Search

Search Results

• 10961. [Image] Klamath

  	An article summarizing the abundant natural resources of the Klamath region and the plans for irrigation and further settlement of the area
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Author: White, Frank Ira Year: 1906, 2004 An article summarizing the abundant natural resources of the Klamath region and the plans for irrigation and further settlement of the area Title: Klamath Author: White, Frank Ira Year: 1906, 2004 An article summarizing the abundant natural resources of the Klamath region and the plans for irrigation and further settlement of the area Close

• 10962. [Image] The Water Report - Klamath coho salmon plan rejected: 9th circuit CA/OR

  	Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Water Report - Klamath coho salmon plan rejected: 9th circuit CA/OR Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Title: The Water Report - Klamath coho salmon plan rejected: 9th circuit CA/OR Author: Envirotech Publications Year: 2005, 2008, 2006 Only portions of issues of The Water Report are available in the Klamath Waters Digital Library. See the full report at http://www.thewaterreport.com/ Close

• 10963. [Article] Implications of cougar prey selection and demography on population dynamics of elk in northeast Oregon

  Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni; hereafter elk) populations in northeast Oregon have declined in the past 10 to 20 years. Concurrent with these ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Implications of cougar prey selection and demography on population dynamics of elk in northeast Oregon Author: Clark, Darren A. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni; hereafter elk) populations in northeast Oregon have declined in the past 10 to 20 years. Concurrent with these declines, cougar (Puma concolor) populations have apparently increased, leading to speculation that predation by cougars may be responsible for declining ungulate populations. However, empirical data on cougar diets, kill rates, and prey selection are lacking to support this speculation. Furthermore, the common assumption that cougar populations have increased in northeast Oregon may not be well founded because cougar populations in other areas within the Pacific Northwest region have declined in recent years. My primary research objectives were to (1) estimate kill rates and prey selection by cougars in northeast Oregon, (2) document causes of mortality and estimate survival rates for cougars, (3) estimate population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon and simulate the effects of hypothetical lethal control efforts on the cougar population, and (4) investigate the relative influence of top-down, bottom-up, and climatic factors for limiting population growth rates of elk in northeast Oregon. Results from my research will help guide cougar and elk management in northeast Oregon and provide a framework for assessing relative effects of top-down, bottom-up, and abiotic factors on population growth rates of ungulates in this and other areas. I implemented a 3-year study in northeast Oregon to investigate diets, kill rates, and prey selection of cougars in a multiple-prey system to better understand mechanisms by which cougars may influence ungulate populations. During my research, 25 adult cougars were captured and fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars to identify kill sites. I monitored predation sequences of these cougars for 7,642 days and located the remains of 1,213 prey items killed by cougars. Cougars killed ungulates at an average rate of 1.03 per week (95% CI = 0.92 – 1.14); however, ungulate kill rates were variable and influenced by the season and demographic classification of cougars. Cougars killed ungulates 1.55 (95% CI = 1.47 – 1.66) times more frequently during summer (May-Oct) than during winter (Nov-Apr), but killed similar amounts of ungulate biomass (8.05 kg/day; 95% CI = 6.74 – 9.35) throughout the year. Cougars killed ungulates more frequently in summer because juvenile ungulates comprised most of the diet and were smaller on average than ungulate prey killed in winter. Female cougars with kittens killed more frequently (kills/day) than males or solitary females. After accounting for the additional biomass of kittens in cougar family groups, male cougars killed on average more biomass of ungulate prey per day than did females (R = 0.41, P < 0.001), and female cougars killed more biomass of prey per day as a function of the number and age of their kittens (R = 0.60, P < 0.001). Patterns of prey selection were influenced by season and demographic classification of cougars. Female cougars selected elk calves during summer and deer fawns during winter. In contrast, male cougars selected elk calves and yearling elk during summer and elk calves during winter. My results strongly supported the hypothesis that cougar predation is influenced by season, gender, and reproductive status of the cougar and these patterns in cougar predation may be generalizable among ecosystems. The observed selection for juvenile elk and deer suggested a possible mechanism by