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• 351. [Article] Competitive interactions and resource partitioning between northern spotted owls and barred owls in western Oregon

  The federally threatened northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is the focus of intensive conservation efforts that have led to much forested land being reserved as habitat for the owl and associated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Competitive interactions and resource partitioning between northern spotted owls and barred owls in western Oregon Author: Wiens, J. David The federally threatened northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is the focus of intensive conservation efforts that have led to much forested land being reserved as habitat for the owl and associated wildlife species throughout the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Recently, however, a relatively new threat to spotted owls has emerged in the form of an invasive competitor: the congeneric barred owl (Strix varia). As barred owls have rapidly expanded their populations into the entire range of the northern spotted owl, mounting evidence indicates that they are displacing, hybridizing with, and even killing spotted owls. The barred owl invasion into western North America has made an already complex conservation issue even more contentious, and a lack of information on the ecological relationships between the 2 species has hampered conservation efforts. During 2007–2009 I investigated spatial relationships, habitat selection, diets, survival, and reproduction of sympatric spotted owls and barred owls in western Oregon, USA. My overall objective was to determine the potential for and possible consequences of competition for space, habitat, and food between the 2 species. My study included 29 spotted owls and 28 barred owls that were radio-marked in 36 neighboring territories and monitored over a 24-month tracking period. Based on repeated surveys of both species, the number of territories occupied by pairs of barred owls in the 745 km² study area (82) greatly outnumbered those occupied by pairs of spotted owls (15). Estimates of mean size of home-ranges and core-use areas of spotted owls (1,843 ha and 305 ha, respectively) were 2–4 times larger than those of barred owls (581 ha and 188 ha, respectively). Individual spotted and barred owls in adjacent territories often had overlapping home ranges, but inter-specific space sharing was largely restricted to broader foraging areas in the home range with minimal spatial overlap among core-use areas. I used an information-theoretic approach to rank discrete choice models representing alternative hypotheses about the influence of forest conditions and interspecific interactions on species-specific patterns of nighttime habitat selection. Spotted owls spent a disproportionate amount of time foraging on steep slopes in ravines dominated by old (>120 yrs old) conifer trees. Barred owls used available forest types more evenly than spotted owls, and were most strongly associated with patches of large hardwood and conifer trees that occupied relatively flat areas along streams. Spotted and barred owls differed in the relative use of old conifer forest (higher for spotted owls) and slope conditions (steeper slopes for spotted owls). I found no evidence that the 2 species differed in their use of young, mature, and riparian-hardwood forest types, and both species avoided forest-nonforest edges. The best resource selection function for spotted owls indicated that the relative probability of a location being selected was reduced if the location was within or in close proximity to a core-use area of a barred owl. I used pellet analysis and measures of food niche overlap to examine the potential for dietary competition between spatially associated pairs of spotted owls and barred owls. I identified 1,223 prey items from 15 territories occupied by pairs of spotted owls and 4,299 prey items from 24 territories occupied by pairs of barred owls. Diets of both species were dominated by nocturnal mammals, but diets of barred owls included many terrestrial, aquatic, and diurnal prey species that were rare or absent in diets of spotted owls. Northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes, N. cinerea), and lagomorphs (Lepus americanus, Sylvilagus bachmani) were particularly important prey for both owl species, accounting for 81% and 49% of total dietary biomass for spotted owls and barred owls, respectively. Dietary overlap between pairs of spotted and barred owls in adjacent territories ranged from 28–70% (mean = 42%) In addition to overlap in resource use, I also identified strong associations between the presence of barred owls and the behavior of spotted owls, as shown by changes in space-use, habitat selection, and reproductive output of spotted owls exposed to different levels of spatial overlap with barred owls in adjacent territories. Barred owls in my study area displayed both numeric and demographic superiority over spotted owls; the annual survival probability of radio-marked spotted owls from known-fate analyses (0.81, SE = 0.05) was lower than that of barred owls (0.92, SE = 0.04), and barred owls produced over 6 times as many young over a 3-year period as spotted owls. Survival of both species was positively associated with an increasing proportion of old (>120 yrs old) conifer forest within the home range, which suggested that availability of old forest was a potential limiting factor in the competitive relationship between the 2 species. When viewed collectively, my results support the hypothesis that interference competition with a high density of barred owls for territorial space can act to constrain the availability of critical resources required for successful recruitment and reproduction of spotted owls. My findings have broad implications for the conservation of spotted owls, as they suggest that spatial heterogeneity in survival and reproduction may arise not only because of differences among territories in the quality of forest habitat, but also because of the spatial distribution of an invasive competitor. Title: Competitive interactions and resource partitioning between northern spotted owls and barred owls in western Oregon Author: Wiens, J. David The federally threatened northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is the focus of intensive conservation efforts that have led to much forested land being reserved as habitat for