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• 1. [Article] Types of household composition that influence energy problem beliefs and home energy conservation behaviors according to resource constraints among western United States' renters

  The purpose of this study was to further the understanding of two types of renter households' energy problem belief and energy conservation behaviors. The theoretical framework for this study was Niemeyer's ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Types of household composition that influence energy problem beliefs and home energy conservation behaviors according to resource constraints among western United States' renters Author: Yoo, Kyung Sook The purpose of this study was to further the understanding of two types of renter households' energy problem belief and energy conservation behaviors. The theoretical framework for this study was Niemeyer's (1982) model of energy adjustment. Niemeyer found that resource constraints were the significant factors in the number of existing energy-saving features in the dwelling. The 1983 Western States regional data from the Western Regional Project W-159: "Consequences of Energy Conservation Policies for Western Region Households," were used for this study. Pearson correlations and analysis of covariance statistical tests provided a method for identifying differences between jointly-headed households' and female-headed households' energy problem "belief and home energy conservation behaviors. Frequency distributions were run on unweighted data in order to describe the respondents by demographic characteristics. The sample consisted mostly of jointly-headed households (64.1%). The mean age of jointly-headed households and female-headed households was 39.8 and 43.3 years respectively. Most jointly-headed households and female-headed households had "some college" education. The median income of jointly-headed households fell within the range from $20,000 to $25,000, compared to female-headed households which was within the $10,000 to $15,000 range. The majority of jointly-headed households (54.1%) had children, while the majority of female-headed households (77.8%) had no children. The jointly-headed households and female-headed households believed differently about the energy problem in the United States when controlled for age (p=.026), education (p=.003), and income (p=.046). This study also hypothesized that the type of renter household (jointly-headed vs female-headed) might make a difference in home energy conservation behaviors. Testing revealed a significant difference between jointly-headed and female-headed households on the mean number of home energy conservation behaviors reported, when controlled for age (p=.000), number of children (p=.019), and type of household (p=.000) These findings could contribute to the energy conservation research and programs developed by housing educators, researchers, and governmental housing planners. Title: Types of household composition that influence energy problem beliefs and home energy conservation behaviors according to resource constraints among western United States' renters Author: Yoo, Kyung Sook The purpose of this study was to further the understanding of two types of renter households' energy problem belief and energy conservation behaviors. The theoretical framework for this study was Niemeyer's (1982) model of energy adjustment. Niemeyer found that resource constraints were the significant factors in the number of existing energy-saving features in the dwelling. The 1983 Western States regional data from the Western Regional Project W-159: "Consequences of Energy Conservation Policies for Western Region Households," were used for this study. Pearson correlations and analysis of covariance statistical tests provided a method for identifying differences between jointly-headed households' and female-headed households' energy problem "belief and home energy conservation behaviors. Frequency distributions were run on unweighted data in order to describe the respondents by demographic characteristics. The sample consisted mostly of jointly-headed households (64.1%). The mean age of jointly-headed households and female-headed households was 39.8 and 43.3 years respectively. Most jointly-headed households and female-headed households had "some college" education. The median income of jointly-headed households fell within the range from $20,000 to $25,000, compared to female-headed households which was within the $10,000 to $15,000 range. The majority of jointly-headed households (54.1%) had children, while the majority of female-headed households (77.8%) had no children. The jointly-headed households and female-headed households believed differently about the energy problem in the United States when controlled for age (p=.026), education (p=.003), and income (p=.046). This study also hypothesized that the type of renter household (jointly-headed vs female-headed) might make a difference in home energy conservation behaviors. Testing revealed a significant difference between jointly-headed and female-headed households on the mean number of home energy conservation behaviors reported, when controlled for age (p=.000), number of children (p=.019), and type of household (p=.000) These findings could contribute to the energy conservation research and programs developed by housing educators, researchers, and governmental housing planners. Close

