Perfect flexibility in prices on annual basis however may not suggest market equilibrium in a period less than a year. Consumers are found to be more price responsive than in previous studies implying a greater response of the demand for beef imports to changes in prices due to the liberalization than envisaged by previous studies. The demand for beef however is income inelastic suggesting a partial offsetting in the incremental demand for imports. Finally, consumers respond to changes in beef retail prices by consuming less fish and poultry.
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19229. [Article] Landscape features affecting genetic diversity and structure in East African ungulate species
Habitat loss and fragmentation is a crisis affecting wildlife worldwide. In Tanzania, East Africa, a dramatic and recent (<80 years) expansion in human settlement and agriculture threatens to reduce gene ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Landscape features affecting genetic diversity and structure in East African ungulate species
- Author:
- Crowhurst, Rachel Selena
Habitat loss and fragmentation is a crisis affecting wildlife worldwide. In Tanzania, East Africa, a dramatic and recent (<80 years) expansion in human settlement and agriculture threatens to reduce gene flow among protected areas for many species of large mammals. Wildlife linkages can mitigate population isolation, but linkage designs lacking empirical justification may be controversial and ineffective. Connectivity conservation requires an understanding of how biogeographic factors shaped gene flow prior to habitat loss or fragmentation, however the history of interaction among populations is rarely known. The goal of my study was to provide context for connectivity conservation in central and southern Tanzania by identifying landscape features that have shaped gene flow for three ungulate species with different dispersal capabilities. I investigated historical patterns of connectivity for Maasai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), impala (Aepyceros melampus), and eland (Tragelaphus oryx) by estimating genetic structure among four to eight protected areas per species. Genetic structure changes very slowly among large populations and thus is likely to reflect historical processes instead of recent anthropogenic influences. I collected noninvasive DNA samples and generated microsatellite genotypes at 8 to 15 loci per species, then estimated genetic diversity metrics (allelic richness, AR, and expected heterozygosity, H[subscript E]) for each population (defined by reserve). I also calculated genetic distance (F[subscript ST] and Nei's unbiased genetic distance, D[subscript hat]) and an estimate of gene flow (Nm) between all population pairs for each species. To elucidate the possible causes of genetic structure between these populations, I tested for isolation by distance and isolation by resistance based on a suite of biogeographic factors hypothesized to affect gene flow. To do this, I created GIS-based resistance surfaces that assigned different costs of movement to landscape features. I created one or more resistance surfaces for each hypothesis of landscape effect. I used circuit theory to estimate the cumulative resistance between each pair of reserves for each weighting scheme, and then performed Mantel tests to calculate the correlation between these resistances and the observed population pairwise genetic distances (D[subscript hat]). I chose the optimal resistance model for each species as the model that was most highly correlated with observed genetic patterns. To verify that the correlation of resistance models with genetic distance was not an artefact of geographic distance, I performed partial Mantel tests to calculate correlation while controlling for the effect of geographic distance. Finally, I compared historical gene flow patterns to the distribution of contemporary human activity to predict areas that are at risk of a loss of connectivity. Indices of genetic diversity were moderate for all three species and comparable to previously reported values for other savannah ungulates. Diversity (both H[subscript E] and A[subscript R]) was highest in eland and lowest in giraffe for these populations, and was not consistently correlated with reserve size as has been reported for other species in East Africa. Although patterns in genetic distance were broadly similar across all three species there were also striking differences in connectivity, highlighting the importance of cross-species comparisons in connectivity conservation. At this scale, resistance models based on slope strongly predicted population structure for all three species; distance to water was also highly correlated with genetic distance in eland. For all three species, the greatest genetic distances occurred between populations separated by the Eastern Arc Mountains, suggesting that the topography of this area has long acted as a barrier to gene flow, but this effect is present in varying degrees for each species. I observed high levels of historical gene flow between centrally located populations (Ruaha National Park and Rungwa Game Reserve) and those in the southwest (Katavi National Park and Rukwa Game Reserve). Although human settlement in this area has been low relative to other areas, the connection between the Katavi/Rukwa and Ruaha ecosystems may be threatened by increased human activity and warrants conservation. High levels of historical gene flow were also seen between reserves in the northeast (Tarangire National Park, Swagaswaga Game Reserve) and the central and southwest populations. These connections appear highly threatened due to current land use practices, and may have already suffered a loss of gene flow. Field surveys in the lands surrounding the northeastern reserves are needed to quantify current levels of connectivity and determine whether corridors could be established to maintain or restore gene flow with other reserves.
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New species introductions have been associated with the movement of people for thousands of years. For instance, horses were introduced into North America by Spanish explorers, while pigs were introduced ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- The phytosanitation of solid wood packaging materials using wood preservatives
- Author:
- Schauwecker, Christoph F.
New species introductions have been associated with the movement of people for thousands of years. For instance, horses were introduced into North America by Spanish explorers, while pigs were introduced by the Polynesians into many Pacific islands long before the establishment of permanent European settlements. Both of these species introductions resulted in significant changes in both the biological and cultural composition of these places. However, during the past century, the amount of material transported by people has greatly increased due to the globalization of the economy and breakthroughs in material handling technology. These breakthroughs, such as the steel shipping container and the wooden pallet, allow goods to be moved rapidly in a protected environment. This protected environment prevents goods from being damaged while in transit, but it has also improved the ability of pests to survive transit and resulted in invasive species introductions. The volume of goods being transported has steadily increased during the past 50 years and, thus, the number of species introductions has increased as well, resulting in a number of high profile pest introductions. For instance, the introduction of the Asian long horned beetle into Chicago and New York cost millions of dollars to eradicate and resulted in the loss of hardwood trees that previously lined the streets of these cities. In response to the Asian long-horned beetle and the introduction of the pine wood nematode into Europe, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations drafted and approved International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures Number 15. This measure recognizes solid wood packaging materials as an invasive species pathway and recommends sanitization through heat treatment or fumigation with methyl bromide. However, heat treatment or fumigation are imperfect mitigation tools. Thus, researchers continue to search for alternative methods. Wood preservatives have long been formulated to prevent insect and fungal attack of wood products exposed to warm humid climates, but the ability of these chemicals to eliminate existing insect and fungal colonies has not been investigated. In this study, a number wood preservative systems were investigated to determine if these chemical formulations can be used for this application and to determine if wood preservatives, in general, are suited for use in phytosanitary applications. A method for detecting the presence of wood boring insects through acoustic emissions was investigated. It was thought that a system of microphones and accelerometers could be used to detect wood boring insect presence and activity within a particular wood sample. These assumptions were based on earlier work conducted with termites. This system was to be used to determine if a sample contained wood boring insects prior to using it in the main study. However, acoustic emissions were not useful for this application, since feeding of the wood boring insects was sporadic, unlike termites which feed constantly. Determining the feasibility of using wood preservatives in phytosanitary applications was addressed in three trials: the ability of preservatives to penetrate insect galleries, the ability of the insect larvae and pupae to penetrate a treated barrier and the ability of established wood boring insect populations to complete their life cycle under field conditions in wood pressure treated with preservatives Preservatives completely penetrated between 80-100% of all insect galleries in western redcedar treated with ammoniacal copper quaternary compound, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate, or imidacloprid. However, barriers containing any of these three chemicals failed to prevent larvae from exiting the treated material, even in instances where the barrier was more than 6mm thick. The wood boring insects were unable to complete their life cycle under field conditions in pressure treated wood, while a large number of new house borer adults emerged from the untreated controls. The wood preservatives investigated act more as insecticides than larvacides. However, vacuum pressure impregnation of solid wood packaging materials with the appropriate chemicals could provide lasting protection against invasive species introductions, allowing for the rapid, yet safe transportation of goods around the world.
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In the tropics, widespread deforestation and conversion of primary forests to agricultural and pasture lands has resulted in losses of composition, structure, and functions of forest landscapes. Deforestation ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Landscape level patterns in biodiversity : plant species and biomass structure
- Author:
- Heider, Christopher
In the tropics, widespread deforestation and conversion of primary forests to agricultural and pasture lands has resulted in losses of composition, structure, and functions of forest landscapes. Deforestation in the tropics is typically preformed via slash-and-burn practices; the byproducts from combustion have been identified as the second-highest form of anthropogenically derived 'greenhouse-gases' (such as carbon dioxide) to the atmosphere, and have been linked to the warming of the earth. Landscape-scale measures of species composition and biomass structure of primary forests are important for two reasons: (i) they provide accurate, land-based measures to predict what has been lost due to land-uses, and (ii) they aid in the discovery of key factors which explain patterns in compositional and structural diversity that are useful for defining conservation objectives. In this thesis, I enumerate the landscape-level patterns in species composition and biomass and C structure for 20-0.79 ha primary tropical forest stands within the region of "Los Tuxtlas", Veracruz, Mexico. These 20 sites were selected to capture the variability in composition and structure with respect to an array of environmental variables. These variables included a wide elevational range (15-1280 m.a.s.l.), variable slopes (Range: 3-41% slope), 3 soil-types (ash derived, lava flows, and weathered soils), a gradient of mean annual temperatures (~19.5-25.7°C), a broad precipitation range (2500 - 4000 mm year⁻¹), a rainfall frequency range (i.e. max rainfall in 24 hours; ranged 30->100 mm day⁻¹), and 3 Holdridge Life Zones (Tropical Moist Forest, Subtropical Wet Forest, and Subtropical Lower Montane Rain Forest). Species composition was highly correlated with the environmental variables, particularly elevation. In general for plants ≥10 cm dbh, site species richness declined at a rate of ~2 species per 100 m rise in elevation. Forest sites located at similar elevations were most similar in their species compositions as compared with sites separated by large elevational differences. Despite the gradual change in species richness and composition, four sub-regions, or forest environments, within Los Tuxtlas were identified that had different species compositions and distinct combinations of elevation, soil-types, and climates. These four sub-regions were described as community-types according to their geographic location: Lowland-Reserve (LR), La Perla Plateau (LP), Volcanic Upslope (VU), and Cloud Forests (CF). The LR, LP, and VU community-types were coarsely described as Tropical Evergreen Forests (TEF's; INEGI 2001). All community-types corresponded with classifications within the Holdridge Life Zone System; the LR community-type was classified as Tropical (transition to Subtropical) Moist Forest; LP and VU community-types were classified as Subtropical Wet Forest, and the Cloud Forest community-type was classified as Subtropical Lower Montane Rain Forest. These community-types and Life Zones are useful tools for conservation, as they represent unique forests that collectively capture much of the variation in the species richness and compositional diversity of the Los Tuxtlas region. Unlike species composition, the variability in forest structure among the 18 TEF sites was not associated with the environmental variables of the Los Tuxtlas landscape. On average, TEF's had a total aboveground biomass (TAGB) of 422 ± 17 Mg ha⁻¹ and 205 ± 8 Mg ha⁻¹ total aboveground carbon (C). The TAGB and C pools for Cloud Forests was ~18% lower than TEF's, and averaged 346 ± 1 and 168 ± 1 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively. The majority of this biomass difference was due to large trees within the forest structure. Cloud Forests had generally fewer trees ≥70 cm dbh, and a more even distribution of trees 30-70 cm dbh than TEF's. The biomass contribution of large trees (≥70 cm dbh) accounted for most, if not all, of the variation in TAGB and C for these tropical forests. The relatively high TAGB and C pools implicates Los Tuxtlas forests as a significant pool of aboveground biomass and C within the Neotropics.
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In 1970, the Pacific Northwest (PNW) produced approximately 145,332,000 bushels of wheat (all types) with an average harvest value of over $220,000,000. White wheat comprised about 126,234,000 bushels ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- An analysis of hedging soft white wheat using the Chicago wheat futures market
- Author:
- Levy, Robert Louis
In 1970, the Pacific Northwest (PNW) produced approximately 145,332,000 bushels of wheat (all types) with an average harvest value of over $220,000,000. White wheat comprised about 126,234,000 bushels of that total, about 87 percent. In recent years the financial circumstances, for several reasons, have deteriorated for many farmers and grain handlers in the PNW. The reduced incomes have stimulated renewed exploration for some means of increasing revenues and/or stabilizing net prices received. The effective marketing of wheat in other areas of the U.S. involves the use of wheat futures markets. PNW producers and handlers of White wheat have not generally had this opportunity because the White wheat is not deliverable on existing futures contracts. Consequently, it is desirable to evaluate the feasibility of utilizing existing wheat futures contracts in spite of nondelivery. If the White wheat price patterns move in favorable relation to the price of deliverable wheats, then nondelivery may not preclude effective hedging. A one cent per bushel gain by successful hedging would add about 1.3 million dollars annually to producer income for White wheat in the PNW. Results for a ten year period indicate there are certain hedging strategies which appear to be profitable to PNW White wheat traders.The December wheat futures cortract prcvids long term gross benefits (not considering transaction costs or holding costs) of 5 to 7 cents per bushel on short hedges opened between the first week in March and the third week in March, and closed in the second or third week of May. Short hedge benefits for March futures averaged about 7 to 9 cents per bushel with opening dates between the first and third week of September and closing dates between the third week of January and the first week of March. Corresponding results for short hedges with May futures are 12.5 to 14.5 cents per bushel with opening dates between the last week of July and the last week of September and closing dates between the last week of April and the second week of May; and for the July and September futures, 8.5 to 10.5 cents per bushel with opening dates from the second week of October to the second week of November and closing dates between the second and third weeks of May. The optimum short hedges, all of which fall within the above indicated dates, were profitable nine out of ten years for May futures; eight out of ten years for December, July and September contracts, and seven out of ten years for March contracts. Long hedging strategies were not found to be as frequently profitable--eight out of ten years for July contracts; seven out of ten years for May contracts; six out of ten years for December and March contracts and five out of ten years for September contracts. Optimum long hedges using December futures provided 8.7 to 10.7 cents per bushel with opening dates between the second and third weeks of May and closing dates between the first week of July and the third week of September; for March futures, 10 to 12 cents per bushel with opening dates between the second and third weeks of May and closing dates between the first and third weeks of September; for May futures, 2.5 to 3.5 cents per bushel with opening dates between the second and fourth weeks of June and closing dates between the second week of August and the third week of September; for July futures, 7.5 to 9.5 cents per bushel with opening dates between the second and third weeks of May and closing dates between the first and second weeks of July; and for September contracts, 9. 3 to 11. 3 cents per bushel with opening dates in the second and third weeks of May and closing dates in the second week of September. In several instances, profits or losses were generated in both the cash and futures transactions, indicating that while several of the optimum strategies did generate overall profitable results, the hedge would really need to be considered a "speculative hedge" rather than a "traditional hedge" wherein cash and futures losses and gains are generally offsetting to at least some extent.
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Waste products from industry have often been disposed in landfills without regard for any beneficial uses of the product in agricultural production. This research was conducted to determine the effect ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Refractory metals processing waste utilization on Dayton silty clay loam soil
- Author:
- Polson, Richard Lewis
Waste products from industry have often been disposed in landfills without regard for any beneficial uses of the product in agricultural production. This research was conducted to determine the effect of a refractory metal processing waste product on (a) soil chemical and physical properties, (b) perennial ryegrass forage quality and seed yield, and (c) percolation water quality. Refractory metals processing waste was applied either as a slurry or dried to Dayton silty clay loam (sicl) at rates of 0, 5, 10, 25, and 50 tons/acre. Ammonium nitrate, concentrated superphosphate, muriate of potash, calcium sulfate, and lime were added to optimize plant growth. Lime, gypsum, and phosphorus fertilizer variables were incorporated into the study to investigate specific beneficial or problems areas associated with the waste product. The waste and fertilizers were tilled into the soil, and all plots seeded with perennial ryegrass (var. Linn) and irrigated. Elements found in the waste in excess of one percent included: Zr, Ca, F, Fe, Al, S, and C (as CO₃). Those elements found in concentrations ranging between 0.1 and 1.0 percent included: Hf, Mg, Na, Pb, P, NH₄-N, and K. The concentration of Cd, Ci, Co, Cr, Ni, Mn, and Mo were less than 1000 ppm. Soil pH, soluble salts, extractable Ca, Mg, NH₄-N, Zn, Ni, S, and F and the total Zr, Hf, and Pb content of the soil increased with waste application, while extractable Fe, Mn, and P levels decreased with waste application. Extractable Na, K, NO₃-N, Al, and Cu levels were not affected by waste application. The soluble salt content decreased from greater than 4.0 mmhos /cm in the fall to less than 1.7 mmnos /cm in the spring. The extractable Mg, Na, K, NH₄, NO₃, P, S, and Zn also decreased in the spring as compared to the fall levels. Acid extractable P levels were less than the minimum required for optimum crop production, 30 ppm. Iron, Mn, and Ni availability increased with time, due to the wet, reduced soil conditions present between sampling periods. Water percolation through the Dayton sicl soil increased with waste application, but soil moisture retention was not changed. Perennial ryegrass dry matter yields were not significantly changed by waste product additions, and were similar to yields obtained in commercial farm operations. Mean yields ranged from 2.6 to 3.3 tons/acre on the soils treated with dry waste, and 2.8 to 4.0 tons/acre on soils treated with the waste slurry. Clean seed yields were slightly less than normal, ranging from 754 to 1238 lbs /acre. The subnormal seed yields were probably due to seed loss during harvesting and cleaning. The waste additions did not affect seed viability. The Ca, Mg, K, P. Fe, Al, Mn, Cr, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Mo, F, Zr, Hf, and Pb contents of the perennial ryegrass were not significantly affected by waste application. The S, Na, and N uptake by the ryegrass increased at application rates of 50 ton/acre, compared to control plots, which indicated that the waste product may serve as a N and S fertilizer. Plant P levels were not significantly depressed by waste application, despite decreases in acid available P levels. Addition of 100 lbs P /acre did not significantly improve P uptake compared to soil treated with 25 lbs P/acre and similar amounts of waste. Ryegrass grown on soil that received no lime or waste showed significant reductions in uptake of Ca and Mo, compared to control plots. The addition of waste, 25 ton/acre, eliminated these reductions. The application of the waste product to the soil may pose a threat of fluoride pollution to groundwaters which would require special management practices. No other elemental hazards to groundwater were suggested. Utilization of refractory metals processing waste on Dayton sicl appears to be a viable waste disposal alternative, providing that further study establishes that F does not pose a threat to groundwaters under field conditions.
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Purpose of the Study The purposes of this study were to (1) identify the educational and socioeconomic characteristics of Latin American students who have graduated from the California State College system, ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Analysis of selected factors relating to academic success, utilization of training and return home of Latin American students who have graduated from the California State College system
- Author:
- Fretwell, David Herbert
Purpose of the Study The purposes of this study were to (1) identify the educational and socioeconomic characteristics of Latin American students who have graduated from the California State College system, (2) to identify those characteristics which significantly affect academic success, utilization of training and return home to Latin America after graduation and (3) to develop mathematical models for prediction of academic success, utilization of training and return home. Procedures A total of 146 students were included in the sample for this study. These students had graduated from the California State College system in the five years prior to August 30, 1971. Socio-economic and educational characteristics were obtained through a search of college records, interviews with faculty and staff and the mailing of a questionnaire to the students included in the sample. Academic success was defined by grade point average and utilization of training was measured in percentage by the amount of college training used by a graduate in his present job. A correlation analysis was completed to determine the relationship among the three dependent variables academic success, utilization of training and return home as well as the relationship between each of the dependent variables and the independent variables included in the study, Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses identified those characteristics contributing most significantly to academic success and utilization of training. These analyses were also used to develop prediction equations for academic success and utilization of training. Discriminant analyses were completed to test the null hypothesis that there was no significant difference between the returning and non-returning group of students and to construct a prediction model for return or non-return to native country. Findings 1. The correlation analysis indicated the following: (a) There was no significant relationship among the three dependent variables: academic success, utilization of training and return home. (b) Six independent variables had a significant relationship with academic success. One, bachelor's degree, was negatively correlated while the remainder, graduate degree training, average English grade, prior college in native country, education major and scholarship financing,were positively correlated. (c) No independent variables were identified that had a significant relationship with the dependent variable utilization of training. (d) Two independent variables, contact with Latin America while training and vacations spent in Latin America were positively correlated with the dependent variable return home. It was emphasized that these were simple linear relationships that did not indicate' causality. 2. The results of the linear regression analysis related to academic success indicated: (a) Nine variables were significantly related to academic success. Four of these variables had a positive relationship: average English grade, education major, "other" major (including majors other than agriculture, business, engineering and education) and vacations spent in Latin America. Five of these variables had a negative relationship: return home, California State Polytechnic College - San Luis Obispo, California State College - Long Beach, time in the U. S. before graduation, and F visa. (b) A prediction equation was constructed for academic success, The equation constructed included the variables: San Francisco State College, California State College - Long Beach, California, State Polytechnic College - San Luis Obispo, age, education, major and "other" major. 3. The results of the linear regression analysis related to utilization of training indicated: (a) Twelve variables were significantly related to utilization of training. Six of these had a positive relationship: bachelor's degree, engineering major, father's occupation similar to student's field of study, contact with Latin America while training, Latin America high school training and present employment at a higher level. Six of these variables had a negative relationship: age, marriage during training, family financing and follow-up contact after graduation. (b) A prediction equation was constructed for utilization of training. The equation constructed included the variables: Fresno State College, prior employment in field of training, father's occupation similar and orientation program available. 4. The null hypothesis, stating that there was no significant difference between the returning and non-returning groups of students, could not be rejected on the basis of the discriminant analyses completed. Therefore a prediction model for return could not be constructed.
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19235. [Article] Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data
Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data
- Author:
- Buffington, Kevin John
Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, new methods are required that integrate data from the field and remote sensing platforms. Marsh elevation response models can be calibrated with site-specific data to determine the vulnerability of a marsh to sea-level rise and help guide management decisions. Elevation models are sensitive to initial elevation, the rate of accretion, and aboveground biomass. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to develop techniques to improve these important model inputs and evaluate the range of spatial and temporal variation. Light detection and ranging (lidar) is an invaluable tool for collecting elevation data, however dense vegetation prevents the accurate measurement of the tidal marsh surface. In Chapter 2, I describe the development of a technique to calibrate lidar digital elevation models with survey elevation data using readily available multispectral aerial imagery from the National Agricultural Inventory Program (NAIP). Using survey elevation data across 17 Pacific Coast tidal marshes, I demonstrated the utility of the Lidar Elevation Adjustment with NDVI (LEAN) technique to account for the positive bias in lidar due to vegetation. LEAN reduced error from an average of 23.1 cm to 7.2 cm root mean squared error and removed the positive bias caused by vegetation. This increase in accuracy will facilitate more accurate assessments of current and future vulnerability to sea-level rise. The phenology of aboveground biomass in tidal marsh plants in relation to climate variation has not been explored in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). In Chapter 3 I explain how I leveraged the Landsat archive and cloud computing capabilities to assess how Tasseled Cap Greenness (TCG, a proxy for aboveground biomass) in three PNW tidal marshes has responded to recent variation in climate to characterize sensitivity to climate change. Through analysis of over 3700 Landsat images obtained from 1984-2015, I found increased annual precipitation resulted in a higher peak TCG, while warmer May temperatures resulted in an earlier day of peak TCG. These results also demonstrate how time-series analysis of remote sensing data can be used to examine the sensitivity of tidal marsh plants to climate variability and directional change. The range of variation in tidal marsh accretion rates has not been characterized across the PNW. For Chapter 4, I collected and analyzed twenty-two soil cores from eight estuaries to estimate historic accretion rates with radioisotope dating techniques and evaluated the amount and source of variation across estuaries. I found that tidal marshes across the PNW had accretion rates greater than the current rate of sea-level rise, ranging from 2.3 – 7.3 mm yr⁻¹. Using a watershed-scale analysis, I found that long-term average annual fluvial discharge was the top predictor of tidal marsh accretion rates. Additionally, I found that calibrating the Wetland Accretion Rate Model for Ecosystem Resilience (WARMER) with accretion rate data from nearby estuaries can result in uncertainties of up to 41% (50 cm) after 100 years. Finally, in Chapter 5, I demonstrate that a range of 62 cm of error is possible in WARMER models after a 100 year simulation when both uncorrected lidar and non-local accretion rates are used, fundamentally changing the interpretation of the results. Altogether, this dissertation illustrates the importance of collecting site-specific wetland vegetation and elevation data and demonstrates how lidar and multispectral remote sensing data can be leveraged to improve our understanding of how climate variability and change impacts coastal ecosystems.
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19236. [Article] The economic impact of the 1964 Fair Employment Practices Act and subsequent executive orders on Black Americans
The economic status of the Black Americans has lagged far behind that of non-Black Americans in the last four centuries. The major reasons are manifested in (1) discrimination in employment practices by: ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The economic impact of the 1964 Fair Employment Practices Act and subsequent executive orders on Black Americans
- Author:
- Mbatia, Oliver Lee E.
The economic status of the Black Americans has lagged far behind that of non-Black Americans in the last four centuries. The major reasons are manifested in (1) discrimination in employment practices by: employers, public and private employment agencies, labor organizations, and apprenticeship agencies; and (2) discrimination in distribution of factor inputs. To bring about economic equality the Presidents of the United States have issued various Executive Orders. Eight years ago the United States Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII of this Act is known as the Equal Employment Opportunity Title) and made it unlawful to discriminate in employment because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and other Presidential Executive Orders on the related economic status of Black Americans. To examine this question, an economic model was developed. In this model, employers are assumed to have a "taste for discrimination," which causes them to have two different market demand curves for Blacks and non-Blacks. In hiring Black workers, employers feel that they incur a cost in addition to the market wage. Therefore Black workers are paid lower wages than non-Black workers in order for employers to compensate their "psychic cost." In this imperfect market Black workers are not perfect substitutes for non-Black workers. The enactment of the Fair Employment Practices laws (FEP) was, presumably, designed to encourage employers to regard Black workers as perfect substitutes for non-Black workers. Through causing employers "taste for discrimination" to disappear, it is expected that the demand curve for Black workers will shift to the right. The increase in demand would effect an increase in employment and wages for the Black Americans. On the other hand, negative effects could cause an increase in the wage rate and an increase in the unemployment rate. It is argued that the non-Black wage would remain the same, but, in the absence of eliminating the "taste for discrimination" the laws could result in an increase in the unemployment rate of the non-Blacks. The quantitative analysis was made by use of the census data in examining variables selected to measure economic status: viz., income, unemployment rates, and occupation distribution. In order to isolate the effects of the FEP laws on these variables, other variables were included, such as growth rate of Gross National Product and a dummy variable to test the impact of the war. Three statistical techniques were employed to evaluate the general overall economic progress of Blacks and the impact of the FEP laws. The statistical techniques are: least square regression analysis, analysis of variance, and information theory analysis technique. The regression results of many coefficients were not statistically significant at the five percent level of significance. In one instance the FEP laws effect variable was significant at the ten percent level of significance, suggesting that there may exist a relationship between that variable and unemployment rates. The statistical tests do not persuade one to conclude that the FEP laws have had significant impacts on the improvement of the economic status of the Black Americans. However, finding an expected sign on the estimated coefficients the FEP law effect variable suggests that the FEP laws, if more fully implemented, might lead to a reduction in unemployment and an increase in wage rate for Black Americans as a result of a shift in the demand curve for Black labor. The analysis of variance, revealed race itself to be dominantly significant as the cause of economic inequality of the two races. The racial entropy index distribution shows that the Blacks have made some progress in some occupations and have moved to better paying jobs. The descriptive analysis of the charges filed over the four year fiscal period, indicate that over 50 percent of the charges were directed to employers; and that the factor of race was very frequently given as the basis of the discrimination.