the owl and associated wildlife species throughout the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Recently, however, a relatively new threat to spotted owls has emerged in the form of an invasive competitor: the congeneric barred owl (Strix varia). As barred owls have rapidly expanded their populations into the entire range of the northern spotted owl, mounting evidence indicates that they are displacing, hybridizing with, and even killing spotted owls. The barred owl invasion into western North America has made an already complex conservation issue even more contentious, and a lack of information on the ecological relationships between the 2 species has hampered conservation efforts. During 2007–2009 I investigated spatial relationships, habitat selection, diets, survival, and reproduction of sympatric spotted owls and barred owls in western Oregon, USA. My overall objective was to determine the potential for and possible consequences of competition for space, habitat, and food between the 2 species. My study included 29 spotted owls and 28 barred owls that were radio-marked in 36 neighboring territories and monitored over a 24-month tracking period. Based on repeated surveys of both species, the number of territories occupied by pairs of barred owls in the 745 km² study area (82) greatly outnumbered those occupied by pairs of spotted owls (15). Estimates of mean size of home-ranges and core-use areas of spotted owls (1,843 ha and 305 ha, respectively) were 2–4 times larger than those of barred owls (581 ha and 188 ha, respectively). Individual spotted and barred owls in adjacent territories often had overlapping home ranges, but inter-specific space sharing was largely restricted to broader foraging areas in the home range with minimal spatial overlap among core-use areas. I used an information-theoretic approach to rank discrete choice models representing alternative hypotheses about the influence of forest conditions and interspecific interactions on species-specific patterns of nighttime habitat selection. Spotted owls spent a disproportionate amount of time foraging on steep slopes in ravines dominated by old (>120 yrs old) conifer trees. Barred owls used available forest types more evenly than spotted owls, and were most strongly associated with patches of large hardwood and conifer trees that occupied relatively flat areas along streams. Spotted and barred owls differed in the relative use of old conifer forest (higher for spotted owls) and slope conditions (steeper slopes for spotted owls). I found no evidence that the 2 species differed in their use of young, mature, and riparian-hardwood forest types, and both species avoided forest-nonforest edges. The best resource selection function for spotted owls indicated that the relative probability of a location being selected was reduced if the location was within or in close proximity to a core-use area of a barred owl. I used pellet analysis and measures of food niche overlap to examine the potential for dietary competition between spatially associated pairs of spotted owls and barred owls. I identified 1,223 prey items from 15 territories occupied by pairs of spotted owls and 4,299 prey items from 24 territories occupied by pairs of barred owls. Diets of both species were dominated by nocturnal mammals, but diets of barred owls included many terrestrial, aquatic, and diurnal prey species that were rare or absent in diets of spotted owls. Northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes, N. cinerea), and lagomorphs (Lepus americanus, Sylvilagus bachmani) were particularly important prey for both owl species, accounting for 81% and 49% of total dietary biomass for spotted owls and barred owls, respectively. Dietary overlap between pairs of spotted and barred owls in adjacent territories ranged from 28–70% (mean = 42%) In addition to overlap in resource use, I also identified strong associations between the presence of barred owls and the behavior of spotted owls, as shown by changes in space-use, habitat selection, and reproductive output of spotted owls exposed to different levels of spatial overlap with barred owls in adjacent territories. Barred owls in my study area displayed both numeric and demographic superiority over spotted owls; the annual survival probability of radio-marked spotted owls from known-fate analyses (0.81, SE = 0.05) was lower than that of barred owls (0.92, SE = 0.04), and barred owls produced over 6 times as many young over a 3-year period as spotted owls. Survival of both species was positively associated with an increasing proportion of old (>120 yrs old) conifer forest within the home range, which suggested that availability of old forest was a potential limiting factor in the competitive relationship between the 2 species. When viewed collectively, my results support the hypothesis that interference competition with a high density of barred owls for territorial space can act to constrain the availability of critical resources required for successful recruitment and reproduction of spotted owls. My findings have broad implications for the conservation of spotted owls, as they suggest that spatial heterogeneity in survival and reproduction may arise not only because of differences among territories in the quality of forest habitat, but also because of the spatial distribution of an invasive competitor. Close

• 352. [Article] Dead wood dynamics and relationships to biophysical factors, forest history, ownership, and management practices in the Coastal Province of Oregon, USA

