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• 1281. [Article] Differences in University Students' Self-Determined Motivation, Perceived Competence, and Physical Activity Behavior at Institutions with Either a Required or an Elective Physical Activity Education Policy

  The overarching premise of this dissertation is to understand how different college and university physical activity education policies affect college and university students. Fundamentally, some American ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Differences in University Students' Self-Determined Motivation, Perceived Competence, and Physical Activity Behavior at Institutions with Either a Required or an Elective Physical Activity Education Policy Author: Kim, MooSong The overarching premise of this dissertation is to understand how different college and university physical activity education policies affect college and university students. Fundamentally, some American colleges and universities require their students to complete a physical activity education requirement whereas others do not. Given the different policy arrangements of college and university physical activity education programs in the American higher education system, it is important to understand how these different physical activity education policies (i.e., required to earn a baccalaureate degree vs. not required to earn a baccalaureate degree) influence students' motivation, competence, reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses, and weekly exercise METs. The first manuscript reviewed the characteristics of physical activity education policies in the American higher education system. The tension between organizational policy and individual autonomy was most apparent. Specifically, having a required physical activity education course policy generally enhanced student accessibility to physical activity education courses and helped to form students' positive physical activity behaviors during the college and university years and post-graduation, whereas having an elective physical activity course policy was most respectful of student autonomy. The second manuscript empirically examined the differences of students' physical activity motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs between an institution with a required physical activity education graduation requirement and one without such a requirement, but which offered an elective physical activity education program to its students. The findings revealed that having a required physical activity education policy allowed for more students with lower self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., amotivation) to access physical activity education courses in comparison to the elective physical activity education policy. This finding was also supported in a second empirical study (see below, "The third manuscript…"), which found that female students enrolling in physical activity education courses under an elective physical education policy were already engaging in physical activity. These findings suggest that having a physical activity education policy might create equal physical activity opportunities for all college and university students. The third manuscript explored students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses and how students' different types of motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs predicted their reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses. The findings suggested that the students' main reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses were to improve their fitness levels and to exercise regularly. There were differences in students' reasons for enrolling on the basis of their self-reported gender and the physical activity education policy arrangement of the institution they were enrolled at. Female’s reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation, weekly exercise METs, and amotivation) verses male's reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation) for were more varied. The female students also had different predictors in terms of their reasons for enrollment according which physical activity education policy they were following. These findings suggest that motivation is multifaceted and influenced by policy, context, and personal factors. On the basis of two empirical studies, it was concluded that having a required physical activity education policy creates equal opportunities for all college and university students to engage in physical activity education courses. More importantly, understandings students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses can add greater depth to creating effective, inclusive, positive, and safe college and university physical activity education courses for all. Title: Differences in University Students' Self-Determined Motivation, Perceived Competence, and Physical Activity Behavior at Institutions with Either a Required or an Elective Physical Activity Education Policy Author: Kim, MooSong The overarching premise of this dissertation is to understand how different college and university physical activity education policies affect college and university students. Fundamentally, some American colleges and universities require their students to complete a physical activity education requirement whereas others do not. Given the different policy arrangements of college and university physical activity education programs in the American higher education system, it is important to understand how these different physical activity education policies (i.e., required to earn a baccalaureate degree vs. not required to earn a baccalaureate degree) influence students' motivation, competence, reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses, and weekly exercise METs. The first manuscript reviewed the characteristics of physical activity education policies in the American higher education system. The tension between organizational policy and individual autonomy was most apparent. Specifically, having a required physical activity education course policy generally enhanced student accessibility to physical activity education courses and helped to form students' positive physical activity behaviors during the college and university years and post-graduation, whereas having an elective physical activity course policy was most respectful of student autonomy. The second manuscript empirically examined the differences of students' physical activity motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs between an institution with a required physical activity education graduation requirement and one without such a requirement, but which offered an elective physical activity education program to its students. The findings revealed that having a required physical activity education policy allowed for more students with lower self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., amotivation) to access physical activity education courses in comparison to the elective physical activity education policy. This finding was also supported in a second empirical study (see below, "The third manuscript…"), which found that female students enrolling in physical activity education courses under an elective physical education policy were already engaging in physical activity. These findings suggest that having a physical activity education policy might create equal physical activity opportunities for all college and university students. The third manuscript explored students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses and how students' different types of motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs predicted their reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses. The findings suggested that the students' main reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses were to improve their fitness levels and to exercise regularly. There were differences in students' reasons for enrolling on the basis of their self-reported gender and the physical activity education policy arrangement of the institution they were enrolled at. Female’s reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation, weekly exercise METs, and amotivation) verses male's reasons for enrolling (i.e., intrinsic motivation) for were more varied. The female students also had different predictors in terms of their reasons for enrollment according which physical activity education policy they were following. These findings suggest that motivation is multifaceted and influenced by policy, context, and personal factors. On the basis of two empirical studies, it was concluded that having a required physical activity education policy creates equal opportunities for all college and university students to engage in physical activity education courses. More importantly, understandings students' reasons for enrolling in physical activity education courses can add greater depth to creating effective, inclusive, positive, and safe college and university physical activity education courses for all. Close

• 1282. [Article] Distribution of bats in Southeast Alaska and selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska

  We conducted capture and acoustic surveys for bats in six areas along a latitudinal gradient in Southeast Alaska from mid-May to September in 2005 and we continued surveys on Prince of Wales Island from ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution of bats in Southeast Alaska and selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska Author: Boland, Julia L. We conducted capture and acoustic surveys for bats in six areas along a latitudinal gradient in Southeast Alaska from mid-May to September in 2005 and we continued surveys on Prince of Wales Island from mid-May to September in 2006. We determined the level of effort required to catch each species and documented ranges in morphology and periods of reproduction. We captured little brown myotis, Myotis lucifugus; California myotis, M. californicus; long-legged myotis, M. volans; and Keen’s myotis, M. keenii, and we acoustically detected and sighted the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans. Capture success varied by species, year, and type of capture site. Our surveys support prior research suggesting that the little brown myotis is the most abundant species in the region, although densities appear to be low relative to other parts of its range. California myotis and Keen’s myotis were captured as far north as Juneau. The long-legged myotis was captured on Wrangell and Prince of Wales Islands and the silver-haired bat was detected on Prince of Wales Island. Prince of Wales Island is the southernmost area we sampled and was the only area where all species were detected. Given low rates of detection, all species appear to occur in low densities in Southeast Alaska. Better understanding of population status and trends and examination of habitat ecology and response to forest management in the region is needed to prioritize conservation strategies. The Keen’s myotis is rare and has one of the most limited distributions of any bat species in North America. Understanding gender-specific roosting ecologies of bats at relevant spatial scales is necessary to effectively evaluate the impact of habitat alteration and prioritize conservation efforts for bats in temperate forests. We examined selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis from mid-May to September, 2006 on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Our objectives were to 1) examine relationships between and determine relative importance of habitat characteristics on selection of day-roosts at three spatial scales and 2) determine if habitat associations for males and females differed at each scale. We tracked 13 females to 62 roosts in trees and 6 males to 24 roosts in trees. Features at each spatial scale appeared to influence selection of day-roosts by female Keen’s myotis, but associations were strongest at the tree scale and trees used as roosts were primarily large in diameter with structural defects and located in old-growth forests. Trees in plots around roosts of females had large mean diameters and these plots had a high abundance of roost-like trees. Roosts were generally located near to roads and streams and surrounded by landscapes with a high abundance of old-growth and riparian habitat. Associations were evident for male Keen’s myotis at each spatial scale, but associations at the landscape scale were strongest. Male Keen’s myotis exhibited flexibility with the types of roosts they chose, but tree roosts were primarily snags in early to intermediate decay surrounded by a high relative abundance of roost-like trees that were closer to roads and further from riparian habitat. Habitat associations differed between males and females at each spatial scale and differences are likely a reflection of higher energetic constraints associated with reproduction for females. Energetic benefits gained from optimal roosting habitat may be critical for successful reproduction by females. Females primarily roosted in old-growth habitat and we suggest that maintaining structural components characteristic of old growth will promote conservation of Keen’s myotis in Southeast Alaska. Title: Distribution of bats in Southeast Alaska and selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska Author: Boland, Julia L. We conducted capture and acoustic surveys for bats in six areas along a latitudinal gradient in Southeast Alaska from mid-May to September in 2005 and we continued surveys on Prince of Wales Island from mid-May to September in 2006. We determined the level of effort required to catch each species and documented ranges in morphology and periods of reproduction. We captured little brown myotis, Myotis lucifugus; California myotis, M. californicus; long-legged myotis, M. volans; and Keen’s myotis, M. keenii, and we acoustically detected and sighted the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans. Capture success varied by species, year, and type of capture site. Our surveys support prior research suggesting that the little brown myotis is the most abundant species in the region, although densities appear to be low relative to other parts of its range. California myotis and Keen’s myotis were captured as far north as Juneau. The long-legged myotis was captured on Wrangell and Prince of Wales Islands and the silver-haired bat was detected on Prince of Wales Island. Prince of Wales Island is the southernmost area we sampled and was the only area where all species were detected. Given low rates of detection, all species appear to occur in low densities in Southeast Alaska. Better understanding of population status and trends and examination of habitat ecology and response to forest management in the region is needed to prioritize conservation strategies. The Keen’s myotis is rare and has one of the most limited distributions of any bat species in North America. Understanding gender-specific roosting ecologies of bats at relevant spatial scales is necessary to effectively evaluate the impact of habitat alteration and prioritize conservation efforts for bats in temperate forests. We examined selection of day-roosts in trees by Keen’s myotis from mid-May to September, 2006 on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Our objectives were to 1) examine relationships between and determine relative importance of habitat characteristics on selection of day-roosts at three spatial scales and 2) determine if habitat associations for males and females differed at each scale. We tracked 13 females to 62 roosts in trees and 6 males to 24 roosts in trees. Features at each spatial scale appeared to influence selection of day-roosts by female Keen’s myotis, but associations were strongest at the tree scale and trees used as roosts were primarily large in diameter with structural defects and located in old-growth forests. Trees in plots around roosts of females had large mean diameters and these plots had a high abundance of roost-like trees. Roosts were generally located near to roads and streams and surrounded by landscapes with a high abundance of old-growth and riparian habitat. Associations were evident for male Keen’s myotis at each spatial scale, but associations at the landscape scale were strongest. Male Keen’s myotis exhibited flexibility with the types of roosts they chose, but tree roosts were primarily snags in early to intermediate decay surrounded by a high relative abundance of roost-like trees that were closer to roads and further from riparian habitat. Habitat associations differed between males and females at each spatial scale and differences are likely a reflection of higher energetic constraints associated with reproduction for females. Energetic benefits gained from optimal roosting habitat may be critical for successful reproduction by females. Females primarily roosted in old-growth habitat and we suggest that maintaining structural components characteristic of old growth will promote conservation of Keen’s myotis in Southeast Alaska. Close

• 1283. [Article] First impressions of the interiors of hotel lobbies as influences on perceptions of hotels

  The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants can form impressions and make inferences about a hotel based only on the physical environment or design of the hotel lobby. The study investigated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: First impressions of the interiors of hotel lobbies as influences on perceptions of hotels Author: Fidzani, Lily Clara The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants can form impressions and make inferences about a hotel based only on the physical environment or design of the hotel lobby. The study investigated how the interior arrangement, furnishings and other aspects of hotel lobbies influenced participants' first impressions and their inferences about the hotel as a whole. The lobby was selected because this is the first area inside the hotel that consumers see and therefore it is important for creating impressions. The specific objectives of this study were: to determine if the physical environment of the hotel lobbies could influence participants' overall perception of the hotels, to investigate what holistic perception participants reported about the hotels based on the design of their lobbies, and to investigate whether the physical environment of hotel lobbies is important in impression formation and in communicating the image of the hotels. In the present study, impression formation theory provided a theoretical framework for understanding how impressions were formed and how extended inferences were made. The theory provided the basis of understanding how people use physical environment cues to form impressions and make inferences about their environment. The participants of the study consisted of eight (8) males and 43 female undergraduate students enrolled during Spring Term, 2002, at Oregon State University. Instead of experiencing the real situation, participants were shown four (4) pictures of actual hotel lobbies and asked to form their impressions and make their extended inferences about the whole hotels based on the lobbies. The pictures selected showed variation in the interior space and components of the hotel lobbies, such as lighting, ceiling, floor, walls, architectural style, and furniture arrangement. The participants were shown one picture at a time projected on a screen in the front of the room. The order in which the participants saw the pictures was varied with each group to account for order effect. The pictures were shown in the following order; ABCD, DCBA, CADB and BDAC, one group at a time. Each picture was shown for approximately three minutes. After explaining the procedure to the participants, the researcher asked them to record their first impressions and make extended inferences about the hotel by responding to open-ended questions. They wrote statements about the first things that came to their minds when seeing the pictures of the hotel lobbies. Data collection took about 10-15 minutes for each session. The responses from the open-ended questionnaire were content analyzed according to themes that emerged from the responses for each slide. The emergent themes were reported and discussed based on the objectives of the study. Most of the impressions formed were shared by the participants regardless of their class standing, number of times they had stayed in a hotel recently, and their current major. Even though gender comparison was not made due to few male participants, the researcher observed that the males' impressions were more physical, whereas female's impressions were more emotional. That is, the males looked more at the design, available amenities and facilities, whereas females also commented on the friendliness, warmth and coziness of the hotel. When asked to, participants were able to form impressions about the entire hotels based on ambient factors in the lobbies such as lighting and cleanliness, and on design factors such as style and layout, space, color, architecture and other factors. Impressions were also made with regard to social factors, such as clientele and service personnel. Responses about the characteristics of the clientele ranged from families to business people, rich people and others. Participants were able to make inferences about the general atmosphere, cleanliness, type of customer service, available amenities and facilities, price of hotel rooms, possible location of the hotel, clientele, the size and decor of the guest rooms, and comfort and spaciousness, based only on their impressions of the hotel lobbies when prompted. They were also able to attach emotional, economic and physical feelings to their impressions. The findings of the study indicated that the environment of the hotel lobby might be rich in cues that are important in communicating image and suggesting impressions of the hotel. The study concluded that the design of the lobby might very well determine the approach or avoidance behavior of guests and potential guests. The quality of the environmental cues may also be important in communicating the quality and nature of service the hotel offers and the image it intends to portray. Therefore, in order to increase business, the environments of hotel lobbies should be designed to elicit approach behavior from guests or potential guests. Title: First impressions of the interiors of hotel lobbies as influences on perceptions of hotels Author: Fidzani, Lily Clara The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants can form impressions and make inferences about a hotel based only on the physical environment or design of the hotel lobby. The study investigated how the interior arrangement, furnishings and other aspects of hotel lobbies influenced participants' first impressions and their inferences about the hotel as a whole. The lobby was selected because this is the first area inside the hotel that consumers see and therefore it is important for creating impressions. The specific objectives of this study were: to determine if the physical environment of the hotel lobbies could influence participants' overall perception of the hotels, to investigate what holistic perception participants reported about the hotels based on the design of their lobbies, and to investigate whether the physical environment of hotel lobbies is important in impression formation and in communicating the image of the hotels. In the present study, impression formation theory provided a theoretical framework for understanding how impressions were formed and how extended inferences were made. The theory provided the basis of understanding how people use physical environment cues to form impressions and make inferences about their environment. The participants of the study consisted of eight (8) males and 43 female undergraduate students enrolled during Spring Term, 2002, at Oregon State University. Instead of experiencing the real situation, participants were shown four (4) pictures of actual hotel lobbies and asked to form their impressions and make their extended inferences about the whole hotels based on the lobbies. The pictures selected showed variation in the interior space and components of the hotel lobbies, such as lighting, ceiling, floor, walls, architectural style, and furniture arrangement. The participants were shown one picture at a time projected on a screen in the front of the room. The order in which the participants saw the pictures was varied with each group to account for order effect. The pictures were shown in the following order; ABCD, DCBA, CADB and BDAC, one group at a time. Each picture was shown for approximately three minutes. After explaining the procedure to the participants, the researcher asked them to record their first impressions and make extended inferences about the hotel by responding to open-ended questions. They wrote statements about the first things that came to their minds when seeing the pictures of the hotel lobbies. Data collection took about 10-15 minutes for each session. The responses from the open-ended questionnaire were content analyzed according to themes that emerged from the responses for each slide. The emergent themes were reported and discussed based on the objectives of the study. Most of the impressions formed were shared by the participants regardless of their class standing, number of times they had stayed in a hotel recently, and their current major. Even though gender comparison was not made due to few male participants, the researcher observed that the males' impressions were more physical, whereas female's impressions were more emotional. That is, the males looked more at the design, available amenities and facilities, whereas females also commented on the friendliness, warmth and coziness of the hotel. When asked to, participants were able to form impressions about the entire hotels based on ambient factors in the lobbies such as lighting and cleanliness, and on design factors such as style and layout, space, color, architecture and other factors. Impressions were also made with regard to social factors, such as clientele and service personnel. Responses about the characteristics of the clientele ranged from families to business people, rich people and others. Participants were able to make inferences about the general atmosphere, cleanliness, type of customer service, available amenities and facilities, price of hotel rooms, possible location of the hotel, clientele, the size and decor of the guest rooms, and comfort and spaciousness, based only on their impressions of the hotel lobbies when prompted. They were also able to attach emotional, economic and physical feelings to their impressions. The findings of the study indicated that the environment of the hotel lobby might be rich in cues that are important in communicating image and suggesting impressions of the hotel. The study concluded that the design of the lobby might very well determine the approach or avoidance behavior of guests and potential guests. The quality of the environmental cues may also be important in communicating the quality and nature of service the hotel offers and the image it intends to portray. Therefore, in order to increase business, the environments of hotel lobbies should be designed to elicit approach behavior from guests or potential guests. Close