which cougars could negatively affect population growth rates of ungulates. I investigated survival and documented causes of mortality for radio-collared cougars at 3 study areas in Oregon during 1989 – 2011. Mortality due to hunter harvest was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Catherine Creek study area and the study area combining Wenaha, Sled Springs, and Mt. Emily Wildlife Management Units (WSM study area) in northeast Oregon. In contrast, natural mortality was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Jackson Creek study area in southwest Oregon. Annual survival rates of adult males were lowest at Catherine Creek when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs (Ŝ = 0.57), but increased following the prohibition of this hunting practice (Ŝ = 0.86). This latter survival rate was similar to those observed at Jackson Creek (Ŝ = 0.78) and WSM (Ŝ = 0.82). Regardless of whether hunting of cougars with dogs was permitted, annual survival rates of adult females were similar among study areas (Catherine Creek Ŝ = 0.86; WSM Ŝ = 0.85; Jackson Creek Ŝ = 0.85). I did not document an effect of age on cougar survival rates in the Catherine Creek study area, which I attributed to selective harvest of prime-aged, male cougars when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs. In contrast, I observed an effect of age on annual survival in both the WSM and Jackson Creek study areas. These results indicate that sub-adult males had significantly lower survival rates than sub-adult females, but survival rates of males and females were similar by age 4 or 5 years. My results suggest that survival rates of cougars in areas where hunting cougars with dogs is illegal should be substantially higher than areas where use of dogs is legal. I used estimates of cougar vital rates from empirical data collected in northeast Oregon to parameterize a Leslie projection matrix model to estimate deterministic and stochastic population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon when hunting cougars with dogs was legal (1989 - 1994) and illegal (2002 - 2011). A model cougar population in northeast Oregon that was hunted with dogs increased at a mean stochastic growth rate of 21% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.21). Similarly, I found that a model cougar population that was subjected to hunting without dogs increased at a rate of 17% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.17). Given that hunting cougars with dogs typically results in increased harvest and reduced survival rates of cougars, it was unexpected that the cougar population subjected to hunting with dogs was increasing at a faster rate than one that was not hunted with dogs. However, cougar populations in Oregon were subjected to low harvest rates when hunting cougars with dogs was legal and harvest was male biased. This resulted in high survival rates of female cougars and correspondingly high population growth rates. The Oregon Cougar Management Plan allows the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife to administratively reduce cougar populations to benefit ungulate populations, reduce human-cougar conflicts, and limit livestock depredation. Consequently, I was interested in modeling the effects of a hypothetical lethal control effort on a local cougar population. Using empirically-derived vital rates and a deterministic Leslie matrix model, I found that the proportion of the cougar population that would need to be removed annually to achieve a 50% population reduction within 3 years was 28% assuming a closed population, and 48% assuming maximum immigration rates into the population. Using a stochastic Leslie matrix model, I also determined that the model cougar population would likely return to its pre-removal size in 6 years assuming a closed population, and 2 years assuming maximum immigration rates. These model results indicate that current management practices and harvest regulations, combined with short-term, intensive, and localized population reductions, are unlikely to negatively affect the short-term viability of cougar populations in northeast Oregon. However, at this time, it is not known if intensive lethal control efforts funded by state agencies will be cost-effective (i.e., increased sales of tags to hunt deer and elk will offset the costs of control efforts). Further research is needed to investigate the cost-effectiveness of cougar control efforts in Oregon. I developed a Leslie matrix population model, parameterized with empirically-derived vital rates for elk in northeast Oregon, to investigate the relative influence on elk population growth rates of (1) survival and pregnancy, and (2) top-down, bottom-up, and climatic variables. I then estimated the effect of varying the strength of top-down factors on growth rates of elk populations. Growth rates of the model elk population were most sensitive to changes in adult female survival, but due to the inherent empirical variation in juvenile survival rates explained the overwhelming majority of variation in model population growth rates (r² = 0.92). Harvest of female elk had a strong negative effect on