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19237. [Article] Evaluation of bamboo as livestock forage and applications of Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria products in agriculture
Byproducts of bamboo processing, such as leaves and branches, may have potential as a livestock feedstuff. The objectives of this study were to evaluate seasonal changes in proximate composition of several ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Evaluation of bamboo as livestock forage and applications of Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria products in agriculture
- Author:
- Greenway, Stephanie L.
Byproducts of bamboo processing, such as leaves and branches, may have potential as a livestock feedstuff. The objectives of this study were to evaluate seasonal changes in proximate composition of several bamboo species and reed canarygrass, and subsequently determine the digestibility of bamboo in ponies. Monthly samples of Phyllostachys bissetii, Phyllostachys henon, Sasa pumila, and reed canarygrass were evaluated for dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) content over one year. Dry matter, ash, and CP for the bamboos and reed canarygrass were significantly influenced by an interaction between time of sampling and forage type (P<.0001; Extra-SS F-test). There were no interaction, quadratic, or linear effects of time on EE (P>.10; Extra-SS F-test). Neutral detergent fiber and ADF for all forages also were not affected by interactions or quadratic terms; however, a linear explanation of trends was significant. Two adult pony mares were used in a crossover design experiment to evaluate DM, CP, ADF, and NDF digestibility (DMD, CPD, ADFD, and NDFD, respectively) of the temperate bamboo, P. bissetii. The diets consisted of either l-inch chopped bamboo or grass hay. Feces were collected over 5-d periods after adaptation to diets. Dry matter digestibility, CPD, ADFD, and NDFD of the forages were generally below 30% in both ponies, with the CPD of bamboo being the only exception (75.4% for Pony A and 59.6% for Pony B). Acid detergent ash and acid detergent lignin values obtained for bamboo fed during both fecal collection periods were 2.9% and 3.6%, and 10.0% and 11.1%, respectively. The digestibility results indicate that bamboo foliage is similar in feed value to low-quality grass hay, with a DMD of approximately 30%. Feces from the two pony mares used in the previous in vivo experiment were collected to provide a source of inoculum for the in vitro dry matter disappearance {IVDMD) determination of four forages. Feedstuffs analyzed included bamboo fed during the two fecal collection periods of the previous in vivo experiment, as well as orchard grass hay and alfalfa hay. The effect of different levels (0, 250, 500, 750, 1500, and 3000 ppm) of Yucca schidigera extract (YE) on IVDMD of the bamboos and hays was determined. Addition of either 250 or 500 ppm YE did not affect bamboo IVDMD, whereas 3000 ppm decreased the digestibility of Bamboo Band increased that of orchard grass hay. Variable responses were seen when Bamboo B was treated with 750 ppm YE. No effect on alfalfa hay IVDMD was seen at any treatment level. The effects of YE treatment on feedstuffs in vitro are variable depending upon treatment level and type of forage evaluated. Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria products were evaluated for their capacity to reduce ammonia emissions from poultry excreta. Yucca extract (YE), quillaja extract (QE), yucca ultra (YU), quillaja ultra (QU), yucca powder (DK-30), and quillaja powder (QCP) were evaluated at 0, 20, and 200 μL (mg for powders) per 5 g of excreta (wet wt.). Saponin, non-saponin, tannin, and non-tannin fractions of YE and QE (200 μL/5 g excreta) were also evaluated for ammonia reduction. Treatment with 200 μL QE/5 g excreta significantly reduced ammonia emissions when compared to all other products at either treatment level (P<.0001). All other treatments within the same level, but between different products were not significantly different from each other or the control (P>.05), except for DK-30. The higher treatment level (200 μL/5 g excreta) for all products combined was more effective (P<.0001) in reducing ammonia than 20 μL, which is to be expected. Treatment with the extracted fractions at 200 μL/5 g excreta were significantly different (P<.05) from each other when product type was not taken into account, except when comparing the percent ammonia reduction from carbohydrate treatment to that of the tannin fraction. Comparison of product means with all tannin, saponin, non-tannin, and non-saponin treatments combined were significantly different (P<.05). Pairwise comparisons of treatment fraction and product could not be obtained in the Mixed Linear Model. Of all standard products, QE reduced ammonia the most. The tannin-free component from both YE and QE appeared to be particularly effective in reducing emissions, with that of QE having the greater percent reduction. The reduced ammonia emissions observed when the non-saponin, and particularly the non-tannin fraction of YE and QE were applied to poultry excreta indicate the need for further investigation into determining the active compound in the non-saponin liquid.
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19238. [Article] Efficacy of water, sodium hypochlorite, peroxyacetic acid, and acidified sodium chlorite for reducing microorganisms on in-shell hazelnuts
Hazelnuts are commonly consumed raw and are valued for their numerous health benefits and antioxidant properties. Increased foodborne illness outbreaks associated with Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7 ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Efficacy of water, sodium hypochlorite, peroxyacetic acid, and acidified sodium chlorite for reducing microorganisms on in-shell hazelnuts
- Author:
- Weller, Lisa D.
Hazelnuts are commonly consumed raw and are valued for their numerous health benefits and antioxidant properties. Increased foodborne illness outbreaks associated with Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7 contamination of tree nuts and peanuts generate a need for improving agricultural sanitation procedures. Food-safe chemical sanitizers have shown promise for reducing pathogenic organisms on fresh produce, but minimal research has been conducted for in-shell nuts. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of water and three food-safe sanitizers on a) the natural microbial load of postharvest in-shell hazelnuts and b) populations of pathogenic Salmonella (S. enterica subsp. enterica ser. Panama) inoculated and dried onto the surfaces of in-shell hazelnuts. The first phase of the study investigated the effectiveness of water, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl; 25 ppm, 50 ppm), peroxyacetic acid (PAA; 80 ppm, 120 ppm), and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC; 990 ppm) as sanitizers for use on postharvest in-shell hazelnuts. Treatments were applied to two groups of freshly harvested hazelnut samples to examine their effects on total aerobic microorganism populations during different times of harvest (Group 1 = early season, dry weather; Group 2 = late season, rainy weather). Treatments within each group included hazelnuts that underwent a tap water rinse, a tap water rinse followed by a water spray, and a tap water rinse followed by a chemical spray. Due to excess soil attached to shell surface, hazelnuts harvested later in the season (Group 2) had an initial population mean 2.24 log CFU/hazelnut greater than hazelnuts harvested earlier in the season (Group 1). All treatments, including water, resulted in significant population reductions compared to untreated controls (P≤0.05). Rinsing with tap water produced reductions of 0.38 log units in both groups, and additional water spraying resulted in reductions of 0.83 and 0.73 log units in Group 1 and Group 2, respectively. None of the chemical treatments were significantly more effective than the water spray treatment in Group 1; however, several chemical treatments in Group 2 were significantly more effective than water spraying. Tight adherence to shell surfaces during dry weather may have increased the chemical resistance of microorganisms on hazelnuts. Treatment with ASC produced the greatest reduction in Group 1 and Group 2 compared to the control (1.22 and 2.08 log units, respectively) and water spray treatments (0.39 and 1.39 log units, respectively), but the efficacies varied between treatment groups. Wide variation between Group 1 and Group 2 treatment results made determination of chemical efficacy difficult. The second phase of the study analyzed the effectiveness of water, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl; 25 ppm, 50 ppm), peroxyacetic acid (PAA; 80 ppm, 120 ppm), and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC; 450 ppm, 830 ppm, 1013 ppm) as sanitizers for reducing Salmonella on in-shell hazelnuts. Hazelnut samples were soaked in pure cultures of S. Panama for 24 h, air dried for 66 h, and then sprayed with water and chemical treatments. Surviving S. Panama populations were evaluated using a non-selective medium (tryptic soy agar), followed by a selective overlay (xylose lysine deoxycholate agar) after a 3 h incubation period. Tight adhesion prevented significant population decreases from physical removal by water, which allowed for clear demonstration of chemical effectiveness. All of the chemical treatments significantly reduced the S. Panama population (P≤0.05) compare to untreated and water-sprayed samples. The most effective concentrations of ASC, PAA, and NaOCl treatments resulted in mean microbial population reductions of 2.65, 1.46, and 0.66 log units, respectively. Overall, physical removal of excess dirt appeared to have the greatest effect on the microbial population reductions of postharvest in-shell hazelnuts, and adherence to shells during dry weather appeared to increase the chemical resistance of microorganisms. Future sanitation experiments should consider weather and levels of excess soil on hazelnuts as factors in the apparent efficacy of chemical sanitizers. Testing chemical sanitizers against tightly-adhered Salmonella cells provided consistent results with clear demonstration of chemical efficacies. Acidified sodium chlorite at 1013 ppm was significantly more effective at reducing Salmonella populations than other treatments and shows the greatest potential for use as a postharvest sanitation treatment. Thorough rinsing of hazelnuts in clean tap water, followed by spraying with high concentrations of acidified sodium chlorite could help increase the efficacy of current hazelnut processing.
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19239. [Article] Activity, composition and structure of soil microbial communities in Savannah shrubs of agroecosystems in semi-arid Senegal
Piliostigma reticulatum and Guiera senegalensis are two native shrubs that coexist with row crops in parkland systems of the Sahel of Africa. Although permanently green all year around in soil depleted ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Activity, composition and structure of soil microbial communities in Savannah shrubs of agroecosystems in semi-arid Senegal
- Author:
- Diedhiou, Sire
Piliostigma reticulatum and Guiera senegalensis are two native shrubs that coexist with row crops in parkland systems of the Sahel of Africa. Although permanently green all year around in soil depleted in nutrients and dry for a nine-month period, these shrubs have been largely overlooked. Conventional management of these shrubs involves coppicing and burning of aboveground biomass each spring to prepare for the summer cropping season. Previous research has shown these shubs can provide high amount of biomass carbon at landscape levels and that they can, through their roots, move water from the wet subsoil to the dry surface soil at night when photosynthesis stops (hydraulic redistribution). However, the influence of these shrubs on the soil microbial communities and their role in biogeochemical processes is largely unknown. This dissertation reports studies that have been carried out to investigate the impact of these shrubs on the soil microbial communities. The rhizosphere effect of these two dominant shrubs was investigated during both the rainy season and dry season by studying the soil microbial structure, composition and activity. This was done by: 1) profiling microbial communities through phospholipids fatty acid (PLFA) analysis and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE); 2) assaying enzymes (acid phosphatase, β-glucosidase, cellulase, chitinase, urease); and 3) measuring microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and mineral nitrogen dynamics. Decomposition studies were conducted to determine the potential of nonthermal management of shrub residues. This was done by determining the influence of shrub canopy, macrofauna, and residue type on shrub litter decomposition and microbial dynamics under field and laboratory conditions. Microbial communities were more diverse, more active and had greater biomass in shrub rhizospheres. The rhizosphere communities during the dry season were similar to the rhizosphere and bulk communities during the wet season. This suggests that shrub rhizosphere provide root exudates and/or water via hydraulic redistribution that supports microbial communities during the dry season. PLFA and enzyme activities were highly correlated and were more sensitive than DGGE in distinguishing the communities temporally and spatially. PLFA profiling showed that the rhizosphere effect was dominated by fungi and Gram-positive bacteria communities, and stimulated acid phosphatase and β-glucosidase activities. Macrofauna access to shrub residue resulted in higher decomposition rates with 70 to 90% loss of mass after 210 days. There was an increase of MBC and enzyme activities when macrofauna were allowed, and beneath shrub canopy as opposed to outside of the canopy. In a laboratory incubation study, the influence of shrub rhizosphere/canopy on soil was greater than the residue effect on the activity of soil microbial communities. Decomposition of residues showed that leaf litter had a greater impact on soil microbial communities and enzyme activities than did stem materials or stem/leaf mixes. Cellulase and β-glucosidase were highly correlated with the fungal markers and Gram-positive bacteria markers. In conclusion, the results showed that Piliostigma reticulatum and Guiera senegalensis are stimulating microbial activity and communities even in the dry season after six or more months without rainfall. Besides C inputs through litter fall, root turnover and exudates, this suggests that shrubs maintain moisture levels in the dry season for microorganisms by performing hydraulic redistribution of water from wet subsoils to dry surface soils at night through a passive water potential gradient. Consequently, shrubs are maintaining soil health and can drive biogeochemical processes year round which has not been previously recognized. These results provide a foundation to actively manage these shrubs to conserve Sahelian landscapes and to optimize agricultural productivity.
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19240. [Article] Certain genetic and maternal environmental influences on growth rate and body composition of lambs
The present study was designed to investigate the relationship of milk production and milk quality to growth rate and certain organ-oleptic measurements of lambs of mutton breeds, Nine mature ewes in their ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Certain genetic and maternal environmental influences on growth rate and body composition of lambs
- Author:
- Addleman, Albert Duane
The present study was designed to investigate the relationship of milk production and milk quality to growth rate and certain organ-oleptic measurements of lambs of mutton breeds, Nine mature ewes in their fourth lactation of the Border Cheviot, Dorset Horn, Columbia, Suffolk, and Willamette breeds were acquired making a total of 45 ewes. An attempt was made to synchronize parturition, The reason for synchronizing parturition was to have all the ewes lamb during a narrow interval of days so that milk production and its effects on growth could be measured under environmental conditions that were as similar as possible. The ewes were milked by use of oxytocin to cause them to eject the milk in the udder after which they were kept separate from their lambs for six hours and milked again. The milk obtained for the six-hour period was weighed and the quantity recorded. A representative sample was taken from milk of each ewe for composition analyses. The average percentage composition of the milk from ewes was found to be: protein, 5.46; lactose + ash, 5.40; solids-not-fat, 10.86; fat, 8.43, total solids, 19.29; and water, 80.71. There were no significant differences (P >.05) between breeds for the percentage of milk components studied. During the first eight weeks of lactation the breeds studied had produced 74 percent and by ten weeks they had produced 87 percent of the milk yield for the total lactation period. The breeds ranked in the following order on the basis of milk yield and milk quality: Suffolk, Willamette, Dorset Horn, Border Cheviot, and Columbia. The latter two breeds were approximately equal. Ewes nursing twin lambs produced 25 percent more milk than ewes nursing single lambs, The peak of lactation occurred in the third and fourth weeks of lactation, The average grams of milk produced per day for ewes nursing single and twin lambs, respectively, are as follows for the five breeds: Border Cheviot 1, 016, 1, 669; Dorset Horn 1, 617, 1, 778; Columbia 1,366, 1,684; Suffolk 1,527, 2,287; and Willamette 1, 552, 1, 951. A set of twins gained on the average 40.7 percent more than a single lamb. Single lambs gained 15.7 percent rnore weight than the average of a set of twins. The Willamette had the highest average daily gain and was followed in order by the Suffolk, Columbia, Dorset Horn, and Border Cheviot. The average grams of milk consumed for each gram of gain for single and twin lambs, respectively, are as follows; Border Cheviot 3.964, 3.455; Dorset Horn 5.472, 3.424; Columbia 4.406, 3.716; Suffolk 4.326, 3.882; and Willamette 4.193, 3.114. It was concluded that a large portion of the nutrients required for lamb growth and fattening must be supplied by foods other than milk. Highly significant differences among breeds of sheep (P <.01) were found to exist for weaning weight. Weight differences between sexes within a breed were not significant, and there appeared to be no significant interaction between breed and sex. A correlation coefficient of 0.84 between total gain of the lamb and total grams of milk produced by its dam was highly significant. Seventy percent of the variation in total gain is accounted for by variation in total milk yield. The breeds ranked in the following order for carcass tenderness and composite preference of meat; Columbia, Willamette, Dorset Horn, Border Cheviot, and Suffolk. It was postulated that lamb weight at eight to ten weeks of age would be a better criterion by which to cuIl low producing ewes and to select replacement females and males than the 120-day weight. The conformation score, composite preference score, tenderness score, and the percentage of protein, solids-not-fat, milk fat, and total days nursed, were not affected by the breed, sex or rearing of the lambs studied. Only 100-day weight and condition scores were affected by breed. Total gain of the lamb was affected by the quantity of milk and milk components produced by the dam.
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19241. [Article] Effects of pollen collected by honey bees from pollination dependent agricultural cropping systems on honey bee nutrition
Managed honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies are important pollinators of many cultivated crops. Honey bee colony declines averaging 30% annually in the United States for the past 7 years have caused ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Effects of pollen collected by honey bees from pollination dependent agricultural cropping systems on honey bee nutrition
- Author:
- Topitzhofer, Ellen
Managed honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies are important pollinators of many cultivated crops. Honey bee colony declines averaging 30% annually in the United States for the past 7 years have caused significant concern and hence have been a topic of intensive investigation. These declines are reportedly due to multiple factors. Poor nutrition, which may be a result of current migratory pollination practices, is one such factor. Migratory pollination is a common practice of beekeepers from the Pacific Northwest and involves the placement of managed honey bee colonies within a series of cropping systems. There is a gap in knowledge on how migratory pollination practices impact honey bee nutrition. To understand the potential impacts of migratory pollination on honey bee nutrition, it is critical to assess the diversity of pollen collected by bees when colonies are placed adjacent to these cropping systems. In this study, we describe the diversity of pollen collected by honey bee colonies managed by beekeepers in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States when placed in seven major cropping systems. We quantified the percent of target crop pollen and overall diversity of pollen collected by honey bees when colonies were placed in these cropping systems. We collected and identified pollen in almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.)), cherry (Prunus avium L.), highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Benth.), white clover (Trifolium repens L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and carrot (Daucus carota (Hoffm.)) cropping systems. We found that pollen collected from colonies placed in almond cropping systems was predominately Prunus sp., and hence, low in pollen diversity. At the other end of the spectrum, pollen collected from colonies placed adjacent to blueberry cropping systems did not yield any target pollen types (Highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum L.), but was high in overall pollen diversity. The pollen collected from colonies placed in other cropping systems was largely intermediate in diversity between these two extremes. There were not many plant species in bloom when pollen was collected from colonies placed in almond cropping system, whereas more plants were in bloom when we collected pollen from colonies placed in blueberry cropping system. The results of this study demonstrate that honey bees collected pollen from plants in the surrounding environment and collected different degrees of pollen diversity across different cropping systems in which the colonies were placed. We further determined if pollen diversity influences colony-level protein utilization and biosynthesis of protein in nurse bees by conducting a pollen feeding experiment. Pollen collected from four different cropping systems in the first study was used to formulate four different diets, each varying in pollen diversity. We measured protein consumption in experimental colonies and by sampling nurse bees from each colony to estimate hypopharyngeal gland protein content and proteolytic enzyme activity after five weeks of feeding on the experimental pollen diets. Experimental colonies fed on pollen collected from almond cropping system exhibited a high protein consumption rate. However, low protein content as found in hypopharyngeal glands of nurse bees in these colonies. The nurse bees in these colonies also had low proteolytic enzyme activity, which indicates a lower rate of protein digestion. Overall, these results suggest that the diet representing pollen collected from almond cropping systems had low digestion rate and may have resulted in lower nurse bee hypopharyngeal gland protein. However, we cannot say this with certainty, as there were other confounding factors involved, such as presence of pesticides in the pollen collected from the cropping systems.
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The North Atlantic zone of Costa Rica is an alluvial plain, whose fairly good soils and warm, extremely wet climate generate serious weed problems in cultivated crops and pastureland. Basic foods - corn, ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- The agronomic, economic and social effects of the availability of new weed control treatments to small corn farmers in the North Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica
- Author:
- McCarty, Thomas Vere
The North Atlantic zone of Costa Rica is an alluvial plain, whose fairly good soils and warm, extremely wet climate generate serious weed problems in cultivated crops and pastureland. Basic foods - corn, beans, rice and yuca - are important small farm crops. New land is still being opened for small farming, encouraged by a government-sponsored homesteading program. Research was initiated in 1976 by the International Plant Protection Center, in cooperation with CATIE, to determine whether the weed control practices currently used by small farmers could be improved. Agronomic results indicate that tilling the soil gives no advantage over the farmers present no-tillage methods. Pre-plant treatments with the herbicides glyphosate and paraquat have been shown to save labor in corn crops. There is little evidence that the new treatments raise corn yields. A survey of small farmers was conducted in the region in 1977 and 1978. A random sample of 21 farmers were selected for interviews. The information included a general description of each farm family and the complete farm operation and detailed descriptions of cultural practices in corn and beans crop, with special emphasis on weed control. Social and economic information was also obtained. Small farms in the sample are in various stages of development. The first step is usually to brush out the native timberland and fence off areas for a few cattle to graze. Then parcels are cleared for annual crops, especially corn, which is the most dependable cash crop. The farmer rotates parcels for annual crops, weedy fallow and pasture. He constantly attempts to build up his beef herd. Development of perennial plots is limited by the quantities demanded for home and local use. Nearly half the labor, and half the cash resources, expended in corn production are for weed control. The farmers typically cut the weeds with machete and leave the vegetation as mulch before planting, weed the crop with machete or with very light applications of 2,4-D, and cut the weeds once more with machete before doubling the ears and harvesting. Some temporary local shortages of labor occur in the peak periods, when harvesting for one season overlaps with soil preparation and planting for the next, although general underemployment prevails in the long slack periods. Weed conditions influence greatly the quantities of labor used for weed control. Rottboellia exaltata is the most noxious weed in corn cropping. The quantitative information from the survey was tabulated in partial budgets or detailed accounting sheets of variable costs and revenues, for corn parcels on each sample farm. Analysis of variance and regression models were used to test hypothetical relationships among the variables. These results were then compared with estimated capabilities and costs of the experimental weed control treatments for the corn crop on each sample farm. Reported wage rates and calculated returns to family labor were used to estimate the values of family labor. It was found that a minority of the small corn farmers - those who currently use relatively high quantities of cash resources - might be able to reduce costs with the new treatments, without losing revenue. Their increases in cash income would not always exceed the losses in gainful employment suffered by the farmworkers. For the majority of small farmers in the region - those who raise corn with family labor as the main resource - the new treatments do not appear to offer any economic advantages. The treatments are expensive, they offer little promise for raising yields, and their labor-saving effects do not fall squarely in the peak labor periods. It is suggested, therefore, that recommendation of the new treatments should be subject to the farmers' financial conditions and to their actual objectives in growing corn. The use of soil samples and research in the control of pasture weeds are also suggested for further research by the IPPC. Finally, it is suggested that assistance in the development of extra-local banana markets for small farmers might be of great value.
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19243. [Article] Ova tranfers in sheep and rabbits : studies on material influences and irradiation damage
The first study utilized ova transfer in sheep and involved hormonal treatments for synchronization of estrus and superovulation in an investigation of crossbred maternal influences on inbred and linecross ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Ova tranfers in sheep and rabbits : studies on material influences and irradiation damage
- Author:
- Hunt, William Lynn
The first study utilized ova transfer in sheep and involved hormonal treatments for synchronization of estrus and superovulation in an investigation of crossbred maternal influences on inbred and linecross lambs. Synchronization of estrus in ewes was achieved effectively with either oral progestogen, 6 α-methyl-17α-hydroxy-progesterone acetate (60 mg./ewe/day), or intramuscular injections of progesterone (10 mg./ewe/day), Satisfactory superovulation was not obtained with pregnant mare serum preparations and alterations in oviduct morphology were noted following oral progestogen therapy. After progesterone injections, superovulation with a mean of 13.4 ovulations per ewe was obtained using pituitary extracts. Successful treatments began day after final progesterone injection with primary injection of 25 mg. followed in two days with 15 mg. of pituitary extract. An intravenous injection of 25 mg. pituitary leutinizing hormone followed at onset of estrus. Twelve Suffolk ewes of three inbred lines were bred to produce fertilized ova from each of three lines and from each possible linecross. Surgical transfers of ova from Suffolk donors were made to nine recipients which were similar in size and consisted genetically of Columbia, Dorset and Cheviot crosses. Based on corpora lutea numbers, in vivo ova recovery rates increased from 39 percent for the first year to 53 percent for the second year. Cleavage rates were 54 and 52 percent for the two years. The inbred line II lamb which developed in a crossbred maternal environment weighed 12.3 percent more at birth than its non-transfer line II counterpart. The transferred linecross III x II lamb weighed 30.6 percent more at birth than its non-transfer counterpart. The linecross took most advantage of prenatal nutrition. Adjusted 120-day weights, condition and conformation scores were similar for transfer and non-transfer lambs at weaning. Under similar postnatal environment, genotype for size is expressed in lambs at weaning. In the second study effects of in vitro x-irradiation of fertilized mammalian ova on their subsequent in vivo development were investigated by means of rabbit ova transfer. Non-irradiated and irradiated two-cell ova were transferred to non-irradiated and irradiated uteri of recipients to discriminate between embryonic and uterine injury. Irradiation was applied to two-cell ova in vitro at levels of 0, 15.4, 61.2, 91.8, and 122.5 rads using a 100 kVp x-ray machine (1 ma., HVL 1 mm. Al., distance 37.4 cm., dose 14.5 r./min.), Ova were transferred into oviducts of prepared recipients. Uteri of recipients were exposed to the same radiation levels as the ova and in addition to 250.2, 265.3, and 530.5 rads. Combination of ova/uterus irradiation showed additive effects of x-ray damage. One step increases of either ova or uterus above 61.2/250.3 rads caused 100 percent embryo mortality Two-cell ova which were given 122.5 rads of irradiation failed to develop into fetuses and uteri which were given 530.5 rads failed to contain implantations. Irradiation with 91.8 rads killed all but the most hardy ova and produced an all or none effect, while 61.2 rads caused abnormal, dead, and resorbed fetuses as well as living offspring. Two such newborn developed latent sequelae in the form of spreading limbs. Deformities became obvious at one month and progressed until death at four months. Histological examinations of eight-day embryos which received 61.2 rads or no irradiation as two-cell ova revealed delayed development in irradiated embryos. Mean spring from increase in weight for the first 50 days of surviving off-spring from irradiated ova was 6 gms./day more than that of controls.
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19244. [Article] Downstream rearing of juvenile Chinook salmon abundance, distribution and growth in the Upper Mainstem of the John Day River
Abstract -- Juvenile spring Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) emerge from the gravel in the late winter or early spring, and most follow a life history pattern known as Natal Reach Rearing (NRR) in which ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Downstream rearing of juvenile Chinook salmon abundance, distribution and growth in the Upper Mainstem of the John Day River
Abstract -- Juvenile spring Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) emerge from the gravel in the late winter or early spring, and most follow a life history pattern known as Natal Reach Rearing (NRR) in which juvenile fish remain in the stream reaches where they were spawned until their second spring of life when they start migrating towards the ocean (Healey 1991). However, in Columbia River tributaries, some juveniles have been observed following a Downstream Rearing (DSR) life history, in which they start moving downstream during their first spring towards other nursery habitats or perhaps ocean rearing (Copeland & Venditti 2009; Schroeder et al. 2016). Rearing in different habitats during their first year gives fish with these two life histories access to diverse food resources and, it is hypothesized that, this leads to different survival and growth advantages for these two groups. Differences in growth are of interest in efforts to conserve this threatened species because size is positively correlated to survival for salmon across multiple stages of their life cycle (Groot & Margolis 1991; Healey 1991; Quinn & Peterson 1996; Roni et al. 2012) Chinook salmon in the upper John Day River, Oregon, exhibit both NRR and DSR life history patterns. Fish following the DSR life history pattern are larger than NRR fish late in the spring, possibly due to factors such as higher fish density, lower stream productivity, and colder water temperatures in their natal reach than in the downstream reaches. However, this size advantage may be lost due to adverse summer conditions. Hot summer days combined with the withdrawal of water for agriculture lead to stream water temperatures well above lethal thresholds for salmon in many downstream reaches. DSR fish have been observed in tributaries of the mainstem John Day River, however their growth and survival during summer is unknown.