• 1284. [Article] Lead toxicity at various dosages in Naeemi lambs in Kuwait

  Environmental contamination along roadways with lead from processed petroleum and automotive residues has been reported. Toxicity to the herbivores grazing these areas has not been well studied. Comparison ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Lead toxicity at various dosages in Naeemi lambs in Kuwait Author: AL Sabbagh, Tariq Ashour Environmental contamination along roadways with lead from processed petroleum and automotive residues has been reported. Toxicity to the herbivores grazing these areas has not been well studied. Comparison of lead concentrations adjacent to roads in Kuwait and in Oregon, USA was studied. Soil samples were taken from three sites at three different distances from the highway (0, 3 and 10 meters) adjacent to King Fahad Highway in Kuwait and Interstate 5 (I-5), Highway 34 (H-34) and Highway 20 (H-20) in Oregon. Soil was analyzed for lead concentrations. The mean lead concentrations in soil samples along King Fahad Highway were significantly higher (p<0.05) than those along 1-5, H-34 and 14-20 in Oregon [4943.6 ppm (mg/kg) vs 129 ppm, 94.9 and 81.67 ppm respectively]. In a field trial animal toxicity studies were conducted on sheep grazing near roadway in Kuwait and also in a controlled barn studies. Fifty lambs ranging in age from 4 to 9 months and grazing on Kuwait pasture adjacent to the King Fahad Highway were tested for blood lead. Levels were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). Blood lead levels of these lambs ranged from 0.05-1.00 ppm. Only 12% of the tested population exceeded the blood lead above 0.1 ppm (the high normal value). None demonstrated any clinical signs of lead toxicosis. In addition, a controlled feeding trial was conducted with sheep ingesting similar concentrations of lead as were found along the roadways. These sheep were observed for clinical, gross and histopathological changes. Using the intensive lamb production system common in Kuwait, twenty five lambs ranging in age from 2-10 months were orally fed 0, 2, 4, 8 and 16 mg lead acetate/kg body weight/day in a controlled study. Blood lead levels were tested in these lambs at time zero, week two, and then at monthly intervals until the 14th week. All lambs were slaughtered and necropsied with select tissues analyzed for lead concentrations. Levels of lead in the blood were directly related to the daily administrated lead acetate (P<0.05). Neither gender, age nor breed of the sire had any affect on blood lead levels except for the 14th week where blood lead levels of the young lambs significantly exceeded (P<0.05) those in the older lambs with mean values of 0.54 and 0.34 ppm respectively. In general, lead levels in all the tested tissues were directly related to the amount of the daily oral administration of lead acetate. Differences between the tissue levels of lead in the experimental and control lambs (N=25) were statistically significant (P<0.05) in liver, bone and kidney but were not significant in trachea, testis, brain, diaphragm, ovary, lung, muscle, rumen, aorta, spleen, tongue, eye, intestine, heart and esophagus. Lead accumulation was the highest in bone at the lower ingested lead concentrations, but was the highest in the kidney at higher lead dosages. Lead values were significantly greater (P<0.05) in the livers of female lambs compared to those of the male. Bone, liver and kidney of the young lambs had significantly higher (P<0.05) levels of lead than older lambs with means of 19.24, 7.31 and 54.54 compared to 6.34, 3.59 and 21.31 ppm respectively. Gross lesions were not found in any of the 25 necropsied lambs. Histopathological changes of intranuclear inclusion bodies were found in 100% of the kidneys in lambs administered 8 mg/Kg/day and above and in 50% of the livers of the lambs administered the same dosages. Thirty three per cent of lambs administered 2 and 4 mg/kg/day had intranuclear inclusion bodies in their kidney but not in the liver. The controls had no inclusion bodies in any of these matching tissues. No clinical signs of lead toxicosis were observed in any lambs during the 14 weeks of the experiment. The same lamb population was used to compare blood lead levels and the growth performance of lambs (feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion) in relation to different dosages of lead acetate. Although there was a tendency for lambs ingesting the two higher lead doses to eat less feed, gain less weight; and have a lower feed conversion ratio, these differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). The conclusion of these studies reveal some concern. Levels of lead as found near the highways of Kuwait were high enough to cause elevated tissue lead concentrations, particularly in liver and kidney, of lambs grazing adjacent to these highways. These levels cause tissue abnormalities in lambs and could be hazardous to human health eating the internal organs of these lambs. Title: Lead toxicity at various dosages in Naeemi lambs in Kuwait Author: AL Sabbagh, Tariq Ashour Environmental contamination along roadways with lead from processed petroleum and automotive residues has been reported. Toxicity to the herbivores grazing these areas has not been well studied. Comparison of lead concentrations adjacent to roads in Kuwait and in Oregon, USA was studied. Soil samples were taken from three sites at three different distances from the highway (0, 3 and 10 meters) adjacent to King Fahad Highway in Kuwait and Interstate 5 (I-5), Highway 34 (H-34) and Highway 20 (H-20) in Oregon. Soil was analyzed for lead concentrations. The mean lead concentrations in soil samples along King Fahad Highway were significantly higher (p<0.05) than those along 1-5, H-34 and 14-20 in Oregon [4943.6 ppm (mg/kg) vs 129 ppm, 94.9 and 81.67 ppm respectively]. In a field trial animal toxicity studies were conducted on sheep grazing near roadway in Kuwait and also in a controlled barn studies. Fifty lambs ranging in age from 4 to 9 months and grazing on Kuwait pasture adjacent to the King Fahad Highway were tested for blood lead. Levels were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). Blood lead levels of these lambs ranged from 0.05-1.00 ppm. Only 12% of the tested population exceeded the blood lead above 0.1 ppm (the high normal value). None demonstrated any clinical signs of lead toxicosis. In addition, a controlled feeding trial was conducted with sheep ingesting similar concentrations of lead as were found along the roadways. These sheep were observed for clinical, gross and histopathological changes. Using the intensive lamb production system common in Kuwait, twenty five lambs ranging in age from 2-10 months were orally fed 0, 2, 4, 8 and 16 mg lead acetate/kg body weight/day in a controlled study. Blood lead levels were tested in these lambs at time zero, week two, and then at monthly intervals until the 14th week. All lambs were slaughtered and necropsied with select tissues analyzed for lead concentrations. Levels of lead in the blood were directly related to the daily administrated lead acetate (P<0.05). Neither gender, age nor breed of the sire had any affect on blood lead levels except for the 14th week where blood lead levels of the young lambs significantly exceeded (P<0.05) those in the older lambs with mean values of 0.54 and 0.34 ppm respectively. In general, lead levels in all the tested tissues were directly related to the amount of the daily oral administration of lead acetate. Differences between the tissue levels of lead in the experimental and control lambs (N=25) were statistically significant (P<0.05) in liver, bone and kidney but were not significant in trachea, testis, brain, diaphragm, ovary, lung, muscle, rumen, aorta, spleen, tongue, eye, intestine, heart and esophagus. Lead accumulation was the highest in bone at the lower ingested lead concentrations, but was the highest in the kidney at higher lead dosages. Lead values were significantly greater (P<0.05) in the livers of female lambs compared to those of the male. Bone, liver and kidney of the young lambs had significantly higher (P<0.05) levels of lead than older lambs with means of 19.24, 7.31 and 54.54 compared to 6.34, 3.59 and 21.31 ppm respectively. Gross lesions were not found in any of the 25 necropsied lambs. Histopathological changes of intranuclear inclusion bodies were found in 100% of the kidneys in lambs administered 8 mg/Kg/day and above and in 50% of the livers of the lambs administered the same dosages. Thirty three per cent of lambs administered 2 and 4 mg/kg/day had intranuclear inclusion bodies in their kidney but not in the liver. The controls had no inclusion bodies in any of these matching tissues. No clinical signs of lead toxicosis were observed in any lambs during the 14 weeks of the experiment. The same lamb population was used to compare blood lead levels and the growth performance of lambs (feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion) in relation to different dosages of lead acetate. Although there was a tendency for lambs ingesting the two higher lead doses to eat less feed, gain less weight; and have a lower feed conversion ratio, these differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). The conclusion of these studies reveal some concern. Levels of lead as found near the highways of Kuwait were high enough to cause elevated tissue lead concentrations, particularly in liver and kidney, of lambs grazing adjacent to these highways. These levels cause tissue abnormalities in lambs and could be hazardous to human health eating the internal organs of these lambs. Close