• 2. [Article] Employment hours and household tasks : a longitudinal analysis

  The effect of changes in employment hours on changes in household task hours was studied. Data were used from the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) waves one and two. Wave one was a probability ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Employment hours and household tasks : a longitudinal analysis Author: Hawley, Jeffrey E. The effect of changes in employment hours on changes in household task hours was studied. Data were used from the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) waves one and two. Wave one was a probability sample of 13,017 age 19 and older in the United States who were interviewed in person in 1987-88. Wave two consisted of the original NSFH sample who were reinterviewed five years later in 1992-94. A subsample of 1233 men and women was created by selecting employed men and women who were continuously married to the same spouse, lived in the same household, and had a least one biological child under 18 living in the household at wave one and wave two. After controlling for age in years, education in years, race, wage rate, and age of youngest child, the subsample was used to determine if changes in employment hours caused changes in household task hours. Household task hours were categorized by feminine, masculine, and neutral, as well as total household task hours. Lag regression analysis without gender interaction effects found that a one hour increase in employment hours caused a sixteen minute decrease in total household tasks hours, a twelve minute decrease in feminine household task hours, and a two minute decrease in neutral household tasks among married men and women with children. Lag regression analysis with gender interaction effects found that a one hour increase in employment hours caused a sixteen minute decrease in total household tasks hours and a fourteen minute decrease for married women with children only. No statistically significant relationship between changes in employment hours and changes in any category of household tasks hours was found for married men with children when gender interactions were controlled. The results of this study supports the interaction of time availability and gender in explaining changes in household tasks hours. Title: Employment hours and household tasks : a longitudinal analysis Author: Hawley, Jeffrey E. The effect of changes in employment hours on changes in household task hours was studied. Data were used from the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) waves one and two. Wave one was a probability sample of 13,017 age 19 and older in the United States who were interviewed in person in 1987-88. Wave two consisted of the original NSFH sample who were reinterviewed five years later in 1992-94. A subsample of 1233 men and women was created by selecting employed men and women who were continuously married to the same spouse, lived in the same household, and had a least one biological child under 18 living in the household at wave one and wave two. After controlling for age in years, education in years, race, wage rate, and age of youngest child, the subsample was used to determine if changes in employment hours caused changes in household task hours. Household task hours were categorized by feminine, masculine, and neutral, as well as total household task hours. Lag regression analysis without gender interaction effects found that a one hour increase in employment hours caused a sixteen minute decrease in total household tasks hours, a twelve minute decrease in feminine household task hours, and a two minute decrease in neutral household tasks among married men and women with children. Lag regression analysis with gender interaction effects found that a one hour increase in employment hours caused a sixteen minute decrease in total household tasks hours and a fourteen minute decrease for married women with children only. No statistically significant relationship between changes in employment hours and changes in any category of household tasks hours was found for married men with children when gender interactions were controlled. The results of this study supports the interaction of time availability and gender in explaining changes in household tasks hours. Close

• 3. [Article] Food discards : nature, reasons for discard, and relationship to household variables

  A sample of 243 Willamette Valley households participated in personal interviews and kept 7-day records of all foods brought into the household but not consumed by human household members. Their reason ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Food discards : nature, reasons for discard, and relationship to household variables Author: VanDeRiet, Shirley J. A sample of 243 Willamette Valley households participated in personal interviews and kept 7-day records of all foods brought into the household but not consumed by human household members. Their reason for discarding the foods, the amounts of discard, and their assessment of the safety of the foods were compared to household characteristics. Age of the major food preparer and the presence of children had a marked effect upon the discard patterns of the household. Households with children younger than 10 years discarded an average of $3.60 (1185 g) in a 7 consecutive day period, households with children 10-18 years of age discarded an average of $4.36 (2743 g), and childless households discarded an average of $2.11 (1195 g). In a sample of 50 households, as the household refrigerator temperature (as determined during the personal interview) increased from 35°F (2°C) to 68°F (20°C), the amount of discards also increased (r [subscript cost] = .82, r [subscript g] = .80). Food which was being discarded due to poor quality or because it was judged unsafe to eat by the householder was collected daily over a 3-day period for a subsample of 50 of the households. These collected discards were evaluated by a trained panel for degree of off-color, off-odor, and off-texture compared to the normal product standards, and also were microbiologically analyzed. When the householder's estimate of amount of food discarded was converted from their household measures to grams using food composition tables, the householder's estimate was 97% of the actual grams of food as weighed in the laboratory. Both studies found consumer confusion between solely quality changes in a food and environmental conditions that allow the possibility of pathogen growth in foods. In 62% of the microbiologically analyzed foods, the householder did not make correct safety assessments. In 9% of the microbiologically analyzed foods, an assessment of safe was made by the householder for foods which were determined to be at risk. Uncoded dates on packaged foods were the basis for the householder's discard decision for 17% of the total foods appearing on the 7-day records. Householders often stated they felt it would be unsafe to consume this food. Educational programs which give the householder criteria for the evaluation of food safety are recommended. Title: Food discards : nature, reasons for discard, and relationship to household variables Author: VanDeRiet, Shirley J. A sample of 243 Willamette Valley households participated in personal interviews and kept 7-day records of all foods brought into the household but not consumed by human household members. Their reason for discarding the foods, the amounts of discard, and their assessment of the safety of the foods were compared to household characteristics. Age of the major food preparer and the presence of children had a marked effect upon the discard patterns of the household. Households with children younger than 10 years discarded an average of $3.60 (1185 g) in a 7 consecutive day period, households with children 10-18 years of age discarded an average of $4.36 (2743 g), and childless households discarded an average of $2.11 (1195 g). In a sample of 50 households, as the household refrigerator temperature (as determined during the personal interview) increased from 35°F (2°C) to 68°F (20°C), the amount of discards also increased (r [subscript cost] = .82, r [subscript g] = .80). Food which was being discarded due to poor quality or because it was judged unsafe to eat by the householder was collected daily over a 3-day period for a subsample of 50 of the households. These collected discards were evaluated by a trained panel for degree of off-color, off-odor, and off-texture compared to the normal product standards, and also were microbiologically analyzed. When the householder's estimate of amount of food discarded was converted from their household measures to grams using food composition tables, the householder's estimate was 97% of the actual grams of food as weighed in the laboratory. Both studies found consumer confusion between solely quality changes in a food and environmental conditions that allow the possibility of pathogen growth in foods. In 62% of the microbiologically analyzed foods, the householder did not make correct safety assessments. In 9% of the microbiologically analyzed foods, an assessment of safe was made by the householder for foods which were determined to be at risk. Uncoded dates on packaged foods were the basis for the householder's discard decision for 17% of the total foods appearing on the 7-day records. Householders often stated they felt it would be unsafe to consume this food. Educational programs which give the householder criteria for the evaluation of food safety are recommended. Close