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19246. [Image] The Water Report - Tribes sue PacifiCorp
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/Citation -
19247. [Image] Narrative history report of the Klamath Project land opening under Public Notice No. 47, 1948
Public Notice No. 47 of August 27, 1948, was prepared in conformity with recommendations for a standardized procedure made at the Salt Lake conference in March 1948; it opened to public entry 86 farm units ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Narrative history report of the Klamath Project land opening under Public Notice No. 47, 1948
- Author:
- United State. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1948, 2004
Public Notice No. 47 of August 27, 1948, was prepared in conformity with recommendations for a standardized procedure made at the Salt Lake conference in March 1948; it opened to public entry 86 farm units embracing 8,283 acres of irrigable land. Of nearly 24,000 application blanks sent out, 5,072 were returned during the simultaneous filing period. A five-man examining board placed 4,911 in the first priority group, 69 in the second priority group and rejected 91. The Regional Director reversed the action of the examining board in two instances making a total of 4,913 participating in the drawing. Applications were received from 39 states, the District of Columbia and the Territory of Alaska. California supplied 50% of all applications considered in the first priority group; Oregon supplied 27%; Utah supplied 6%; and the rest of the states supplied the remaining 17% The examining board interviewed 94 persons of 104 who were notified to appear for personal interviews after the drawing. Of those appearing for interviews, five refused to accept units in area "A" and three were rejectees whose appeals were later denied by the Regional Director. Of the ten who failed to appear for interview, five relinquished their award in writing; four were relegated to the end of their priority list, and one was the victim of an airplane accident. As the result of the drawing and subsequent interviews, 1.4% of the applicants from California 2.5% of the applicants from Oregon and 1.3% of the remaining applicants from other states were awarded farm units. Ten of the 39 states, from which applications were received, were represented in the settlement of the 86 farm units. Of the 23 who selected units in area "A", only two availed themselves of options to lease additional land in the Tulelake sump area* Apparently, because of high rental fees, the majority of the area "A" settlers could not afford to lease lands supplemental to their homestead. Therefore, since the development of area "A" lands will be a costly procedure, it is possible that in the future there may be cases of relin-quishment of units due to the homesteaders' inability to meet expenses. First unit was awarded on March 9, 1949; the last unit was awarded on June 20, 1949.
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iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005
- Author:
- Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.)
- Year:
- 2005, 2006
iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
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19249. [Image] Restoring Harmony in the Klamath Basin
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19250. [Image] Klamath Federal Reclamation Project : Oregon-California
- 7' -, > \ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR B U R E A U O F R E C L A M A T I O N U N I T E D S T A T E S G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E W A S H I N G T O N : 1936 FEDERAL RECLAMATION ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Klamath Federal Reclamation Project : Oregon-California
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1936, 2005
- 7' -, > \ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR B U R E A U O F R E C L A M A T I O N U N I T E D S T A T E S G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E W A S H I N G T O N : 1936 FEDERAL RECLAMATION PROJECT OREGON - CALIFORNIA n )> >> GENERAL STATEMENT THEKla m- ath reclamation project comprises practically all of the agricultural land in the Klamath Basin, except a small area adjacent to Upper Klamath Lake, and is situated in southern Oregon and northern California. The extent of the area irrigated, or that may be irrigated by reason of Bureau of Reclamation activities, is approxi-mately 140,000 acres. This includes about 20,000 acres suitable only for pasture and approximately 12,000 acres of good land in the Tule Lake division not yet opened for settlement. Within the older developed sections of the project the soil is mostly of a sandy loam . type that is particularly suitable for growing potatoes and summer vegetables as well as all of the ordinary crops that thrive in a cool, tem-perate climate. The price of this type of land ranges from $ 100 to $ 200 per acre. The water- right cost, which origi- Klamath Falls, Oregon, the prolect office headquarters nally was about $ 55 per acre, is approximately half paid up. The balance has an average of about 25 years to run without interest. Operation and maintenance costs usually run about $ 1.25 an acre per annum. I R R I G A B L E L A N D S The Tule Lake division of the project, which will eventually comprise about 32,000 acres of agricultural land and about 5,000 acres of thin soil land good only for pasture, carries a construction charge of $ 88.35, with 40 years in A! Klamath : desert. Looking~ southwest up Lan Valley from a point 4 miles west of Lorella, Ore which to pay without interest. No payments have been required to date, but the Secretary of the Interior will soon issue public notice announcing the commencement of pay-ments, which will be approximately $ 2.20 per acre each year. In addition to the construction charge, there is an operation and maintenance charge which will probably run between $ 1.50 and $ 2 un acre a year. These lands are of lacustrian origin and are very fertile. They are particularly adapted to the growth of small grains, alfalfa, and pasture grasses. Patented land in this division sells for $ 50 to $ 100 per acre. Patented lands in private ownership, where of goc; d quality, well improved and conveniently situated, can be purchased for from $ 150 to $ 200 per acre. Good lands not so well improved nor so desirably located sell at around $ 100 per acre. There is very little undeveloped, privately owned good land on the project. Small tracts of 5, 10, or 20 acres, located along paved highways and within 6 to 8 miles of Klamath Falls, are obtainable at from $ 200 to $ 400 per acre. W A T E R S U P P L Y The Klamath project is ! ortunate in having an abundant water supply for all lands susceptible of irrigation. The map on the inside of the back cover page shows the location of the three reservoirs and their immediate proximity to the lands they serve. The irrigable project lands lie between elevations of 4,035 and 4,070 feet above sea level and occupy the Klamath Basin and the Valley of Lost River, situated in south central Oregon and north central California, about 150 miles east of the Pacific coast. The average annual pre-cipitation is 12.51 inches. SCHOOLS Klamath County schools are run on the county unit basis Public School in Klamath Falls and are fully up to standard. Busses run at county expense transport rural children to and from school, and there is no lost time on account of bad weather. Within the county there are 9,242 children of school age, 4,107 of these within the city of Klamath Falls. The high school enrollment for Klamath Falls is 1,156, and for the remainder of the county is 459. There are 9 high schools in the county that employ 62 teachers. The grade schools employ 185 teachers, of whom' 76 are in the city of Klamath Falls. : let of concrete flume, Canal C, of the main project structures R E C R E A T I O N No part of the United States affords more interesting and attractive recreational areas than are found near at hand and in all directions from the Klamath project. From 1 to 2 hours in any kind of an automobile is sufficient to land one on the banks of a cold mountain stream inhabited by many wary trout or alongside the shores of any one of a half dozen crystal lakes, where boating and bathing may be enjoyed to the full. Some of the lakes that are conven-iently located with reference to the project, and where many summer camps as well as extensive hotel and camp accommodations already exist, are Upper Klamath Lake, Lake of the Woods, Crater Lake, Diamond Lake, Crescent I., ake, Ode11 Lake, and Paulina Lake. The most distant of the lot, Paulina Lake, can be reached in 3 hours' driving from Klamath Falls. Some of the important recreational areas lying in convenient distances from the project are shown in the ilh~ strationsa ccompanying this chapter. The principal water supply is in Upper Klamath Lake, where regulation provides a possible storage of about 524,800 acre- feet, and this with the natural inflow insures the lands served from this source an adequate water supply at all times. Under the terms of the contract dated February 24, 1917, between the United States and the California- Oregon Power Co., the power company was given the right to regulate the outflow of Upper Klamath Lake, subject to existing rights and the prior rights of the Klamath project for water for irrigation. To regulate the outflow, the company, in 1921, constructed the Link River Dam at a cost of about $ 310,000. Storage for the lands on the west side of Langell Valley and a portion of the lands in the Horsefly irrigation district is provided by Clear Lake Reservoir. This reservoir, lying just across the line in California, is the source of Lost River and has a total capacity of 454,000 acre- feet, most of which was made available during 1931 by the construction of a channel from the outlet works to the deeper portion of the reservoir, a distance of about 6 miles. The reservoir is also used for flood storage for the protection of lands in the Tule Lake division. Gerber Reservoir, on Miller Creek, a tributary of Lost River, has a storage capacity of 94,000 acre- feet and fur-nishes a water supply for the lands on the east side of Lost River in the Langell Valley division. This reservoir also provides for the storage of flood water for the protection of lands in the Tule Lake division. Water from Upper Klamath Lake is diverted to the main or " A" canal from the east side of Link River, the outlet of the lake, several hundred feet below the lake and a few I I / Klamath River near Klamath Falls k River diversion dam Alfalfa field near Malin, Oreg. Two cuttings are grown, which yield 2- 4 tons per acre on the older project lands, and 3- 6 in Tule Lake section hundred feet above Link River Dam. Water for all lands in the main and pumping divisions and for a portion of the lands in the Tule Lake division are diverted through the " A" canal. Additional water for the lands in the Tule Lake division is diverted from the Klamath River, through the Lost River diversion channel ( reversing the direction of flow), and spilled into Lost River, frcm which it is diverted to the " J" canal at a point about 3 miles southeasterly from Merrill, Oreg. At this point the river level is raised about 12 feet by means of the lower Lost River diversion dam, a concrete structure of the Ambursen type, with a crest length of 204 feet. The Lost River diversion channel leads off from Lost River at a point about 10 miles southeast of Klamath Falls, Oreg., immediately above a hollow U- shaped concrete dam which raises the river level about 23 feet. Prior to the Irrigating a 65- acre field of potatoes; showing application of m irrigation season the flow of Lost River is diverted to the Klamath River and wasted; however, after the spring flood flow of Lost River has passed and water for irrigation in the Tule Lake division is required, the flow of Lost River is ~ assed through the dam and down to the " J" canal. This flow is augmented, when demand is heavy, from Klamath River as indicated ahve. Lands on the east side of Langell Valley division are served by the north canal, which diverts water from Miller Creek at the Miller Creek Dam, located about 6 miles below Gerber Dam. At this point the water surface in Miller Creek is raised by placing flashboards against wooden trestles, the grade of the canal and that of the stream being substan-tially the same elevation. The lands on the west side of Lost River in the Langell Valley division are served by the West Canal, which diverts water from Lost River at the Malone Dam, located about 42 miles southeasterly from Klamath Falls, Oreg. At this point the level of Lost River is raised about 18 feet by means of an earth diversion dam. Clear Lake Reservoir provides storage for the West Canal. TOWNS Klamath Falls, Merrill, Malin, and Bonanza are project towns, the first named being the principal city in southern, Oregon east of the Cascades. It has a population of approximately 16,000 and is the distributing center for a large territory. Klamath County has a population of 32,400, one- half residing in the city of Klamath Falls and perhaps 4,000 more in suburban districts only a few miles away. Merrill and Malin are small towns within the irrigated area with populations of six or seven hundred each. In Klamath Basin are some 1,800 farms and approximately as many farm families. LUMBERING Approximately 30 mills and box factories are in operation, this district being the largest manufacturing center of box shook in the United States. The Klamath district contains the heaviest stand of yellow pine left in the United States. Throughout the spring, summer, and fall all lumber com-panies maintain large pay rolls both in the plants and in the lumber camps. Lumber contributes greatly to the heavy traffic originating at K! amath Falls, making this city the second largest shipping point in Oregon. The majority of the mills and box factories are located in or near Klamath Falls. T R A N S P O R T A T I O N Two main- line railways, the Southern Pacific and Great Northern, enter Klamath Falls and traverse the project throughout its longest dimension. Hard- surfaced highways radiate from Klamath Falls in all directions, connecting with Portland, Sun Francisco, and Salt Lake. These high-ways supplemented by county market roads penetrate all sections of the project, with the result that few farms are more than a mile from a hard- surfaced outlet. CLIMATE The Klamath Basin has a remarkably pleasant and healthful climate. Winters are not cold, and summers are not hot. Precipitation, which amounts to about 12): inches a year on the average, falls mainly from November to April. Late and early frosts are to be expected, and occasionally light frosts occur even in the summer months. me on the Main division of the project A G R I C U L T U R E The principal crops grown are potatoes, alfalfa, small grains, and vegetables. The yield of small grains in the Tule Lake area is unusually high. Oats frequently make 100 bushels per acre; barley runs from 60 to 80; and any good wheat field will thresh out more than 40 bushels per acre. Potatoes, when conditions are right, are par excelience the big money crop. A good yield of tubers is considered to be around 150 sacks of U. S. No. 1' s per acre, and every year a few fields are reported with yields of double that amount. The price for potatoes is unstable, depending on the market demand, and ranges from about 50 cents to $ 1.50 a sack. The quality of Klamath potatoes on the Sun Francisco market is recognized as the best, and the price usually ranges from 10 to 20 cents a sack higher than is paid for Washington and Idaho production. Flock of 6,000 turkeys being fattened for market L I V E S T O C K Cattle. On account of its geographical location, sur-rounded as it is with immense areas of sagebrush plateaus and forest ranges, the Klamath project is, and probably always will be, essentially a stock country. Its cheap forage, abundant water and mild winters offer ideal con-ditions for the wintering of range stock and the fattening of mature animals for market. Favorable feeding- in- transit rates for both grass and feed lot cattle have resulted in the fattening, locally, of thousands of range and outside cattle. The beef industry alone returns approximately $ 900,000 annually. There are several killing and manu-facturing plants located in Klamath Falls. Sheep. Approxinately 150,000 ewes are maintained in the Klamafh Basin with an average annual output of about three- quarters of a million dollars. From 75,000 to 100,000~ lambs~ afraet tened for market each year on the project. Sun Francisco js the principal market. licken ranch. The production of eggs chickens is an important industry A project Holstein dairy her Dairying. The dairying industry is increasing steadily on the project. There are now about 8,000 milk cows in the district. Klamath Falls, with its large industrial popu-lation, furnishes a good market for milk, butter, and cheese. Two local cooperative cheese manufacturing plants and four privately owned creameries operate in the district. The value of the dairy industry is approximately $ 600,000 annually. Local dairy prices for butterfat are maintained at l> e to 2 cents above the State average cwing to the favored position of the project-- half- way between Portland and Sun Francisco. This district offers many opportunities for increased dairying production, as costs are compara-tively low and climatic conditions are favorable. Ewes and lambs on Tule Lake leased lands OREGON - CALIFORNIA MAP NO. 27606 Scale of Miles 1 -- 0 1 2- 3 4 6 1
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19251. [Image] The Water Report - FERC Relicensing: KWUA Intervention
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Explanation of abbreviations in title include: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the Klamath ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Water Report - FERC Relicensing: KWUA Intervention
- Author:
- Envirotech Publications
- Year:
- 2004, 2008, 2006
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. Explanation of abbreviations in title include: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the Klamath Waters User Association (KWUA). See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
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Coastal marsh vegetation is an important component in maintaining marsh stability that is threatened by changes in sedimentation, sea level rise, natural and anthropogenic disturbances, and competition ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Response and Effect of Emergent Coastal Vegetation to Sedimentation and the Distribution of Coastal Vegetation Communities along Environmental Gradients
- Author:
- Lemein, Todd
Coastal marsh vegetation is an important component in maintaining marsh stability that is threatened by changes in sedimentation, sea level rise, natural and anthropogenic disturbances, and competition from invasive species. Vegetation has been demonstrated to reduce wave energy, increase sedimentation, and decrease erosion in tidal environments under a range of conditions. Similarities and differences between the morphology of vegetation species may play an important role in understanding the mechanism between vegetation, sedimentation, and wave energy. Diversity of species within vegetation communities has been shown to reduce the success of biological invasions from invasive species as well as increase the ability of the community to adapt to environmental changes such as inundation period (period of time vegetation is submerged partially or fully by water). The species present along coastal marshes and specifically at the interface between vegetated marsh and unvegetated mudflat provide an opportunity to better understand the interactions between vegetation and its physical setting. In this dissertation I focus on the species and vegetation communities that are present at this interface of the terrestrial and aquatic boundary to better understand how plant communities may be characterized, how they respond to disturbance, how they are distributed, and how they may influence the physical environment in which they grow. In Chapter two, I explore the ability to use image analysis and the lateral obstruction of vegetation to describe a species density, height and diameter and evaluate the tradeoffs in using image analysis over more traditional methods. In Chapter three, I evaluate the response of an emergent vegetation species, threesquare bulrush (Schoenoplectus pungens), to different depths of complete burial as could be expected from extreme storms, hurricanes, tsunamis, or restoration efforts involving sediment amendment. Chapter four describes the distribution of coastal marsh communities of the Laurentian Great Lakes along an elevational gradient beginning at the terrestrial and aquatic boundary, identifying patterns of wetland distribution, species composition, and exotic plant invasion. In Chapter five, I conclude the dissertation with an evaluation of the effects of two morphologically distinct species of emergent marsh vegetation, threesquare bulrush and Lyngbye’s sedge (Carex lyngbyei), on the sedimentation rate and variability in Tillamook Bay, OR and compare the results to the current understanding of vegetation-sediment feedback. In Chapter two, I found that for morphologically simple species, such as S. pungens, image analysis of lateral obstruction can be used to determine important morphological characteristics of a stand of vegetation including the mean stem height, density, and mean diameter. The method provides a description of the vertical variation in morphologic structure, providing a rapid analytic tool for exploring the effects of vegetation on wave and sediment interaction. However, I note that more morphologically complex species, such as sedges and grasses may not be as easily described using image analysis. In Chapter three, I determined that aboveground biomass of S. pungens would return to pre-disturbance levels following burial by up to 40 cm of mineral sediment after two years. Vegetation was observed to survive burials depths of up to 80 cm, although initially at much lower density. The aboveground height of stems were statistically similar to unburied controls after two years, which is important for the continuation of ecosystem services such as wave attenuation. The results suggest that S. pungens is capable of returning to pre-disturbance levels of biomass following large natural sedimentation events such as extreme storms, hurricanes, or tsunamis, and that burying portions of marshes with sediment as a restoration tool is not likely to harm the buried vegetation. In Chapter four I refine and describe 21 coastal vegetation communities in the Laurentian Great Lakes and the ecological gradients along which they are distributed. Latitude, agricultural intensity, site geomorphology, substrate, and water depth were found to be the significant variables that determined community distribution. Additionally, we observed an expansion of invasive plant species near areas of high anthropogenic activity such as farms and urban centers. In Chapter five, I found that there were species-specific differences in sedimentation rate and variability in Tillamook Bay, OR. Schoenoplectus pungens was found to retain more sediment than C. lyngbyei. Sedimentation rate was observed to be variable by location within the estuary. Two patterns of sediment accumulation were observed. The first occurred along vegetation gradients, with increased sedimentation farther into vegetation beds. In the second pattern, sediment accumulation was observed to be greatest at the marsh/mudflat boundary where vegetation was dense and then decreased with increasing depth into the vegetation. In conclusion, this dissertation explores the interaction of emergent wetland vegetation with environmental factors. Image analysis provides a new tool for rapid characterization of vegetation structure, a burial experiment documents Schoenoplectus pungens’ tolerance to sand burial, a field study at Tillamook, OR documents the relationship between sediment accumulation and emergent vegetation beds, and a wetland classification is developed for coastal wetlands along the Great Lakes, which includes plant communities dominated by S. pungens.
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19253. [Image] The Klamath Project
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19254. [Image] Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010
Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Programmatic environmental assessment for Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office Projects, 2000-2010
- Author:
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office.
- Year:
- 2000, 2005, 2004
Programmatic Environmental Assessment Summary This Environmental Assessment (EA) provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for restoration actions undertaken by the US Fish & Wildlife Service's Klamath Basin Ecosystem Restoration Office (ERO) in Klamath Falls, Oregon. These restoration activities are needed due to the large-scale loss of wetland and riparian habitat and degraded water quality. The purpose of these restoration efforts is the improvement of conditions of the watershed with specific regard to habitat and water quality, resulting in, among other benefits, improved conditions for the endangered fish species (bull trout and Lost River and shortnose sucker) populations of the basin. The geographic scope of this EA is defined as the upper Klamath River basin, including the entire watershed from Irongate Dam upstream to the headwaters. This EA is intended to provide NEPA compliance for restoration projects conducted between the years 2000 and 2010. The ERO was established in 1993 to sponsor and assist with a variety of restoration activities in the Klamath Basin. The ERO funds and provides technical assistance to restoration projects involving private landholders, concerned groups, and other state, federal, and tribal agencies. Four alternatives are presented in this EA. The proposed alternative (Alternative 1) consists of a comprehensive program of ecosystem restoration, promoting projects in both riparian areas and in upland habitats. This would continue the current program in effect since 1994. NEPA compliance would primarily be carried out via a single, programmatic document saving time and funds. The Fish & Wildlife Service proposes to fund and administer the following projects types: Riparian Projects: (fencing for livestock management; native plant establishment & diversification; non-native plant removal/control; erosion control; contour re-establishment; impoundment removal; wildlife habitat improvements) Wetland Projects: (fencing; wetland restoration and enhancement; wildlife habitat improvements) Upland or Road Projects: (road abandonment, decommissioning, & obliteration; road drainage improvements and storm proofing, re-establishment of historic contours; silvicultural treatments; native plant establishment/diversification; non-native plant removal/control; fencing; landslide treatments; culvert/stream crossing upgrades; erosion control; wildlife habitat improvements). In-stream Projects: (habitat complexity and diversity improvements; hydrologic regime improvements; coarse woody debris supplementation; natural or artificial barrier removal, modification &/or creation; fish screens installation). Alternative 2 would concentrate restoration efforts only on riparian, instream, and wetland areas. Road projects would be conducted only within the riparian corridor, as defined. NEPA compliance would also be conducted programmatically. Alternative 3 would cease all restoration activities conducted and funded by the ERO in the Klamath Basin. This alternative would serve as a benchmark against which the effects of the restoration alternatives discussed above can be compared. Alternative 4, the "No Action" alternative, would continue current management policies with regard to NEPA compliance, providing compliance on a project by project basis requiring independent analysis for each project. The affected environment of the region is described in detail. The environment has been changed significantly since the 1890's due to logging, agriculture and urban development. An extensive system of dams, canals, and drainage structures has resulted in the conversion of approximately 80% of pre-settlement wetlands to agricultural uses. Riparian corridors have been similarly impacted, and upland forests regions have been affected by logging, road construction and other factors. These changes have contributed to problems with the water quality in the region, contributing to the listing of several fish species as threatened or endangered; loss of habitat has affected a large number of other species as well. The environmental effects of each alternative is analyzed. Some short term negative impacts could occur as a result of the projects authorized by both Alternative 1 and Alternative 2, but these would be strongly offset by the expected beneficial results to water quality and habitat conditions. Alternative 1 would be expected to have a greater overall effect on the environment than Alternative 2, since many of the underlying factors with which restoration efforts are concerned originate in upland conditions (i.e. sedimentation and hydrologic functionality). Alternative 3 would result in conditions remaining much as they are currently, although other programs and organizations are making efforts at restoration activities. The environmental impacts of individual projects anticipated under Alternative 4 would be generally the same as for similar projects under Alternative 1. The primary difference between the two alternatives would be the higher efficiency and improved cumulative analysis resulting from a programmatic approach as proposed in Alternative 1. Public participation in the NEPA process has been, and will continue to be, solicited and welcomed. Compliance with state and federal laws and regulations such as the Clean Water Act, National Historic Preservation Act, and the Endangered Species Act, as well as guidelines for contaminant surveys, will be carried out as detailed. While these projects are expected to play an important role in the restoration of the region, none of these alternatives are expected to have a significant impact when compared with the loss of wetland, riparian and upland habitats over the past century, impacts which do occur would be of a cumulatively beneficial nature. Other restoration efforts are being carried out in the area by other governmental and private groups, and it is expected that these combined efforts will achieve important beneficial results for the ecosystem.
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19255. [Image] Operations of the Reclamation Service in California
An article written by the first representative of the Reclamation Service after the Reclamation Act of 1902 was passed. This article includes a photo of the author, a map of the Yuma Project and two photos ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Operations of the Reclamation Service in California
- Author:
- Lippincott, J.B.
- Year:
- 1906, 2005, 2004
An article written by the first representative of the Reclamation Service after the Reclamation Act of 1902 was passed. This article includes a photo of the author, a map of the Yuma Project and two photos of the Yuma Project "Boating into camp at Laguna Dam" and "Construction work, Yuma Project"
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19256. [Image] Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and Northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins
Abstract Marcot, Bruce G.; Wales, Barbara C; Demmer, Rick. 2003. Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and Northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins
- Author:
- Marcot, Bruce G.
- Year:
- 2003, 2005, 2004
Abstract Marcot, Bruce G.; Wales, Barbara C; Demmer, Rick. 2003. Range maps of terrestrial species in the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-583. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 304 p. Current range distribution maps are presented for 14 invertebrate, 26 amphibian, 26 reptile, 339 bird, and 125 mammal species and selected subspecies (530 total taxa) of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins in the United States. Also presented are maps of historical ranges of 3 bird and 10 mammal species, and 6 maps of natural areas designated by federal agencies and other organizations. The species range maps were derived from a variety of publications and from expert review and unpublished data, and thus differ in degree of accuracy and resolution. The species maps are available in computer versions and are indexed herein by common and scientific names. Keywords: Maps, species range, species distribution, wildlife, invertebrates, arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, bats, biodiversity, endemism, natural areas, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin.
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19257. [Image] Klamath Project annual history, 1950
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes fiscal year financials, photographs, maps, crop and livestock yields, irrigation and drainage and irrigation pumping plant operations, WPA camp maintenance, ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Klamath Project annual history, 1950
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1950, 2008, 2007
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes fiscal year financials, photographs, maps, crop and livestock yields, irrigation and drainage and irrigation pumping plant operations, WPA camp maintenance, etc.; Title covers: calendar years for 1949 - 1952; Description is based on: Klamath Project annual history for 1949; Dates of the beginning year(s) of publication are derived from May 1, 1903 to December 31, 1912, History of the Klamath Project and from the volume information on later volumes (v. 35) Klamath District and Klamath Project Annual history for 1945, dated December 1, 1946
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CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Western water supply : hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, to receive testimony regarding water supply issues in the arid West, March 9, 2004
- Author:
- United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
- Year:
- 2004, 2005
CONTENTS STATEMENTS Page American Farm Bureau Federation 26963 Bell, Craig, Executive Director, Western States Water Council 26945 Domenici, Hon. Pete V., U.S. Senator From New Mexico 2691 Gaibler, Floyd, Deputy Undersecretary for Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services, Department of Agriculture 26932 Grisoli, Brigadier General William T., Commander, Northwestern Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 26918 Hall, Tex G., President, National Congress of American Indians, and Chair man, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation 26950 Raley, Bennett, Assistant Secretary, Department of the Interior 2695 Uccellini, Dr. Louis, Director, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 26926 APPENDIX Responses to additional questions 2620 67
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19260. [Image] The Water Report - The Oregon Water Resources Department: an interview with director Paul Cleary
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Water Report - The Oregon Water Resources Department: an interview with director Paul Cleary
- Author:
- Envirotech Publications
- Year:
- 2004, 2008, 2006
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
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19261. [Image] Raising Upper Klamath Lake, appraisal study : draft.
Executive Summary This report documents an appraisal-level evaluation of raising Upper Klamath Lake in south-central Oregon. The lake is the State's largest freshwater lake and is a principal storage feature ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Raising Upper Klamath Lake, appraisal study : draft.