  Dead wood patterns and dynamics vary with biophysical factors, disturbance history, ownership, and management practices. Through field and modeling studies, I examined the current and potential future ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Dead wood dynamics and relationships to biophysical factors, forest history, ownership, and management practices in the Coastal Province of Oregon, USA Author: Kennedy, Rebecca S.H. Dead wood patterns and dynamics vary with biophysical factors, disturbance history, ownership, and management practices. Through field and modeling studies, I examined the current and potential future amounts of dead wood in two landscapes and region-wide in the Coastal Province of Oregon. The objectives of the first study were to (1) determine whether two landscapes with different recent disturbance histories differ in the amount and characteristics of dead wood; and (2) explore relationships between patterns of dead wood in each landscape to potentially related factors including topography. The objectives of the second study were to (1) describe current regional amounts of dead wood; (2) compare dead wood amounts across ownerships; (3) determine relationships between current dead wood amounts and ownership, current and past vegetation conditions, climate, topography, and soils; and (4) evaluate whether the factors related to dead wood patterns differed according to the scale of analysis. The objectives of the third study were to (1) characterize the projected future change in dead wood amounts in a multi-ownership Province; (2) determine the longevity of present-day dead wood of different types and sizes in relation to amendments from management and stand development; and (3) evaluate differences in management approaches in transitional dynamics and long-term patterns of dead wood. In the first study, I sampled logs and snags at four topographic positions (streams, lower slopes, middle slopes, upper slopes) in the Tillamook State Forest and the Siuslaw National Forest. These two landscapes experienced catastrophic fire at different points in recent history. I developed statistical models relating various attributes of dead wood abundance to biophysical variables related to climate, topography, historical vegetation, current vegetation, soils, and ecoregion. I found that the type and timing of disturbance was important to dead wood amounts and characteristics, and that potential source and sink areas for dead wood were related to topographic position. In particular, lower slopes had higher amounts of logs, and upper slopes had higher basal areas of potential source wood, in the form of snags and legacy (pre-fire) stumps. Climatic factors were of greater relative importance to overall gradients of dead wood in the landscape in which fire occurred less recently. In the second study, I analyzed dead wood data from a region-wide systematic grid of field plots according to ownership and biophysical variables at multiple scales of resolution including plots, subwatersheds. Dead wood abundance and types varied greatly among ownerships, with public lands (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, State of Oregon) typically having higher amounts of dead wood and more dead wood in the larger size classes than the private lands (forest industry, non-industrial private). I found that the relative influence of ownership, topography, current and historical vegetation, and climate varied with scale of resolution. Current vegetation was of greater relative importance at finer scales of plots and subwatersheds, whereas climate, topography, and historical vegetation were of greater relative importance at coarser scales of watersheds and subbasins. Ownership was important to overall dead wood gradients at all scales considered. In the third study, by simulating stand development and dead wood dynamics under various forest management scenarios over a 300-year period, I was able to examine the long-term effects of management on dead wood abundance in the Coastal Province. I estimated potential upper bounds for future dead wood amounts. Dead wood amounts increased over time on average across the Province, mainly because of policies on public lands, especially the federal lands under the Northwest Forest Plan. Forest industry, under the Oregon Forest Practices Act and assuming retention of all snags at harvest and thinning, maintained amounts of dead wood that were similar to present-day levels, but size classes shifted toward the smaller sizes as existing large legacy dead wood decomposed. Non-industrial private lands showed increases from very low present-day amounts of dead wood. Across the Province, legacy logs and snags remained present for over a century of the simulation period, and buffered effects of intensive management to dead wood amounts. Variation across landscapes in starting conditions meant that contrasting management approaches had differential effects on long-term dead wood dynamics depending on where they were applied. Current amounts of dead wood and live vegetation patterns in the Province resulted from historical fire and logging. Results of this simulation study indicate that recently established policies oriented toward dead wood production and retention, in the absence of fire or other large- or mid-scale disturbances, are likely to result in increases in dead wood amounts that greatly exceed present-day levels. My results suggest that dead wood patterns of abundance will continue to diverge according to land ownership and that management practices that foster dead wood creation are of increasing importance to the long-term abundance of large dead wood as legacy dead wood is lost through decomposition. Title: Dead wood dynamics and relationships to biophysical factors, forest history, ownership, and management practices in the Coastal Province of Oregon, USA Author: Kennedy, Rebecca S.H. Dead wood patterns and dynamics vary with biophysical factors, disturbance history, ownership, and management practices. Through field and modeling studies, I examined the current and potential future amounts of dead wood in two landscapes and region-wide in the Coastal Province of Oregon. The objectives of the first study were to (1) determine whether two landscapes with different recent disturbance histories differ in the amount and characteristics of dead wood; and (2) explore relationships between patterns of dead wood in each landscape to potentially related factors including topography. The objectives of the second study were to (1) describe current regional amounts of dead wood; (2) compare dead wood amounts across ownerships; (3) determine relationships between current dead wood amounts and ownership, current and past vegetation conditions, climate, topography, and soils; and (4) evaluate whether the factors related to dead wood patterns differed according to the scale of analysis. The objectives of the third study were to (1) characterize the projected future change in dead wood amounts in a multi-ownership Province; (2) determine the longevity of present-day dead wood of different types and sizes in relation to amendments from management and stand development; and (3) evaluate differences in management approaches in transitional dynamics and long-term patterns of dead wood. In the first study, I sampled logs and snags at four topographic positions (streams, lower slopes, middle slopes, upper slopes) in the Tillamook State Forest