model population growth rates of elk (r² = 0.63). An index of cougar density was inversely related to population growth rates of elk in my model (r² = 0.38). A delay in mean date of birth was associated with reduced juvenile survival, but this had a minimal effect on population growth rates in my model (r² = 0.06). Climatic variables, which were used as surrogates for nutritional condition of females, had minimal effects on population growth rates. Likewise, elk density had almost no effect on population growth rates (r² = 0.002). The results of my model provided a novel finding that cougars can be a strong limiting factor on elk populations. Wildlife managers should consider the potential top-down effects of cougars and other predators as a limiting factor on elk populations. Title: Implications of cougar prey selection and demography on population dynamics of elk in northeast Oregon Author: Clark, Darren A. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni; hereafter elk) populations in northeast Oregon have declined in the past 10 to 20 years. Concurrent with these declines, cougar (Puma concolor) populations have apparently increased, leading to speculation that predation by cougars may be responsible for declining ungulate populations. However, empirical data on cougar diets, kill rates, and prey selection are lacking to support this speculation. Furthermore, the common assumption that cougar populations have increased in northeast Oregon may not be well founded because cougar populations in other areas within the Pacific Northwest region have declined in recent years. My primary research objectives were to (1) estimate kill rates and prey selection by cougars in northeast Oregon, (2) document causes of mortality and estimate survival rates for cougars, (3) estimate population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon and simulate the effects of hypothetical lethal control efforts on the cougar population, and (4) investigate the relative influence of top-down, bottom-up, and climatic factors for limiting population growth rates of elk in northeast Oregon. Results from my research will help guide cougar and elk management in northeast Oregon and provide a framework for assessing relative effects of top-down, bottom-up, and abiotic factors on population growth rates of ungulates in this and other areas. I implemented a 3-year study in northeast Oregon to investigate diets, kill rates, and prey selection of cougars in a multiple-prey system to better understand mechanisms by which cougars may influence ungulate populations. During my research, 25 adult cougars were captured and fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars to identify kill sites. I monitored predation sequences of these cougars for 7,642 days and located the remains of 1,213 prey items killed by cougars. Cougars killed ungulates at an average rate of 1.03 per week (95% CI = 0.92 – 1.14); however, ungulate kill rates were variable and influenced by the season and demographic classification of cougars. Cougars killed ungulates 1.55 (95% CI = 1.47 – 1.66) times more frequently during summer (May-Oct) than during winter (Nov-Apr), but killed similar amounts of ungulate biomass (8.05 kg/day; 95% CI = 6.74 – 9.35) throughout the year. Cougars killed ungulates more frequently in summer because juvenile ungulates comprised most of the diet and were smaller on average than ungulate prey killed in winter. Female cougars with kittens killed more frequently (kills/day) than males or solitary females. After accounting for the additional biomass of kittens in cougar family groups, male cougars killed on average more biomass of ungulate prey per day than did females (R = 0.41, P < 0.001), and female cougars killed more biomass of prey per day as a function of the number and age of their kittens (R = 0.60, P < 0.001). Patterns of prey selection were influenced by season and demographic classification of cougars. Female cougars selected elk calves during summer and deer fawns during winter. In contrast, male cougars selected elk calves and yearling elk during summer and elk calves during winter. My results strongly supported the hypothesis that cougar predation is influenced by season, gender, and reproductive status of the cougar and these patterns in cougar predation may be generalizable among ecosystems. The observed selection for juvenile elk and deer suggested a possible mechanism by which cougars could negatively affect population growth rates of ungulates. I investigated survival and documented causes of mortality for radio-collared cougars at 3 study areas in Oregon during 1989 – 2011. Mortality due to hunter harvest was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Catherine Creek study area and the study area combining Wenaha, Sled Springs, and Mt. Emily Wildlife Management Units (WSM study area) in northeast Oregon. In contrast, natural mortality was the most common cause of death for cougars in the Jackson Creek study area in southwest Oregon. Annual survival rates of adult males were lowest at Catherine Creek when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs (Ŝ = 0.57), but increased following