- Author:
- U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 2000, 2008, 2005
Executive Summary This report documents an appraisal-level evaluation of raising Upper Klamath Lake in south-central Oregon. The lake is the State's largest freshwater lake and is a principal storage feature of the Klamath Project. The Klamath Project provides water for irrigating approximately 240,000 acres in the Klamath Basin in south-central Oregon and northern California. The Klamath Project was authorized for construction in 1905, and work began shortly thereafter. In 1921, Link River Dam was constructed at the south end of the lake, near the city of Klamath Falls, to provide regulation of the lake. Background The listing of fish species as threatened or endangered, and the Federal responsibility to protect Tribal trust assets, have placed increasing demands on the limited water supply of the Klamath Project and reduced its flexibility to meet demands. There is an immediate need to increase water supplies and improve the timing of their availability to improve fish and wildlife habitat and water quality. The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) began the Klamath Basin Water Supply Initiative (Initiative) in 1996 to identify options for increasing water supplies in the Klamath River Basin. The Initiative is a joint effort partnership of Reclamation, the Klamath River Compact Commission, the California Department of Water Resources, and the Oregon Water Resources Department. The Initiative identified 96 options for increasing water supplies and recommended 44 for further study, including raising Upper Klamath Lake. Options Evaluated The evaluation documented in this report considers increasing the maximum operating level of Upper Klamath Lake by 2 feet by raising Link River Dam. Two options are described: (1) raising existing levees around the lake to contain the lake within its current surface area and (2) allowing the lake to spread and flood adjacent lands. Option 1 constrains the higher water surface elevation to the current shoreline. Modifications would be provided to protect all existing land, roads, and structures surrounding the lake. A 2-foot-high parapet will be constructed on top of the dam to accommodate the higher water level. Major construction activities include: Raising Upper Klamath Lake ? Eight sections of new seawall, totaling 6.6 linear miles ? Modifying 14 sections of existing dikes with roads, totaling 44.3 linear miles ? Modifying 10 sections of existing dikes without roads, totaling 25.2 linear miles ? Two sections of new dikes with roads, totaling 1.9 linear miles ? Three sections of new dikes without roads, totaling 2.7 linear miles ? Armoring two sections of existing dikes, totaling 3.5 linear miles ? Raising one bridge and county and local roads at seven locations, totaling 1.3 miles of roads ? Raising 2.5 miles of a State highway ? Rehabilitating 126 private residences (relocating septic tanks, providing foundation drainage, and landscaping) ? Rehabilitating headworks and intake structures at 10 locations ? Relocating an existing boat dock The estimated cost of Option 1 is $125 million. Option 2 does not protect structures and property, but, instead, allows the lake to spread beyond the current shoreline and flood adjacent lands. Existing dikes will be breached, and existing roads that would otherwise be inundated will be raised. Either existing headworks and water intakes at various locations will be retrofitted for the higher water surface elevation, or the associated facility will be purchased. Link River Dam will be modified as in Option 1. Major construction activities include: ? Breaching (every % mile) 14 sections of existing dikes with roads, totaling 44.3 linear miles of dikes ? Breaching 10 sections of existing dikes without roads, totaling 25.3 linear miles of dikes ? Armoring 3.0 linear miles of an existing dike ? Raising one bridge and county and local roads at three locations, totaling 0.6 mile of roads Executive Summary ? Raising 2.5 miles of an existing State highway ? Rehabilitating headworks and intake structures at nine locations ? Relocating an existing boat dock The estimated cost of Option 2 is $129 million, including $113 million for the acquisition of private land and structures. Raising Upper Klamath Lake 2 feet will increase storage by approximately 170,000 acre-feet, or about 25 percent. Winter floodflows, which are presently spilled to the Klamath River and not available for project use, will be stored and made available to help meet water needs for endangered species, Tribal trust resources, agricultural contractors, and national wildlife refuges. Future operation of the enlarged lake will be contingent upon acquisition of appropriate rights to divert and store additional water in the lake and may require filing an application for the appropriation of additional water with the Oregon Water Resource Department. Costs associated with implementing either Option 1 or Option 2 are significant. In addition, implementing either option will have both positive and negative impacts on the natural and human environment. Recommendations Several engineering studies are recommended. These include: ? Estimating quantities, properties, and availability of embankment and riprap materials, and identifying their locations (quaries) ? Constructing a modified dike test section to assess construction methodology and performance of rockfill protection ? Using detailed aerial topography (maximum 1-foot contours) of the Upper Klamath Lake shoreline to better define existing features and required improvements ? Conducting a comprehensive survey of all shoreline structures to provide a better estimate of the work required and associated costs ? Inspecting existing dam gates and concrete bulk heads to determine if additional modifications are required for the higher reservoir water surface ? S-3 Raising Upper Klamath Lake ? Developing site-specific, cost-effective alternatives to the proposed shore protection features ? Identifying and securing suitable rights-of-way Recreation facilities need to be analyzed in more detail to determine impacts and associated protection, relocation, and modification costs. A user survey and appropriate mapping of all recreational facilities has been initiated to determine existing recreation use levels and assist in the analysis of potential impacts. A detailed hydrology study demonstrating that unappropriated water is available to fill the additional storage in Upper Klamath Lake is recommended. Better descriptions of area-elevation-capacity relationships and evaporation and transpiration losses will also be needed. The following environmental studies are recommended: ? Develop detailed topographic information for the entire lake and surrounding area to predict the extent of flooding and potential vegetation changes ? Develop topographic mapping in 1-foot increments to predict effects on wetland vegetation ? Determine potential streamflow changes below Link River Dam and potential benefits to threatened and endangered fishes ? Determine impacts to upland areas that would be inundated by the higher reservoir water surface elevations. The following economic studies are recommended: ? Determine all costs (e.g., planning, design, construction, mitigation, and operation, maintenance, and replacement) ? Determine benefit/cost Early development and implementation of a public involvement plan will be essential to a feasibility study. Various studies to identify and analyze social impacts and impacts to environmental justice, Tribal trust, and cultural resources are recommended. Opportunities to avoid or lessen adverse impacts will also need to be identified. S-4
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19262. [Image] Klamath District and Klamath Project annual history, 1946
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes organization of Klamath District with official correspondence and description of the Klamath project, an organization chart, fiscal year financials, photographs, ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Klamath District and Klamath Project annual history, 1946
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1946, 2008, 2006
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes organization of Klamath District with official correspondence and description of the Klamath project, an organization chart, fiscal year financials, photographs, maps, charts and tables of crop and livestock yields and water storage and distribution, etc.; Includes index; Title covers: calendar years for 1946-1948; Description is based on: Klamath District and Klamath Project Annual History for 1946; Dates of the beginning year(s) of publication are derived from the May 1, 1903 to December 31, 1912, History of the Klamath Project and from the volume information on later volumes (v. 35) Klamath District and Klamath Project Annual history for 1945, dated December 1, 1946
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Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Final supplemental environmental impact statement: for clarification of language in the 1994 record of decision for the Northwest Forest Plan; national forests and Bureau of Land Management districts within the range of the northern spotted owl: proposal to amend wording about the aquatic conservation strategy
- Author:
- United States. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; United States. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Managemen
- Year:
- 2003, 2006, 2005
Abstract The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior propose limited changes to language about how to demonstrate that projects follow the Aquatic Conservation Strategy, part of the Northwest Forest Plan. Projects needed to achieve Northwest Forest Plan goals have been delayed or stopped due to misapplication of certain passages in the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The agencies are responding to the underlying need for increased agency success planning and implementing projects, to the extent that the current wording has hindered the agencies ability to follow Northwest Forest Plan principles and achieve its goals. The goals of the Northwest Forest Plan cannot be achieved without project implementation. Three alternatives are considered in the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, No Action, the Proposed Action, and Alternative A. No Action would not change existing language within the Aquatic Conservation Strategy. The Proposed Action and Alternative A would make l
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19264. [Article] An evaluation of soil warming for increased crop production
In regions where soil temperatures limit plant growth, artificial soil warming may be an economically feasible practice. This hypothesis was evaluated in a soil warming experiment near Corvallis, Oregon. This ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- An evaluation of soil warming for increased crop production
- Author:
- Rykbost, K. A.
In regions where soil temperatures limit plant growth, artificial soil warming may be an economically feasible practice. This hypothesis was evaluated in a soil warming experiment near Corvallis, Oregon. This experiment was prompted by the observation that multiple use of waste heat discharged in the condenser cooling water of thermal power plants may become an important consideration in the development and siting of these plants. The thermal discharge might be used to achieve increased soil temperature by circulating warm water through a subsurface pipe network. Objectives of this investigation were: (1) to determine the effect, if any, of buried line heat sources on air temperatures within a crop canopy; (2) to determine the extent to which soil temperature can be elevated with buried line heat sources maintained at various temperatures; (3) to establish the effect of subsurface heating on soil water regimes and to evaluate a subsurface irrigation system as a means of maintaining high soil water content and hence high rates of heat transfer in the vicinity of heat sources; (4) to evaluate a theoretical model for prediction of energy dissipation rates; (5) to establish the yield response to soil warming for numerous crops; and (6) to evaluate the influence of subsurface heating on soil and air temperatures and crop production in a wood frame, plastic covered greenhouse. Six individually controlled electrical heating cables were used to simulate a buried pipe network. Thirteen different crops were grown on heated and unheated areas during the four years of this study. Air and soil temperatures were monitored at over 200 locations with thermistors. Readings were taken with a computerized digital data acquisition system. Soil water content was monitored with electrical resistance blocks. Energy inputs were measured for each heating cable with kilowatt-hour meters. Air temperatures at four heights above the soil surface over bare soil and in a field corn canopy were not appreciably affected by soil warming. Statistically significant temperature increases due to soil warming were observed but they were too small to be of consequence for crop growth. Soil temperatures in the upper 25 centimeters were more responsive to solar heating than to subsurface heating. Temperature increases due to soil warming were one to five degrees centigrade at the five centimeter depth, depending on heat source temperature, time of year, time of day and crop canopy conditions. A major portion of the root zone was maintained above 20 degrees centigrade during most of the growing season. The greatest temperature increases were observed on a plot where subsurface irrigation was used to maintain high soil water content near the heat sources. During the summer substantial soil drying occurred in the vicinity of the heat sources, particularly under a field corn crop. Thermal gradients prevented rewetting by sprinkler irrigation. A subsurface irrigation system maintained a wet soil near the heat sources throughout the growing season. The rate of heat loss from buried heat sources was found to respond to changes in depth and spacing of sources, source temperature, soil surface temperature and soil water content, as predicted by theoretical considerations. A high correlation between mean monthly air temperature and mean monthly heat loss rates was found. The results indicate that the area required to reduce the temperature of circulating warm water, from a 1,000 megawatt thermal power plant, by 10 degrees centigrade would range from 10,000 hectares in the winter to 20,000 hectares in the summer under Willamette Valley climatic conditions. This requirement could be reduced by design modifications or subsurface irrigation. A wide range in crop response to soil warming was observed for different crops and for some crops in different years. The results obtained with field corn and bush beans suggest that the response to soil heating depends on the degree of adversity to which the crop is subjected. When climatic conditions and management factors are optimum soil heating has a limited effect on crop yields. When one or more of these factors are limiting soil heating becomes more effective and greater yield responses occur. In nearly all cases soil warming resulted in more rapid germination and early growth, and earlier maturation. Double cropping of bush beans and double cropping with summer and winter annual forage crops appear to be feasible with soil warming. Yield increases due to soil warming were above 50 percent for several forage and vegetable crops. Several cropping sequences were suggested. Additional input from agricultural economists and engineers is needed to determine those crop combinations which will result in the greatest economic returns from a soil warming system. Soil heating did not result in higher air temperatures in a plastic covered greenhouse. Soil temperatures were substantially increased and this resulted in an increase in tomato production of 64 percent compared with a crop grown in the greenhouse with no soil warming. Strawberry yields did not respond to soil warming in greenhouse culture and this was attributed to high air temperatures due to solar heat trapping during daylight hours. The results of this investigation suggest that soil warming with condenser cooling waters from thermal power plants is feasible. Additional information is needed to evaluate the economic and engineering aspects of a soil warming system. It is unlikely that a soil warming system can fulfill all the needs of a thermal power plant cooling system. Additional studies to evaluate other beneficial uses of waste heat to be used in combination with a soil warming system will be required.
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19265. [Image] Western water resource issues
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19266. [Image] Upper Klamath Lake Basin nutrient-loading study: assessment of historic flows in the Williamson and Sprague Rivers
"The goal of the project is to quantitatively describe the nature and extent of the ground-water flow systems in the basin."Citation Citation
- Title:
- Upper Klamath Lake Basin nutrient-loading study: assessment of historic flows in the Williamson and Sprague Rivers
- Author:
- Risley, John C.
- Year:
- 1999, 2005, 2004
"The goal of the project is to quantitatively describe the nature and extent of the ground-water flow systems in the basin."
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There have been many studies that describe the protective degradation or metabolism of potentially harmful plant toxins, such as, mimosine from Leucaena leuconcephala, pyrrolizidine alkaloids from tansy ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Molecular characterization of bacterial populations implicated in the anaerobic metabolism of toxic plant alkaloids from two different experimental and environmental sources
- Author:
- Rattray, Rogan MacKay
There have been many studies that describe the protective degradation or metabolism of potentially harmful plant toxins, such as, mimosine from Leucaena leuconcephala, pyrrolizidine alkaloids from tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), oxalate and some mycotoxins by rumen microbes. There are many cases of plant-related toxicoses suffered by ruminant animals where there are no microbes known to offer protection. Ergot alkaloids produced by the endophytic fungus Neotyphodium coenophialum have been shown to cause the syndromes of fescue foot and summer slump in animals grazing tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) grass varieties that carry the endophyte. Economic losses due to these diseases have been estimated to be about $1 billion per year. For this reason, it is economically desirable to find one or more microbes that could be introduced into the rumen environment to protect animals from fescue toxicosis and pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicosis. Studies that have found protective microbes focused on identification of those microbes using mainly phenotyping and enrichment or isolation techniques. In the studies presented here, two different experimental and environmental systems were examined. Culture-independent molecular biology techniques were used to take advantage of differences found between bacteria in the 16S small ribosomal subunit gene as a means of characterizing diversity. Analytical chemistry techniques were used to place diversity observations in the context of function. Microbes within a consortia culture derived from the rumen of a sheep were previously shown to metabolize pyrrolizidine alkaloids found in the invasive weed, tansy ragwort. Thin layer chromatography was used to monitor microbial activity. The bacterial enrichment was characterized by molecular cloning techniques and by the molecular fingerprinting technique of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Phylogenetic analysis of the enrichment revealed that the consortium is composed of no more than five putative bacterial species which associated to the Anaerovibrio, Desulfovibrio, Megasphaera, Prevotella, and Synergistes generas. The DGGE results were directly compared to the cloning data by amplifying eight phylogenetically representative clones by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and analyzing them by DGGE. Direct DGGE analysis of the enrichment displayed greater 16S diversity than the clone library used in this study, suggesting that at least one of the organisms present in the enrichment comprises less than 1% of the total cell population. Earthworms of the species Eisenia fetida are commonly used in the practice of vermicomposting. This is the process by which worms are used in a closed bin or pit, to aid in the breakdown of manure and other agricultural waste in order to generate highly fertile soil from the worm's digestive waste products, or cast. The worms were used in a two-treatment vermicompost experiment. One treatment was given tall fescue seed assayed to contain over 10,000 parts per billion of the endophyte toxin ergovaline (E+ treatment). The other treatment was used as a control and was given tall fescue seed with ergovaline amounts that fell below analytical levels of detection (E- treatment). Many of the worms originally introduced into the E+ treatment died off before a population of worms established itself as a productive vermicompost system. The success of this population of worms may be due to the presence of beneficial or protective microbes within their digestive tract. Digestive tracts were dissected and collected from worms of each treatment in February of 2007. The guts were homogenized and anaerobically cultured with and without added ergovaline. The disappearance of ergovaline and the stereo-isomer ergovalinine from worm-gut cultures was monitored daily by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). DNA was purified from the same gut homogenate samples used for incubation experiments. Cloning of the 16S gene was applied to determine the identity of the bacteria present in the treatments during the month of February. The computational program Mr. Bayes was used to group restriction-fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns based on their uniqueness. The program DOTUR was used to estimate the level of diversity based on ribotype distances. With the aim of encompassing the fullest amount of represented sequence diversity, these data were used to specifically select 192 clones from each 960 clone library. Selected clones were analyzed by sequencing the 16S insert. Clone sequences from both treatments made associations to bacterial 16S reference sequences in the phyla Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Planctomycetes, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and unclassifed bacterial sequences. Four clones associated best with a plastid sequence derived from a green algae species. The global similarity between libraries indicated that the populations were not significantly different at the time of sampling. HPLC data showed no observable loss of ergovaline from incubations of E+ or E- worm treatment samples taken in February. Incubation experiments in December of 2006 using only E+ treatment worm guts had demonstrated the potential for microbial metabolism of ergovaline; however, no molecular work was done at that time. An integrative approach was taken to describe the function and bacterial composition of the two systems studied. The use of analytical chemistry techniques placed the observations of microbial diversity into context. Thin-layer chromatography was used to check that the ability of the pyrrolizidine alkaloid-degrading enrichment was still intact after being revived from long-term storage. This allowed for direct comparisons to earlier data published about the identity of microbes within these enrichments. HPLC data indicated that worm-gut homogenates characterized in February did not demonstrate the same metabolic activity as was observed during an incubation of gut material taken from E+ treatment worms in December. Since there was no previous molecular data to compare potential differences in bacterial diversity from these two time points, the molecular data collected in February will be used as a reference of the background population at a time when there was no metabolism of ergovaline. It is intended that the results of these studies will further the understanding of which microbes are involved in the metabolism of the particular compound of interest. In this way, steps may be made toward refining the culturing and propagation of desirable bacteria that may potentially serve as a treatment for ruminant animals challenged by the presence of either pyrrolizidine or ergot alkaloids in their diets.
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Agroforestry is a traditional farming practice in American Samoa that has helped to sustain the livelihood of the native population for centuries. These once self-sufficient islands have become economically ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Agroforestry farming in American Samoa : a classification and assessment
- Author:
- Tuitele-Lewis, Jeannette D.
Agroforestry is a traditional farming practice in American Samoa that has helped to sustain the livelihood of the native population for centuries. These once self-sufficient islands have become economically dependent on U.S monies and other external resources during the past century. Dependency has caused a shift in the carrying capacity of the islands and has changed cultural attitudes regarding land use. This attitude is expressed on the landscape of changing agricultural and communal lands. Preserving traditional agroforestry practices and improving these systems may be important factors contributing to the future ecological, economic, and cultural sustainability of the territory. The goal of this study was to document and describe agroforestry farming in American Samoa in order to provide base-line information regarding the utilization of agroforestry species, agroforestry farming incentives and constraints, and current practices and systems. Thirty-eight farmers were randomly selected and farmer interviews and field surveys were conducted between the months of May-August 2003. Formal survey questions for the interview were divided into five major sections: woody species usage, livestock, inputs and soil, land tenure, and farmer demographics. Site selection corresponded with the participant farmers. Basic topographical information was collected for each site. Agroforestry practices mentioned during the interview process that were observed on site were documented. Each agroforestry site was placed into an initial classification type based on a visual assessment of plot size, species diversity, and vertical vegetative structure. Subplot data regarding species composition and vertical canopy structure was measured for each site. Data collection was divided into five vertical layers primarily by height: 1) low crop (<1.5m), 2) shrub/sapling (1.5-4m), 3) small tree (4-l0m), 4) large tree (10+m) and 5) climbing vines. For each subplot all ethnobotanically useful plant species were identified. Percent cover of useful species in each stratum layer was estimated and assigned one of seven percent cover classes. Subplot cover classes were averaged to obtain a single site estimate for each species in each stratum. Results from the farmer interviews suggest that agroforestry systems continue to be an important cultural and product resource in American Samoa. Although there is no longer the same level of dependency on these systems for meeting basic needs, agroforestry products continue to supplement household diets and are utilized for a variety of non-timber forest products and ecological services. Several agroforestry practices were observed among the farms in the study. However, the effectiveness of some of the practices including windbreaks, fallow, and erosion control was not optimal. This indicated that farmers could greatly benefit from institutionalized agroforestry practices such as appropriate spacing for wind filtration, improved fallow, and contour farming. Incentives and constraints for practicing agroforestry farming were identified. Some incentives included product variety, tradition, and a growing need for land-use efficiency. Identified constraints included time investment for production and poor labor resources, decreased profit when compared to mono-cultural farming, and the lack of planning prior to agroforestry implementation. The communal land tenure system acted as both an incentive and a disincentive for practicing agroforestry. The initial classification of agroforestry systems included home tree gardens, mixed crop plantations, transitional systems, and open canopy with dispersed tree systems. Agroforestry systems existed along an ecological complexity continuum, where complexity was measured by species diversity and vertical structure. A quantitative assessment of species composition and structure was used as a more objective approach to classifying local agroforestry systems. Non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to ordinate sites along a gradient based on species composition and structure. Several environmental and socio-economic variables were investigated to determine whether any of them demonstrated relationships with vegetative patterns. Species diversity, average number of canopy stratum layers, and elevation were three variables correlated with vegetative patterns. Sites that had high species diversity and were multi-structured were placed at the upper end of the gradient, while sites that had lower diversity with simple structure were generally placed at the lower end of the gradient. This supported the ecological complexity continuum. Less complex sites were associated with high elevations indicating that systems on the heavily populated lowland regions were more species rich and structurally diverse. The classification based on the cluster analysis indicated that distinct groups did not exist, as there was significant overlap. In general, groups derived from the cluster analysis were similar to those based on the visual assessment. One difference was that in the cluster analysis taro and gatae (Erythrina spp.) dominated sites emerged as a separate group. In addition, the cluster analysis was able to distinguish several subgroups within the mixed crop plantation type. No single socio-economic variable was correlated with vegetative patterns. This suggests that socio-economic variables do not determine vegetation in agroforestry systems and that human preference may be more of a driving factor than initially expected. It is likely that the availability of external resources allows for the selection of species within agroforestry systems to be based on choice rather than need. This trend is likely to increase as people become less dependent upon agroforestry systems to supplement needs. Traditional and institutionalized agroforestry systems have the potential to contribute to increasing self-sufficiency among American Samoan households. Because the importance of these systems is often not realized, the active promotion and education of agroforestry practices is essential. The classification of agroforestry systems provides an organizational framework for future research to build upon. The concept of the ecological complexity continuum where agroforestry systems fall along major points may be useful for answering socio-economic and ecological questions related to local agroforestry production.
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19269. [Article] Science and efficacy of mild sodium hydroxide treatments in enzyme-based wheat straw-to-glucose processing
The work described in this dissertation focused on chemistry related to the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide as a treatment in the processing of wheat straw. A major emphasis was the comprehensive evaluation ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Science and efficacy of mild sodium hydroxide treatments in enzyme-based wheat straw-to-glucose processing
- Author:
- Sophonputtanaphoca, Supaporn
The work described in this dissertation focused on chemistry related to the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide as a treatment in the processing of wheat straw. A major emphasis was the comprehensive evaluation of straw component partitioning due to sodium hydroxide (NaOH) processing. This was evaluated over a range of NaOH concentrations (0‐10%, w/v), all at 50°C, 5 h treatment period, and 3% solid loading. Solid and liquid phases resulting from NaOH treatments were evaluated. Total solids recovered in the NaOH‐treated solid phase ranged from 47.4‐88.0%. Overall carbohydrate recovery in the combined solid and liquid phases was negatively correlated with the alkali concentration of the treatment liquor. The glucan content of the NaOH‐treated solid phase ranged from 37.2‐67.4%. Glucan recovery in the solid phase was relatively high in all cases, the minimum value being ~98%. Increasing amounts of xylan partitioned into the liquid phase as sodium hydroxide concentrations increased – it ranged from 31‐83% of the xylan being recovered in the soluble phase. Carbohydrate analyses of the pretreated liquor revealed that the majority of carbohydrate loss from the solid fraction could be recovered in the liquid phase in form of oligomers and monomers due to alkaline degradation. The interconversion of glucose, fructose, and mannose under the alkaline condition played an important role in the presence of those sugars. Increase in NaOH concentration contributed to increase in amount of cellulose‐derived and hemicellulose‐derived oligomers in the pretreated liquor. All oligomers except fructooligomers in NaOH pretreated liquor were higher than those found in water extraction at 50°C, 5 h. Total carbohydrate recovery from the solid and liquid fractions was as high as 99% for glucose and glucan in 5% NaOH treatment and 80‐95% for xylose and xylan in 1-10% NaOH treatment. The presence of NaOH as extraction reagent dramatically induced lignin and ash removal from the pretreated solid with up to 63% acid insoluble lignin (AIL) and 87% ash extraction. Solid fractions resulting from NaOH pretreatments (up to 5% NaOH) were tested for their susceptibility to enzymatic saccharification using cellulase and cellulase/xylanase enzyme preparations. The cellulase/xylanase enzyme preparation was found to be more effective at cellulose saccharification than the cellulase enzyme preparation alone. Maximum glucose yield, which corresponded to the 5% NaOH treatment, was 82% over the standard 48 h saccharification period. Extended saccharifications times to 120 h showed that the conversion yield approached 90%. Sequential treatments of the straw (i.e. initial alkali treatment – first enzyme saccharification – second alkali treatment ‐ second enzyme treatment) revealed the NaOH treatment has the potential to render essentially all (~99%) of the straw glucan susceptible to enzyme saccharification. This suggests that the layered molecular arrangement of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in the cell wall impacts biomass recalcitrance and glucan conversion yield. The other major focus of this dissertation research was the characterization of alkali neutralization, which occurs during the aqueous alkali processing of wheat straw. The approach taken was to evaluate the time course of alkali uptake and to determine the underlying nature of alkali uptake. The knowledge generated from this study is useful for understanding the nature of the alkali‐induced chemistry that is at the heart of alkali processing of agricultural byproducts, foods, and forest products. Alkali uptake/acid generation measurements were monitored for wheat straw suspensions at pH 11 and 30°C. The first phase of alkali uptake corresponded to the 30‐second time period over which the pH of the wheat straw suspension was adjusted from its original pH (~6.6) to pH 11. Alkali neutralization during this period was attributed to the instantaneous ionization of solvent accessible Bronstad acids. Following pH adjustment to 11.0, the time course of subsequent alkali uptake was recorded. The time course appeared biphasic. The early phase, which corresponded to the relatively rapid uptake of alkali, was evident during the first 24 hours. The later phase, which was characterized by the relatively slow uptake of alkali, was maintained for the length of the study (up to 96 hours). Alkali uptake during the early phase of the time course appears to be determined by the rate of hydrolysis of readily accessible esters – primarily acetic acid esters (acetyl groups). Alkali uptake during the later phase of the time course appears to be impacted by the rate of alkali penetration into the straw and the rate of production of alkali‐induced acid degradation products. The uptake of alkali in the pH adjustment phase was ~ 120 μEq per gram wheat straw, the uptake of alkali in the early phase of time course was ~ 1,064 μEq per gram wheat straw, and the rate of uptake in the later phase of the time course 6.10 μEq per gram wheat straw per hour. Amount of acetyl groups, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid generated during 96-h pretreatment revealed that they are major esters being hydrolyzed under the studied condition. Combined, these ester-derived acids contributed up to ~ 28% of overall alkali uptake. In addition, alkaline degradation products quantified in this study showed additional ~ 28% contribution to the overall alkali uptake.