• 4. [Article] Three essays on food security, food assistance, and migration

  This dissertation's three essays explore the determinants of food insecurity for rural farm households, the influence of rainfall variability and long-run changes in rainfall levels on the migration decisions ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Three essays on food security, food assistance, and migration Author: Lewin, Paul A. This dissertation's three essays explore the determinants of food insecurity for rural farm households, the influence of rainfall variability and long-run changes in rainfall levels on the migration decisions of working-age household heads, and the distributional impacts in core and periphery regions of food assistance to households in the hinterland. The first essay examines how socio-economic characteristics of households, local conditions, and public programs are associated with the probability that a farm household in rural Malawi is food insecure. The statistical analysis uses nationally representative data for 7,965 randomly-selected households interviewed during 2004/05 for the second Malawi Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2). Regressions are estimated separately for households in the north, center, and south of Malawi to account for spatial heterogeneity. Results of a Probit regression model reveal that households are less likely to be food insecure if they have more cultivated land per capita, receive agricultural field assistance, reside in a community with an irrigation scheme, and are headed by an individual with a high school degree. Factors that positively correlate with a household's food insecurity are number of household members and distance to markets. The second essay uses nationally representative data from Malawi's 2004/05 Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2) to examine whether rainfall conditions influence a rural worker’s decision to make a long-term move to an urban or another rural area. Results of a Full Information Maximum Likelihood regression model reveal that (1) rainfall shocks constrain migration, most likely by making it difficult for prospective migrants to cover costs of migration, (2) migrants choose to move to communities where rainfall variability is lower, and (3) rainfall shocks have larger negative effects on the earnings of recent migrants than on long-time residents’ earnings. The third essay examines how benefits from food assistance programs to needy households spillover between areas and among household income groups in the United States. We study the effect of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in the Portland Oregon metro Core and its Periphery trade area, using a Multiregional Input- Output (MRIO) model based on a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The analysis captures direct, indirect and induced effects of SNAP on each region and spillover effects on the other region. SNAP benefits to the lower income household classes in each region are traced to their effects on the local economy in each region, and to the effects on household income by income class. The analysis finds that (1) the economic impact on the Portland Core from a given level of SNAP benefits to households in the Periphery is greater than the economic impact in the Periphery from the same level of SNAP benefits to households in the Core; (2) high-income households benefit more than low-income households from the indirect and induced economic impact of SNAP. Title: Three essays on food security, food assistance, and migration Author: Lewin, Paul A. This dissertation's three essays explore the determinants of food insecurity for rural farm households, the influence of rainfall variability and long-run changes in rainfall levels on the migration decisions of working-age household heads, and the distributional impacts in core and periphery regions of food assistance to households in the hinterland. The first essay examines how socio-economic characteristics of households, local conditions, and public programs are associated with the probability that a farm household in rural Malawi is food insecure. The statistical analysis uses nationally representative data for 7,965 randomly-selected households interviewed during 2004/05 for the second Malawi Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2). Regressions are estimated separately for households in the north, center, and south of Malawi to account for spatial heterogeneity. Results of a Probit regression model reveal that households are less likely to be food insecure if they have more cultivated land per capita, receive agricultural field assistance, reside in a community with an irrigation scheme, and are headed by an individual with a high school degree. Factors that positively correlate with a household's food insecurity are number of household members and distance to markets. The second essay uses nationally representative data from Malawi's 2004/05 Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2) to examine whether rainfall conditions influence a rural worker’s decision to make a long-term move to an urban or another rural area. Results of a Full Information Maximum Likelihood regression model reveal that (1) rainfall shocks constrain migration, most likely by making it difficult for prospective migrants to cover costs of migration, (2) migrants choose to move to communities where rainfall variability is lower, and (3) rainfall shocks have larger negative effects on the earnings of recent migrants than on long-time residents’ earnings. The third essay examines how benefits from food assistance programs to needy households spillover between areas and among household income groups in the United States. We study the effect of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in the Portland Oregon metro Core and its Periphery trade area, using a Multiregional Input- Output (MRIO) model based on a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The analysis captures direct, indirect and induced effects of SNAP on each region and spillover effects on the other region. SNAP benefits to the lower income household classes in each region are traced to their effects on the local economy in each region, and to the effects on household income by income class. The analysis finds that (1) the economic impact on the Portland Core from a given level of SNAP benefits to households in the Periphery is greater than the economic impact in the Periphery from the same level of SNAP benefits to households in the Core; (2) high-income households benefit more than low-income households from the indirect and induced economic impact of SNAP. Close

• 5. [Article] A household production approach to modeling household recycling effort