and the Siuslaw National Forest. These two landscapes experienced catastrophic fire at different points in recent history. I developed statistical models relating various attributes of dead wood abundance to biophysical variables related to climate, topography, historical vegetation, current vegetation, soils, and ecoregion. I found that the type and timing of disturbance was important to dead wood amounts and characteristics, and that potential source and sink areas for dead wood were related to topographic position. In particular, lower slopes had higher amounts of logs, and upper slopes had higher basal areas of potential source wood, in the form of snags and legacy (pre-fire) stumps. Climatic factors were of greater relative importance to overall gradients of dead wood in the landscape in which fire occurred less recently. In the second study, I analyzed dead wood data from a region-wide systematic grid of field plots according to ownership and biophysical variables at multiple scales of resolution including plots, subwatersheds. Dead wood abundance and types varied greatly among ownerships, with public lands (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, State of Oregon) typically having higher amounts of dead wood and more dead wood in the larger size classes than the private lands (forest industry, non-industrial private). I found that the relative influence of ownership, topography, current and historical vegetation, and climate varied with scale of resolution. Current vegetation was of greater relative importance at finer scales of plots and subwatersheds, whereas climate, topography, and historical vegetation were of greater relative importance at coarser scales of watersheds and subbasins. Ownership was important to overall dead wood gradients at all scales considered. In the third study, by simulating stand development and dead wood dynamics under various forest management scenarios over a 300-year period, I was able to examine the long-term effects of management on dead wood abundance in the Coastal Province. I estimated potential upper bounds for future dead wood amounts. Dead wood amounts increased over time on average across the Province, mainly because of policies on public lands, especially the federal lands under the Northwest Forest Plan. Forest industry, under the Oregon Forest Practices Act and assuming retention of all snags at harvest and thinning, maintained amounts of dead wood that were similar to present-day levels, but size classes shifted toward the smaller sizes as existing large legacy dead wood decomposed. Non-industrial private lands showed increases from very low present-day amounts of dead wood. Across the Province, legacy logs and snags remained present for over a century of the simulation period, and buffered effects of intensive management to dead wood amounts. Variation across landscapes in starting conditions meant that contrasting management approaches had differential effects on long-term dead wood dynamics depending on where they were applied. Current amounts of dead wood and live vegetation patterns in the Province resulted from historical fire and logging. Results of this simulation study indicate that recently established policies oriented toward dead wood production and retention, in the absence of fire or other large- or mid-scale disturbances, are likely to result in increases in dead wood amounts that greatly exceed present-day levels. My results suggest that dead wood patterns of abundance will continue to diverge according to land ownership and that management practices that foster dead wood creation are of increasing importance to the long-term abundance of large dead wood as legacy dead wood is lost through decomposition. Close

• 353. [Article] Community conflict : a case study of the implementation of a bilingual education program

  This research project is an historical case study of the conflict which evolved from the deliberations and subsequent implementation of bilingual education in Central School District 13J, Independence, Oregon. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Community conflict : a case study of the implementation of a bilingual education program Author: Guzmán, Juan This research project is an historical case study of the conflict which evolved from the deliberations and subsequent implementation of bilingual education in Central School District 13J, Independence, Oregon. The time period under consideration spans 35 months, beginning in August 1974, when district officials first proposed bilingual education, and ending in June 1977, when the first year of bilingual education in the district was completed. Investigation of the conflict in Independence was guided by the following questions. 1. What is the nature of the conflict resulting from the bilingual education issue in Independence, Oregon? 2. To what extent does this conflict affect educational policy? 3. What is the nature of community influence regarding school decisions and educational policy? The investigation of these questions required that two types of data be gathered. The first type--news media reporting, county and school district surveys, personal correspondence, government records--provided an historical perspective for considering the district's decision to implement bilingual education. The second type of data--personal interviews and informal conversations--addressed the need for bilingual education in Independence, the policy making process, and community involvement in decision-making. Conclusions: The conflict which surfaced in the small community of Independence is rooted in the value conflict--assimilation vs. cultural pluralism. Two conflicting views have emerged in Independence regarding the role of public education as a transmitter of culture. One perspective endorses pluralism in society and encourages bilingual education as one means of accommodating pluralism. An opposing viewpoint supports traditional educational practices which support the assimilation of ethnic and racial minorities through the promotion of a single language and culture. The question of whether public education is responsible for promoting cultural homogeneity or the lesser accepted concept of cultural pluralism still remains unresolved in Independence as in other parts of the nation. Supporters for each viewpoint seem unwilling to compromise, thus prolonging the value conflict in the community. The value conflict existing in Independence has not been recognized as such by