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19270. [Image] Three great factors in Oregon's development
An article on the agricultural, industrial and economic development of the state of Oregon in the early 20th centuryCitation -
19271. [Image] Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins
Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T., tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins
- Year:
- 1996, 2005, 2000
Abstract Quigley, Thomas M.; Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T., tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-382. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 303 p. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed. The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment.) The Integrated Scientific Assessment for Ecosystem Management for the Interior Columbia Basin links landscape, aquatic, terrestrial, social, and economic characterizations to describe biophysical and social systems. Integration was achieved through a framework built around six goals for ecosystem management and three different views of the future. These goals are: maintain evolutionary and ecological processes; manage for multiple ecological domains and evolutionary timeframes; maintain viable populations of native and desired non-native species; encourage social and economic resiliency; manage for places with definable values; and, manage to maintain a variety of ecosystem goods, services, and conditions that society wants. Ratings of relative ecological integrity and socioeconomic resiliency were used to make broad statements about ecosystem conditions in the Basin. Currently in the Basin high integrity and resiliency are found on 16 and 20 percent of the area, respectively. Low integrity and resiliency are found on 60 and 68 percent of the area. Different approaches to management can alter the risks to the assets of people living in the Basin and to the ecosystem itself. Continuation of current management leads to increasing risks while management approaches focusing on reserves or restoration result in trends that mostly stabilize or reduce risks. Even where ecological integrity is projected to improve with the application of active management, population increases and the pressures of expanding demands on resources may cause increasing trends in risk. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, management and goals; ecological integrity; socio-economic resiliency; risk management
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UNITED STATES DEPAXTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION Washington, D. C. Public Notice No. I45 October 8, 1947 KLAMATH PROJECT, OREMN - CALIFORNIA PAXT 2- TLILE LAKE DIVISION PUBLIC NOTICE ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Public notice opening public lands to entry and announcing availability of water therefor : Public notice no. 45, October 8, 1947, Klamath Project Oregon-California, Part 2 - Tule Lake Division
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1947, 2005, 2004
UNITED STATES DEPAXTMENT OF. THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION Washington, D. C. Public Notice No. I45 October 8, 1947 KLAMATH PROJECT, OREMN - CALIFORNIA PAXT 2- TLILE LAKE DIVISION PUBLIC NOTICE OPENING PUBLIC LANDS TO ENTRY AND ANNOUNCING AVAILABILITY OF WATER THRWOR 1. Public land for vhich water i s available and for + ich entry may be made.-- In pursuance of the Act of June 17, 1902 ( 32 Stat. 388) and acts amendatory thereof or supplementary thereto, it i s hereby announced that water w i l l be available beginning with the i r r i ~ a t i o ns eason of 1948, end thereafter, and that application may be made in accordance with t h i s notice, beeinnine a t 2: 00 p. m., October 22, 1947, for entry on public lands i n Part 2- file Lake Division of the KlamAth Project,, Oregon - California, as shown on approved farm unit plats on f i l e in the Office of the District Manaaer. Bureau of Reclamation. Klamath Falls. Oregon. and in the District Land Office a t Sacramento, ~ a l i r o r k a . These lands are dkcribed as fofiows:- . Mount Diablo Meridian. California Section 1 36 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 11 12 1 11 11 - Farm - Unit A B C D E F G H J A B C D E F K L A B Description Township 46 North. Ranp( e 5 % st Lots 1, 8 & ~"$ IE& ( T. C7 N., R. 5 E.) Lo* 10 Lots 2, 7 & 9 i ~ t ~ & Lots 3, 6 & SEN& Lots 12 and 15 Lot 18 ~ 4 SWk ~ 4 % E& E& Lots 4 & 5 Lots 13 & 14 ~ o1t & NNE~ Lot 2 & SE& NW~ Lot 3 Lot 20 swl. Srwt Lot 22 E!& '& a h t s 6 & 7 Lots 16 & 17 Lots 4 & 5 Lot 6 Lot 19 ww4 @ NWt Total Irri-gable Acres 86.7 81.9 84.6 84.2 72.9 73.8 71.4 72.0 n. 4 73.5 73.4 84.0 86.6 * 77.3 75.5' n. 8 68.8 75.2 Order of Selection Section 11 u 11 ll 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 35 35 34 35 34 35 35 36 36 6 6 7 6 7 7 7 - Farm - Unit C D E J A B C D E F G H A B C D i3 B C A B C A B D Total Irri- Description gable Acres Township 46 North. Rawe 5 East( contd. 1 L c t s 6 & 7 Lots 7 & 8 Lot 9 Township 427eh. Range 5 East Lots 12 & 13 Lots 11 & 14 Lot 9 $ 94 Lot 10 Lot 3 w& i Lots 4, 8 & 9 Township 46 North. Range 6 East Lcts 15, 16 & 18 Lots 6, 10, 17, 20 & 21 Lots 15, 16, Lots 22 & 23 Lots 7, 11, 17, 18, SZ$ NI+~ Lots 8, 12 & NE$ SW& Lots 9, U & sE$& Order of - Sslection 2. & nit of acreaKe for which entry may be made or water secured.-? he area of public land constituting each farm unit represents the acreage which, in the opinion of the Secretary of the Interior, may be reasonably reouired for the support of a family upon such land, and i s fixed a t the amount shown upon the farm unit plats referrcd to above. 3. Preference rinhts of veterans. Nature of reference.-- Pursuant to the provisions of the A- ct of September 27, 1944 ( 58 Stat. ai47>- dyt?;;; Acts of June 25, 1946 ( Public Law 440, 79th Congress, 2nd ~ e s s i o n ) , and May 31, 1947 ( Public Law 82, 80th Congress, 1st session), for a period of 90 days from the opening of these lands to entry, or u n t i l January 20, 1948, the lands described i n paragraph 1 above w i l l be opened t o entry to persons who a t the time of milking application f a l l within one of the following classes: ( 1) Persons, including persons under 21 years of age, who have served i n the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard of the United States for a period of a t l e a s t 90 days a t any time on o r a f t e r September 16, 1940, and prior to the termination of the present war, and are honorably discharged therefrom. ( 2) Persons, including persons under 21 years of age, who have served i n said Amy, Nairy, Marine Corps or Coast Guard during such period, regardless of l e n ~ t ho f service, and are discharged on account of wounds received or disability incurred during such period i n the line of duty, or, subsequent t o a regular discharge, are furnished hospitalization or awarded compensation by the government on account of such wounds or disability. ( 3) Ihe spouse of any person i n e i t h e r of the above classes ( 1) and ( 2), provided such spouse has the consent of such person to exercise his o r her preference right under said Act. ( L) The surviving spouse of any person i n either of the above classes ( 1) and ( 2), or i n the case of the death or marriage of such spouse, the minor child or children of such person by a guardian duly appointed and o f f i c i a l l y accredited a t the Department of the Interior, ( 5) The surviving spouse of m p person whose death has resulted from wunds received or disability incurred i n l i n e of duty while s e r v i n ~ i n said Army, Navy, Marine Corps or Coast , Tuard during the aboveaentioned period, or i n the case of the death or mrriage of such spouse, the oinor child or children of such person by a guardian duly appointed and o f f i c i a l l y accreEited a t tile Department of the Interior. Provided, however, that persons claiming such preferences must be qualified t o make entry under the homestead laws and also possess the qualifications as t o industw, experience, character, capital, and physical fitness required of a l l entrymen and entrywomen under t h i s notice. b. Definition of honorable discharge.- An honorable discharge within the meaning of the Act of Septenber 27, 1964, as amended, shall mean: ( 1) Separation of the veteran from the service by means of an honorable discharge or a discharge under honorable conditions. ( 2) Transfer of the veteran with honorable service from such service to a reserve or r e t i r e d s t a t u s prior to the termination of the war, or ( 3) Ending of the period of such veteran's war service by reason of the temination of the war, even though the veteran remains i n the military or naval service of the United States. c. Submission of proof of veterans' status.- All applicants for farm units who claim veterans* preference must attach to t h e i r applications a photostatic, c e r t i f i e d , or authenticated copy of an o f f i c i a l document of the respective branch of the service involved which clearly indicates an honorable discharge or transfer to a reserve o r retired status or which constitutes eddence of other facts on which the claim for preference i's based. Where the preference i s claimed by the surviving spouse, or on behalf of the minor child or children, of a deceased veteran, proof of such relationship, of his military service, and of his death must be attached to the application. Where the preference i s claimed by the spouse of a livinz veteran, proof of such relationship, the written consent of such veteran, and proof of his military service as re, mired above must be attached to the application. 4. Qualifications required by the Reclamation Law.-- Pursuant to the provisions of subsection C, section I+. of the Act of December 5. 1924 ( L3 Stat. 702. 43 U. S. C. 433). the follow in^ are established as minimrun nualifications which, in'the opinion of the iocal examjning koe. rd, are necessary to insure the success of entrymen or entrywomen on reclamation farm units included under t h i s notice. Appli-cants must meet these qualifications, as determined by the exanAninc boerd, i n order to he considered for entry. Failure to meet them i n any single respect will be sufficient cause for rejection of an application. No credit wi'll be given : or qualifications i n excess of the minimum reouired. The minimum qualifications are as follows: l a. Character and industry.- The applicant must be possessed of honesty, temperate habits, t h r i f t , industry, seriousness of purpose, record of good moral conduct, an8 a bona f i d e i n t e n t t o engage in farming as an occupation. As part of each application, the applicant shall furnlsh three separate signed statements regarding the character and industry of the applicant. These statements may be prepared and signed by an ordained sinister, any commanding officer under whom the applicant served, a teacher or administrative o f f i c i a l of any recognized high school o r college, present or previous employer or any comparable individual or o f f i c i a l , not a relative, who i s personally acquainted with the applicant. The individuals signing these statements may be those l i s t e d in para-graph 17 of the farm application blank, referred to i n paragraph 6 of t h i s notice. \ b. Health.-- The applicant must be i n such physical condition as w i l l enable him t o engage i n n o m l farm labor. Any person who i s physically handicapped or afflicted with any condition which makes such a b i l i t y questionable must attach to his application the detailed statement of an examining physician which defines the limitation upon such a b i l i t y and i t s causes. c. Farm experienn. ( 1) Fam experience shall be of such a n a t ~ r ea s in the judgment of the examining board w i l l qualify the applicant to undertake the development and operation of an irrigated farm by modern methods. The applicmt must have had a minimum of twa years' full- time farm experience a f t e r attain-ing the age of 15 years. ' Iko years of study i n agricultural courses i n an accredited agricultural college or tw years of responsible technical work in agriculture, i f deemed by the examining board to be work which would contlribute toward successful farm operation, may be substituted for one year of full- time experience; pmvided that no more thnn one year's experience may be credited from such sources. . A farm youth having atteined the age of 15, who actually resided and wrked on a farm h i l e attending school, majr credit such part- time experience as equal to 50 percent of full- time experience. A l l fam experience must have been obtained since October 1, 1932. No advantage w i l l accrue from farming ex-perienae on irrigated land. ( 2) Applicants must furnish three separate statements each signed either by a Vocational Agricultural teacher, County Agent, Farmers Home Administration County Supervisor, A. A. A. County Chairman, an officer of any local farm organization, or by some other responsible person who has personal knowled~ e of the applicant's farm experience or has verified it to h i s satisfaction certifying t o the farm experience claimed i n paragraph 7 of the farm application blank. Forms to be used by these references accompany each farm application blank. ( 3) Women applicants must describe fully the farm a c t i v i t i e s i n which they have participated and the relation of any agricultural courses they have taken to farm operation and management. d. Capital.-- Each applicant must possess at least $ 2,000, consisting of cash or assets readily convertible into cash, such as United jtates Savings Bonds, or assets useful i n the operation of a fann, such as livestock, farm machinery and equipent. In addition, each applicant shall furnish, i n the space pmvided i n paragraph 11 of the farm application blank, a financial statement l i s t i n g all of h i s assets and all of h i s l i a b i l i t i e s , showing a net worth of a t l e a s t 92,000. " Possession of the minimum net Worth rewrement of at least $ 2,000 must be corroborated hy a statement of an o f f i c i a l of a bank, or other responsible and reputable private or public credit agency. This corroborative statement may be a separate attachment, or may be inserted at the bottom of page 3 of the farm application blank. e. liestilction re~ ardinp: l andsopresently owned on any Federal reclamation projects.- In addition, i n order to qualify for entry on project lands, applicants must not hold or own, within any Federal reclamation project, irrigable land for h i c h construction charges payable t o the United States have not been fully paid. Proofs of conformity with t h i s renuirement need not he furnished, but a check of proj-ect lands w i l l be made to determine e l i g i b i l i t y of applicants before, awards of farm units are nade. 5. Principal qualifications required by homestead laws.- Tne homestead laws reouire that an entrynan or entxyvmman: a. Must be a citizen of the United States or have declared an intention to become a citizen of the United Stntes. , . + b. Must not have exhausted the ri& t to make hoxestead entry on plblic land. c. Must not own more than 160 acres of land i n the TJnited States. d. Entrywomen who are married must be heads of families; t h i s requirement of the homestead law was not affected by the Act of September 27, 19WI. ( 58 Stat. 747), as amended. Nntrgmen and unmarried entrywomen must be 21 years of age or the head of a family, except that such minimum age reauirement is not applicable t o entrymen or unmarried entrywomen who have served in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps or Coast Guard of the United States for a period of a t l e a s t 90 days a t any time on or a f t e r September 16, 1940, and prior to the termination of the present war and are honorably discharged. Any applicant who i s renuired t o be the head of a family must submit proof of such status with his or her application. Complete information concerning qualifications for homesteading may be obtained from District Land. Offices or from the Bureau of Land Management, Washington 25, D. C. I 6. .& en. where. and how to amly for a farm unit. a. Application blanks.- Pay person desiring to acauire one of the p b l i c land units described i n t h i s notice must f i l l out the attached farm application blank. Additional application blanks may be obtained from the D i s t r i c t Manager, Bureau of Reclamation, P. 0. Box 312 ( quilding 61, Mmicipal Air-port), Klamath Falls, Oregon; Regional Director, Bureau of Reclamation, P. 0. Yox 25ll, Sacramento 10, California, or the Commissioner, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington 25, D. C. Each question on the farm application blank must be answered completely, with the exception that preference choice of farm units need not be listed i n the space provided on page J. b. Filing of applications and proofs.- An application for a, fann unit l i s t e d in paragraph 1 of t h i s notice must be f i l e d with the District Manager. hreau of Reclamation. P. 0. Box 312, ( Building 61, Municipal Airport), Klamath Falls, Oregon, in persoi or by mail. No advantage will accrue to an appli-- cant who presents h i s or her application i n person. Such an application must be accompanied by: ( I ) Proof of veteran's status i f veteranst nreference i s claimed; see above, paragraph 3 c. ( 2) Three statements as to character and industry; see above, pragraph 4 a. ( 3) statement of examining physician, i n case of disability; see above, praeraph 4 b. ( 4) Three statements corroborating the fanu experience cldm; see above, paragraph 4 c ( 2). ( 5 ) Corroboration of c a p i t a l assets; see above, paragraph 4 d. ( 6) Proof of status a s head of a family I f applicant i s a narried wman veteran, or a non-veteran under the age of 21; see above paragraph 5 d. c. Priority of applications.-- All applications f i l e d f o r the public land fam units l i s t e d i n t h i s notice w i l l be classified for priority purposeseas follows and considered i n the following order: ( 1) First Prioritg- G-.-- All applications fj led prior to 2: 00 p. m., Januarg 20, 1948, 4. which are accompanied by proof sufficient i n the opinion of the board t o establish e l i g i b i l i t y f o r veterans' preference, A l l such applications will be treated as simultaneously filed. ( 2) Second Przorit Grou .-. A11 applications f i l e d prior t o 2: 00 p. m., ~ anuary' 20, 1948, from applicants without veterans: prefzrence o r which are nvt accompanied hy proof sufficient in the ' A opinjon of the board. to establish e l i g i b i l i t y for veterans' preference. A l l such applications w i l l be t ~ e a t e da s simultaneously filed. . ( 3) Final Priority Grou..- All applications f i l e d after 2: 00 p. m., January 20, 1948, whether or not accompanied by proof relative t o veterans' preference. Such applications w i l l be con-sidered in the order i n which they are filed, i f any farm units become available for assignment to appli-cants within t h i s group. d. h l i c a t i o n s cannot be returned.--% ch application subnitted, including substantiating and supporting data, becomes a pert of the pemnent records of the Burem of Reclamation and cannot be returned to the applicant. \ 7. Selection of 2 G f i e d apulicants. a. 7?,, 7minin~ h- o~.-. b examining board of three nemhers has heen approved hy the Commissioner of Reclamation t o consider the fitness of each applicant t o undertake the development and operation of a farm on the Klamath Project. Careful investigations will he made t o verify the statercents and representntions made by .% pplicants in order t o determine t h e i r nualifications as prescribed in t h i s notice. b. Wsis of exami. n& t> s.-- The examinin& hoard will determine the eligibility for the award of a reclamation farm unit under subsection 4C of the Act of December 5, 1924. As stated ahove i n para-graph 4, applicants w i l l be judged on the basis of character, industry, fanning experience, and capital. No applicant w i l l be considered eligible who does not malify i n all respects, or who doe3 not, in the opinion of the board, possess the health and vigor to engage in farm work. Any f a l s i f i c a t i o n or fraudu-lent misrepresentation shall constitute ground for the dismalification of the applicant, the rejection of his application, the cancellation of his award, and/ or the cancellation of his entry. c. Procedure. ( 1) Pre1ivina~~ amination.-- If ah applicant f a i l s to make a prima facie case, that is, i f an ex- mLnation of h i s application discloses that he is not qualified i n respect to the requirements prescribed herein, the application shall be rejected and the applicant notified by the board of such rejection and the reasons therefor, and of h i s right to'appeal in writing to the Regional Director, Region 11, Bureau of Reclamation. Such written appeals must be filed within ten ( 10) days from the receipt of such notice with the District Kanager, Bureau of Reclamation, P. 0. 90x 312 ( Building 61, Municipal Airport), Klamath Falls, Oregon, who will forward them promptly t o the Regional Erector. If an appeal i s decided by the Regional Xrector i n favor of the applicant, the application will be referred to the examining board for inclusion i n the drawing. A l l decision3 on appeals will he based exclusively on information obtained prior t o rejection of the application by the examining board. The Kegional Director's decision on a l l appeals shall be a n a l . ( 2) Selection of a~ plicants.- After the expiration of the anpeal periods fixed by the ahoveaentioned notices, . wd in the absence of any pending appeals, the examining board shall conduct a public drawing from the names of the remaining applicants i n the First Priority Group, as defined i n parapaph 6 c. Qualified applicants need not be present a t the drawing i n order to participate therein. A t o t a l of 88 names ( twice the numher of puhlic land farm units to be awarded) shell be drawn snd numbered consecutively. The applicants whose names are so drawn may be closely investieated by the board to determine the authenticity and r e l i a b i l i t y of the infcnnation and proofs offered by them. This i n v e s t i ~ a t i o nm ay include a personal appearance before the board, i f the hoard determines that t h i s i s necessnry; should any applicant f a i l to com? ly with the hoard's renuest for a personal appearance, such f a i l u r e shall conatitute ground for rejection of his application. Any applicant, whose application is rejected by the board as a result of such investigation, shall he given notice of such rejection, setting forth the reasons therefor and advising the ap licant of his right t o appeal in writing to the Xegional Director. The provisions of paragraph 7 c ( 17 relative t o appeals shall be applicable to any such appeal, except that where any such appeal i s decided by the Regional Director in favor of the applicant such applicant shall retain the number assigned t o him a t the time of the drawing. After the expiration of all appeal periods fixed by notices given as above- provided, and i n - t h e absence of any pending appeals, those applicants whose applications remain unrejected and who hold the W, lowest numbers assigned a t the drawing, exclusive of those numbers assigned to rejected applications, shall be selected by the e x d n i n g board as the successful applicants. The balance of the 88 appli-cants whose applications remain unrejected shall be selected by the board as alternates. The board shall thereupon notify each successful applicant and each alternate of h i s selection and of his respective standing. The board shall thereupon notify a l l other remaining a l i c a n t s t h a t farm units will not becom available to than, except pursuant to subparagraph 7 c. ( 3)( 3bel ow. ( 3) Awarding of farm units. ( a) Upon the completi. on of any action which may become necessary by reason of any notices given, the examining board shall award farm units i n accordance with order of selection numbers assigned such units to the above- mentioned W, successful applicants i n the order in which t h e i r names are drawn without regard to preferences indicated by applicants for specific farm u n i t s o r otherwise. Each applicant to whom a farm unit has been awarded will be notified of t h a t f a c t by the board. Each such applicant shall have no right of entry for any other farm unit. If any such applicants f a i l to make application for homestead entry in conformity with the provisions of paragraph 9 below or t o comply with the other applicable renuircrrmente set out in said paragraph, the farm units awarded to them shall he awarded to alternates i n the order in which t h e i r names were dram and mbjact to the same condi-tions and reouirements as the 01% nal awards. ' he alternate withthe lowest number as assigned under the p= ovisions of paragraph 7 c. $ 1 hall tak( the place of the loweat numbered applicant m n g the f i r s t W* who f a i l s to make application for homestead entry. or disqualifies by failure to comply with the other rerpirmmts s e t forth i n paragraph 9 below; and the alternate with the second lowest number shall take the place of the second lowest numberad applicant who f a i l s t o make application for homestead entry or comply with the other mruiremmtr. Thm same procedure shall continue to apply u n t i l a l l f a n units have been awarded. ( b) The foregoing procedure h a l l continue u n t i l a l l fam units are finally disposed of to unrejected mpplicantr in the First Priority Group whose names have been drawn and whose applica-tions hnve been closely investigatd as provided herein. If units still remain to be awarded a f t e r a l l applications in the Pirst Priority Group have been procerrod, the foregoing procedure shall be applied i n the proceasing of applications in the Second Priority Group. If d t s . till remain t o b e awarded a f t e r all applications in the Second Priorlty Cmup have been processed, the foreg'oing procedure shall be applied in the'processing of applications i n the Pinal Priority Group, except that the board shall consider such applications in the order i n which they are f i l d i n lieu of conducting a drawing with reference thereto. ( 4) DeUmrg of notices.- All notices given to applicants pursuant to the provisions of paraeraph 7 c. and subparagraphs thereunder shall be i n writing and shall be delivered t o the respective applicants personally or sent to them by registered m a i l with return receipt requested. 8. ! Narn- against unlawful settlement.- No parson shall be permitted t o gain or exorcise any right under any settlement or occupation of any of the public lands covered by t h i s notice except under the terms and conditions prescribed by t h i s notice. 9. Payment of charms and filin,? of homestead applications.- After the 44 successful applicants have been selected, they & all be so notified hy the examininl~ board, and with such notice the examining hoard shall enclose a water rental application for the farm unit awarded which must be executed by the applicant and returned to the District Manager, Bureau of Reclamation, P. 0. Box 312 ( Buildiq 61, hnicipal Airport), Klamath Falls, Oregon, within ten ( 10) days from receipt thereof, to& her with the pdyment of the minimum water rental charge as specified i n uaragraph 10 a. hereof. Upon r e c e i ~ to f water rental application and payment of the amount due thereon, the examining board shall furnish each appli-cant a c e r t i f i c a t e statine that his qualifications to enter public lands as renuired by subsection C of Section 4 of the Act of December 5, 1924 ( W Stat. 702) have been uassed upon and approved by the examining board. Such c e r t i f i c a t e mast be attached by the applicant t o h i s homestead application which application must he f i l e d at the District Land Office of the Bureau of Land Management, Sacramento, California. Such homestead application must be f i l e d within t h i r t y ( 30) days from the date of the receipt by the applicant of said certificate. Failure to pay the water rental charge or to make appli-cation for homestead entry within the periods specified herein w l l l render the application subject to rejection, i n which event the examining board w i l l select the next listed alternate. 10. Charges payable by a l l water users,- The Reclamation Law provides that except during a ' ldeveloument ~ eriodl' fixed by the Secretary of the Interior water m y not be delivered for the irrina-tion of- lands- until an org& zation, satisfactory i n form and powers- to the Secretary, has entered into a contract with the United States prodding for the repayment of the project construction costs & ich are allocated to such irrigated lands. Pursuant to Section 2 ( 5 ) and 7 ( b) of the Rsclnmation Project Act, of 1939, ( 53 5tat. 1187), lands described i n paragraph 1 of t h i s plblic notice are hereby designated a developnent unit. The maximu developnent period for the lands so designsted i s fixed a t a period of four gears from and including the f i r s t year in which water i s delivered; provided, that such period may be reduced by supplemental mtice should the Secretary determine that the f u l l four- year period i s not reasonably necessarg. Before the end of tha developent period, a l l lands described i n said para-graph 1, must, therefore, be included within an organization of the type described and such organization must execute a contract cwering the repaynent of the construction costs allocated to such lands. a. Char~ es payable before execution of the r e p s p n t contract. ( 1) The minimum water rental charge f o r the irrigation season of 1948 and thereafter u n t i l further notice shall be three dollars ($ 3.00) per acre for each irrigable acre of land in the f a n unit, whether water i s used or not, which will entitle the entryman to two and one half ( a) acre- feet . of water per irrigable acre. Payment of this charge for the irrigation season of 1948 s h a l l be made at the time of filing water rental applications. ( 2) Additional water dl1 be firnished during the 1948 i r r i ~ a t i o n season and thereafter u n t i l further notice up to a limit of three and one half ( 33) acre- feet per irrieable acre at the rate of f i f t y cents ( 80.50) per acre- foot and a11 further nuantities a t seventy- five cents ( w. 75) per acre-foot. Charges for the additional water are to be paid on or before hcember 1 of the year in which used. No water shall be delivered to the water uemr in mbsequent years u n t i l a l l such charges have been paid in full. ( 3) In the event any applicant does not receive notice of the award of a farm unit u n t i l a f t e r June 15, 1948, payment shall be a minimum charge of three dollars ($ 3.00) per acre, which payment shall apply as a credit on the minimum charge for the following irrieation season. ( h) The foregoing charges are subject t o a l l provisions of the Federal Reclamation Law relative to collections and penalties for delinquencies. The charges w i l l be paid a t the office of the Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls, Oregon. Future charges dll be announced by future order o r public notice. 6. b. Charges payable a f t e r execution of the repayment contract.- Subsequent to the execution of the repayment contract, and i n accordance with the terms thereof, water users will pay an annual charge per acre t o meet operation and maintenance costs and t o repay t o the government that portion of the constmction costs allocated to Part 2, Tule Lake Division. On the date of issue of t h i s puhlic notice, it i s impracticablr to determine ( 1) the t o t a l construction cost of Part 2, Tule Iake Divlsion distributary system; ( 2) the allocation of costs to Part 2, ' We Lake Division of tho Klamath Federal Reclamation Pmject, and ( 3) the ultimate water- service area of the Division. Accorrlingly, no exact statmnent as t o the t o t a l and per acre construction charge t o be made against the lands opened in t h i s puhlic notice i s practicable, When the t o t a l construction charge has been detedned and allocated by the Secretary of the Interior, and a repapent c o n t r q ~ tn egotiated with the irrigation d i s t r i c t , a supplementary notice announcing the t o t a l and per acre charges will be issued. 11. A l l land to be i ~ c l u d e di ~- i- r1ii~ t~ qnn( 1- i= t_~ i~.- 5acwh ater rental appliciltion for land covered by t h i s plblic notice shall be made on Form 7- 39 and the followine clause shall be inserted a5 the bottom of wid form: " 1 agree to the inclusion of my land i n an irrigation d i s t r i c t and I agree'also to p r t i c i p a t e in the organization of ? n i r r i ~ a t i o nd i s t r i c t at the earliest practicable date." 12. Reservation of riphts- of- way for county. state. and Federal highwzys and access roads.- Rights- of- way are reserved for county, s t a t e and Federal highways and access roads to the f ~ r mu nits shown on said plats along section lines and other lines shown in red on the farm plats. 13. Reservation of ri& ts- of- wau for publicdwned utilities.- Kightsdf- way are reserved for covernment- owned telephone, electric transmission, water and sewer lines, and water treating and pump ing plants, as now constructed, a d the secretary of the Interior reserves the r i g h t t o locate such other gwenwent- owned f a c i l i t i e s over and across the farm units above descri! md as hereafter, i n his opinion, may be necessary f o r the proper construction, operation, and maintenance of the said project. 14. Effect of relinquishment.-- In tho event that any entry of public land made hereunder shall be' relinauished ot any time prior to actual residence upon the land by the entrynan for not less than one year, the land so relinquished shall not be subject to entry for a period of 60 days a f t e r the f i l i n g and nctation of the relinnuishment i n " he Cistrict Land Office. Applicfltions conforming to the reqhire-ments of t h i s public notice may be f i l e d for a period of 15 days a f t e r the expiration of said 60- day period. Ach applications w i l l be considered ard processed anrl awards made pursuant to the provisions of paragraphs 7 and 9 of this public notice. 15. Waiver of mineral rights.-- All homestead entries f o r the ahove- described farm units will he subject to the laws of the United States governing mineral land, and all homestead applicarts under this notice must waive the rij< ht t o the mineral content of the land, i f required to do so by tke hrea. 1 of Lwd Ifanagement; otherwise the homestead applications will he rnjected o r the homestead entry or entries canceled. 16. Flood hazard.-- The lands to he entered are reclaimed lands lyiw in the former bed of Tnle Lake and m y be subject t o flooding and invndation during extremely wet nesrs. The Sureau of 2ecla1rstion i s now engaged i n the constmction of additionel works which, when completed, w i l l nrov5. de reasonnble flood protection. Settlers are warned, however, that i n case- of extreme mnoff result in^ in the fl. ood-iny of any of the lands, the government assumes no responsitdlity for dmare to persons or property caused by such flooding. Assistant Secretary of the Interior