  Household recycling is an important means by which social costs of solid waste disposal may be reduced. These costs include energy and resource costs of collection and disposal as well as environmental ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A household production approach to modeling household recycling effort Author: Martini, Roger Household recycling is an important means by which social costs of solid waste disposal may be reduced. These costs include energy and resource costs of collection and disposal as well as environmental costs from emissions from landfills, incinerators, and collection vehicles. In this thesis, a household production model is used to represent the decision faced by the household in determining the level of effort to commit to recycling activities. The decision regarding the level of effort the household commits to recycling is hypothesized to be a function of economic variables such as the cost of solid waste disposal and expenditure on goods for both direct consumption and as inputs into production in the home, as well as of the demographic characteristics of the household. Two empirical models are developed, using data collected by the Portland Metro Association. The first of these models specifies a linear relationship between recycling behavior and the economic and demographic variables in the model. The second model is somewhat more complex, making use of the indirect utility function of the household. Redacted for Privacy The results of the empirical analysis show that the greater the price change associated with increasing solid waste disposal volume, the greater the probability that the household will devote more effort to recycling. As well, the age and education of the female head of the household and the presence of a child in the home also affect the households decision to recycle. Household recycling may be encouraged by municipal planners by using an escalating price structure for solid waste disposal. Additionally, recycling programs should emphasize convenience over other considerations such as variety of materials collected. Title: A household production approach to modeling household recycling effort Author: Martini, Roger Household recycling is an important means by which social costs of solid waste disposal may be reduced. These costs include energy and resource costs of collection and disposal as well as environmental costs from emissions from landfills, incinerators, and collection vehicles. In this thesis, a household production model is used to represent the decision faced by the household in determining the level of effort to commit to recycling activities. The decision regarding the level of effort the household commits to recycling is hypothesized to be a function of economic variables such as the cost of solid waste disposal and expenditure on goods for both direct consumption and as inputs into production in the home, as well as of the demographic characteristics of the household. Two empirical models are developed, using data collected by the Portland Metro Association. The first of these models specifies a linear relationship between recycling behavior and the economic and demographic variables in the model. The second model is somewhat more complex, making use of the indirect utility function of the household. Redacted for Privacy The results of the empirical analysis show that the greater the price change associated with increasing solid waste disposal volume, the greater the probability that the household will devote more effort to recycling. As well, the age and education of the female head of the household and the presence of a child in the home also affect the households decision to recycle. Household recycling may be encouraged by municipal planners by using an escalating price structure for solid waste disposal. Additionally, recycling programs should emphasize convenience over other considerations such as variety of materials collected. Close

• 6. [Article] Examining Agricultural Household Welfare through Output Marketing Choices and Land Market Efficiency : Evidence from Rural India