the community. Rather, this conflict is being viewed as mere misunderstandings due to poor communications between supporters of pluralism and defenders of assimilation. By refusing to recognize the existence of value conflict, the school district, Chicano parents, and the community at large have avoided any real confrontation with the status quo regarding bilingual education. Because the value conflict which presently exists within the Independence community is not acknowledged, it can have no effect on educational policy per se. Throughout its existence, the bilingual education program has not prompted community activism either for or against the program. The sporadic and limited nature of community participation and influence in decision-making has not changed because of bilingual education, and it appears that maintaining the status quo regarding bilingual education in School District 13J has become preferable to seeking change through district policy. Title: Community conflict : a case study of the implementation of a bilingual education program Author: Guzmán, Juan This research project is an historical case study of the conflict which evolved from the deliberations and subsequent implementation of bilingual education in Central School District 13J, Independence, Oregon. The time period under consideration spans 35 months, beginning in August 1974, when district officials first proposed bilingual education, and ending in June 1977, when the first year of bilingual education in the district was completed. Investigation of the conflict in Independence was guided by the following questions. 1. What is the nature of the conflict resulting from the bilingual education issue in Independence, Oregon? 2. To what extent does this conflict affect educational policy? 3. What is the nature of community influence regarding school decisions and educational policy? The investigation of these questions required that two types of data be gathered. The first type--news media reporting, county and school district surveys, personal correspondence, government records--provided an historical perspective for considering the district's decision to implement bilingual education. The second type of data--personal interviews and informal conversations--addressed the need for bilingual education in Independence, the policy making process, and community involvement in decision-making. Conclusions: The conflict which surfaced in the small community of Independence is rooted in the value conflict--assimilation vs. cultural pluralism. Two conflicting views have emerged in Independence regarding the role of public education as a transmitter of culture. One perspective endorses pluralism in society and encourages bilingual education as one means of accommodating pluralism. An opposing viewpoint supports traditional educational practices which support the assimilation of ethnic and racial minorities through the promotion of a single language and culture. The question of whether public education is responsible for promoting cultural homogeneity or the lesser accepted concept of cultural pluralism still remains unresolved in Independence as in other parts of the nation. Supporters for each viewpoint seem unwilling to compromise, thus prolonging the value conflict in the community. The value conflict existing in Independence has not been recognized as such by the community. Rather, this conflict is being viewed as mere misunderstandings due to poor communications between supporters of pluralism and defenders of assimilation. By refusing to recognize the existence of value conflict, the school district, Chicano parents, and the community at large have avoided any real confrontation with the status quo regarding bilingual education. Because the value conflict which presently exists within the Independence community is not acknowledged, it can have no effect on educational policy per se. Throughout its existence, the bilingual education program has not prompted community activism either for or against the program. The sporadic and limited nature of community participation and influence in decision-making has not changed because of bilingual education, and it appears that maintaining the status quo regarding bilingual education in School District 13J has become preferable to seeking change through district policy. Close

• 354. [Article] Stable occupancy by breeding hawks (Buteo spp.) over 25 years on a privately managed bunchgrass prairie in northeastern Oregon, USA

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Cooper ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Stable occupancy by breeding hawks (Buteo spp.) over 25 years on a privately managed bunchgrass prairie in northeastern Oregon, USA Author: Bartuszevige, Anne M., Humphrey, Ann B., Houle, Marcy, Kennedy, Patricia L., Dugger, Katie M., Williams, John To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Cooper Ornithological Society and can be found at: http://www.bioone.org/loi/cond. Title: Stable occupancy by breeding hawks (Buteo spp.) over 25 years on a privately managed bunchgrass prairie in northeastern Oregon, USA Author: Bartuszevige, Anne M., Humphrey, Ann B., Houle, Marcy, Kennedy, Patricia L., Dugger, Katie M., Williams, John To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the Cooper Ornithological Society and can be found at: http://www.bioone.org/loi/cond. Close

• 355. [Article] Who we are and will be

  The protagonists in the fiction of Paule Marshall, Alice Walker, and Toni Morrison illuminate American cultural perceptions of black women and illustrate how the creators of these characters hope to change ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Who we are and will be Author: Jackson, Linda Carol, 1949- The protagonists in the fiction of Paule Marshall, Alice Walker, and Toni Morrison illuminate American cultural perceptions of black women and illustrate how the creators of these characters hope to change those perceptions. I studied Paule Marshall's Daughters, Alice Walker's Meridian and The Color Purple, and Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye to learn what the writers of these novels have to say about the women they hope black girls can grow up to be and to learn what potential for self-development they see for black women. For example, in order to become whole people, what do black girls and black women need from their parents and their community? What do black women need from their intimate relationships? "Part One: Political, Historical and Religious Identity " surveys politics, religion and history for views of black women. Politically, they appear disenfranchised; historically they were property. In reference to religion, I found that a white male religion does not serve black women well. Walker sees god within her female protagonist Celie, and Marshall has a belief in a Caribbean/African diaspora that provides a sense of spiritual and cultural continuity. "Part Two: Childhood Identity" explores childhood and the community's role. Childhood appears as a critical time for self-development. The adults in the community contribute to the child's self-awareness. Mistreatment of girls causes them harm throughout their lives. How well the community safeguards its children is a measure of how highly these children are valued. These authors want to see girls more highly regarded. Toward this end, they expose the abuse that takes place in the community. Morrison shows not only the abuse, but also the love. By showing concerned parents as well as neglectful ones, Morrison offers a fuller portrait of the community she knows. The Color Purple also tells a story of sexual abuse of a girl, but this abuse is overcome by the inner strength of the victim combined with the loving support of Shug Avery and the supportive community context of the juke where Celie is accepted. The portrayal of childhood in Daughters involves a Caribbean island culture where the roles of the women that the child Ursa observes offer few role models. "Part Three: Adult Relational Identity" looks at the dilemma in communication between the sexes and across the generations from mother to daughter. Step-fathers and husbands are abusive characters in Walker's writing, while Morrison shows a loving father and an incestuous father in The Bluest Eye. "Part Four: Language Identity" discusses Black English, orality and dialect, looking at the role of language as an aspect of self-definition. James Baldwin's view of language is presented: rejecting a child's language is rejecting the child himself. Baldwin's view supports the attitude toward language as self-defining that appears in the writing of Marshall, Morrison, and Walker. These authors show pride in Black English, and they demonstrate their ability with edited English through their own writing. Title: Who we are and will be Author: Jackson, Linda Carol, 1949- The protagonists in the fiction of Paule Marshall, Alice Walker, and Toni Morrison illuminate American cultural perceptions of black women and illustrate how the creators of these characters hope to change those perceptions. I studied Paule Marshall's Daughters, Alice Walker's Meridian and The Color Purple, and Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye to learn what the writers of these novels have to say about the women they hope black girls can grow up to be and to learn what potential for self-development they see for black women. For example, in order to become whole people, what do black girls and black women need from their parents and their community? What do black women need from their intimate relationships? "Part One: Political, Historical and Religious Identity " surveys politics, religion and history for views of black women. Politically, they appear disenfranchised; historically they were property. In reference to religion, I found that a white male religion does not serve black women well. Walker sees god within her female protagonist Celie, and Marshall has a belief in a Caribbean/African diaspora that provides a sense of spiritual and cultural continuity. "Part Two: Childhood Identity" explores childhood and the community's role. Childhood appears as a critical time for self-development. The adults in the community contribute to the child's self-awareness. Mistreatment of girls causes them harm throughout their lives. How well the community safeguards its children is a measure of how highly these children are valued. These authors want to see girls more highly regarded. Toward this end, they expose the abuse that takes place in the community. Morrison shows not only the abuse, but also the love. By showing concerned parents as well as neglectful ones, Morrison offers a fuller portrait of the community she knows. The Color Purple also tells a story of sexual abuse of a girl, but this abuse is overcome by the inner strength of the victim combined with the loving support of Shug Avery and the supportive community context of the juke where Celie is accepted. The portrayal of childhood in Daughters involves a Caribbean island culture where the roles of the women that the child Ursa observes offer few role models. "Part Three: Adult Relational Identity" looks at the dilemma in communication between the sexes and across the generations from mother to daughter. Step-fathers and husbands are abusive characters in Walker's writing, while Morrison shows a loving father and an incestuous father in The Bluest Eye. "Part Four: Language Identity" discusses Black English, orality and dialect, looking at the role of language as an aspect of self-definition. James Baldwin's view of language is presented: rejecting a child's language is rejecting the child himself. Baldwin's view supports the attitude toward language as self-defining that appears in the writing of Marshall, Morrison, and Walker. These authors show pride in Black English, and they demonstrate their ability with edited English through their own writing. Close

• 356. [Article] Effects of oil and natural gas development on territory occupancy of ferruginous hawks and golden eagles in Wyoming, USA