the prohibition of this hunting practice (Ŝ = 0.86). This latter survival rate was similar to those observed at Jackson Creek (Ŝ = 0.78) and WSM (Ŝ = 0.82). Regardless of whether hunting of cougars with dogs was permitted, annual survival rates of adult females were similar among study areas (Catherine Creek Ŝ = 0.86; WSM Ŝ = 0.85; Jackson Creek Ŝ = 0.85). I did not document an effect of age on cougar survival rates in the Catherine Creek study area, which I attributed to selective harvest of prime-aged, male cougars when it was legal to hunt cougars with dogs. In contrast, I observed an effect of age on annual survival in both the WSM and Jackson Creek study areas. These results indicate that sub-adult males had significantly lower survival rates than sub-adult females, but survival rates of males and females were similar by age 4 or 5 years. My results suggest that survival rates of cougars in areas where hunting cougars with dogs is illegal should be substantially higher than areas where use of dogs is legal. I used estimates of cougar vital rates from empirical data collected in northeast Oregon to parameterize a Leslie projection matrix model to estimate deterministic and stochastic population growth rates of cougars in northeast Oregon when hunting cougars with dogs was legal (1989 - 1994) and illegal (2002 - 2011). A model cougar population in northeast Oregon that was hunted with dogs increased at a mean stochastic growth rate of 21% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.21). Similarly, I found that a model cougar population that was subjected to hunting without dogs increased at a rate of 17% per year (λ[subscript s] = 1.17). Given that hunting cougars with dogs typically results in increased harvest and reduced survival rates of cougars, it was unexpected that the cougar population subjected to hunting with dogs was increasing at a faster rate than one that was not hunted with dogs. However, cougar populations in Oregon were subjected to low harvest rates when hunting cougars with dogs was legal and harvest was male biased. This resulted in high survival rates of female cougars and correspondingly high population growth rates. The Oregon Cougar Management Plan allows the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife to administratively reduce cougar populations to benefit ungulate populations, reduce human-cougar conflicts, and limit livestock depredation. Consequently, I was interested in modeling the effects of a hypothetical lethal control effort on a local cougar population. Using empirically-derived vital rates and a deterministic Leslie matrix model, I found that the proportion of the cougar population that would need to be removed annually to achieve a 50% population reduction within 3 years was 28% assuming a closed population, and 48% assuming maximum immigration rates into the population. Using a stochastic Leslie matrix model, I also determined that the model cougar population would likely return to its pre-removal size in 6 years assuming a closed population, and 2 years assuming maximum immigration rates. These model results indicate that current management practices and harvest regulations, combined with short-term, intensive, and localized population reductions, are unlikely to negatively affect the short-term viability of cougar populations in northeast Oregon. However, at this time, it is not known if intensive lethal control efforts funded by state agencies will be cost-effective (i.e., increased sales of tags to hunt deer and elk will offset the costs of control efforts). Further research is needed to investigate the cost-effectiveness of cougar control efforts in Oregon. I developed a Leslie matrix population model, parameterized with empirically-derived vital rates for elk in northeast Oregon, to investigate the relative influence on elk population growth rates of (1) survival and pregnancy, and (2) top-down, bottom-up, and climatic variables. I then estimated the effect of varying the strength of top-down factors on growth rates of elk populations. Growth rates of the model elk population were most sensitive to changes in adult female survival, but due to the inherent empirical variation in juvenile survival rates explained the overwhelming majority of variation in model population growth rates (r² = 0.92). Harvest of female elk had a strong negative effect on model population growth rates of elk (r² = 0.63). An index of cougar density was inversely related to population growth rates of elk in my model (r² = 0.38). A delay in mean date of birth was associated with reduced juvenile survival, but this had a minimal effect on population growth rates in my model (r² = 0.06). Climatic variables, which were used as surrogates for nutritional condition of females, had minimal effects on population growth rates. Likewise, elk density had almost no effect on population growth rates (r² = 0.002). The results of my model provided a novel finding that cougars can be a strong limiting factor on elk populations. Wildlife managers should consider the potential top-down effects of cougars and other predators as a limiting factor on elk populations. Close