  Development research and policy aim to improve household welfare by improving access to assets and economic opportunities (Besley & Burgess 2000; Deininger et al. 2003). In rural and agrarian contexts, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Examining Agricultural Household Welfare through Output Marketing Choices and Land Market Efficiency : Evidence from Rural India Author: Dickson, Caleb Development research and policy aim to improve household welfare by improving access to assets and economic opportunities (Besley & Burgess 2000; Deininger et al. 2003). In rural and agrarian contexts, these goals may be achieved by well-functioning markets for outputs, inputs, off-farm work, and credit. The status of these markets impacts household welfare and resilience, as well as the equity and efficiency of resource use. Designing policies for improving household welfare requires an understanding of markets in rural areas. In particular, policymakers must understand how household and location characteristics impact household participation in markets and how participation impacts welfare. This dissertation contains three essays that address rural household welfare and the role of policy for Southern India. The first essay examines the selection and impact of agricultural marketing channels for farm households in rural villages of Andhra Pradesh, India. The evaluation of agricultural marketing channels in developing countries is becoming more relevant due to the growth of modern food retail (e.g. large grocery stores). This type of supply channel evolution is beginning in India as the supermarket, food processing, and food service sectors have grown rapidly in recent years. For the most part, this growth has not extended beyond the retail end of the supply channel: the traditional wholesale markets (also known as mandis) are still the most significant means for transferring food from rural to urban areas. As such, this paper analyzes current crop and milk marketing channels available to rural households in Andhra Pradesh. The goals of this analysis are to identify how household and location characteristics impact channel choice (ex-ante), if existing channels provide differential returns from one another, and which types of households benefit more or less within a channel (ex-post). The results indicate that household income is higher for households selling crops to brokers and selling milk to co-operatives. Moreover, channel choices and resulting impacts are affected by both transport and search costs. This analysis provides evidence that policy aimed at reducing transport and search costs directly associated with a channel can improve household welfare under current channel structures. Given the likely characteristics of emerging channels, similar policy is expected to improve farmer welfare in the future too. The second essay is an analysis of rural land leasing markets in multiple states across India. Land leasing markets are hypothesized to improve the efficiency of land allocation and provide welfare gains to participating households. However, in developing countries, these markets are commonly impacted by transactions costs, missing or incomplete non-land markets, and insecure property rights. This study assesses how Indian land markets perform in terms of equity and efficiency, identifies land market distortions, and examines how policy can address these distortions. Using a panel dataset of households from rural villages in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, this research contributes to previous work by developing conceptual and empirical analyses that are consistent with the specific structure of land leasing decisions in India and provide insights into functioning of land leasing markets. The results confirm that land markets improve factor ratios by transferring land from input-poor to input-rich smallholder households. However, land market functioning is found to be limited by the presence of transactions costs and missing or incomplete non-land markets. From a policy standpoint, the results suggest that, due to the linkages across markets (e.g. input markets), policies that promote rural market development are expected to have the greatest impact on land markets in the short run. The third essay continues to focus on land markets and, in particular, illustrates the role of land markets in household resilience. This study identifies household economic resilience as the ability of a household to avoid low values or loss of economic value in the presence of changing conditions over time. In much of the development literature, research aims to identify ways of improving the well-being of households in developing countries. Understanding resilience adds a new dimension to this by examining a household’s current state of well-being along with possible future states (better or worse) and what factors contribute to these. This is especially relevant for agricultural households that are subject to varying biophysical and economic conditions. Land markets can play a role in household resilience by allowing households to adjust their operated land area as conditions change. This type of adjustment can improve welfare by enabling households to pursue different activities (on or off-farm) with the goal of household income maximization. The relationship between land markets and resilience is examined empirically by predicting land market participation and resulting welfare outcomes under a variety of price and policy scenarios. The goal is to provide evidence that households use land markets to adjust to price changes and that policy addressing land market imperfections can increase that adjustment, in terms of land market participation and resulting welfare. This analysis utilizes estimates from econometric models of land leasing and household welfare, and it focuses on cereal price changes and a market development policy. The results support the hypothesis that land markets contribute to household resilience by enabling households to respond to changing conditions and improve their welfare. Moreover, the results indicate that policy aimed at land market distortions can further increase household resilience. Title: Examining Agricultural Household Welfare through Output Marketing Choices and Land Market Efficiency : Evidence from Rural India Author: Dickson, Caleb Development research and policy aim to improve household welfare by improving access to assets and economic opportunities (Besley & Burgess 2000; Deininger et al. 2003). In rural and agrarian contexts, these goals may be achieved by well-functioning markets for outputs, inputs, off-farm work, and credit. The status of these markets impacts household welfare and resilience, as well as the equity and efficiency of resource use. Designing policies for improving household welfare requires an understanding of markets in rural areas. In particular, policymakers must understand how household and location characteristics impact household participation in markets and how participation impacts welfare. This dissertation contains three essays that address rural household welfare and the role of policy for Southern India. The first essay examines the selection and impact of agricultural marketing channels for farm households in rural villages of Andhra Pradesh, India. The evaluation of agricultural marketing channels in developing countries is becoming more relevant due to the growth of modern food retail (e.g. large grocery stores). This type of supply channel evolution is beginning in India as the supermarket, food processing, and food service sectors have grown rapidly in recent years. For the most part, this growth has not extended beyond the retail end of the supply channel: the traditional wholesale markets (also known as mandis) are still the most significant means for transferring food from rural to urban areas. As such, this paper analyzes current crop and milk marketing channels available to rural households in Andhra Pradesh. The goals of this analysis are to identify how household and location characteristics impact channel choice (ex-ante), if existing channels provide differential returns from one another, and which types of households benefit more or less within a channel (ex-post). The results indicate that household income is higher for households selling crops to brokers and selling milk to co-operatives. Moreover, channel choices and resulting impacts are affected by both transport and search costs. This analysis provides evidence that policy aimed at reducing transport and search costs directly associated with a channel can improve household welfare under current channel structures. Given the likely characteristics of emerging channels, similar policy is expected to improve farmer welfare in the future too. The second essay is an analysis of rural land leasing markets in multiple states across India. Land leasing markets are hypothesized to improve the efficiency of land allocation and provide welfare gains to participating households. However, in developing countries, these markets are commonly impacted by transactions costs, missing or incomplete non-land markets, and insecure property rights. This study assesses how Indian land markets perform in terms of equity and efficiency, identifies land market distortions, and examines how policy can address these distortions. Using a panel dataset of households from rural villages in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, this research contributes to previous work by developing conceptual and empirical analyses that are consistent with the specific structure of land leasing decisions in India and provide insights into functioning of land leasing markets. The results confirm that land markets improve factor ratios by transferring land from input-poor to input-rich smallholder households. However, land market functioning is found to be limited by the presence of transactions costs and missing or incomplete non-land markets. From a policy standpoint, the results suggest that, due to the linkages across markets (e.g. input markets), policies that promote rural market development are expected to have the greatest impact on land markets in the short run. The third essay continues to focus on land markets and, in particular, illustrates the role of land markets in household resilience. This study identifies household economic resilience as the ability of a household to avoid low values or loss of economic value in the presence of changing conditions over time. In much of the development literature, research aims to identify ways of improving the well-being of households in developing countries. Understanding resilience adds a new dimension to this by examining a household’s current state of well-being along with possible future states (better or worse) and what factors contribute to these. This is especially relevant for agricultural households that are subject to varying biophysical and economic conditions. Land markets can play a role in household resilience by allowing households to adjust their operated land area as conditions change. This type of adjustment can improve welfare by enabling households to pursue different activities (on or off-farm) with the goal of household income maximization. The relationship between land markets and resilience is examined empirically by predicting land market participation and resulting welfare outcomes under a variety of price and policy scenarios. The goal is to provide evidence that households use land markets to adjust to price changes and that policy addressing land market imperfections can increase that adjustment, in terms of land market participation and resulting welfare. This analysis utilizes estimates from econometric models of land leasing and household welfare, and it focuses on cereal price changes and a market development policy. The results support the hypothesis that land markets contribute to household resilience by enabling households to respond to changing conditions and improve their welfare. Moreover, the results indicate that policy aimed at land market distortions can further increase household resilience. Close