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1 Acknowledgements 2 3 The completion of this work in large part can be attributed to the efforts of the 4 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arcata Field Office staff and in particular to Mr. 5 Thomas Shaw ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Evaluation of Interim Instream Flow Needs in the Klamath River Phase II Final Report
- Author:
- Hardy, Thomas B; Addley. R. Craig
- Year:
- 2001, 2008, 2005
1 Acknowledgements 2 3 The completion of this work in large part can be attributed to the efforts of the 4 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arcata Field Office staff and in particular to Mr. 5 Thomas Shaw for providing much of the supporting site-specific field data, 6 habitat mapping, and fisheries data used in the analyses. The efforts of the 7 various Tribal fisheries personnel were critical in supplying additional fisheries 8 collection data, and intensive site substrate and cover mapping. In particular, the 9 efforts of Tim Hayden, Charlie Chamberlain and Mike Belchik. USGS personnel 10 from the Midcontinent Ecological Science Center also provided valuable 11 assistance and field data used in the cross section based hydraulic and habitat 12 modeling. Mr. Gary Smith and Mike Rode of the California Department of Fish 13 and Game also provided critical information on site-specific habitat suitability 14 criteria and conceptual foundations for the escape cover analysis used in the 15 habitat simulations. Much of this work was also supported by work of Tim 16 Harden (Harden and Associates). The Bureau of Reclamation also provided 17 valuable input during the Phase II study process on Klamath Project operations. 18 A special thanks is also given to Mr. Mike Deas (U.C. Davis) for providing water 19 temperature simulations below Iron Gate Dam. The Technical Team also 20 provided critical input and review of all technical elements of this work as well as 21 providing reviews of the report. Finally, the completion of this work would not 22 have been possible without the tireless efforts of Jennifer Ludlow, Mark 23 Winkelaar, James Shoemaker, Shannon Clemens, Jerilyn Brunson, William 24 Bradford, Sarah Blake, Brandy Blank, Matt Combes, Leon Basdekas, and Aaron 25 Hardy at the Institute for Natural Systems Engineering, Utah State University. 26 27 Executive Summary 28 29 Previous instream flow recommendations developed as part of Phase I (Hardy, 30 1999) recommended interim instream flows in the main stem Klamath River 31 based on analyses of hydrology data. At that time, site-specific data suitable for 32 analysis and evaluation using habitat based modeling were not available. This 33 report details the analytical approach and modeling results from site-specific 34 studies conducted within the main stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam 35 downstream to the estuary. Study results are utilized to make revised interim 36 instream flow recommendations necessary to protect the aquatic resources 37 within the main stem Klamath River between Iron Gate and the estuary. This 38 report also makes specific recommendations for future research needs as part of 39 the on-going strategic instream flow studies being undertaken by the U.S. Fish 40 and Wildlife Service and collaborating private, local, state, federal, and tribal 41 entities. 42 43 This report was developed for the Department of the Interior (DOI) who provided 44 access to a technical review team composed of representatives of the U.S. Fish 45 and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. 46 Geological Survey, and the National Marine Fisheries Service. The technical Draft - Subject to Change 1 review team also included participation by the Yurok, Hoopa Valley, and Karuk 2 Tribes given the Departments trust responsibilities and the California Department 3 of Fish and Game as the state level resource management agency. The 4 technical review team provided invaluable assistance in the review of methods 5 and results used in the analysis, provided comments on draft sections of the 6 report, and provided data and supporting material for use in completion of the 7 Phase II report. In addition, several agencies and private individuals provided 8 written comments on the Preliminary Draft Report, which have been addressed in 9 this report where appropriate. 10 11 This report is organized to follow the general process used to implement the 12 technical studies. It first provides important background information on the 13 historical and current conditions of the anadromous species, highlights factors 14 that have contributed to their decline, provides an overview of the Phase I study 15 process and its principal findings. The report then continues with a description of 16 the Phase II technical study process. Key sections address methods and 17 findings for each technical component such as study design, study site selection, 18 field methods, analytical approaches, summary results, and recommended 19 instream flows. 20 21 The Phase II study relied on state-of-the-art field data collection methodologies 22 and modeling of physical habitat for target species and life stages of anadromous 23 fish. The field methods were directed toward achieving a three-dimensional 24 representation of each study site that incorporated between 0.6 to over one mile 25 of river depending on the specific study site. At each study site, a spatially 26 explicit substrate and vegetation map was developed and then integrated with 27 the three-dimensional channel topography in GIS. Fieldwork also involved 28 collection of hydraulic calibration data and fish observation data. The later 29 information was used in the development of habitat suitability criteria, conceptual 30 habitat model development and implementation, and habitat model validation 31 efforts. 32 33 Hydrology in the main stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam was estimated 34 differently for different purposes in Phase II. For example, we used simulated 35 unimpaired inflows (i.e., no depletions) to Upper Klamath Lake routed to Iron 36 Gate Dam with no Klamath Project imposed water demands. This simulated 37 scenario represents the best available estimates of the unimpaired flows below 38 Iron Gate Dam for the purposes of this study. The remaining flow scenarios 39 included the use of Upper Klamath Lake net inflows, historical Klamath Project 40 water demands, and the USFWS Biological Opinion (2000) target Upper Klamath 41 Lake water elevations. These scenarios represent different potential operational 42 flow scenarios as points of reference to the instream flow recommendations 43 developed as part of Phase II. Differences between these simulated flow 44 scenarios required the use of different models and/or modeling assumptions. 45 The assumptions and modeling tools are described in the appropriate technical 46 sections of the report. The estimated hydrology at each study site was used in Draft - Subject to Change 1 both the physical habitat modeling and temperature simulations using the USGS 2 Systems Impact Assessment Model (SIAM) or its components. 3 4 Physical habitat modeling at each study site relied on two-dimensional hydraulic 5 simulations that were coupled to three-dimensional habitat models. The 6 analytical form of the habitat models varied for spawning, fry, and 'juveniles' (i.e., 7 pre-smolts). These modeling results were compared to available 1-dimensional 8 cross section based hydraulic and habitat modeling at study sites that overlapped 9 between existing USFWS/USGS and Phase II studies. 10 11 Habitat suitability criteria for target species and life stages of anadromous fish 12 were developed from site-specific data for Chinook spawning, Chinook fry, and 13 steelhead 1+. These curves were validated both by field observations using the 14 habitat modeling results as well as by comparison to results from an individual 15 based bioenergetics model for drift feeding salmonids developed at USU. A 16 separate procedure was developed to obtain habitat suitability curves for Chinook 17 juvenile (i.e., pre-smolts), steelhead fry, and coho fry based on available 18 literature data. This approach used a systematic process to construct an 19 'envelope' habitat suitability curve that encompassed the available literature 20 curves. The overall process included a validation component that compared the 21 habitat versus discharge relationships between envelope curves to the site- 22 specific curves for Chinook spawning, Chinook fry, and steelhead 1+. The results 23 validated the use of the envelope curves for use as interim criteria pending 24 further research and development of site-specific curves for these species and 25 life stages within the Klamath River. 26 27 Habitat modeling involved the integration of substrate and cover mapping with 28 the three-dimensional topography and hydraulic properties at each study site with 29 the habitat suitability curves. Habitat modeling was undertaken for Chinook 30 spawning, fry, and juveniles, coho fry and juveniles, and steelhead fry and 31 steelhead 1+. Different habitat models were developed for spawning, fry, and 32 juveniles. The study generated a salmonid fry habitat model that incorporated a 33 distance to escape cover that also required sufficient depth within the escape 34 cover in order for it to be utilized at a given flow rate. This model also 35 incorporated quantitative differences in the type of escape cover. 36 37 The habitat modeling results for each species and life stage were validated 38 against the spatial distribution of each species and life stage surveyed at study 39 sites at different flow rates. These results generally demonstrated that the 40 integrated habitat modeling was validated for the study in terms of spawning and 41 fry life stages. Our assessment of the pre-smolt or juvenile life stage results is 42 that they are consistent for the existing habitat model assumptions. However, we 43 discuss what we perceive to be inherent biases in these results (juveniles) based 44 on the existing habitat model structure and make specific recommendations of 45 what additional work would likely improve the results for this particular life stage. 46 Draft - Subject to Change jjj 1 Temperature simulations based on the unimpaired flow regime below Iron Gate 2 Dam were conducted with HEC5Q as part of the SIAM applications. These 3 results supported the findings in Phase I that flows lower than ~ 1000 cfs during 4 the late summer would likely increase the environmental risk to anadromous 5 species due to almost continual exposure to chronic temperature thresholds. We 6 believe that these simulation results show that there is very little flexibility for 7 reservoir operations at Iron Gate Dam to mitigate deleterious flow dependent 8 temperature effects. This finding has previously been reported by the USGS 9 (Bartholow 1995) and Deas (1999). 10 11 The integration of the habitat modeling with the unimpaired hydrology was used 12 to develop habitat reference values for target species and life stages at each 13 study reach on a monthly basis for flow exceedence ranges between 10 and 90 14 percent. The reference habitat value was computed as the percent of maximum 15 habitat associated with the unimpaired flow values for each species and life 16 stage on a monthly basis. This reference habitat value was used as one 'target' 17 condition to guide the selection of monthly flow recommendations at a given 18 exceedence flow level. 19 20 The flow recommendation process also employed a prioritization of species and 21 life stages to be considered within the year and/or within a specific month. The 22 prioritization of life stages was taken from the life history sequence of 23 anadromous species (i.e., spawning, fry, and then juveniles). The initial priority 24 order for species was defined as Chinook, then coho, and finally steelhead. It is 25 stressed that this initial prioritization was used to conceptually simplify the flow 26 recommendation process only, and that all species and life stages were 27 examined as part of the overall analysis. The process then relied on an iterative 28 procedure to select target flows for each month at a given exceedence level. 29 This procedure attempted to pick a target flow that would simultaneously 30 preserve the underlying characteristics of the seasonal unimpaired hydrograph at 31 that exceedence flow, the underlying relationship of the unimpaired hydrograph 32 between all exceedence flow levels, while striving to maximize habitat for the 33 priority species and life stages relative to the unimpaired habitat reference 34 conditions. The corresponding monthly flow rates at each exceedence level 35 were then used to compute the percent of maximum habitat for all other species 36 and life stages in a given month. These values were then compared to their 37 respective unimpaired habitat values to ensure that adequate protection of 38 habitat for non-priority species and life stages remained reasonable. 39 40 The flow recommendations developed in the Iron Gate to Shasta River Reach 41 were 'propagated' downstream to each successive reach by addition of the reach 42 gains as presently defined by the USGS in their MODSIM module of SIAM. It is 43 recognized that these reach gains reflect existing depletions in tributary systems 44 (e.g., Shasta and Scott Rivers) but are the only estimates presently available for 45 use in the simulation models for the system. The flow recommendations for each 46 river reach were then used to compute the percent of maximum habitat on a Draft - Subject to Change 1 monthly basis for each species and life stage. The recommended flow based 2 calculation of percent of maximum habitat for each species and life stage was 3 then compared against the associated unimpaired flow based habitat values. 4 5 Although flow recommendations were developed for the 10 to 90 percent 6 exceedence range (i.e., nine water year types), five water year types were 7 identified representing Critically Dry, Dry, Average, Wet, and Extremely Wet 8 inflow conditions for Upper Klamath Lake. These water year classifications 9 parallel those developed for the Trinity River and were used as operational 10 definitions in the Phase I report. Furthermore, the USBR KPSIM model was 11 modified to use this five-water year type format for simulating operations under 12 different instream flow requirements below Iron Gate Dam. The 90, 70, 50, 30, 13 and 10 percent exceedence flow levels were assigned to each of these water 14 year types, respectively (i.e., critically dry to extremely wet). This assignment 15 was used to demonstrate several key points regarding the use of 16 recommendations at this level of resolution (i.e., five water year types) and how 17 the existing operational models for the Klamath Project simulate flow scenarios. 18 19 These five water year type dependent recommendations were utilized in the U.S. 20 Bureau of Reclamation's Klamath Project Simulation Module (KPSIM) to simulate 21 project operations over the 1961 to 1997 period of record. This analysis 22 confirmed that the project could be operated to achieve these recommendations 23 in all but 19 of the 468 simulated months in this period of record. These results 24 also highlighted that an alternative water year 'classification' strategy for 25 specifying instream flows should be considered in lieu of a five water year type 26 scheme. We provide a specific recommendation of how this could be 27 approached based on the instream flow recommendations developed in Phase II. 28 29 30 Draft - Subject to Change
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19275. [Image] Klamath wild and scenic river eligibility report and environmental assessment : Klamath River, Oregon : draft
"February 1994." ; "Much of this document was taken directly from, or based on, the Bureau of Land Management's earlier studies of the Klamath River: the Final eligibility and suitability report for the ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Klamath wild and scenic river eligibility report and environmental assessment : Klamath River, Oregon : draft
- Author:
- United States. National Park Service. Pacific Northwest Region
- Year:
- 1994, 2004
"February 1994." ; "Much of this document was taken directly from, or based on, the Bureau of Land Management's earlier studies of the Klamath River: the Final eligibility and suitability report for the Upper Klamath wild and scenic river study and the Draft Klamath Falls area resource management plan and environmental impact statement. This assessment also borrowed heavily from the Final environmental impact statement for the Salt Caves hydroelectric project prepared by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission."-p.i ; "State of Oregon application, Section 2(a)(ii) National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act."
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Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Water Report - Watershed assessments: the Upper Klamath Basin process
- Author:
- Envirotech Publications
- Year:
- 2004, 2008, 2006
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
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19277. [Article] The optimal allocation of watershed conservation funding : a case study of the John Day River Basin, Oregon
This study determines the optimal allocation of watershed conservation funds in the John Day River Basin, Oregon. Fund managers can use a variety of targeting schemes to allocate their limited resources. ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- The optimal allocation of watershed conservation funding : a case study of the John Day River Basin, Oregon
- Author:
- Skelton, Katharine
This study determines the optimal allocation of watershed conservation funds in the John Day River Basin, Oregon. Fund managers can use a variety of targeting schemes to allocate their limited resources. Depending on which targeting criteria is used, they may or may not be achieving the maximum environmental benefits per dollar expended, a policy goal that is increasingly being adopted for conservation programs. Previous studies have provided the theory behind this optimal allocation of funds, but none, to the researcher's knowledge, have attempted a case study to illustrate the optimal allocation of funds as well as the misallocations that could result. Watershed conservation policies are very important, especially here in the Pacific Northwest where salmonid populations are endangered. As stream temperatures are lowered, salmonid recruitment increases. Improvements in riparian vegetation provide stream shade and bank stability. Shade decreases stream temperatures by preventing solar radiation from reaching the stream, while bank stability allows streams to become narrower and deeper, with more vegetative overhang. Narrower streams have less surface area to come in contact with solar radiation and vegetative overhang provides additional shade. A simultaneous equation system was used to estimate stream temperature and fish recruitment models for the thirteen streams studied, classified into three environmental attribute clusters. Fish recruitment models were developed for rainbow trout, Chinook salmon and speckled dace. Marginal values for rainbow trout and Chinook salmon from previous studies were used to calculate the total marginal benefits to society from increasing cold-water salmonid species. The analytical models were the basis for determining the optimal fund allocation, after considering the cumulative, indirect and correlated benefits derived from improving riparian vegetation conditions. Policy managers and previous studies have failed to consider these additional environmental benefits, particularly jointly produced benefits. Two scenarios were determined for the optimal fund allocation, based on the riparian conditions of the surveyed stream reaches. The riparian conditions are reported using a vegetative use index from one (the worst conditions) to four (the best conditions). Under the first scenario, which assumes a full range of riparian conditions, Granite Creek should receive funding priority with $51,756 in marginal social benefits received from improving the streamside vegetative use rating from one to four, for one mile of stream. Deerdorff Creek and Reynolds Creek would be the next two streams to receive funding, respectively, both for a vegetative use improvement from one to two. The second scenario assumes that only vegetative conditions in the surveyed segments exist in the stream. Under these circumstances, only six of the thirteen streams would even be considered for funding, with Granite Creek again receiving priority. Improving the vegetative use rating in Granite Creek from three to four, for one stream mile, will produce $9355 in marginal social benefits. Murderer's Creek and Camp Creek would be the next streams to receive funding for a vegetative use improvement from three to four and one to two, respectively. In addition to determining the optimal fund allocation, discussion is included about the policy implications that would result from ignoring the cumulative, indirect and correlated benefits. For the fund misallocation discussion Granite Creek was assumed to be the stream that should be given funding priority for an improvement from three to four only, with Murderer's Creek and Camp Creek receiving funds second and third, respectively. If an on-site, physical criterion is used as the targeting criteria, such as stream temperatures or the riparian vegetation conditions, then the cumulative benefits will be ignored. Two possible misallocations could result when the cumulative effects are ignored. First, streams with very high temperatures may receive funding, even if improvements in the vegetative use index will not lower temperatures enough so that salmonids can survive. Second, streams that have temperatures below the optimal range for salmonids, but have poor riparian vegetation may be funded. Improving streamside vegetation in those streams would be a misallocation of funds. Targeting based on the highest stream temperature criteria would only consider the direct benefits received from improving streamside vegetation. Under a temperature- based targeting criteria, Alder Creek would be the first stream funded with Mountain and Murderer's Creek following. If we assume only two streams could be funded, then there will be a loss of almost all marginal benefits per stream mile. If the change in the stream temperatures is used as the targeting criteria, and indirect benefits are ignored, then Camp Creek would receive funding priority, with Mountain Creek, Granite Creek and Murderer's Creek following. If it is again assumed that only two streams could be funded, this targeting scheme would result in an approximate loss to society of up to 87 percent in marginal benefits, per stream mile Additionally, all of the indirect benefits need to be taken into consideration in order to optimally allocate funds. If Chinook salmon are ignored, and rainbow trout are the only cold-water species taken into account, then society will forgo around 50 percent of marginal social benefits, per stream mile. This is if we assume two streams are funded, and the South Fork is the second stream to receive funds, rather than Murderer's Creek. Granite Creek would still receive funding priority. Finally, correlated benefits, or warm-water species, need to be considered. In this study ignoring the warm-water species would not effect fund allocation, as a marginal social value for speckled dace was not found. Even if we assume the speckled dace is a proxy for warm-water sport fish, such as bass, and the correlated benefits are taken into consideration, funding priority would still be given to Granite Creek. However, under the same assumptions, if the correlated benefits are ignored in Camp Creek, then society will misallocate funds and lose a small portion of marginal social benefits per stream mile. This study points towards small, high elevation streams being given funding priority. Granite Creek should be the first stream to receive funds in the John Day River basin, when funds are optimally allocated. However, if not all of the environmental benefits are taken into consideration, different streams may be targeted. When a temperature-based targeting scheme is used, Alder Creek would be given funding priority, even though no marginal social benefits would be derived. If the change in stream temperatures is used, Camp Creek will receive funds, with a large loss to society in marginal benefits. If not all of the indirect benefits are considered, the South Fork will be funded over Murderer's Creek, and only half of the possible marginal benefits will be received. Finally, when correlated benefits were ignored, the fund allocation in this study was not affected. However, fund managers still have to consider the tradeoffs involved between warm and cold-water adapted fish species. This is especially true if warm-water sport fish or endangered species are the jointly produced benefits. Failing to include all of the environmental benefits that are produced when conservation programs are initiated will lead policy managers to target the wrong streams or basins, and misallocate funds. In addition, using the wrong criteria to prioritize watersheds will also lead managers to misallocate funds. Funds should be allocated so that the total value of environmental benefits is maximized, and not the total amount of resources saved.
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Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature
- Author:
- Diabat, Mousa
Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, and channel structure directly influence stream temperature. Numerous studies indicate that increased average air temperature during the past century has led to stream warming across the world. The trend of stream warming was also present in spring-fed watersheds, where summer flow has decreased. In addition, anthropogenic practices that alter the natural landscape and channel structure, such as forest management, agriculture, and mining contributed to stream warming. For example, deforested and unshaded stream reaches or dredged channels were warmer than shaded reaches and meandering streams. Stream temperatures in North American lotic habitats are of a specific concern due to their significant economic, cultural, and ecological value. With climate projections indicating that air temperature will only continue to rise throughout the 21st century, cold- or cool-water organisms, especially fishes, will be affected. Therefore, there is a strong need to better understand the impacts of changing climate, riparian landscape, and channel structure on a stream's heat budget. This may assist in restoring the historic thermal regime in impacted sites and mitigating the impacts of future climate change. This study looks into the relative influences of the different factors on a stream's heat budget with three manuscripts: one on stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming, one on stream temperature response to changes in air temperature, flow, and riparian vegetation, and one on stream temperature response to air warming and channel reconstruction. I used the software Heat Source version 8.05 to simulate stream temperature for all three analyses along the Middle Fork John Day River, Oregon USA. Two of the manuscripts were applied to an upper 37 km section of the Middle Fork John Day River (presented in chapter 2 and 3), where the third manuscript was applied to a 1.5-km section. The sensitivity analysis of stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming (Chapter 2: Diel Timing of Warmer Air under Climate Change Affects Magnitude, Timing, and Duration of Stream Temperature Change) was based on scenarios representing uniform air warming over the diel period, daytime warming, and nighttime warming. Uniform warming of air temperature is a simple representation of increases in the average daily or monthly temperatures generated by the 'delta method'. The delta method relies on adding a constant value to the air temperature time-series data. This constant value is the difference (delta) between base case average air temperatures and the projected one. Scenarios of daytime or nighttime warming represent conditions under which most of the warming of the air occurs during the daytime or the nighttime, respectively. I simulated the stream temperature response to warmer air conditions of +2 °C and +4 °C in daily average for all three cases of air warming conditions. The three cases of different diel distributions of air warming generated 7-day average daily maximum stream temperature (7DADM) increases of approximately +1.8 °C ± 0.1 °C at the downstream end of the study section relative to the base case. In most parts of the reach, the three distributions of air warming generated different ranges of stream temperatures, different 7DADM values, different durations of stream temperature changes, and different average daily temperatures. Changes of stream temperature were out of phase with imposed changes of air temperature. Therefore, nighttime warming of air temperatures would cause the greatest increase in maximum daily stream temperature, which typically occurs during the daytime. The sensitivity analysis of the relative influences of changes in air temperature, stream flow, and riparian vegetation on stream temperature (Chapter 3: Assessing Stream Temperature Response to Cumulative Influence of Changing Air Temperature, Flow, and Riparian Vegetation). This study summarized stream temperature simulation in 36 scenarios representing possible manifestations of 21st century climate conditions and land management strategies. In addition to existing conditions (base case) of flow, air temperature, and riparian vegetation, scenarios consisted of: two air temperature increases of 2 °C and 4 °C, two stream flow variations of +30% and -30%, three spatially uniform riparian vegetation conditions that create averages of effective shade 7%, 34%, and 79%, in addition to 14% for base case conditions. Results suggest that variation in riparian vegetation was the dominant factor influencing stream temperature because it regulates incoming shortwave radiation, the largest heat input to the stream, while variation in stream flow has a negligible influence. Results indicated that increasing the effective shade along the study section, particularly in the currently unshaded sections, could mitigate the influence of increasing air temperature, and would reduce stream temperature maxima below current values even under future climate conditions of warmer air. With the small influence it had, increasing stream flow reduced the 7DADM under low shade conditions. However, increasing stream flow showed counterintuitive results as it contributed to increasing stream temperature maxima when the stream was heavily shaded. The applied study examined the stream temperature response to restoration practices and their potential to mitigate the influence of warmer air conditions (Chapter 4: Estimating Stream Temperature Response to Restoring Channel and Riparian Vegetation and the Potential to Mitigate Warmer Air Conditions). This study focused on a 1.5 km section along the upper part of the Middle Fork John Day River that was modified due to past anthropogenic activities of mining for gold and timber harvest. Currently, the riparian vegetation of the study site is mostly shrubs and stands of short trees. Restoration designs call for the restoration of both the channel structure and replanting the riparian vegetation. Simulation results showed that the 7DADM was higher in the restored channel than the existing channel with both conditions of low and high effective shade conditions. However, a combined restoration practice of channel reconstruction and medium effective shade conditions reduced stream temperature maxima more than restoring riparian vegetation alone. In addition, results showed that restoring riparian vegetation was sufficient to mitigate the influence of warmer air on stream temperature, while restoring the channel alone is not. Heat budget analysis showed that heat accumulation during the daytime increased in the restored channel, which was longer, narrower, and deeper than the existing channel. It is important to emphasize that stream temperature is one of many goals that restoration activities aim to improve. Furthermore, differences in 7DADM among the different scenarios of restoration are negligible. Such small differences could hardly be measure. While this study examined a short section of 1.5 km, longer stream sections may increase the differences in 7DADM. Primary conclusions of this study are: 1) daily maxima of stream temperature will increase in response to increased air temperature regardless of the distribution of air warming during the diel cycle; 2) nighttime air warming caused a greater increase in stream temperature maximum than daytime warming; 3) riparian vegetation was the dominant factor on stream's heat budget, more than air temperature or stream flow; 4) restoring riparian vegetation mitigated the influence of warmer air; 5) restoring channel structure alone was not sufficient to lower temperature maxima; and 6) restoration project was most successful in improving degraded stream temperature when combined with channel reconstruction and improved riparian shade.
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19279. [Image] Empire building
Article on the history and future of the agricultural settlement of the desert regions of the western United States. Includes a black and white photograph of Thousand Springs, Idaho.Citation -
19280. [Image] Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft
Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35)Citation Citation
- Title:
- Lost River and shortnose sucker : proposed critical habitat : biological support document : draft
- Author:
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland Field Office
- Year:
- 1994, 2004
Proposed rule from Federal Register, vol. 59, no. 230, December 1, 1994, pages 61744-61759, inserted after p. 35; Includes biliographical references (p. 31-35)
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19281. [Image] An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1]
Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins [volume 1]
- Author:
- Quigley, Thomas Milton; Arbelbide, S. J. (Sylvia J.)