  Energy development is expanding rapidly across the western US. Negative effects have been documented for some wildlife, but consequences of development are unclear for other taxa, including raptors. We ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of oil and natural gas development on territory occupancy of ferruginous hawks and golden eagles in Wyoming, USA Author: Wallace, Zachary P. Energy development is expanding rapidly across the western US. Negative effects have been documented for some wildlife, but consequences of development are unclear for other taxa, including raptors. We had the opportunity to examine effects of oil and natural gas development on two raptor species of conservation concern, ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), in sagebrush steppe and prairie habitats of Wyoming. We surveyed nest sites of these species using fixed-wing aircraft during 2010–2011, and monitored occupancy of the resulting sample of historically active breeding territories during 2011–2013 for ferruginous hawks, and 2012–2013 for golden eagles. We used single-season occupancy models to evaluate post-construction effects of oil and natural gas development in the context of other factors predicted to influence use of territories by these species, including prey abundance, nest site characteristics, and vegetation. An additional objective was to demonstrate a monitoring protocol for raptors in Wyoming that used probabilistic sampling and accounted for imperfect detection. In support of our predictions, probability of territory occupancy by ferruginous hawks had a strong positive relationship to abundance of ground squirrels (Urocitellus spp.), a strong negative relationship to vegetative cover of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), and was slightly higher for artificial nest platforms compared to other substrates; and territory occupancy for golden eagles had a strong positive relationship to nest height. Contrary to our predictions, density of oil and natural gas infrastructure was not strongly related to occupancy for either species, and prey abundance was not related to occupancy for golden eagles. The only anthropogenic factor that influenced occupancy for either species was density of improved roads not associated with oil and natural gas fields, which had a weak positive correlation with occupancy for ferruginous hawks, contrary to our predictions. Annual occupancy probability did not vary significantly for either species during our study, but environmental factors associated with occupancy and the strength of relationships varied among years for both species, suggesting occupancy was influenced by additional factors not included in our analysis (e.g. weather, regional dynamics). Detection probability for both species was <1, and strongly influenced by nest substrates. For ferruginous hawks, detection probability varied significantly between years, and was positively associated with nest height. For golden eagles, detection probability was significantly higher in territories with nests on trees, shrubs, and anthropogenic structures, compared to those on cliffs and rock outcrops, with a weak negative trend in detection rates across survey occasions during one year. Our results suggest ferruginous hawks and golden eagles used breeding territories that contained active oil and gas roads and well pads, and density of infrastructure in these territories did not affect their probability of use. However, we advise that limitations of our approach (i.e. post-construction, short-term, observational study) make our results most relevant as a baseline for ongoing monitoring of these species. We suggest protection efforts should be focused on ferruginous hawk territories with abundant ground squirrels and low natural cover of sagebrush, and golden eagle territories with higher nest sites. We recommend conserving populations and habitats of burrowing mammals, mitigating loss of nests using artificial platforms, and long-term monitoring of ferruginous hawks and golden eagles using robust methods that account for imperfect detection. Title: Effects of oil and natural gas development on territory occupancy of ferruginous hawks and golden eagles in Wyoming, USA Author: Wallace, Zachary P. Energy development is expanding rapidly across the western US. Negative effects have been documented for some wildlife, but consequences of development are unclear for other taxa, including raptors. We had the opportunity to examine effects of oil and natural gas development on two raptor species of conservation concern, ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), in sagebrush steppe and prairie habitats of Wyoming. We surveyed nest sites of these species using fixed-wing aircraft during 2010–2011, and monitored occupancy of the resulting sample of historically active breeding territories during 2011–2013 for ferruginous hawks, and 2012–2013 for golden eagles. We used single-season occupancy models to evaluate post-construction effects of oil and natural gas development in the context of other factors predicted to influence use of territories by these species, including prey abundance, nest site characteristics, and vegetation. An additional objective was to demonstrate a monitoring protocol for raptors in Wyoming that used probabilistic sampling and accounted for imperfect detection. In support of our predictions, probability of territory occupancy by ferruginous hawks had a strong positive relationship to abundance of ground squirrels (Urocitellus spp.), a strong negative relationship to vegetative cover of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), and was slightly higher for artificial nest platforms compared to other substrates; and territory occupancy for golden eagles had a strong positive relationship to nest height. Contrary to our predictions, density of oil and natural gas infrastructure was not strongly related to occupancy for either species, and prey abundance was not related to occupancy for golden eagles. The only anthropogenic factor that influenced occupancy for either species was density of improved roads not associated with oil and natural gas fields, which had a weak positive correlation with occupancy for ferruginous hawks, contrary to our predictions. Annual occupancy probability did not vary significantly for either species during our study, but environmental factors associated with occupancy and the strength of relationships varied among years for both species, suggesting occupancy was influenced by additional factors not included in our analysis (e.g. weather, regional dynamics). Detection probability for both species was <1, and strongly influenced by nest substrates. For ferruginous hawks, detection probability varied significantly between years, and was positively associated with nest height. For golden eagles, detection probability was significantly higher in territories with nests on trees, shrubs, and anthropogenic structures, compared to those on cliffs and rock outcrops, with a weak negative trend in detection rates across survey occasions during one year. Our results suggest ferruginous hawks and golden eagles used breeding territories that contained active oil and gas roads and well pads, and density of infrastructure in these territories did not affect their probability of use. However, we advise that limitations of our approach (i.e. post-construction, short-term, observational study) make our results most relevant as a baseline for ongoing monitoring of these species. We suggest protection efforts should be focused on ferruginous hawk territories with abundant ground squirrels and low natural cover of sagebrush, and golden eagle territories with higher nest sites. We recommend conserving populations and habitats of burrowing mammals, mitigating loss of nests using artificial platforms, and long-term monitoring of ferruginous hawks and golden eagles using robust methods that account for imperfect detection. Close