• 10964. [Article] The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature

  Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature Author: Diabat, Mousa Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, and channel structure directly influence stream temperature. Numerous studies indicate that increased average air temperature during the past century has led to stream warming across the world. The trend of stream warming was also present in spring-fed watersheds, where summer flow has decreased. In addition, anthropogenic practices that alter the natural landscape and channel structure, such as forest management, agriculture, and mining contributed to stream warming. For example, deforested and unshaded stream reaches or dredged channels were warmer than shaded reaches and meandering streams. Stream temperatures in North American lotic habitats are of a specific concern due to their significant economic, cultural, and ecological value. With climate projections indicating that air temperature will only continue to rise throughout the 21st century, cold- or cool-water organisms, especially fishes, will be affected. Therefore, there is a strong need to better understand the impacts of changing climate, riparian landscape, and channel structure on a stream's heat budget. This may assist in restoring the historic thermal regime in impacted sites and mitigating the impacts of future climate change. This study looks into the relative influences of the different factors on a stream's heat budget with three manuscripts: one on stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming, one on stream temperature response to changes in air temperature, flow, and riparian vegetation, and one on stream temperature response to air warming and channel reconstruction. I used the software Heat Source version 8.05 to simulate stream temperature for all three analyses along the Middle Fork John Day River, Oregon USA. Two of the manuscripts were applied to an upper 37 km section of the Middle Fork John Day River (presented in chapter 2 and 3), where the third manuscript was applied to a 1.5-km section. The sensitivity analysis of stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming (Chapter 2: Diel Timing of Warmer Air under Climate Change Affects Magnitude, Timing, and Duration of Stream Temperature Change) was based on scenarios representing uniform air warming over the diel period, daytime warming, and nighttime warming. Uniform warming of air temperature is a simple representation of increases in the average daily or monthly temperatures generated by the 'delta method'. The delta method relies on adding a constant value to the air temperature time-series data. This constant value is the difference (delta) between base case average air temperatures and the projected one. Scenarios of daytime or nighttime warming represent conditions under which most of the warming of the air occurs during the daytime or the nighttime, respectively. I simulated the stream temperature response to warmer air conditions of +2 °C and +4 °C in daily average for all three cases of air warming conditions. The three cases of different diel distributions of air warming generated 7-day average daily maximum stream temperature (7DADM) increases of approximately +1.8 °C ± 0.1 °C at the downstream end of the study section relative to the base case. In most parts of the reach, the three distributions of air warming generated different ranges of stream temperatures, different 7DADM values, different durations of stream temperature changes, and different average daily temperatures. Changes of stream temperature were out of phase with imposed changes of air temperature. Therefore, nighttime warming of air temperatures would cause the greatest increase in maximum daily stream temperature, which typically occurs during the daytime. The sensitivity analysis of the relative influences of changes in air temperature, stream flow, and riparian vegetation on stream temperature (Chapter 3: Assessing Stream Temperature Response to Cumulative Influence of Changing Air Temperature, Flow, and Riparian Vegetation). This study summarized stream temperature simulation in 36 scenarios representing possible manifestations of 21st century climate conditions and land management strategies. In addition to existing conditions (base case) of flow, air temperature, and riparian vegetation, scenarios consisted of: two air temperature increases of 2 °C and 4 °C, two stream flow variations of +30% and -30%, three spatially uniform riparian vegetation conditions that create averages of effective shade 7%, 34%, and 79%, in addition to 14% for base case conditions. Results suggest that variation in riparian vegetation was the dominant factor influencing stream temperature because it regulates incoming shortwave radiation, the largest heat input to the stream, while variation in stream flow has a negligible influence. Results indicated that increasing the effective shade along the study section, particularly in the currently unshaded sections, could mitigate the influence of increasing air temperature, and would reduce stream temperature maxima below current values even under future climate conditions of warmer air. With the small influence it had, increasing stream flow reduced the 7DADM under