• 1285. [Article] Retrospective Analyses of Marine Mammal Strandings on the Oregon Coast

  Every year many marine mammals become stranded on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The deaths of these animals are investigated and recorded by the North West Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Animals ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Retrospective Analyses of Marine Mammal Strandings on the Oregon Coast Author: Rice, Jim, Lohr, Christiane, Engelhard, Jennifer, Duffield, Debbie Every year many marine mammals become stranded on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The deaths of these animals are investigated and recorded by the North West Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Animals or tissues from animals, that are considered fresh enough for histopathology are brought for evaluation to the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory at Oregon State University. The diagnostic records detail the condition of the animal, disease status and cause of death. In this study, data will be collated from the diagnostic records at the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory (VisuaLab database) into an access database, incorporating information from the Marine Mammal Stranding Network as appropriate. Over the last six years, a total of 183 cases have been accessioned into the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory database, involving sea lions, seals, porpoises, dolphins and whales. This data is accessible only via VisuaLab software, which provides limited support for data queries and is scheduled for retirement later this year, making subsequent access even more difficult. Converting this database into an access database will allow future synthesis with the Marine Mammal Stranding Network database and will ensure continued availability of all the data and provide an increased sample size for any future research. Statistical analysis will be undertaken to ascertain the types, frequency, and distribution (e.g. species, age, gender, geography) of diseases and to look for trends in the cause of death marine mammals of the Pacific Northwest The desired outcomes of this project are to obtain an increased knowledge and understanding of what research entails and how it is conducted, to contribute information regarding the health of marine mammal populations of the Pacific Northwest, and to create an accessible, user friendly database for other researchers in this field. Secondary desired outcomes of this project are to assist in marine mammal conservation efforts and to form the basis of future research projects allowing for in depth investigations of specific diseases and trends. Title: Retrospective Analyses of Marine Mammal Strandings on the Oregon Coast Author: Rice, Jim, Lohr, Christiane, Engelhard, Jennifer, Duffield, Debbie Every year many marine mammals become stranded on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The deaths of these animals are investigated and recorded by the North West Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Animals or tissues from animals, that are considered fresh enough for histopathology are brought for evaluation to the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory at Oregon State University. The diagnostic records detail the condition of the animal, disease status and cause of death. In this study, data will be collated from the diagnostic records at the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory (VisuaLab database) into an access database, incorporating information from the Marine Mammal Stranding Network as appropriate. Over the last six years, a total of 183 cases have been accessioned into the Veterinary Diagnostics Laboratory database, involving sea lions, seals, porpoises, dolphins and whales. This data is accessible only via VisuaLab software, which provides limited support for data queries and is scheduled for retirement later this year, making subsequent access even more difficult. Converting this database into an access database will allow future synthesis with the Marine Mammal Stranding Network database and will ensure continued availability of all the data and provide an increased sample size for any future research. Statistical analysis will be undertaken to ascertain the types, frequency, and distribution (e.g. species, age, gender, geography) of diseases and to look for trends in the cause of death marine mammals of the Pacific Northwest The desired outcomes of this project are to obtain an increased knowledge and understanding of what research entails and how it is conducted, to contribute information regarding the health of marine mammal populations of the Pacific Northwest, and to create an accessible, user friendly database for other researchers in this field. Secondary desired outcomes of this project are to assist in marine mammal conservation efforts and to form the basis of future research projects allowing for in depth investigations of specific diseases and trends. Close

• 1286. [Article] Knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among future teachers