- Year:
- 1997, 2008, 2005
Quigley, Thomas M.; Arbelbide, Sylvia J., tech. eds. 1997. An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins: volume 1. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-405. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 4 vol. (Quigley, Thomas M., tech. ed.; The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project: Scientific Assessment). The Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins provides detailed information about current conditions and trends for the biophysical and social systems within the Basin. This information can be used by land managers to develop broad land management goals and priorities and provides the context for decisions specific to smaller geographic areas. The Assessment area covers about 8 percent of the U.S. land area, 24 percent of the Nation's National Forest System lands, 10 percent of the Nation's BLM-administered lands, and contains about 1.2 percent of the Nation's population. This results in a population density that is less than one-sixth of the U.S. average. The area has experienced recent, rapid population growth and generally has a robust, diverse economy. As compared to historic conditions, the terrestrial, aquatic, forest, and rangeland systems have undergone dramatic changes. Forested landscapes are more susceptible to fire, insect, and disease than under historic conditions. Rangelands are highly susceptible to noxious weed invasion. The disturbance regimes that operate on forest and rangeland have changed substantially, with lethal fires dominating many areas where non-lethal fires were the norm historically. Terrestrial habitats that have experienced the greatest decline include the native grassland, native shrubland, and old forest structures. There are areas within the Assessment area that have higher diversity than others. Aquatic systems are now more fragmented and isolated than historically and the introduction of non-native fish species has complicated current status of native fishes. Core habitat and population centers do remain as building blocks for restoration. Social and economic conditions within the Assessment area vary considerably, depending to a great extent on population, diversity of employment opportunities, and changing demographics. Those counties with the higher population densities and greater diversity of employment opportunities are generally more resilient to economic downturns. This Assessment provides a rich information base, including over 170 mapped themes with associated models and databases, from which future decisions can benefit. Keywords: Columbia basin, biophysical systems, social systems, ecosystem.
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This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Macroecology, paleoecology, and ecological integrity of terrestrial species and communities of the interior Columbia River basin and northern portions of the Klamath and Great Basins
- Author:
- U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station; U.S.Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management.
- Year:
- 1998, 2006, 2005
This report presents information on biogeography and broad-scale ecology (macroecology) of selected fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates of the interior Columbia River basin and adjacent areas. Rare plants include many endemics associated with local conditions. Potential plant and invertebrate bioindicators are identified. Species ecological functions differ among communities and variously affect ecosystem diversity and productivity. Species of alpine and subalpine communities are identified that may be at risk from climate change. Maps of terrestrial ecological integrity are presented. Keywords: Macroecology, paleoecology, ecological integrity, terrestrial communities, ecosystems, wildlife, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants, invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, endemism, interior Columbia River basin, Klamath Basin, Great Basin.
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In this Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR), we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), present an updated list of plant and animal species native to the United States that we regard as candidates ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Review of Native Species That are Candidates or Proposed for Listing as Endangered or Threatened
- Year:
- 2005, 2008
In this Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR), we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), present an updated list of plant and animal species native to the United States that we regard as candidates or have proposed for addition to the Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. Identification of candidate species can assist environmental planning efforts by providing advance notice of potential listings, allowing resource managers to alleviate threats and thereby possibly remove the need to list species as endangered or threatened. Even if we subsequently list a candidate species, the early notice provided here could result in more options for species management and recovery by prompting candidate conservation measures to alleviate threats to the species. Additional material that we relied on is available in the Species Assessment and Listing Priority Assignment Forms (species assessment forms, previously called candidate forms) for each candidate species. We request additional status information that may be available for the 286 candidate species. We will consider this information in preparing listing documents and future revisions to the notice of review, as it will help us in monitoring changes in the status of candidate species and in management for conserving them. Previous Notices of Review The Act directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on endangered and threatened plant species, which was published as House Document No. 94-51
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19284. [Image] Summary of ongoing and planned work of the Department of the Interior related to the Klamath River Basin, March 2003
The Department of the Interior, Klamath River Basin, Work Plans and ReportsCitation -
19285. [Image] Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998
ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Water quality and nutrient loading in the Klamath River between Keno, Oregon and Seiad Valley, California from 1996-1998
- Author:
- Campbell, S. G
- Year:
- 2001, 2007, 2005
ABSTRACT A water quality study was performed in the mainstem Klamath River from Keno, Oregon to Seiad Valley, California during 1996 through 1998. Four sites within the study area were continuously monitored using multiparameter recorders. Water quality sampling was also performed at these four locations in 1996 and 1997. Additional water quality sampling sites were added in 1998 for a total of 8 locations between Keno and Seiad. Temperature ranged from near zero ?C to >25 ?C with cooler temperatures in early spring and fall, and maximum temperatures occurring in July and August of each year. Dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from near zero mg/L to >13 mg/L with highest DO occurring in early spring and fall and lowest DO occurring in mid-summer. Air temperature was generally highly correlated with water temperature with r values ranging from 0.8 to 0.9 during the study period from 1996-1998. Water temperature in the study area exceeded chronic (>16?C) and acute (>22?C) criteria for salmonids during the summer months. Although chronic DO (<7 mg/L) criteria were exceeded throughout most of the study area during the summer, in the free-flowing river below Iron Gate Dam the acute DO (<5.5 mg/L) criteria were not exceeded. Nonpoint source pollution in the form of agricultural return flows, industrial, or sewage effluent entering the stream may have resulted in higher ammonia and total organic nitrogen concentrations at the upstream locations in the Klamath River study area (Keno and J.C. Boyle Powerplant). Nitrification of ammonia and organic nitrogen seemed to result in higher concentrations of nitrate in the downstream Klamath River (Iron Gate Dam). Total phosphorus concentration stayed relatively stable through the reservoirs in the study area, but decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. Ortho-phosphorus concentrations increased longitudinally through the reservoirs, then decreased in the downstream direction between Iron Gate Dam and Seiad. An increase in ortho-phosphorus concentration can indicate internal cycling occurring in the reservoirs as well as photosynthesis. On an annual basis total phosphorus loading increased longitudinally from up- to downstream between Keno and Seiad. The increase was statistically significant (p = .03) indicating that the reservoirs in series in the Klamath River study area do not function as a nutrient sink. However, during the summer there was no statistically significant difference in total P loading when Keno, Iron Gate and Seiad locations were compared, therefore, the reservoirs may act as a nutrient sink seasonally. The Klamath River study locations were generally nitrogen limited, although at Keno, a regular change from N limitation to P limitation occurred during the fall of all three years of the study. When the Klamath River annual nutrient loading values are compared to other rivers in the vicinity, the Carson, Truckee, and Long Tom Rivers also appear to be nutrient enriched. The Carson and South Yamhill Rivers seem to be N limited systems and the Wood, Long Tom, Snake and Truckee Rivers seem to be P limited systems. Implementing management strategies for reservoir operations to improve water quality and reduce nutrient concentration or loading in the Klamath River study area to benefit anadromous fisheries may be difficult and expensive. However, improving the thermal regime in spring to benefit YOY salmonids may be possible as is short-term relief in fate summer for over-summering species. Decreases in nutrient concentration or loading accomplished through best management practices in the water shed may allow general protection of water resources in the Klamath Basin for future needs.
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"Serial no. 108-104."
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Oversight field hearing on the Endangered Species Act 30 years later : the Klamath Project : oversight field hearing before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, Saturday, July 17, 2004, in Klamath Falls, Oregon
- Author:
- United States. Congress. House. Committee on Resources. Subcommittee on Water and Power
- Year:
- 2005
"Serial no. 108-104."
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SUMMARY To provide a basis for negotiations of a repayment contract with an irrigation district representing the water users of the Tule Lake Division of the Klamath Project, this report has been prepared. ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Report on payment capacity for Tule Lake irrigation district, Klamath Project
- Author:
- Best, R.R.
- Year:
- 1948, 2004
SUMMARY To provide a basis for negotiations of a repayment contract with an irrigation district representing the water users of the Tule Lake Division of the Klamath Project, this report has been prepared. It covers past, present, and anticipated future agricultural and economic conditions and substantiates the proposed district's capacity to repay construction costs for irrigation water as well as to meet operation and maintenance charges It has been prepared according to procedures and policies established pursuant to the Federal Reclamation laws (Act of June 17, 1902, 32 Stat. 388, and acts amendatory thereof and supplementary thereto.) In general, a representative farm budget method of analysis was employed to determine the payment capacity* Gross income of the land was based upon average per acre yields in the area and 1939-44 prices received. Prices of certain crops were adjusted further in accordance with long term outlook for these crops. From the gross income, all farm operating and retention expenses, including cultural and harvesting costs, taxes, insurance, depreciation and replacement, interest on investment, and a reasonable allowance for family living predicated upon the same base period (1939-44) have been subtracted to arrive at payment capacity. Individual consideration has been given to the block of land entered prior to 1948 (the major portion of the area), the lands of the Coppock Bay Area which are principally Class 2, and the undeveloped lands of the area just south of Malin, Oregon, Area C, Plate 1. The annual payment capacity of the irrigable lands entered prior to 1914-8, is determined to be approximately $50 per acre. The Class 2 lands of the Coppock Bay Area are shown to have a payment capacity of $21 per acre, as a result of slightly higher operating costs and probable lower yield or quality of certain crops. For the undeveloped area just south of Malin, Area C of Plate 1, the payment capacity is determined at $18 per acre after development to the extent expected under settlement and development plans currently being formulated The weighted average payment capacity for these areas is calculated to be $26.25 per acre. There is no need for a development period for the lands of the Tule Lake Division, except for the latter area as indicated above. Furthermore, after liberal allowance for farming costs and a reasonable family living, the resulting payment capacities appear to be well in excess of any annual installments likely to be considered necessary for repayment of the District's construction obligation and operation and maintenance charges.
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19288. [Image] Biological opinion Klamath Project operations
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19289. [Image] The Water Report - Taking and water rights: constitutional & contractual remedies for government takings
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/Citation Citation
- Title:
- The Water Report - Taking and water rights: constitutional & contractual remedies for government takings
- Author:
- Envirotech Publications
- Year:
- 2005
Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
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19290. [Image] Public notice opening public lands to entry
E R R A T A S H E E T August 6, 19U6 TO ACCOMPANY PUBLIC NOTICE NO. U3 DATED AUGUST 1, 19U6 OPENING PUBLIC LANDS TO ENTRY ON THE KLAMATH IRRIGATION PROJECT, OREGON - CALIFORNIA TULE LAKE DIVISION The following ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Public notice opening public lands to entry
- Author:
- United State. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1946, 2004
E R R A T A S H E E T August 6, 19U6 TO ACCOMPANY PUBLIC NOTICE NO. U3 DATED AUGUST 1, 19U6 OPENING PUBLIC LANDS TO ENTRY ON THE KLAMATH IRRIGATION PROJECT, OREGON - CALIFORNIA TULE LAKE DIVISION The following paragraphs are hereby substituted for the corresponding para-graphs 5 ( c) and 5 ( d) as written in the copy of the above Public Notice: Paragraph 5 ( c) The applicant must demonstrate that he possesses a minimum of # 2,000 in unencumbered assets applicable or convertible to the needs of farming in this area. This may be determined by an itemized list of assets and liabilities and must be corroborated by a statement from an official of a bank or other responsible and reputable private or public credit agency. Paragraph $ ( d) The applicant must submit a certificate of medical exami-nation which will contain a statement by an examining physician assuring the applicant's physical ability to operate a farm. Paragraph 9 ( lines k and 5) in the Summary of Requirements and Procedures states, in part: "... which will entitle the entryman to three acre- feet of water per irrigable acre." This should be changed to read: "... which will entitle the entryman to 2g acre- feet of water per irrigable acre." UNITED . STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF RECLAMATION WASHINGTON Klamath Irrigation Project, Oregon - California Tule Lake Division PUBLIC NOTICE OPENING PUBLIC LANDS TO ENTRY oo U3 August 1, 191* 6 1. Public land for which water i£ available and for whichi entry may be made.— In pursuance of the act of June 17, 1902 ( 32 Stat. 38b1), and acts amendatory thereof or supplemental thereto, TE" is hereby announced that water will be available in the irrigation season of 191* 7 and thereafter, and beginning September 15>, 19l* 6, entry may be made in accordance with this notice for the following- described public lands under the Tule Lake Division of the Klamath Irrigation Project, Oregan- California, as shown on farm unit plats of Township 1* 7 North, Ranges £ and 6 East and Township 1* 8 North, Range 5 East, Mount Diablo Meridian, California, to wit: Mount Diablo Meridian, California Total Irrigable Acreage 8U. 0 101.2 73o5 73.7 73 » 3 5 76.0 76o2 75.8 66.8 68.3 66.8 68.3 7U. 7 73.8 7U. 1 73o8 127.9 73.8 80.0 137.5 129.6 87.8 9h. B 98.0 109 o 6 7li. O lh. 3 7li. 6 7JU. 3 73.9 7U. 2 73.9 7U. 2 7U. 5 714.2 7U. 67.2 73.3 7U. 9 73.2 7U. 7 100.7 91.3 Township 1* 7 North Range Farm Unit A BA B CDE F G H A B C D EF G HCD E B A A B G H C D E F A B CD E FG * H L A BCD E F * T. 1* 7 N., R. 6 E., M. D. £ East Section 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 7* 13 18* 13 18* 13 18* 13 18* 13 13 13 13 11* H* Hi ll* H* ll* ll* ll* 16 23 23 23 23 23 23 26 27 . M. • . Description Lots 16 &' 17 Lot 20 & W| swi Lot 1 & SEzNEi Lot 2 & SWINEJ Lot 3 & SEzNWz Lot k & SW| NW § EJSWJ WISEJ EgSEz, Lot 1 & SEzNEz Lot 2.& SWJNEJ Lot 3 j& SEJNWJ Lot k & SW} NW| wisWz EJSWJ WtSEf EiSEt Lots 6, 16 & SW^ NWj w^ swj Lots 10 & 2X-* Lots 17, 18 & WiSE| Lots 9 & 12 Lots 12 & 13 Lot 1 & NW^ NEj Lot 10 Lot 2 & SWjNEi Lot 11 Lot 3 & NWjSEj Lot ll* Lot 1* & SWjSEj Lot 1^ EiNWi W4NW} wlswf : v EI- SIVJ EJNEJ ;.; mttl E| SW} l/ feSE'z E| SE| WyNWj Ef NEi W| NEI EiNV/ z WJMWTI-Lots 3, 1* & 6 Lot ^ Lot 20 Lots 18 & 20 1. Farm Unit DCEF B A G A B A E C DE F G H A T. 18 N., R, 5 E., F G L G H J K Section 2k 2k 2k 2k 2k 19* 21 19* 21 25 27 27 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 33 28 27 33 M. D. M. 25 26 26 26 • 27 27 27 28 27 31 27 26 33 3h 28 33 33 33 3k 33 3k 3k 3k 3k 3k 3k 3$ 35 Description EJNWJ Lots 9, Lots 7, 10 & NEjSWj- 8 & NWiSEz Lots 5 & SW- jNEi Lot 10 Lot k & Lot 9 Lots 12 Lots 19 Lots 10, Lots 11 Lot, 1 & Lot 2 & Lot 3 & Lot I & E|- SW| W- JSE § Lot 20 Lot 5 Lot 31 Lots 10, NW^ NEJ & 13 • & 20 , 23, 2k, 27 & & 32 SEiNEi SWfNEi S E J M J smriNwJ , 15 & 16 Lots 16 & 17 Lot 7 & E| W- JSEi Ejswi & W?- W1SE| i, NjsEiswi, NWJSEJ NEJSEJ & N- ISEISEI Lots 2 & 3 Total Irrigable Acreage 75.0 73.2 77.5 76.8 91.8 109.0 ' 7a. 2 . 83.9 80.9 78. k TS. k . 78.3 60.8 60.8 77.6 86.3 70.1 73.5 120 111 III 103 105 110 .9 .1 .3 .5 • 5 • J .8 113.8 109 113 113 109 10U 111 .9 .8 ,7 .7 .6 • 0 96.8 99.5 98.8 96.6 M., R. 6 E., M. D. M. 2. Total Farm Unit Section Description Irrigable Acreage sIsE- jNWi 99. k 35 Lots 2, 3 i j i 99 o 6 B 35 | J, 36 Lots 13 & lii 126o8 G 35 Lot U & NEjSEj 36 Lot 20 103 o 9 A 36 Lots 5, 6, 12, 15 & 16 9lu2± The farm unit plats referred to above were approved on the date of this notice and are on file in the Office of the Superintendent, Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls, Oregon, and in the district land office at Sacramento, California, - where they may be examined by any person desiring to make application hereundero 2. Preference rights to honorably discharged veterans of World War II.— Pursuant to the provisions of the Act of September 27, 19hk, and The Act of June 25, 19^ 6 ( Public Law Ul| 0 - 79th~ Congress, 2nd Session), and related legislation,-"- and until 2: 00 p. m., December 15, 19U6, the lands described above will be open to entry only by persons who have served not less than 90 days in the Army or Navy of the United States in World War II and have been honorably separated or discharged therefrom or placed in the regular Army or Naval Reserve; provided, however, that they must be qualified to make'entry under the homestead laws and also possess the qualifications as to industry, experience, character, capital, and physical fitness required of all applicants under this notice. Farm applica-tions received prior to 2: 00 p. m., September 15, 19U6, will be considered as simultaneously filed. Farm applica-tions received after 2: 00 p. m., September 15, 19l; 6, will be filed and considered in the order of their receipt0 3. Limit of acreage for which entry may be made.— The limit of area of public land per entry, representing the acreage which", in the opinion of the SeereTary of the Interior, may be reasonably required for the support of a family upon such land, is fixed at the amounts shown upon the farm unit plats for the respective farm units above listed. k. Applicants must be qualified.— No entry shall be accepted or allowed by the Register of the district land office until the applicant"~ therefor has satisfied the Examining Board appointed for the Klamath Project to consider such matters, that he is possessed of such qualifications ( in addition to the qualifications required under the homestead law) as to industry, experience, character, capital and physical fitness as in the opinion of the Board are necessary to give reasonable assurance of success by the prospective settler. A digest of the qualifications required by the homestead laws is contained in the attachment to this notice. Complete information may be secured from the District Land Office in Sacramento, California, or from the Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D. Co 5. Requirements as_ to Industry, Experience, Character, and Capital.— The following are established as minimum qualification^ Tailure to meet them in. all respects will be sufficient cause to reject an application. No credit will be given for qualifications in excess of the minimum required: ( a) Each applicant must submit as part of his farm application three testimonials concerning his character and covering such points as honesty, temperate habits, thrift, industry, seriousness of purpose, record of good moral conduct in the past and a sincere desire to lead a bona fide farm life. These may be prepared and signed by an ordained minister, including chaplains in the armed service, any commanding officer under whom the applicant served for six months or more, a teacher or administrative official of any recognized high school or college, present or previous employer, or any comparable, responsible individual or official, not a relative, who is personally acquainted with the applicant. These may be the individuals listed in paragraph 17 of the Farm Appli-cation Blank. ( b) The applicant must have had at least two years1 full- time farm experience after the age of 15 and within the last seven years of civilian life; or must have lived and wox~ ked on a farm for five years continuously after reaching the age of 12 and within the last 10 years of civilian life. Time spent in active military service will not be included in the time used in computing farm experience. Two years of study in agricultural courses in an accredited agricultural college or two years of responsible technical work in agriculture which might help fit the applicant for operation of a farm may be credited as one year of farm experience except that. no more than one year of farm experience may be credited from such sources. One year of farm experience must be obtained by actual residence and work on a farm. A farm youth over the age of 15 attending school but actually residing and working on the farm may credit such time as actual farm experience. In support of his claim to meeting this requirement of farm experience, the applicant must supply three written statements signed by the county agent, F. S « AO county supervisor, A0AoA. County Chairman, official of any local farm organization, or comparable individuals, who have personal knowledge of the applicant's farm experience or have verified it to his complete satisfaction, testifying theretoo ( c) The applicant must demonstrate that he possesses a minimum of $ 2,000 in unencumbered assets applicable or convertible to the needs of farming in this area. This may be determined by an itemized listing of assets and liabilities in space provided on the application blank. ( d) The applicant must be in physical condition to operate a farm successfully, including the manual labor involved. If physically handicapped or afflicted with ailments making this condition questionable, a detailed statement by an examining physician should accompany the application. *" Including Soldiers' and Sailors' Civil Relief Act of 191* 0, as amended ( 51* Stat. 1178, 1186; % Stat. 769, 776; 50 U. S. C. App. 560- 572)." 3. 6. When and how to file an application for a farm unit.— ( a) A Farm Application Blank is attached to this notice. Additional blanks may be secured from the Superintendent, Klamath Falls, Oregon; the Regional Director, P. 0. Box 2^ 11, Sacramento, California, or the Commissioner, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington 2^, D. C. Full answer must be made to each question on the Farm Application Blank. The applicant may state the particular farm unit desired and may also include alternate choices or the choice may be left open to the examining boarde ( b) If the applicant claims a preference right on account of military service, he shall attach to his appli-cation an affidavit setting forth such military service. The affidavit shall state the applicant's time of service, the unit of which he was a member, the date on which he was honorably discharged, or separated, or transferred to the regular Army or Naval Reserve, and that he did not refuse to wear the uniform of such service or to perform the duties thereof. Providing that they qualify in other respects, women veterans have equal rights and will receive equal consideration in their application for farm unitso ( c) An application for a farm unit listed in this notice, together with the proof to be furnished by veterans, must be filed with the Superintendent, Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls, Oregon, in person, if con-venient, or by mail, or otherwise, prior to 2: 00 p. m., September l£, ± 9h6, if the applicant desires to qualify under the terms of this notice. No advantage will accrue to an applicant presenting his application in person rather than by mail. All applications received prior to 2: 00 p. m., September'l£, 19U6, will be held and treated as simultaneously filed. Applications received after 2: 00 p. m., September l£, 19U6, will be considered only as provided in paragraphs 2 and 12 of this public order. 7. Examining Board.— An Examining Board of five members, including the Superintendent of the Klamath Project who will act as Secretary of the Board, has been approved by the Commissioner of Reclamation to consider the fit-ness of each applicant to undertake the development and operation of a farm on the Klamath Project. Careful investigation shall be made to verify the statements and representations made by the applicants to the end that no misunderstanding may prevail, either regarding the applicant's fitness or his appreciation of the problem before him. Any falsification will automatically cause the application to be discarded from consideration*, 8. Selection of Qualified Applicants.— To determine whether an applicant for a farm unit is eligible under the provisions of subsection " C" of Section k of the Act of December 5, 192k, his application will be reviewed on the basis of whether or not he is qualified as an entryman. Applicants will be judged on the qualifications of character, industry, farming experience and capital and no applicant will be considered eligible who does not qualify in all respects, or who does not, in the opinion of the Examining Board, possess the health and vigor for active farm work. 9. Showing of applicants and selection thereofc— ( a) Where the applicant, in the original application which he files fails to make a prima facie case— that is, where the applicant ( l) does not possess good health; or ( 2) fails to make the necessary showing as to character; or ( 3) fails to make the necessary showing as to industry; or ( U) fails to make the necessary showing as to citizenship, or ( 5) dees not show at least two years' farm experience; or ( 6) does not show at least $ 2-, 000 in unencumbered assets; or ( 7) is disqualified because of having already made homestead entry; or ( 8) is the owner of more than 160 acres of land in the United States; or ( 9) is otherwise disqualified, the application for a farm unit shall be rejected, and the applicant notified thereof by registered mail, with return receipt demanded, and of his right to appeal to the Regional Director of the Bureau of Reclamation within 10 days from . receipt of such notification. All appeals allowed under this Public Notice No. h3 must be filed in the office of the Superin-tendent at Klamath Falls, Oregon, within 10 days from receipt by applicants of rejection notices. The Superinten-dent will forward such appeals promptly to the Regional Director. ( b) After the expiration of the appeal period fixed by the above- mentioned notices, if any are required, to applicants who failed to make prima facie cases, and in the absence of any pending appeals, the Board shall pro-ceed to select the 86 successful applicants ( there being 86 farm units described in paragraph 1 subject to entry) o All applicants in the group filing prior to 2: 00 pom;, September l£, 19U6, and who possess minimum qualifications as outlined in paragraph 5>, will be considered equally. From the names of all qualified applicants in the group considered as simultaneously filed, there shall be drawn 172 names ( twice the number of homesteads to be awarded). These 172 applicants shall be closely investigated, in the order in which selected, and any falsehood or mis-representation shall be grounds for the Board to disqualify the applicant and to pass on to the next in order until the 86 successful applicants have been determined, plus a sufficient number of alternates to replace those in the first group of 86 who fail to complete their transactions. In the event that there are remaining units to be awarded, consideration will be given to Veteran applications, in the order of filing, prior to 2: 00 p. mc, December l£, 19^ 6, as provided in paragraph 2 above. Remaining units, if any, will be awarded, in the order of filing of applications, as provided in paragraph 12 of this order. ( c) Applicants from among the group of 172 selected in paragraph 9( b) above who subsequently are disquali-fied as a result of investigation by the Board shall be sent a notice by registered mail, with return receipt demanded, unless delivered in person, setting forth the reasons thereof and of the right to appeal to the Regional Director within 10 days from receipt of such notice as provided in paragraph 9( a) above, ( d) Immediately following the selection of the 86 successful applicants, the Board shall send a notice by registered mail with return receipt demanded, to each of the ether qualified applicants, advising him of his standing, as alternate or otherwise, and that since the number of qualified applicants exceeds the number of available farms, his application must be held for rejection. In the event that any of the 86 applicants awarded a farm unit fails to fulfill the requirements of paragraph 10 hereof, the Board will select other applicants in the order of their standing on the list of alternates to replace those failing to complete their transactions0 10* Notification of Applicant that he has been selected.— After the expiration of the period or periods fixed by notices to applicants in the conTTngencies named in paragraph 9 above, or any other that may arise, and upon completion of action which may become necessary because of such notices, the Board shall notify each appli-cant selected for a farm, by registered mail with return receipt demanded, unless delivered to him in person, that he has been selected for a farm unito Whenever practicable, and within the time allowance stated on the notice, the Board shall allow the successful applicants to exercise a choice of farms as listed on their application blanks and in the order of their standing in the drawing. However, the Government reserves the right to assign the farms regardless of individual preferences. After a farm has been selected, the Board shall send tne applicant, by r egistered nail with return receipt demanded, unless delivered to him in person, a water rental application for the farm selected, which rvust be executed by the applicant and returned to the Superintendent, Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls, Oregon, within 10 days from receipt, together with payment of the minimum water rental charge, as specified in paragraph 15 hereof. The Secretary of the Examining Board will furnish each such applicant by registered mail, unless delivered to him in person, a certificate' stating that his qualifications to enter public lands, as required by sub- section " C" of Section h of the Act of December 5, 192U ( U3 Stat. 702), have been passed upon and approved by that Board. Such certificate must be attached by the applicant to his homestead application when he files such application at the District Land Office at Sacramento, California. Such homestead application shall be filed within ]£ days from the date of the receipt by the applicant of the said certificate. Failure to pay the water rental charge or to make application for homestead entry within the periods specified herein will render the application subject to rejection. 11. Failure of selected applicant to - complete transaction.— If the applicant to whom a farm has been awarded fails to comply witH" any of the requirements named above, the Board will select the next listed alternate. 12. General entry.— After all applications received prior to 2: 00 p. m., December 15, 19^ 6, have been con-sidered and awards of farm units made to all qualified applicants, any farm units described in paragraph 1 above which remain unentered, shall be subject to entry under this order by any person having the necessary qualifications. If, on September 15, 19U6, prior to 2: 00 p. m., the number of applications filed exceeds the number of available farm units, then the right to make entry for any such farm unit shall be determined in accordance with paragraphs 2 and 9 of this order, the provisions of which shall continue in effect in a s imilar manner in the future if the number of applications at any time exceeds the number of remaining available farm units. 13. Warning against unlawful settlement.~- No person shall be permitted to gain or exercise any right under any settlement or occupation of any of the public lands covered by this order except under the terms and conditions prescribed by this order, provided, however, that this shall not affect any valid existing right obtained by settle-ment or entry while the land was subject thereto. 