• 7. [Article] Socio Economic and Environmental Impact of Ogun River on Food Security in Ogun State, Nigeria

  presentation

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Socio Economic and Environmental Impact of Ogun River on Food Security in Ogun State, Nigeria Author: Ipinmoroti, Mabel, Obasa, Samuel, Taiwo, Iyabode, Ayanboye, Oluyemi, Shittu, Adebayo presentation Title: Socio Economic and Environmental Impact of Ogun River on Food Security in Ogun State, Nigeria Author: Ipinmoroti, Mabel, Obasa, Samuel, Taiwo, Iyabode, Ayanboye, Oluyemi, Shittu, Adebayo presentation Close

• 8. [Article] Comparative Analysis of Fresh and Dried Fish Consumption in Rural and Urban Households in Ondo State, Nigeria

  A sine-qua-non for eradicating protein malnutrition in Nigeria is increased ingestion of high-value proteins found in various fish forms. This study attempted to give empirical backing or refutation to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Comparative Analysis of Fresh and Dried Fish Consumption in Rural and Urban Households in Ondo State, Nigeria Author: Mafimisebi, Taiwo Ejiola A sine-qua-non for eradicating protein malnutrition in Nigeria is increased ingestion of high-value proteins found in various fish forms. This study attempted to give empirical backing or refutation to the assertion that dried fish is consumed more than fresh fish in Nigeria. Data used were gathered in 90 rural and urban households selected through multi-stage sampling technique. Analytical tools used included descriptive, Z-test and Chi-square statistics and regression model. Empirical results revealed mean household size of 7 in both households while average annual income was N471,200.04 ($2,908.6) and N326,466.58 ($2015.2) in urban and rural households, respectively. The average quantity of fresh and dried fish consumed per household per year was 13.0kg and 47.0kg in urban, and 11.5kg and 38.0kg in rural households, respectively. There was no significant difference in the consumption of the dried (1.779, p > 0.10,) and fresh (1.904, p > 0.10) fish forms in both households. OLS regression result revealed that household head’s age and numbers of children below 15 years were not significant in influencing consumption (p> 0.10). Contrariwise, household size and fish price significantly negatively influenced quantity of fish consumed while household income exhibited significant positive effect on consumption. The education variable, which was not significant in dried fish consumption, had significant positive influence on fresh fish consumption. However, 50.0% and 27.0% of the respondents rated affordability and accessibility as the main hindrances to consumption. Policy options directed at tackling the high cost of fresh fish to achieve reduced price and increased consumption, were recommended. Title: Comparative Analysis of Fresh and Dried Fish Consumption in Rural and Urban Households in Ondo State, Nigeria Author: Mafimisebi, Taiwo Ejiola A sine-qua-non for eradicating protein malnutrition in Nigeria is increased ingestion of high-value proteins found in various fish forms. This study attempted to give empirical backing or refutation to the assertion that dried fish is consumed more than fresh fish in Nigeria. Data used were gathered in 90 rural and urban households selected through multi-stage sampling technique. Analytical tools used included descriptive, Z-test and Chi-square statistics and regression model. Empirical results revealed mean household size of 7 in both households while average annual income was N471,200.04 ($2,908.6) and N326,466.58 ($2015.2) in urban and rural households, respectively. The average quantity of fresh and dried fish consumed per household per year was 13.0kg and 47.0kg in urban, and 11.5kg and 38.0kg in rural households, respectively. There was no significant difference in the consumption of the dried (1.779, p > 0.10,) and fresh (1.904, p > 0.10) fish forms in both households. OLS regression result revealed that household head’s age and numbers of children below 15 years were not significant in influencing consumption (p> 0.10). Contrariwise, household size and fish price significantly negatively influenced quantity of fish consumed while household income exhibited significant positive effect on consumption. The education variable, which was not significant in dried fish consumption, had significant positive influence on fresh fish consumption. However, 50.0% and 27.0% of the respondents rated affordability and accessibility as the main hindrances to consumption. Policy options directed at tackling the high cost of fresh fish to achieve reduced price and increased consumption, were recommended. Close

• 9. [Article] A comparative analysis of household owned woodlots and fuelwood sufficiency between female and male headed households : a pilot study in rural Malawi, Africa