  This study measured knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in a sample of future teachers from the College of Education ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among future teachers Author: Mix, Katherine A. This study measured knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in a sample of future teachers from the College of Education at Oregon State University. The objectives of the study were 1) to determine if students possess accurate knowledge about the two diseases; 2) to measure attitudes toward people with the two diseases; 3) to assess the relationship, if any, between knowledge and attitudes; 4) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes with knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS; and 5) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes in 1990 to data from a similar study conducted in 1984. A convenience sample of 150 students was obtained from undergraduate classes in the College of Education during Spring Term 1990. Subjects completed self-administered questionnaires about either genital herpes or HIV/AIDS during class time. Data were gathered using four instruments: A knowledge test, two attitude measures, and a demographic data questionnaire. Statistical tests used for data analysis were chi square, Pearson's correlation coefficient, Student's t-test, two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and repeated measures ANOVA. The significance level was .05. Knowledge scores on the HIV/AIDS test were quite high (mean score 88% correct), while the mean genital herpes knowledge score was relatively low (62% correct). Attitudes toward people with both genital herpes and HIV/AIDS were relatively accepting, but subjects were significantly more accepting toward people with genital herpes. The least accepting responses toward people with either disease occurred in regard to potentially sexual situations (e.g. dating, marriage). There was no gender difference in attitudes toward people with either disease. Attitudes were more positive in response to a vignette of a college student followed by a questionnaire, compared to responses made to a questionnaire only. Correlations were found between more knowledge and more accepting attitudes about both diseases. Finally, genital herpes knowledge scores were higher (mean score 62% correct) than scores from a similar study of genital herpes conducted in 1984 (mean score 57% correct). Attitudes toward people with genital herpes were more accepting in the 1990 sample than were attitudes in the 1984 sample. All findings reported here are statistically significant. Recommendations for future research and education among future teachers concerning sexually transmitted diseases (STD's) include 1) development of methods to transmit accurate information about STD's by personalizing these diseases and relating them to college students' experiences; 2) a research focus upon attitudes and perceptions about STD's among future teachers, including the issue of homophobia, and how these relate to behavior; and 3) thorough teacher preparation about STD's, focusing on accurate knowledge and impartial attitudes that allow this topic to be addressed effectively in the classroom. Future research among the general college student population should address 1) the relationship between knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and behavior concerning STD's; 2) potential differences in responses made to a vignette followed by a questionnaire, compared to a questionnaire only; 3) students' source(s) of information about STD's, and level of trust in "scientific authority"; 4) possible interactions between religious influence and attitudes about STD's; 5) the existence of a stereotype of HIV/AIDS as a gay, male disease, and how this might affect attitudes and perceptions; 6) differences between males and females in terms of attitudes, especially with regard to homophobia; 7) the effectiveness of personalizing STD education to increase knowledge about and perceived susceptibility to STD's; 8) the interaction between societal values and personal values, and their effect on attitudes about STD's and sexual behavior. Title: Knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome among future teachers Author: Mix, Katherine A. This study measured knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in a sample of future teachers from the College of Education at Oregon State University. The objectives of the study were 1) to determine if students possess accurate knowledge about the two diseases; 2) to measure attitudes toward people with the two diseases; 3) to assess the relationship, if any, between knowledge and attitudes; 4) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes with knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS; and 5) to compare knowledge and attitudes about genital herpes in 1990 to data from a similar study conducted in 1984. A convenience sample of 150 students was obtained from undergraduate classes in the College of Education during Spring Term 1990. Subjects completed self-administered questionnaires about either genital herpes or HIV/AIDS during class time. Data were gathered using four instruments: A knowledge test, two attitude measures, and a demographic data questionnaire. Statistical tests used for data analysis were chi square, Pearson's correlation coefficient, Student's t-test, two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and repeated measures ANOVA. The significance level was .05. Knowledge scores on the HIV/AIDS test were quite high (mean score 88% correct), while the mean genital herpes knowledge score was relatively low (62% correct). Attitudes toward people with both genital herpes and HIV/AIDS were relatively accepting, but subjects were significantly more accepting toward people with genital herpes. The least accepting responses toward people with either disease occurred in regard to potentially sexual situations (e.g. dating, marriage). There was no gender difference in attitudes toward people with either disease. Attitudes were more positive in response to a vignette of a college student followed by a questionnaire, compared to responses made to a questionnaire only. Correlations were found between more knowledge and more accepting attitudes about both diseases. Finally, genital herpes knowledge scores were higher (mean score 62% correct) than scores from a similar study of genital herpes conducted in 1984 (mean score 57% correct). Attitudes toward people with genital herpes were more accepting in the 1990 sample than were attitudes in the 1984 sample. All findings reported here are statistically significant. Recommendations for future research and education among future teachers concerning sexually transmitted diseases (STD's) include 1) development of methods to transmit accurate information about STD's by personalizing these diseases and relating them to college students' experiences; 2) a research focus upon attitudes and perceptions about STD's among future teachers, including the issue of homophobia, and how these relate to behavior; and 3) thorough teacher preparation about STD's, focusing on accurate knowledge and impartial attitudes that allow this topic to be addressed effectively in the classroom. Future research among the general college student population should address 1) the relationship between knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and behavior concerning STD's; 2) potential differences in responses made to a vignette followed by a questionnaire, compared to a questionnaire only; 3) students' source(s) of information about STD's, and level of trust in "scientific authority"; 4) possible interactions between religious influence and attitudes about STD's; 5) the existence of a stereotype of HIV/AIDS as a gay, male disease, and how this might affect attitudes and perceptions; 6) differences between males and females in terms of attitudes, especially with regard to homophobia; 7) the effectiveness of personalizing STD education to increase knowledge about and perceived susceptibility to STD's; 8) the interaction between societal values and personal values, and their effect on attitudes about STD's and sexual behavior. Close

• 1287. [Article] Effect of sensory properties and health information on consumer acceptance and purchase of colorful fresh market potatoes

  Potato varieties characterized by non-conventional skin and flesh colors (purple, red, yellow) have the potential to revitalize consumer demand for fresh market potatoes because of their unique appearance ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effect of sensory properties and health information on consumer acceptance and purchase of colorful fresh market potatoes Author: Wechsler, Linda J. Potato varieties characterized by non-conventional skin and flesh colors (purple, red, yellow) have the potential to revitalize consumer demand for fresh market potatoes because of their unique appearance and health benefits. Red and purple potatoes contain anthocyanins, which are flavonoids responsible for red, blue, and purple pigments in plants. Yellow potatoes contain carotenoids, which are xanthophylls responsible for orange and yellow pigments in plants. Both anthocyanins and carotenoids are antioxidants that benefit human health. The objective of this thesis research was to investigate consumer acceptance of colorful fresh market potato varieties and to understand the effect of health information on purchase intent. This thesis research was divided into three studies, preceded by a literature review. The literature review summarized research linking raw tuber characteristics to the culinary quality of fresh market potatoes. Specific compounds, genes, and processes affecting potato appearance, flavor, and texture were reviewed. In the first study, consumer attitudes and opinions about colorful fresh market potatoes were investigated using four focus group sessions with a total of 37 participants. Five colorful potato varieties were shown to participants. Purchase intent for each variety was marked on an anchored line scale after: 1) seeing and handling the raw uncut potato, 2) seeing a photo of the raw potato cut in half, 3) seeing a photo of the potato cooked (boiled) and cut in half, and 4) after receiving health information describing antioxidant benefits. Reactions to colorful potato varieties were mixed. Health information had a greater impact on purchase intent than the photos of the raw and cooked potatoes. Purchase intent was also influenced by positive and negative associations with appearance, concerns about genetic engineering, tampering, and chemicals, preparation and presentation considerations, point of sale, family acceptance, and anticipated flavor. In the second study, a consumer acceptance test with 222 participants evaluated six colorful fresh market potato varieties alongside a commonly available variety, the Yukon Gold. Participants rated liking of overall appearance, color, size, and shape for raw uncut potatoes on a 9-point category scale. Participants tasted the potatoes boiled and rated liking of cooked appearance, flavor, and texture on a 9-point category scale. Participant comments describing what they liked and/or disliked about each raw and cooked potato were also captured. For color, yellow and red varieties were accepted over purple varieties. For shape and size, large and round varieties were accepted over small, elongated varieties. Bimodal hedonic score distributions were observed for purple color, small size, and elongated shape. Consumer comments revealed that a uniform raw and cooked appearance, a distinct flavor with no undesirable aftertaste, and a smooth, firm, and consistent texture were all desirable characteristics. In the third study, the effect of health information on purchase intent for colorful fresh market potatoes was investigated. Participants either received no information, a simple statement, or a detailed statement about antioxidants in colorful potatoes. After reading the information, participants rated purchase intent on a 5-point category scale at a low, medium, and high price. The effect of antioxidant information on the probability of purchase for red and purple potatoes was compared to yellow potatoes. The impact of hedonic rating, price, gender, age, education, income, usage frequency, health interest, food interest, and antioxidant knowledge were also investigated. High hedonic ratings and interest in food had a positive effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. High price had a negative effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. Antioxidant information and interest in health had a positive effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. Age had a negative effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. An advanced degree of education had a negative effect on purchase intent for yellow potatoes. Title: Effect of sensory properties and health information on consumer acceptance and purchase of colorful fresh market potatoes Author: Wechsler, Linda J. Potato varieties characterized by non-conventional skin and flesh colors (purple, red, yellow) have the potential to revitalize consumer demand for fresh market potatoes because of their unique appearance and health benefits. Red and purple potatoes contain anthocyanins, which are flavonoids responsible for red, blue, and purple pigments in plants. Yellow potatoes contain carotenoids, which are xanthophylls responsible for orange and yellow pigments in plants. Both anthocyanins and carotenoids are antioxidants that benefit human health. The objective of this thesis research was to investigate consumer acceptance of colorful fresh market potato varieties and to understand the effect of health information on purchase intent. This thesis research was divided into three studies, preceded by a literature review. The literature review summarized research linking raw tuber characteristics to the culinary quality of fresh market potatoes. Specific compounds, genes, and processes affecting potato appearance, flavor, and texture were reviewed. In the first study, consumer attitudes and opinions about colorful fresh market potatoes were investigated using four focus group sessions with a total of 37 participants. Five colorful potato varieties were shown to participants. Purchase intent for each variety was marked on an anchored line scale after: 1) seeing and handling the raw uncut potato, 2) seeing a photo of the raw potato cut in half, 3) seeing a photo of the potato cooked (boiled) and cut in half, and 4) after receiving health information describing antioxidant benefits. Reactions to colorful potato varieties were mixed. Health information had a greater impact on purchase intent than the photos of the raw and cooked potatoes. Purchase intent was also influenced by positive and negative associations with appearance, concerns about genetic engineering, tampering, and chemicals, preparation and presentation considerations, point of sale, family acceptance, and anticipated flavor. In the second study, a consumer acceptance test with 222 participants evaluated six colorful fresh market potato varieties alongside a commonly available variety, the Yukon Gold. Participants rated liking of overall appearance, color, size, and shape for raw uncut potatoes on a 9-point category scale. Participants tasted the potatoes boiled and rated liking of cooked appearance, flavor, and texture on a 9-point category scale. Participant comments describing what they liked and/or disliked about each raw and cooked potato were also captured. For color, yellow and red varieties were accepted over purple varieties. For shape and size, large and round varieties were accepted over small, elongated varieties. Bimodal hedonic score distributions were observed for purple color, small size, and elongated shape. Consumer comments revealed that a uniform raw and cooked appearance, a distinct flavor with no undesirable aftertaste, and a smooth, firm, and consistent texture were all desirable characteristics. In the third study, the effect of health information on purchase intent for colorful fresh market potatoes was investigated. Participants either received no information, a simple statement, or a detailed statement about antioxidants in colorful potatoes. After reading the information, participants rated purchase intent on a 5-point category scale at a low, medium, and high price. The effect of antioxidant information on the probability of purchase for red and purple potatoes was compared to yellow potatoes. The impact of hedonic rating, price, gender, age, education, income, usage frequency, health interest, food interest, and antioxidant knowledge were also investigated. High hedonic ratings and interest in food had a positive effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. High price had a negative effect on purchase intent for all potatoes. Antioxidant information and interest in health had a positive effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. Age had a negative effect on purchase intent for red and purple potatoes. An advanced degree of education had a negative effect on purchase intent for yellow potatoes. Close