low shade conditions. However, increasing stream flow showed counterintuitive results as it contributed to increasing stream temperature maxima when the stream was heavily shaded. The applied study examined the stream temperature response to restoration practices and their potential to mitigate the influence of warmer air conditions (Chapter 4: Estimating Stream Temperature Response to Restoring Channel and Riparian Vegetation and the Potential to Mitigate Warmer Air Conditions). This study focused on a 1.5 km section along the upper part of the Middle Fork John Day River that was modified due to past anthropogenic activities of mining for gold and timber harvest. Currently, the riparian vegetation of the study site is mostly shrubs and stands of short trees. Restoration designs call for the restoration of both the channel structure and replanting the riparian vegetation. Simulation results showed that the 7DADM was higher in the restored channel than the existing channel with both conditions of low and high effective shade conditions. However, a combined restoration practice of channel reconstruction and medium effective shade conditions reduced stream temperature maxima more than restoring riparian vegetation alone. In addition, results showed that restoring riparian vegetation was sufficient to mitigate the influence of warmer air on stream temperature, while restoring the channel alone is not. Heat budget analysis showed that heat accumulation during the daytime increased in the restored channel, which was longer, narrower, and deeper than the existing channel. It is important to emphasize that stream temperature is one of many goals that restoration activities aim to improve. Furthermore, differences in 7DADM among the different scenarios of restoration are negligible. Such small differences could hardly be measure. While this study examined a short section of 1.5 km, longer stream sections may increase the differences in 7DADM. Primary conclusions of this study are: 1) daily maxima of stream temperature will increase in response to increased air temperature regardless of the distribution of air warming during the diel cycle; 2) nighttime air warming caused a greater increase in stream temperature maximum than daytime warming; 3) riparian vegetation was the dominant factor on stream's heat budget, more than air temperature or stream flow; 4) restoring riparian vegetation mitigated the influence of warmer air; 5) restoring channel structure alone was not sufficient to lower temperature maxima; and 6) restoration project was most successful in improving degraded stream temperature when combined with channel reconstruction and improved riparian shade. Title: The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature Author: Diabat, Mousa Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, and channel structure directly influence stream temperature. Numerous studies indicate that increased average air temperature during the past century has led to stream warming across the world. The trend of stream warming was also present in spring-fed watersheds, where summer flow has decreased. In addition, anthropogenic practices that alter the natural landscape and channel structure, such as forest management, agriculture, and mining contributed to stream warming. For example, deforested and unshaded stream reaches or dredged channels were warmer than shaded reaches and meandering streams. Stream temperatures in North American lotic habitats are of a specific concern due to their significant economic, cultural, and ecological value. With climate projections indicating that air temperature will only continue to rise throughout the 21st century, cold- or cool-water organisms, especially fishes, will be affected. Therefore, there is a strong need to better understand the impacts of changing climate, riparian landscape, and channel structure on a stream's heat budget. This may assist in restoring the historic thermal regime in impacted sites and mitigating the impacts of future climate change. This study looks into the relative influences of the different factors on a stream's heat budget with three manuscripts: one on stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming, one on stream temperature response to changes in air temperature, flow, and riparian vegetation, and one on stream temperature response to air warming and channel reconstruction. I used the software Heat Source version 8.05 to simulate stream temperature for all three analyses along the Middle Fork John Day River, Oregon USA. Two of the manuscripts were applied to an upper 37 km section of the Middle Fork John Day River (presented in chapter 2 and 3), where the third manuscript was applied to a 1.5-km section. The sensitivity analysis of stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming (Chapter 2: Diel Timing of Warmer Air under Climate Change Affects Magnitude, Timing, and Duration of Stream Temperature Change) was based on scenarios representing uniform air warming over the diel period, daytime warming, and nighttime warming. Uniform warming of air temperature is a simple representation of increases in the average daily or monthly temperatures generated by the 'delta method'. The delta method relies on adding a constant value to the air temperature time-series