  Fuelwood is a basic need for rural households in Malawi. However, deforestation has reduced the quantity of forest products such as fuelwood available to households. This has negatively affected rural ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A comparative analysis of household owned woodlots and fuelwood sufficiency between female and male headed households : a pilot study in rural Malawi, Africa Author: Chikoko, Mercy Gwazeni Fuelwood is a basic need for rural households in Malawi. However, deforestation has reduced the quantity of forest products such as fuelwood available to households. This has negatively affected rural Malawian quality of life, especially for women who are forced to walk long distances to collect fuelwood, prepare foods with short cooking times, or reduce the number of meals. The Malawi government has encouraged the establishment of household owned woodlots, as a part of reforestation programs, to address the supply side of the forest product scarcity. However, fuelwood supply and use is also a gender-based issue; men plant trees and make decisions over harvesting, while women gather and use fuelwood. Within the household, woodlot products also have multiple and competing uses between men and women. It is critical to examine how gender dynamics affect women's fuelwood procurement and use from the woodlot. This study investigated how gender of the household head and women's access to woodlots affects fuelwood shortage, controlling for number of trees, household size, and use of other fuels. Fifty-one female and sixty-three male-headed households with household owned woodlots were interviewed, using questionnaire and focus group interviews. Results show that one-third of both household types reported experiencing fuelwood shortages in the past year. Logistic regression indicates that gender of household head is an important factor, along with number of trees in the woodlot, in determining fuelwood sufficiency. Female-headed households were less likely to experience fuelwood shortage than male-headed households when the interaction with number of trees was included. Whether a woman in male-headed households must seek permission to harvest fuelwood, number of trees, and cooking with maize stalk were factors that predicted fuelwood shortage. Suggestions for several interventions to address fuelwood supply and access were included. Planting more trees in woodlots and use of fuelwood efficient stoves are two important strategies. It is important to address gender-specific priorities as they relate to woodlot use. This can be done through gender sensitizations that target program planners and male household heads. For successful programs, men and women should participate in both program planning and implementation. Title: A comparative analysis of household owned woodlots and fuelwood sufficiency between female and male headed households : a pilot study in rural Malawi, Africa Author: Chikoko, Mercy Gwazeni Fuelwood is a basic need for rural households in Malawi. However, deforestation has reduced the quantity of forest products such as fuelwood available to households. This has negatively affected rural Malawian quality of life, especially for women who are forced to walk long distances to collect fuelwood, prepare foods with short cooking times, or reduce the number of meals. The Malawi government has encouraged the establishment of household owned woodlots, as a part of reforestation programs, to address the supply side of the forest product scarcity. However, fuelwood supply and use is also a gender-based issue; men plant trees and make decisions over harvesting, while women gather and use fuelwood. Within the household, woodlot products also have multiple and competing uses between men and women. It is critical to examine how gender dynamics affect women's fuelwood procurement and use from the woodlot. This study investigated how gender of the household head and women's access to woodlots affects fuelwood shortage, controlling for number of trees, household size, and use of other fuels. Fifty-one female and sixty-three male-headed households with household owned woodlots were interviewed, using questionnaire and focus group interviews. Results show that one-third of both household types reported experiencing fuelwood shortages in the past year. Logistic regression indicates that gender of household head is an important factor, along with number of trees in the woodlot, in determining fuelwood sufficiency. Female-headed households were less likely to experience fuelwood shortage than male-headed households when the interaction with number of trees was included. Whether a woman in male-headed households must seek permission to harvest fuelwood, number of trees, and cooking with maize stalk were factors that predicted fuelwood shortage. Suggestions for several interventions to address fuelwood supply and access were included. Planting more trees in woodlots and use of fuelwood efficient stoves are two important strategies. It is important to address gender-specific priorities as they relate to woodlot use. This can be done through gender sensitizations that target program planners and male household heads. For successful programs, men and women should participate in both program planning and implementation. Close

• 10. [Article] Job-related expenditures of gainfully employed female household heads in Corvallis, Oregon