• 1288. [Article] Changes in size and age at maturity of Columbia River upriver bright fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) : implications for stock fitness, commercial value, and management

  The average size and age of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in commercial fisheries along the Pacific Coast of North America have decreased substantially in this century. These declines ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Changes in size and age at maturity of Columbia River upriver bright fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) : implications for stock fitness, commercial value, and management Author: Beaty, Roy E. The average size and age of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in commercial fisheries along the Pacific Coast of North America have decreased substantially in this century. These declines might be caused in part by changes in size and age at maturity within the stocks contributing to those fisheries. Upriver Brights (Brights), a stock of fall chinook salmon in the Columbia River, are one of those stocks. The purposes of this study were to (1) determine if average size and age at maturity of Brights have declined, (2) gain a better understanding of the factors that may contribute to such declines, and (3) describe potential consequences of these changes. Data from in-river fisheries suggest that the average weight of mature Brights returning to the Columbia River has decreased approximately 2.7 kg since the 1910s, an average rate of about 0.1 lb·yr⁻¹ (45 g·yr⁻¹ ). Most of the potential biases in these data tend to make this estimate conservative. Insufficient data were available to describe changes in average age at maturity. There are many potential causes for the decline in average size of mature Brights, including factors that affect very early life stages. Other researchers have determined that size at maturity appears to be highly influenced by inheritance, gender, and growth rate. I describe how maternal size can influence -- through time of spawning, choice of spawning site, and egg size -- the viability of the young, which carry the dam's genes for size. The size-related ability to produce viable offspring may have been changed by modifications in the environment. Very little is known about how changes in the natural environment for spawning, incubation, and rearing may have contributed to a decline in average size at maturity. Artificial propagation and rearing, such as at Priest Rapids Hatchery, seems to produce adult Brights that are smaller, younger, and more likely to be male than their natural counterparts. The net result is that the average hatchery fish may have only about 0.80 of the reproductive potential of the average natural fish. Changes in growth conditions in the ocean probably did not contribute to the change in size, although the ocean fisheries of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia appear to select, in the genetic sense, against large size and old age in Brights. Since 1978, in-river commercial fisheries have caught larger Brights and a higher proportion of females than are found in the escapement of the Priest Rapids Hatchery component of the stock, but the fisheries impact the two sexes differently by taking the larger males and the smaller females. The effect on the natural component may differ because of their apparently larger average size. I found no evidence that larger fish or more females were caught when 8-in. minimum restrictions were in effect on gillnet mesh size relative to periods when mesh size was not restricted. Impounding the mainstem during the last 50+ yr may have removed obstacles to migration (e.g., Celilo Falls) that selected for large size in Brights, but that hypothesis could not be tested. The perserverance of larger and older phenotypes in the Bright stock suggests that countervailing selection -- perhaps during spawning, incubation, and/or early rearing -- may have resisted the effects of a century of size- and age-selective fisheries. That resistance, however, may reduce the productivity of the stock. Declines in average size and age at maturity can have undesireable consequences. Lower average size means less biomass landed and lower commercial value. Lower average fecundity and a diminished ability to reproduce in some environments are also expected. Loss of size and age classes may reduce the ability of the stock to adapt to environmental variations. These results are relevant to several management practices. A holistic approach to fishery management issues is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions based on narrow perspectives. Measuring reproductive potential of the catch and escapement would be superior to the conventional practice of simply counting numbers of fish. Many aspects of artificial propagation can be improved, including broodstock aquisition, mating regimes, and rearing practices. Stock abundance is a major factor in determining the effect of many management practices on the stock. In general, fisheries managers must be mindful that they manage very complex natural systems. Title: Changes in size and age at maturity of Columbia River upriver bright fall chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) : implications for stock fitness, commercial value, and management Author: Beaty, Roy E. The average size and age of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in commercial fisheries along the Pacific Coast of North America have decreased substantially in this century. These declines might be caused in part by changes in size and age at maturity within the stocks contributing to those fisheries. Upriver Brights (Brights), a stock of fall chinook salmon in the Columbia River, are one of those stocks. The purposes of this study were to (1) determine if average size and age at maturity of Brights have declined, (2) gain a better understanding of the factors that may contribute to such declines, and (3) describe potential consequences of these changes. Data from in-river fisheries suggest that the average weight of mature Brights returning to the Columbia River has decreased approximately 2.7 kg since the 1910s, an average rate of about 0.1 lb·yr⁻¹ (45 g·yr⁻¹ ). Most of the potential biases in these data tend to make this estimate conservative. Insufficient data were available to describe changes in average age at maturity. There are many potential causes for the decline in average size of mature Brights, including factors that affect very early life stages. Other researchers have determined that size at maturity appears to be highly influenced by inheritance, gender, and growth rate. I describe how maternal size can influence -- through time of spawning, choice of spawning site, and egg size -- the viability of the young, which carry the dam's genes for size. The size-related ability to produce viable offspring may have been changed by modifications in the environment. Very little is known about how changes in the natural environment for spawning, incubation, and rearing may have contributed to a decline in average size at maturity. Artificial propagation and rearing, such as at Priest Rapids Hatchery, seems to produce adult Brights that are smaller, younger, and more likely to be male than their natural counterparts. The net result is that the average hatchery fish may have only about 0.80 of the reproductive potential of the average natural fish. Changes in growth conditions in the ocean probably did not contribute to the change in size, although the ocean fisheries of Southeast Alaska and British Columbia appear to select, in the genetic sense, against large size and old age in Brights. Since 1978, in-river commercial fisheries have caught larger Brights and a higher proportion of females than are found in the escapement of the Priest Rapids Hatchery component of the stock, but the fisheries impact the two sexes differently by taking the larger males and the smaller females. The effect on the natural component may differ because of their apparently larger average size. I found no evidence that larger fish or more females were caught when 8-in. minimum restrictions were in effect on gillnet mesh size relative to periods when mesh size was not restricted. Impounding the mainstem during the last 50+ yr may have removed obstacles to migration (e.g., Celilo Falls) that selected for large size in Brights, but that hypothesis could not be tested. The perserverance of larger and older phenotypes in the Bright stock suggests that countervailing selection -- perhaps during spawning, incubation, and/or early rearing -- may have resisted the effects of a century of size- and age-selective fisheries. That resistance, however, may reduce the productivity of the stock. Declines in average size and age at maturity can have undesireable consequences. Lower average size means less biomass landed and lower commercial value. Lower average fecundity and a diminished ability to reproduce in some environments are also expected. Loss of size and age classes may reduce the ability of the stock to adapt to environmental variations. These results are relevant to several management practices. A holistic approach to fishery management issues is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions based on narrow perspectives. Measuring reproductive potential of the catch and escapement would be superior to the conventional practice of simply counting numbers of fish. Many aspects of artificial propagation can be improved, including broodstock aquisition, mating regimes, and rearing practices. Stock abundance is a major factor in determining the effect of many management practices on the stock. In general, fisheries managers must be mindful that they manage very complex natural systems. Close