data. This constant value is the difference (delta) between base case average air temperatures and the projected one. Scenarios of daytime or nighttime warming represent conditions under which most of the warming of the air occurs during the daytime or the nighttime, respectively. I simulated the stream temperature response to warmer air conditions of +2 °C and +4 °C in daily average for all three cases of air warming conditions. The three cases of different diel distributions of air warming generated 7-day average daily maximum stream temperature (7DADM) increases of approximately +1.8 °C ± 0.1 °C at the downstream end of the study section relative to the base case. In most parts of the reach, the three distributions of air warming generated different ranges of stream temperatures, different 7DADM values, different durations of stream temperature changes, and different average daily temperatures. Changes of stream temperature were out of phase with imposed changes of air temperature. Therefore, nighttime warming of air temperatures would cause the greatest increase in maximum daily stream temperature, which typically occurs during the daytime. The sensitivity analysis of the relative influences of changes in air temperature, stream flow, and riparian vegetation on stream temperature (Chapter 3: Assessing Stream Temperature Response to Cumulative Influence of Changing Air Temperature, Flow, and Riparian Vegetation). This study summarized stream temperature simulation in 36 scenarios representing possible manifestations of 21st century climate conditions and land management strategies. In addition to existing conditions (base case) of flow, air temperature, and riparian vegetation, scenarios consisted of: two air temperature increases of 2 °C and 4 °C, two stream flow variations of +30% and -30%, three spatially uniform riparian vegetation conditions that create averages of effective shade 7%, 34%, and 79%, in addition to 14% for base case conditions. Results suggest that variation in riparian vegetation was the dominant factor influencing stream temperature because it regulates incoming shortwave radiation, the largest heat input to the stream, while variation in stream flow has a negligible influence. Results indicated that increasing the effective shade along the study section, particularly in the currently unshaded sections, could mitigate the influence of increasing air temperature, and would reduce stream temperature maxima below current values even under future climate conditions of warmer air. With the small influence it had, increasing stream flow reduced the 7DADM under low shade conditions. However, increasing stream flow showed counterintuitive results as it contributed to increasing stream temperature maxima when the stream was heavily shaded. The applied study examined the stream temperature response to restoration practices and their potential to mitigate the influence of warmer air conditions (Chapter 4: Estimating Stream Temperature Response to Restoring Channel and Riparian Vegetation and the Potential to Mitigate Warmer Air Conditions). This study focused on a 1.5 km section along the upper part of the Middle Fork John Day River that was modified due to past anthropogenic activities of mining for gold and timber harvest. Currently, the riparian vegetation of the study site is mostly shrubs and stands of short trees. Restoration designs call for the restoration of both the channel structure and replanting the riparian vegetation. Simulation results showed that the 7DADM was higher in the restored channel than the existing channel with both conditions of low and high effective shade conditions. However, a combined restoration practice of channel reconstruction and medium effective shade conditions reduced stream temperature maxima more than restoring riparian vegetation alone. In addition, results showed that restoring riparian vegetation was sufficient to mitigate the influence of warmer air on stream temperature, while restoring the channel alone is not. Heat budget analysis showed that heat accumulation during the daytime increased in the restored channel, which was longer, narrower, and deeper than the existing channel. It is important to emphasize that stream temperature is one of many goals that restoration activities aim to improve. Furthermore, differences in 7DADM among the different scenarios of restoration are negligible. Such small differences could hardly be measure. While this study examined a short section of 1.5 km, longer stream sections may increase the differences in 7DADM. Primary conclusions of this study are: 1) daily maxima of stream temperature will increase in response to increased air temperature regardless of the distribution of air warming during the diel cycle; 2) nighttime air warming caused a greater increase in stream temperature maximum than daytime warming; 3) riparian vegetation was the dominant factor on stream's heat budget, more than air temperature or stream flow; 4) restoring riparian vegetation mitigated the influence of warmer air; 5) restoring channel structure alone was not sufficient to lower temperature maxima; and 6) restoration project was most successful in improving degraded stream temperature when combined with channel reconstruction and improved riparian shade. Close