  The purpose of this study was to examine the job-related expenditures of female household heads. Also examined were levels of education, occupations, presence of dependent children, employment benefits ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Job-related expenditures of gainfully employed female household heads in Corvallis, Oregon Author: Blackburn, Virginia Lee The purpose of this study was to examine the job-related expenditures of female household heads. Also examined were levels of education, occupations, presence of dependent children, employment benefits and reasons for working. A random sample of 75 female household heads was drawn from the 1973 Polk's Corvallis City Directory. The sample was composed of 28 divorced, 3 separated, 15 single and 28 widowed women living in Corvallis, Oregon. The interviews were conducted during March and April of 1974. The median age for the 75 household heads was 51 years. They had completed a mean of 15 years of schooling. Single household heads were both younger, with a median age of 32, and had a higher level of education, 17 years, than widows and divorced women. Forty-nine percent of the female household heads were professional workers; 39 percent were clerical and sales workers; and the remaining 12 percent were semiskilled workers. Eighty percent of the single household heads were employed in professional occupations, compared with 45 percent of the widows and 38 percent of the divorced and separated women. Median employment income for all 75 household heads was $7, 249. For the 68 women who had worked the entire year, the median employment income was $7, 500 and the mean, $8, 162. Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 1, there is no relationship between level of education of the female household head and amount of earnings, was not supported by the data and it was rejected. As the level of education increased, the employment income also increased. Household heads who had not completed high school were employed in the lowest-paying occupations. Full-time workers who were college graduates earned 52 percent more than high school graduates and 14 percent more than household heads with some college education. Household heads who had master's degrees earned 36 percent more than college graduates. Household heads with doctoral degrees earned 28 percent more than those with master's degrees. Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 2, between 40 and 50 percent of the employed female household heads' income from gainful employment was absorbed by job-related expenditures, was not supported by the data. There was a significant difference at the .01 level and the hypothesis was rejected. Female household heads in the study reported 35.8 percent of their cash employment income was used for job-related expenditures or a mean of $2, 930. Payroll deductions absorbed the highest percentage of employment income, 26.5 percent or a mean of $2, 164. Federal income taxes were the highest reported expense, 13.7 percent, with a mean of $1, 122 and a range of $1. 15 to $4, 441. Directly-related expenses were reported as 5.2 percent of the employment income. Education related to the job and transportation were the highest directly-related expenses, 1.5 and 1.6 percent, respectively. Indirectly-related expenses amounted to 4.1 percent of the employment income. Clothing needed for work was the most expensive indirectly-related expense reported, 1.5 percent. Hypothesis 3. Hypothesis 3, there is no difference in percentage of employment income spent for job-related expenses of female household heads with dependent children aged 18 and under and those without dependent children, was accepted since no significant difference in the percentage of income spent was found at the .025 level in a two-tailed "t" test. Female household heads with dependent children reported 36.9 percent of their employment income was spent on job-related expenses and those without children reported 35. 8 percent. Hypothesis 4. For female household heads with dependent children aged 18 and under, there is no difference in the percentage of employment income spent for job-related expenses of household heads with preschool children and those with no preschool children. Hypothesis 4 was not tested. Only two household heads in the study had children of preschool age. Female household heads reported receiving a mean dollar value of $168 in employment benefits. Eighty-three percent of the 75 workers reported receiving health insurance with a mean value of $79. Cash bonuses were valued at a mean of $22 and employer discounts at $21 for all workers. A combined mean dollar value of $44 was received for meals, coffee and snacks, life insurance, gifts from the employer, laundering and drycleaning of work clothing and discounts from other organizations. Only two reasons for working were given by more than 50 percent of the 75 household heads, These reasons were to pay for current living expenses and because they enjoyed working. Title: Job-related expenditures of gainfully employed female household heads in Corvallis, Oregon Author: Blackburn, Virginia Lee The purpose of this study was to examine the job-related expenditures of female household heads. Also examined were levels of education, occupations, presence of dependent children, employment benefits and reasons for working. A random sample of 75 female household heads was drawn from the 1973 Polk's Corvallis City Directory. The sample was composed of 28 divorced, 3 separated, 15 single and 28 widowed women living in Corvallis, Oregon. The interviews were conducted during March and April of 1974. The median age for the 75 household heads was 51 years. They had completed a mean of 15 years of schooling. Single household heads were both younger, with a median age of 32, and had a higher level of education, 17 years, than widows and divorced women. Forty-nine percent of the female household heads were professional workers; 39 percent were clerical and sales workers; and the remaining 12 percent were semiskilled workers. Eighty percent of the single household heads were employed in professional occupations, compared with 45 percent of the widows and 38 percent of the divorced and separated women. Median employment income for all 75 household heads was $7, 249. For the 68 women who had worked the entire year, the median employment income was $7, 500 and the mean, $8, 162. Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 1, there is no relationship between level of education of the female household head and amount of earnings, was not supported by the data and it was rejected. As the level of education increased, the employment income also increased. Household heads who had not completed high school were employed in the lowest-paying occupations. Full-time workers who were college graduates earned 52 percent more than high school graduates and 14 percent more than household heads with some college education. Household heads who had master's degrees earned 36 percent more than college graduates. Household heads with doctoral degrees earned 28 percent more than those with master's degrees. Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 2, between 40 and 50 percent of the employed female household heads' income from gainful employment was absorbed by job-related expenditures, was not supported by the data. There was a significant difference at the .01 level and the hypothesis was rejected. Female household heads in the study reported 35.8 percent of their cash employment income was used for job-related expenditures or a mean of $2, 930. Payroll deductions absorbed the highest percentage of employment income, 26.5 percent or a mean of $2, 164. Federal income taxes were the highest reported expense, 13.7 percent, with a mean of $1, 122 and a range of $1. 15 to $4, 441. Directly-related expenses were reported as 5.2 percent of the employment income. Education related to the job and transportation were the highest directly-related expenses, 1.5 and 1.6 percent, respectively. Indirectly-related expenses amounted to 4.1 percent of the employment income. Clothing needed for work was the most expensive indirectly-related expense reported, 1.5 percent. Hypothesis 3. Hypothesis 3, there is no difference in percentage of employment income spent for job-related expenses of female household heads with dependent children aged 18 and under and those without dependent children, was accepted since no significant difference in the percentage of income spent was found at the .025 level in a two-tailed "t" test. Female household heads with dependent children reported 36.9 percent of their employment income was spent on job-related expenses and those without children reported 35. 8 percent. Hypothesis 4. For female household heads with dependent children aged 18 and under, there is no difference in the percentage of employment income spent for job-related expenses of household heads with preschool children and those with no preschool children. Hypothesis 4 was not tested. Only two household heads in the study had children of preschool age. Female household heads reported receiving a mean dollar value of $168 in employment benefits. Eighty-three percent of the 75 workers reported receiving health insurance with a mean value of $79. Cash bonuses were valued at a mean of $22 and employer discounts at $21 for all workers. A combined mean dollar value of $44 was received for meals, coffee and snacks, life insurance, gifts from the employer, laundering and drycleaning of work clothing and discounts from other organizations. Only two reasons for working were given by more than 50 percent of the 75 household heads, These reasons were to pay for current living expenses and because they enjoyed working. Close