• 1289. [Article] Inflammation, immune suppression, and iron status in endurance athletes and the effects of antioxidant supplementation

  During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Inflammation, immune suppression, and iron status in endurance athletes and the effects of antioxidant supplementation Author: Hopkins, Dawn Marie Weseli During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised iron stores. This study evaluated inflammation, immune function and iron status in athletes completing a 50K ultramarathon. Twenty-two well-trained distance runners, 11 males and 11 females, were randomized in a double blind manner into--1) those who consumed 300 mg vitamin E and 1000 mg vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) or 2) placebos--for six weeks before and one week following a 50K ultramarathon race. Blood samples were obtained on 13 separate occasions throughout the study: before supplementation, during supplementation, the day before the race, pre-race, mid-race, immediately post-race, 2 hours following the race, and daily for six days following the race. Plasma levels of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were measured using standard clinical assays. Each subject recorded immune function in an activity log and incidence of illness was tabulated as number of days ill. Ferritin was measured by enzyme immunoassay. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and total-iron binding capacity (TIBC) and serum total iron were analyzed by standard procedures. Plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol increased significantly in supplemented subjects (p<0.0001). Although the ultramarathon race elicited an inflammatory response, antioxidant supplementation did not alter the responses of IL-6 and TNF-α, which both increased from pre-race to mid-race, post- and post-2 h (Scheffe post-hoc analysis, p<0.0001) and returned to pre-race concentrations by 1 day after the race. Male supplemented subjects had lower IL-1β concentrations compared to females consuming the supplement or to males consuming the placebo (ANCOVA, gender/time/treatment interaction; p<0.01) at mid-race (p<0.05 females, p<0.005 males), post 1 and 2 days (all p<0.002). Males had significantly higher ferritin levels than the female subjects (ANOVA, p<0.0001); supplementation resulted in lower ferritin concentrations at post-5 days (p<0.02, ANCOVA treatment time interaction, p<0.005). Supplementation did not reduce the days illness among those consuming antioxidants compared to those consuming the placebos. Ferritin not only increases during inflammation, it also is a measure of iron stores. Females had significantly lower levels of iron than the male subjects for each of the iron parameters measured (hemoglobin and hematocrit both p<0.0001, ferritin p<0.001, TIBC p<0.02) excluding serum total iron. The ferritin concentrations measured in the women were indicative of depleted iron stores (<12 μg/l), and antioxidant supplementation increased hematocrit levels in the female subjects (p<0.05). This investigation indicates that female distance runners need to be aware of an increased susceptibility to iron depletion compared to their male counterparts. Antioxidant supplementation improved hematocrit levels (p<0.05) among female runners and may improve iron status among females with depleted stores. Although other investigations have suggested that antioxidant vitamins decrease exercise induced inflammation, no profound benefit of supplementation was found in this investigation though a response similar to the acute phase response was elicited by the ultramarathon race. Improvements in IL-i and ferritin in response to antioxidant supplementation may indicate that the supplementation was beneficial, but more research is needed to draw definitive conclusions. Title: Inflammation, immune suppression, and iron status in endurance athletes and the effects of antioxidant supplementation Author: Hopkins, Dawn Marie Weseli During extreme exercise, athletes experience increased inflammation that is similar to the acute phase response. Endurance athletes, distance runners in particular, are also more susceptible to compromised iron stores. This study evaluated inflammation, immune function and iron status in athletes completing a 50K ultramarathon. Twenty-two well-trained distance runners, 11 males and 11 females, were randomized in a double blind manner into--1) those who consumed 300 mg vitamin E and 1000 mg vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) or 2) placebos--for six weeks before and one week following a 50K ultramarathon race. Blood samples were obtained on 13 separate occasions throughout the study: before supplementation, during supplementation, the day before the race, pre-race, mid-race, immediately post-race, 2 hours following the race, and daily for six days following the race. Plasma levels of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol were measured by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were measured using standard clinical assays. Each subject recorded immune function in an activity log and incidence of illness was tabulated as number of days ill. Ferritin was measured by enzyme immunoassay. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and total-iron binding capacity (TIBC) and serum total iron were analyzed by standard procedures. Plasma concentrations of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol increased significantly in supplemented subjects (p<0.0001). Although the ultramarathon race elicited an inflammatory response, antioxidant supplementation did not alter the responses of IL-6 and TNF-α, which both increased from pre-race to mid-race, post- and post-2 h (Scheffe post-hoc analysis, p<0.0001) and returned to pre-race concentrations by 1 day after the race. Male supplemented subjects had lower IL-1β concentrations compared to females consuming the supplement or to males consuming the placebo (ANCOVA, gender/time/treatment interaction; p<0.01) at mid-race (p<0.05 females, p<0.005 males), post 1 and 2 days (all p<0.002). Males had significantly higher ferritin levels than the female subjects (ANOVA, p<0.0001); supplementation resulted in lower ferritin concentrations at post-5 days (p<0.02, ANCOVA treatment time interaction, p<0.005). Supplementation did not reduce the days illness among those consuming antioxidants compared to those consuming the placebos. Ferritin not only increases during inflammation, it also is a measure of iron stores. Females had significantly lower levels of iron than the male subjects for each of the iron parameters measured (hemoglobin and hematocrit both p<0.0001, ferritin p<0.001, TIBC p<0.02) excluding serum total iron. The ferritin concentrations measured in the women were indicative of depleted iron stores (<12 μg/l), and antioxidant supplementation increased hematocrit levels in the female subjects (p<0.05). This investigation indicates that female distance runners need to be aware of an increased susceptibility to iron depletion compared to their male counterparts. Antioxidant supplementation improved hematocrit levels (p<0.05) among female runners and may improve iron status among females with depleted stores. Although other investigations have suggested that antioxidant vitamins decrease exercise induced inflammation, no profound benefit of supplementation was found in this investigation though a response similar to the acute phase response was elicited by the ultramarathon race. Improvements in IL-i and ferritin in response to antioxidant supplementation may indicate that the supplementation was beneficial, but more research is needed to draw definitive conclusions. Close