111. Construction charges,— Section 15 of the Act of May 25, 1926 ( hk Stat. 639) authorizes and directs the Secretary, when announcement is made of the construction charges for this division, to fix and allocate the con-struction cost per acre in accordance with the findings and recommendations of the Board of Survey and Adjustments as shown on page 26 of House Document No. 201, 69th Congress, 1st Session. As recited on page 26 of said Document No. 201, the Board found that the total gross cost of construction charged to the division, as of June 30, 1925, is $ l, 6hO, 9h9; and that this cost should be allocated on the basis of 37,500 acres and not upon 2l±, 2OO as hereto-fore; and that a deduction of'$ 23h, U07 should be made from the cost named. Applying the deduction of $ 23h9hD7 would leave a remainder of $ l, lio6,5> li2 and the Board's report at this point recites: " The net cost would be 31,1* 06,51* 2, and this amount divided by 37,500 acres, would give an average construction cost of $ 37.50 per acre. This per acre cost of $ 37.5 » O does not include any costs for future construction work which will be necessary to complete this division, and this should be particularly noted." The estimate of cost to complete the works for 33,000 acres which are considered irrigable, is $ 1,678,000 or a per acre cost of $ 50.85. This amount added to the per acre cost to June 30, 1925, of $ 37.50 would make e total per acre cost of £ 88.35. A summary of the construction estimate for work after June 30, 1925, is attached to and made a part of this order. If the actual cost of future work is less than the estimate of $ 1,678,000 named above, the construction charge will be proportionately reduced, but the expenditure of $ 1,678,000 will not be exceeded without the water users agreeing to repay all sums in excess » of this amount. In arriving at the per acre rate of $ 88.35, and as shown above, the write- off of $ 23U, UO7 authorized in Section 15 of the Act of May 25, 1926, has been deducted from the total cost, but before this write- off may be actually accomplished, the Secretary of the Interior must require, as set forth in Section h$ of the said Act of May 25, 1926, a contract with a water users1 association or irrigation district whereby such association or irrigation district shall be required to pay the entire charges against all productive lands within the division without regard to default in the payment of charges against any individual tract of land; also as provided in Section U5 of the Act named, there must be executed a contract of the character described, before the ^ 0- year repayment plan as authorized in this Section may be made effective. Since the Tule Lake Division, with the exception of a few tracts, embraces only public land it would not be possible to make such a contract until the lands are opened and entered. Under the circumstances, the division will be operated on a water- rental basis until its agricultural development has advanced sufficiently to permit of a district organization, at which time a so- called joint liability contract will be required and the construction charge will be'announced at $ 88.35 per acre payable over a l± Q- year period. Should the entrymen or water users fail, or refuse, to proceed in the manner required under the Act of May 25, 1926, it will become necessary to issue public notice under the Extension Act of August lii, 191k ( 38 Stat. 686), without regard to the write- off and under a 2G- year- repayment plan. This would result in a per acre charge of $ U9• 70 instead of $ 37.50 for the cost to June 30, 1925, which added to the per acre cost to complete of $ 50.85, would fix the construction charge at $ 100.55 per acre payable in 20 years* 1^° Water- rental charges.— The minimum water- rental charge for the irrigation season of 19ii7 shall be two dollars and eighty cents ($ 2.50) per acre for each irrigable acre of land in the farm unit, whether water is used or not, which will entitle the entryman to 2j acre- feet of water per irrigable acre. Additional water will be furnished during the said irrigation season up to a limit of 3$- acre- feet per irrigable acre at the rate of fifty cents ( 50f) per acre- foot, and all further quantities at seventy- five cents C75#) per acre- foot, payable on December 1, 19U7. Payment of the minimum charge of two dollars and eighty cents ($ 2.80) per acre for the irrigation season of 191+ 7 shall be nade at the time of filing of water- rental applications: provided, that when water- rental application is filed after June 15, 19hl, payment shall be of a minimum charge of two dollars and eighty cents ($ 2.80) per acre, which payment shall apply as a credit on the minimum charge for the follow-ing irrigation season. If payment for water used in addition to the allowance under the minimum charge is not made on or before December 1 as herein provided, there shall be added to the amount unpaid a penalty of one-half of 1 per centum thereof, and there shall be added a like penalty of one- half of 1 per centum on the first day of each month thereafter so long as such default shall continue. No water will be delivered to the • 5. entryman in subsequent years until such charge shall have been paid in full. Future charges will be announced by future order or public notice. 16. Place and manner of payment of water charge,— All water charges must be paid at the office of the Bureau of Reclamation at Klamath Falls, OregonJ by cash or bank draft, cashier's check, certified check, or postal or express money order, payable to Treasurer of the United States, 17o Water- right application under public notice0— Within three months after date of public notice announcing the construction charges for the land described in this order, each entryman, if required to do so by the Secretary of the Interior, shall make a formal water- right application covering his farm unit. Upon failure to do so, the Secretary may, at his option, cancel the entry in question, with all rights acquired thereunder. 18 • All land to be included in irrigation district .— Each water rental application for land covered by this order shall be made"~ onTorm 7- 2b19 and the following clause shall be inserted at the bottom of said form: " I agree to the inclusion of my land in an irrigation district and I agree also to participate in the organization of an irrigation district at the earliest practicable date." 19, Reservation _ of rights _ of way for county highways..— Rights of way are reserved for county highways across the farm units shown on the farm unit plats along all red lines shown on said plats, said rights of way being 30 feet in width on each side of said lines in all cases where lines are drawn in red solid lines and 60 feet in width out of the farm units crossed by lines drawn in red broken lines. Rights of way are reserved for highways across the farm units abutting the northeasterly side of the Central Pacific Railroad Company's right of way, the said highway right of way being a strip of 100 feet in width, parallel to and touching the said railroad right of way. 20. Effect of relinquishment.— In the event that any entry of public land shall be relinquished prior to 2: 00 p. m., December 15, the lands so relinquished shall be subject to entry in accordance with paragraphs 2 and 9 of this notice. In the event that any entry of public land shall be relinquished subsequent to 2: 00 p. m., December l£, and at any time prior to. actual proving up of the land through necessary residence, cultivation and other homestead requirements, the lands so relinquished shall not be subject to entry for a period of 60 days after the filing and notation of the relinquishment in the local land office. During the 10- day period next succeeding the expiration of such 60- day period, any person having the necessary qualifications may file application for said public land. If, on the tenth day of said' 10- day period, prior to 2: 00 p. m., the number of applications filed exceeds the number of available farm units, then the right to make entry for such farm units shall be determined in accordance with the procedure described in paragraph 9 of this notice. 21. Waiver o£ mineral rights .— All homestead entries for any of the above- described farm units will be subject to the laws of the United States governing mineral land and all homestead applicants under this notice must waive the right to the mineral content of the land, if required to do so by the Bureau of Land Management, otherwise the homestead application will be rejected or the homestead entry cancelled. Assistant Secretary SUMARY OF REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES PUBLIC LANDS OPENED TO HOMESTEAD ENTRY KUMATH PROJECT— 19U6 1. Applicant must possess qualifications established by Bureau of Reclamation in addition to those required under homestead law. 2. Lands will be opened to entry at 2: 00 p. m., September 15, 19k6* Veterans of World War II have a preference right for 90 days following the date of opening. Applications received prior to 2: 00 p. m., September 15 > 19U6, shall be considered as simultaneously filed. After September 15, 19U6, applications will be considered in1 the ordef^ of filing. Applications from other than Veterans of World Yfar II may not be considered prior to 2: 00 p. m., December 15, 19U6. 3. Copies of the Public Notice, together with the Farm Application Blank, may be secured from the Superintendent, Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls, Oregon, or from the Commissioner, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D. C. Applications for a farm unit must be filed with the Superintendent, Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls, Oregon. U. Homestead law requirements of entrymen. ( a) Must be 21 years of age or head of a family or have been honorably discharged from the armed forces of the United States after a period of at least 90 days1 service during World War II. ( b) Must be a citizen of the United States or have declared intentions to become a citizen. ( c) Must not own more than 160 acres of land in the United States ( certain exceptions are allowed). ( d) Must establish residence within six months after allowance of entry ( extension of six months may be allowed). Residence must be maintained for a period of three years except honorably discharged veterans who served not less than 90 days are entitled to have the term of service, not exceeding two years, deducted from the three years1 residence requirements. ( e) Land must be_ cultivated for a period of at least two years covering one- sixteenth of area second year and one- eighth of area during the third year and until final proof. ( f) Entryman must have habitable house on land when submitting proof. ( g) Proof as to meeting requirements must be submitted within five years from date of entry. 5. Bureau of Reclamation requirements of applicants. ( a) Must possess standards of character, including honesty, temperance, thrift, industry, moral conduct and seriousness of purposes. References submitted must be individuals prepared to certify to character of witness. ( b) Must have had at least two years' full- time farm experience after age of 15 and within the last. seven years of civilian lifej or during last 10 years of civilian life must have lived and worked on a farm contin-uously for five years after reaching the age of 12. Two or more sworn testimonials must be supplied in support of applicant's claim to meeting this requirement. ( c) Must possess a minimum of $ 2,000 in unencumbered assets applicable or convertible to the needs of farming in the area. ( d) Must be in physical condition to operate a farm including manual labor involved. ( e) Affidavits as to character, farm experience, financial resources and physical condition are required of each applicant. 6. An Examining Board approved by the Commissioner of Reclamation, composed of local citizens and includ-ing the Project Superintendent will consider the fitness of each applicant in line with paragraphs h and 5 above. Applicants disqualified by the Board may appeal within 10 days of receipt of notification. 7. All qualified applicants will be given an equal chance in a drawing to select 172 names ( twice the number of homesteads to be awarded). These 172 shall be closely investigated, in the order in which drawn, and any falsehood or misrepresentation shall be grounds for the Board to disqualify the applicant and pass on to the next in order until the 86 successful applicants have been selected, plus a sufficient number of alternates to replace those in the first group of 86 who fall to complete their transactions. 8. The Examining Board shall notify a successful applicant that he has been selected for a farm unit and, within the time allowance stated on the notice, shall allow the successful applicants to exercise a choice of farms in the order of their standing. However, the Government reserves the right to assign the farms regardless of individual preferences. 9. After a farm has been selected, the Examining Board shall send the applicant a water rental application - which must be executed and returned to the Project Superintendent TntLthin 10 days from receipt, together with payment of the minimum water rental charge. The minimum water rental charge for the irrigation season of 19U7 shall be $ 2.80 per acre for each irrigable acre of land in the farm unit, whether water is used or not, which will entitle the entryman to three acre- feet of water per irrigable acre. Additional water will be furnished during the 19U7 season up to a limit of 3 § acre- feet per irrigable acre at the rate of 50 cents per acre- foot, and all further quantities for 75 cents per acre- foot. 10. The Examining Board will furnish each applicant a certificate stating that his qualifications to enter public land have been approved by the Board. Such certificate must be attached by the applicant to his homestead application which must be filed at the District Land Office, Sacramento, California, within 15 days of receipt of the certificate. 11. Failure to pay the water rental charges or to make application for homestead entry within the periods specified will render the application subject to rejection. 12. Construction charges on the lands to be opened total $ 88.35 per acre, payable within UO years, providing a water users1 association or irrigation district is formed. Should the entrymen or water users fail to form such a district or association, charges will be $ 100.55 per acre, payable within 20 years. 2.
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19291. [Image] The necessity for irrigation
An article espousing the efficiency and benefits of irrigation in agriculture. Includes photos of "Waiting for water: scene on the Truckee-Carson Project" and "Irrigation in southern California"Citation Citation
- Title:
- The necessity for irrigation
- Author:
- Pardee, George C.
- Year:
- 1906, 2005, 2004
An article espousing the efficiency and benefits of irrigation in agriculture. Includes photos of "Waiting for water: scene on the Truckee-Carson Project" and "Irrigation in southern California"
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19292. [Image] Dear concerned citizen
"Bureau of Land Management's (BLM) proposed decision and finding of no significant impact for the Lost River Management Framework Plan amendments."-- P. [1]; August 19, 1988."; "BLM-OR-PT-88-12-1792"--P. ...Citation -
The Service determines endangered status for the shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus), fishes restricted to the Klamath Basin of south-central Oregon and ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Federal Register - Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status of the Shortnose Sucker and the Lost River Sucker
- Author:
- Williams, Jack E.
- Year:
- 1988, 2008, 2005
The Service determines endangered status for the shortnose sucker [Chasmistes brevirostris) and Lost River sucker [Deltistes luxatus), fishes restricted to the Klamath Basin of south-central Oregon and north-central California. Dams, draining of marshes, diversion of rivers and dredging of lakes have reduced the range and numbers of both species by more than 95 percent. Remaining populations are composed of older individuals with little or no successful recruitment for many years. Both species are jeopardized by continued loss of habitat, hybridization with more common closely related species, competition and predation by exotic species, and insularization of remaining habitats. This rule implements the protection provided by the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, for the shortnose sucker and Lost River sucker
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19294. [Image] Klamath District and Klamath Project annual history, 1947
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes organization of Klamath District with official correspondence and description of the Klamath project, an organization chart, fiscal year financials, photographs, ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Klamath District and Klamath Project annual history, 1947
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1947, 2008, 2004
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes organization of Klamath District with official correspondence and description of the Klamath project, an organization chart, fiscal year financials, photographs, maps, charts and tables of crop and livestock yields and water storage and distribution, etc.; Includes index; Title covers: calendar years for 1946-1948; Description is based on: Klamath District and Klamath Project Annual History for 1946; Dates of the beginning year(s) of publication are derived from the May 1, 1903 to December 31, 1912, History of the Klamath Project and from the volume information on later volumes (v. 35) Klamath District and Klamath Project Annual history for 1945, dated December 1, 1946
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19295. [Image] Water rights in Oregon : an introduction to Oregon's water laws and water rights system
CONTENTS THE WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION AND DEPARTMENT 1c "To serve the public by practicing and promoting wise long-term water management. " 1.¨REGON WATER LAWS 22 water management in Oregon 2.°ATER PROTECTIONS ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Water rights in Oregon : an introduction to Oregon's water laws and water rights system
- Author:
- Oregon. Water Resources Dept.
- Year:
- 2004, 2005
CONTENTS THE WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION AND DEPARTMENT 1c "To serve the public by practicing and promoting wise long-term water management. " 1.¨REGON WATER LAWS 22 water management in Oregon 2.°ATER PROTECTIONS AND RESTRICTIONS 262011 managing water appropriations 3.¨BTAINING NEW WATER RIGHTS 185 gaining authorization to use water 4.¨THER WATER RIGHTS 197 authorization for water use 5.RANSFERRING WATER RIGHTS 1c1 existing rights for new uses 6.SANCELLING WATER RIGHTS 1c5 loss of water rights through non-use 7.SONSERVATION 1c8 encouraging efficient water use 8.xINDING WATER RIGHTS 1d1 determining if you have a water right 9.°ATER DISTRIBUTION AND ENFORCEMENT 1d2 watermasters and field staff protecting rights and resources 10.«EGION OFFICES AND WATERMASTER DISTRICTS 1d4 11.xEES 1d6 APPENDIX A 1d7 other development permits WATER RIGHTS IN OREGON
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19296. [Image] Region II Klamath Project annual history, 1945
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes fiscal year financials, photographs, crop and livestock yields, water storage and distribution, hydrography report, etc.; Title covers: calendar years for ...Citation Citation
- Title:
- Region II Klamath Project annual history, 1945
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation
- Year:
- 1945, 2008
Ill., maps (some color), photographs; Includes fiscal year financials, photographs, crop and livestock yields, water storage and distribution, hydrography report, etc.; Title covers: calendar years for 1944 – 1945; Description is based on: Region II Klamath Project annual history 1944. Contains three parts and three table of contents.; Dates of the beginning year(s) of publication are derived from May 1, 1903 to December 31, 1912, History of the Klamath Project and from the volume information on later volumes (v. 35) Klamath District and Klamath Project Annual history for 1945, dated December 1, 1946
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Executive Summary This report presents the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group's (Working Group) recommendations for the development and implementation of a restoration plan for the Upper Klamath Basin. ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Crisis to consensus : restoration planning for the Upper Klamath Basin
- Author:
- Upper Klamath Basin Working Group
- Year:
- 2002, 2005, 2004
Executive Summary This report presents the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group's (Working Group) recommendations for the development and implementation of a restoration plan for the Upper Klamath Basin. In 1996, the 104th Congress of the United States chartered the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group (Public Law 104-333 - the Oregon Resources Conservation Act) to develop a plan for the Upper Basin that focuses on enhancing ecosystem restoration, improving economic stability, and minimizing impacts associated with drought on all resources and stakeholders. The Working Group is comprised of over 30 individuals appointed by the Governor of Oregon, representing federal, state, and local governments and agencies; the Klamath Tribes; conservation organizations; farmers and ranchers; and industry and local businesses. The objective of the Working Group is to develop and oversee a restorative course of action that allows for mutually beneficial gains for stakeholders wherein everybody in the Upper Basin can achieve positive, affirming results together, and where no one is left economically, culturally, or spiritually disadvantaged. Chapter 1 of this report presents a brief summary of the history of the Working Group and the conditions leading to the development of this effort. Chapter 2 describes the facilitated "interim planning process" the Working Group engaged in between April 2001 and July 2002. Chapter 3 presents the results of the interim planning process including key recommendations regarding Working Group decision-making and operating rules, technical data needs, future cost and time frame of the restoration planning process, and similar planning decisions. Chapter 4 describes the next steps and actions the Working Group is prepared to take to lead the restoration planning process. The Working Group's goals and objectives will be achieved through the Working Group's continued commitment to public outreach, collaborative problem solving, and implementation of real world solutions. Desired outcomes from implementation of the restoration plan include, but are not limited to, the following: improved water quality through the implementation of accepted Best Management Practices; restoration of wetlands and riparian habitat; enhancement of natural and structural water storage; improvements to irrigation efficiency and water conservation; economic growth and diversity through activities such as value added natural resource products and ecotourism; and enhancement of wildlife Tribal Trust resources.
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"September 8, 1999."
Citation -
California's Central Valley agricultural landscapes provide several important wintering regions for Pacific Flyway sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) populations; however, the value of those regions is being ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Comparative wintering ecology of two subspecies of sandhill crane : informing conservation planning in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta region of California
- Author:
- Ivey, Gary L.
California's Central Valley agricultural landscapes provide several important wintering regions for Pacific Flyway sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) populations; however, the value of those regions is being compromised by urban expansion, other developments, and conversions to incompatible crop types. Greater (G. c. tabida) and lesser sandhill cranes (G. c. canadensis) both have special conservation status in California; the greater is listed as threatened and the lesser as a bird species of conservation concern by the state. However, basic information about their wintering ecology has been lacking to design biologically sound conservation strategies to maintain their wintering habitats. My study of sandhill cranes focused on one major Central Valley wintering region, the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta (Delta). I compared daily movements and winter site fidelity between the two sandhill crane subspecies, evaluated the timing of crane arrival and departure from the region, assessed foraging habitat choices, measured abundance and distribution in the Delta, documented the characteristics of roost sites, and developed habitat conservation models and decision tools for managers to facilitate habitat conservation and management. Both crane subspecies showed strong fidelity to my Delta study area. Foraging flights from roost sites were shorter for greaters than lesser (1.2 ± 0.4 km vs. 3.1 ± 0.1 km, respectively) and consequently, mean size of 95% fixed kernel winter home ranges was an order of magnitude smaller for greaters (1.9 ± 0.4 km² vs.21.9 ± 1.9 km², respectively). The strong site fidelity of greaters to roost complexes within landscapes in the Delta indicates that conservation planning targeted at maintaining and managing for adequate food resources around traditional roost sites can be effective for meeting sandhill crane habitat needs, while the scale of conservation differs by subspecies. I recommend that conservation planning actions consider all habitats within 5 km of a crane roost as a sandhill crane conservation "ecosystem unit." This radius encompasses 95% and 69% of the flights from roosts to foraging location (commuting flights) made by greaters and lessers, respectively. For lessers, a conservation radius of 10 km would encompass 90% of the commuting flights. Management, mitigation, acquisition, easement, planning, and farm subsidy programs intended to benefit cranes will be most effective when applied at these scales. Within these radii, conservation and management of wintering habitats should include creating both new roost and feeding areas to ensure high chances of successful use. Sandhill cranes used major crops and habitat types available in the landscapes surrounding their roost sites and focused most of their foraging in grain crops. They generally avoided dry corn stubble, selected dry rice stubble early in the season, and rarely used dry wild rice stubble. Tilled fields were also usually avoided but were occasionally used shortly after tillage. Mulched corn ranked high in comparison to other corn treatments while mulched rice use was used similarly to dry rice stubble. Both subspecies often highly favored cropland habitats when they were initially flooded. Cranes were attracted to new plantings of pasture and winter wheat. One important difference between the subspecies was that lessers used alfalfa which was generally avoided by greaters. Dry corn stubble was avoided while dry rice stubble was favored early in winter. If wildlife managers want to encourage winter field use by cranes they could provide incentives for favorable practices such as production of grain crops, reduction or delaying tillage and flooding of grain fields, provision of irrigations to some crop types, and increasing the practice of mulching of corn stubble. Of the 69 crane night roosts I identified, 35 were flooded cropland sites and 34 were wetland sites. I found that both larger individual roost sites and larger complexes of roost sites supported larger peak numbers of cranes. Water depth used by roosting cranes averaged 10 cm (range 3-21 cm, mode 7 cm) and was similar between subspecies. Roosting cranes avoided sites that were regularly hunted or had high densities (i.e., > 1 blind/5 ha) of hunting blinds. Roost site design and management should consider providing and maintaining large roost complexes (100 - 1000 ha) ideally in close proximity (< 5 km) to other roost sites, with large individual sites (> 5 ha) of mostly level topography, dominated by shallow water (5-10 cm depths). The fact that cranes readily use undisturbed flooded cropland sites makes this a viable option for creation of roost habitat. Because hunting disturbance can limit crane use of roost sites I suggest these two uses should not be considered compatible. However, if the management objective of an area includes waterfowl hunting, limiting hunting at low blind densities (i.e., < 1 blind/60 ha) and restricting hunting to early morning may be viable options for creating a crane-compatible waterfowl hunt program. Radio-marked sandhill cranes arrived in the Delta beginning 3 October, most arrived in mid-October, and the last radio-marked sandhill crane arrived on 10 December. Departure dates ranged from 15 January to 13 March. Mean arrival and departure dates were similar between subspecies. From mid-December through early-February in 2007-2008, the Delta population ranged from 20,000 to 27,000 sandhill cranes. Abundance varied at the main roost sites during winter, likely because sandhill cranes responded to changes in water and foraging habitat conditions. Sandhill cranes used an area of approximately 1,500 km² for foraging. Estimated peak abundance in the Delta was more than half the total number counted on recent Pacific Flyway midwinter surveys, indicating the Delta region is a key area for efforts in conservation and recovery of wintering sandhill cranes in California. Based on arrival dates, flooding of sandhill crane roost sites should be staggered with some sites flooded in early September and most sites flooded by early October. Maintaining flooding of at least some roost sites through mid-March would provide essential roosting habitat until most birds have departed the Delta region on spring migration. Not all 5-km radius ecosystem units are equal in their value to greater sandhill cranes, and the relative foraging value of a particular parcel within an ecosystem unit depends on the numbers of cranes using the focal roost site, the habitat choices they make, and the probability that they will fly to a particular parcel. Additionally, some ecosystem units overlap, and in these overlap zones, the probability of crane use is higher, because of additive effects. To provide a tool to allow managers to further refine management plans, I developed a model which allows more specific focus of crane conservation, mitigation and habitat management, using what my study revealed about greater sandhill cranes. This model considers the abundance of greaters at individual roost sites and the probability that they would fly to a given location. Sites closer to roosts had a higher probability of crane use. I calculated the probability that greaters would fly to a parcel within concentric 1-km intervals as a product of the proportion of commuting flights of individuals that reached that interval, and the proportion of all commuting flights that reached that interval. Within crane ecosystem units, it is important to protect the existing habitat from further loss and optimize foraging conditions for cranes. I provide a decision matrix to assist with plans to enhance existing crane landscapes, create new crane habitat areas or mitigate habitat losses. This matrix provides a framework for decision-making regarding enhancing sandhill crane foraging and roost site habitats. Wildlife managers could employ a variety of tools to conserve and manage crane habitats, including fee title acquisitions, private conservation easements, and specific cropland management actions to maintain crane-compatible conditions and high food values for cranes (possibly including providing unharvested food plots). My study has demonstrated that most cranes use a relatively small landscape surrounding their traditional roost sites and that they favor certain crops and post-harvest crop management practices for foraging. However, we need a better understanding of the actual carrying capacity for cranes in these crane management zones to ensure that managers can maintain these sites for cranes in the future.
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A monthly natural flow history was determined for the 1949 to 2000 period at the Keno gage of the Upper Klamath River basin in south-central Oregon. Included within the evaluation is an assessment of natural ...
Citation Citation
- Title:
- Undepleted natural flow of the upper Klamath River : natural inflow to, natural losses from, and natural outfall of Upper Klamath Lake to the Link River and of Lower Klamath Lake to the Klamath River at Keno
- Author:
- United States. Bureau of Reclamation. Denver Office. Technical Service Center
- Year:
- 2005, 2004
A monthly natural flow history was determined for the 1949 to 2000 period at the Keno gage of the Upper Klamath River basin in south-central Oregon. Included within the evaluation is an assessment of natural flows for the same period at the outfall of Upper Klamath Lake, which forms the head of the Link River at Klamath Falls, Oregon. Flow past the Link River gage is tributary to the Klamath River above Lower Klamath Lake. These natural flows were determined using standard and accepted methods. Records used in developing this analysis were derived from stream-gaging records and from climatic records for stations within and adjacent to the study area. Information was also obtained from published maps and reports, and file documents of the Klamath Area Office. Currently, received comments are being addressed and evaluation of elements related to these comments is in progress. The objective of this report is to provide a representative estimate of the monthly natural flow of the Upper Klamath River. Such an estimate is of the natural flow that would typically have occurred without the water-resources developments in the Upper Klamath Basin. A water-budget assessment was used in the determination of the natural flows. The assessment includes results from an evaluation of present-day irrigation depletions, and losses from reclaimed marshland, that have changed the natural inflow to, and resulting natural outfall from, Upper Klamath Lake. Also evaluated were losses to the natural inflow that would have been incurred due to pre-development marshland and evaporation associated with Upper Klamath Lake. The natural outfall from the lake comprised the natural flow of the Link River at Klamath Falls and also the consequent natural inflow to Lower Klamath Lake. Therefore, a similar evaluation was also completed for Lower Klamath Lake to estimate the natural flow of the Klamath River at Keno. The water-budget assessment was designed to simulate each lake as a natural water body within a stream-connected two-lake system. Much of the assessment was completed using Excel.