• 10965. [Image] Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan

  	"December 1990"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Title: Summary of the analysis of the management situation: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office. Year: 1990, 2005, 2004 "December 1990" Close

• 10966. [Image] Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3

  	Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Title: Klamath Falls Resource Area resource management plan and environmental impact statement : final : Volume 3 Author: United States. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area Office Year: 1994, 2005 Proposed resource management plan/final environmental impact statement for the Klamath Falls Resource Area Close

• 10967. [Image] Dear concerned citizen

  	"Bureau of Land Management's (BLM) proposed decision and finding of no significant impact for the Lost River Management Framework Plan amendments."-- P. [1]; August 19, 1988."; "BLM-OR-PT-88-12-1792"--P. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Dear concerned citizen Year: 1988, 2005 "Bureau of Land Management's (BLM) proposed decision and finding of no significant impact for the Lost River Management Framework Plan amendments."-- P. [1]; August 19, 1988."; "BLM-OR-PT-88-12-1792"--P. 8 Title: Dear concerned citizen Year: 1988, 2005 "Bureau of Land Management's (BLM) proposed decision and finding of no significant impact for the Lost River Management Framework Plan amendments."-- P. [1]; August 19, 1988."; "BLM-OR-PT-88-12-1792"--P. 8 Close

• 10968. [Image] Gerber-Willow Valley Watershed Analysis

  	x, 386 p., ill., maps (some col.); Cover title; "July 2003"
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Gerber-Willow Valley Watershed Analysis Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Klamath Falls Resource Area Office; U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; Fremont-Winema National Forests; Modoc National Forest Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 x, 386 p., ill., maps (some col.); Cover title; "July 2003" Title: Gerber-Willow Valley Watershed Analysis Author: U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Management; Klamath Falls Resource Area Office; U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service; Fremont-Winema National Forests; Modoc National Forest Year: 2003, 2006, 2005 x, 386 p., ill., maps (some col.); Cover title; "July 2003" Close

• 10969. [Image] Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview

  	Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Title: Water availability for Oregon's rivers and streams: Volume 1; Overview Author: Robison, E. George Year: 1991, 2004 Title from cover; "May 1991."; Includes bibliographical references (p. 19) Close

• 10970. [Image] Klamath River Basin Compact between the states of Oregon and California

  	"Ratified by state of Oregon, April 17, 1957 ... and state of California, April 17, 1957 ... consented to by the United States Congress ..."; "[R]epresentative of the United States of America, the States ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Klamath River Basin Compact between the states of Oregon and California Year: 1957, 2004 "Ratified by state of Oregon, April 17, 1957 ... and state of California, April 17, 1957 ... consented to by the United States Congress ..."; "[R]epresentative of the United States of America, the States of California and Oregon have agreed on the compact articles hereinafter set out which were approved by the Klamath River Commissions of Oregon and California on November 17, 1956, and ratified by the Legislatures of Oregon (Chap. 142, Oregon State Laws 1957) and California (Chap. 113, Calif. Statutes 1957) on April 17, 1957. This compact was consented to by Act of Congress (71 Stat. 497) on August 30, 1957, and became effective on September 11, 1957." Title: Klamath River Basin Compact between the states of Oregon and California Year: 1957, 2004 "Ratified by state of Oregon, April 17, 1957 ... and state of California, April 17, 1957 ... consented to by the United States Congress ..."; "[R]epresentative of the United States of America, the States of California and Oregon have agreed on the compact articles hereinafter set out which were approved by the Klamath River Commissions of Oregon and California on November 17, 1956, and ratified by the Legislatures of Oregon (Chap. 142, Oregon State Laws 1957) and California (Chap. 113, Calif. Statutes 1957) on April 17, 1957. This compact was consented to by Act of Congress (71 Stat. 497) on August 30, 1957, and became effective on September 11, 1957." Close