• 1290. [Article] Prostate cancer prevention with broccoli : from cellular to human studies

  Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in American men. Epidemiologic studies suggest that cruciferous vegetable intake may lower the risk for many cancers, including prostate ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Prostate cancer prevention with broccoli : from cellular to human studies Author: Clarke, John D. Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in American men. Epidemiologic studies suggest that cruciferous vegetable intake may lower the risk for many cancers, including prostate and colon. Isothiocyanates (ITC) are phytochemicals derived from cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage that may have health promoting properties. Broccoli and broccoli sprouts are a good source of sulforaphane (SFN), a well studied chemopreventive ITC. SFN is known to inhibit histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity and alter epigenetic endpoints. A key factor in understanding the efficacy of SFN as a chemoprevention agent is to determine the metabolism, distribution and bioavailability of SFN, and the factors that alter these parameters. The present study was undertaken to provide further evidence that SFN can alter HDAC activity, alter prostate cancer cell proliferation, both in vitro and in vivo and expands our understanding of SFN metabolism and tissue distribution. We characterized the effects of SFN in normal (PrEC), benign hyperplasia (BPH1) and cancerous (LnCap and PC3) prostate epithelial cells. We observed that 15 µM SFN differentially induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in BPH1, LnCap and PC3 cells but not PrEC cells. SFN treatment also differentially decreased HDAC activity, and Class I and II HDAC proteins, increased acetylated histone H3 at the promoter for P21, induced p21 expression and increased tubulin acetylation in prostate cancer cells. In PrEC cells, SFN caused only a transient reduction in HDAC activity with no change in any other endpoints tested. Therefore, normal prostate cells were refractory to the cytotoxic and epigenetic effects of SFN. In order for SFN to be an effective chemopreventive agent it must be metabolized and reach target tissues. Nrf2 wild-type and Nrf2 knockout (Nrf2-/-) mice were treated with 5 or 20 µmoles of SFN, and SFN metabolites were detected in all tissues tested at 2 and 6 h in a dose dependent manner. Genotype only had marginal effects at 5 µmoles, whereas, at 20 µmoles the female Nrf2-/- mice had dramatically higher levels. The relative abundance of each metabolite was not strikingly different between genders and genotypes, although different ratios between tissues were observed. In the transgenic adenoma of the mouse prostate model dietary SFN, fed as freeze-dried broccoli sprouts, increased SFN content in the prostate and decreased the severity of prostate cancer at 12 and 28 weeks of age. In humans, the differences in metabolism of isothiocyanates between whole food and broccoli supplements have yet to be determined. Two separate human trials were conducted; the first was a randomized 7 day feeding study where subjects consumed either broccoli sprouts or a broccoli supplement, and the second study was a randomized single dose cross-over study with broccoli sprouts, followed by a washout period, then broccoli supplement. In plasma and urine, the total amounts of SFN and erucin (ERN) metabolites were greater and the peak concentration occurred sooner in subjects who consumed broccoli sprouts. Glutathione-S-transferase pi-1 polymorphisms did not affect ITC metabolism. Interconversion of SFN to ERN was observed. Histone deacetylase activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was inhibited only in subjects who consumed sprouts. In conclusion, these data provide evidence that SFN alters HDAC activity and protein acetylation in cancerous prostate cells but not normal prostate cells. For the first time we show that SFN is bioavailable to many tissues types, including the prostate and are largely found as SFN metabolites not the parent SFN compound. We also show that the bioavailability of ITCs is markedly lower in human subjects who consume a broccoli supplement. Decreased HDAC activity in the peripheral blood of subjects who consumed sprouts indicates that higher ITC plasma concentrations can alter HDAC activity in vivo. Taken together, these data show that SFN is an effective prostate cancer chemopreventive agent that can easily be utilized in the diet from whole food. Title: Prostate cancer prevention with broccoli : from cellular to human studies Author: Clarke, John D. Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related death in American men. Epidemiologic studies suggest that cruciferous vegetable intake may lower the risk for many cancers, including prostate and colon. Isothiocyanates (ITC) are phytochemicals derived from cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage that may have health promoting properties. Broccoli and broccoli sprouts are a good source of sulforaphane (SFN), a well studied chemopreventive ITC. SFN is known to inhibit histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity and alter epigenetic endpoints. A key factor in understanding the efficacy of SFN as a chemoprevention agent is to determine the metabolism, distribution and bioavailability of SFN, and the factors that alter these parameters. The present study was undertaken to provide further evidence that SFN can alter HDAC activity, alter prostate cancer cell proliferation, both in vitro and in vivo and expands our understanding of SFN metabolism and tissue distribution. We characterized the effects of SFN in normal (PrEC), benign hyperplasia (BPH1) and cancerous (LnCap and PC3) prostate epithelial cells. We observed that 15 µM SFN differentially induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in BPH1, LnCap and PC3 cells but not PrEC cells. SFN treatment also differentially decreased HDAC activity, and Class I and II HDAC proteins, increased acetylated histone H3 at the promoter for P21, induced p21 expression and increased tubulin acetylation in prostate cancer cells. In PrEC cells, SFN caused only a transient reduction in HDAC activity with no change in any other endpoints tested. Therefore, normal prostate cells were refractory to the cytotoxic and epigenetic effects of SFN. In order for SFN to be an effective chemopreventive agent it must be metabolized and reach target tissues. Nrf2 wild-type and Nrf2 knockout (Nrf2-/-) mice were treated with 5 or 20 µmoles of SFN, and SFN metabolites were detected in all tissues tested at 2 and 6 h in a dose dependent manner. Genotype only had marginal effects at 5 µmoles, whereas, at 20 µmoles the female Nrf2-/- mice had dramatically higher levels. The relative abundance of each metabolite was not strikingly different between genders and genotypes, although different ratios between tissues were observed. In the transgenic adenoma of the mouse prostate model dietary SFN, fed as freeze-dried broccoli sprouts, increased SFN content in the prostate and decreased the severity of prostate cancer at 12 and 28 weeks of age. In humans, the differences in metabolism of isothiocyanates between whole food and broccoli supplements have yet to be determined. Two separate human trials were conducted; the first was a randomized 7 day feeding study where subjects consumed either broccoli sprouts or a broccoli supplement, and the second study was a randomized single dose cross-over study with broccoli sprouts, followed by a washout period, then broccoli supplement. In plasma and urine, the total amounts of SFN and erucin (ERN) metabolites were greater and the peak concentration occurred sooner in subjects who consumed broccoli sprouts. Glutathione-S-transferase pi-1 polymorphisms did not affect ITC metabolism. Interconversion of SFN to ERN was observed. Histone deacetylase activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was inhibited only in subjects who consumed sprouts. In conclusion, these data provide evidence that SFN alters HDAC activity and protein acetylation in cancerous prostate cells but not normal prostate cells. For the first time we show that SFN is bioavailable to many tissues types, including the prostate and are largely found as SFN metabolites not the parent SFN compound. We also show that the bioavailability of ITCs is markedly lower in human subjects who consume a broccoli supplement. Decreased HDAC activity in the peripheral blood of subjects who consumed sprouts indicates that higher ITC plasma concentrations can alter HDAC activity in vivo. Taken together, these data show that SFN is an effective prostate cancer chemopreventive agent that can easily be utilized in the diet from whole food. Close