• 357. [Article] Fault behavior over geomorphic time scales in the Pakistan Himalaya, Kashmir Himalaya, and California

  The state of the knowledge for fault behavior in the northwest Himalaya and California varies dramatically. In the Pakistan and Kashmir Himalaya, few data constrain the role that individual active faults ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Fault behavior over geomorphic time scales in the Pakistan Himalaya, Kashmir Himalaya, and California Author: Madugo, Christopher Lee Madden The state of the knowledge for fault behavior in the northwest Himalaya and California varies dramatically. In the Pakistan and Kashmir Himalaya, few data constrain the role that individual active faults play in accommodating Indo-Eurasian convergence and the relative earthquake hazard across the region. By contrast, the San Andreas fault in California is one of the best-studied fault systems in the world, although seismic hazard models have yet to incorporate certain available geologic data, such as measurements of slip-in-the-last-event. This dissertation addresses the sparsity of earthquake hazard data in the northwest Himalaya, and the problem of how best to utilize available data in hazard models for California by (1) Providing the first quantitative constraints on the latest Pleistocene slip rate and earthquake potential for the thrust front Pakistan; (2) Characterizing the rate and style of upper plate faulting in Kashmir over geomorphic (10⁴ year) time scales; and (3) Creating a standardized database of fault offsets to help test time-dependent and time-independent seismic hazard models for the Uniform California Rupture Forecast. The Himalayan thrust front in Pakistan is defined by the Salt Range thrust (SRT), the up-dip extension of the plate boundary décollement, the Main Himalayan thrust (MHT). We constrain the convergence rate across the SRT by determining the slip rate for the Kalabagh fault (KF), a tear fault that is linked with the SRT at depth. Based on the age and offset of two alluvial fan apexes from their source canyons, we estimate a slip rate of between 9 and 27 mm/yr (~12-17 mm/yr best estimate) for the KF-SRT fault system. This rate matches well with the geodetically-constrained creep rate for the MHT at depth, suggesting the entire slip budget for the Pakistan Himalaya is accommodated at the thrust front. Because the SRT is cored by salt, the earthquake potential for the fault is inferred to be low, although evidence for seismogenic Holocene rupture on the Kalabagh fault, which is also locally lined with salt, suggests that the frontal fault ruptures in plate boundary earthquakes on the MHT. The primary implications of these findings are that convergence in the Pakistan Himalaya is focused at the thrust front rather than distributed between different faults across the plate boundary. In the Kashmir Himalaya, multiple active faults along the plate boundary suggest that Indo-Eurasian convergence is partitioned between the thrust front and faults to the north. To test how much deformation occurs within the overriding plate, we characterized deformation for the Balapora fault, a high-angle reverse fault on the southwest side of the Kashmir Valley. Based on dated offset stream terraces and alluvial fans, the slip rate for the Balapora fault is consistently between 0.3 and 0.5 mm/yr over time scales varying by an order magnitude between about 40 ka and 400 ka. These slip rates translate to shortening rates of 0.1 mm/yr, or less than 1% of the convergence rate across the Kashmir Himalaya. Earthquake recurrence for the Balapora fault is several thousand years, which is consistent with the low slip rate for the fault. The inference is thus that, the majority of convergence in the Kashmir Himalaya is accommodated near the thrust front, as in the Pakistan Himalaya. For California, a new database was created from thousands of measurements of slip resulting from one or more historical to prehistoric earthquakes for use in seismic hazard models. A new rating scheme characterizes the quality of the offsets. Multiple methods to estimate slip during the last event, average slip and slip-per-event are used to analyze the data. These data provide a first order check for models of earthquake behavior. With the advent of high resolution topographic datasets such as LiDAR, the new methodology serves as a template for inclusion of rapidly-accumulating topographic and paleoseismic data in California as well as to regions such as the Himalayan front, as those types of data are adopted. Title: Fault behavior over geomorphic time scales in the Pakistan Himalaya, Kashmir Himalaya, and California Author: Madugo, Christopher Lee Madden The state of the knowledge for fault behavior in the northwest Himalaya and California varies dramatically. In the Pakistan and Kashmir Himalaya, few data constrain the role that individual active faults play in accommodating Indo-Eurasian convergence and the relative earthquake hazard across the region. By contrast, the San Andreas fault in California is one of the best-studied fault systems in the world, although seismic hazard models have yet to incorporate certain available geologic data, such as measurements of slip-in-the-last-event. This dissertation addresses the sparsity of earthquake hazard data in the northwest Himalaya, and the problem of how best to utilize available data in hazard models for California by (1) Providing the first quantitative constraints on the latest Pleistocene slip rate and earthquake potential for the thrust front Pakistan; (2) Characterizing the rate and style of upper plate faulting in Kashmir over geomorphic (10⁴ year) time scales; and (3) Creating a standardized database of fault offsets to help test time-dependent and time-independent seismic hazard models for the Uniform California Rupture Forecast. The Himalayan thrust front in Pakistan is defined by the Salt Range thrust (SRT), the up-dip extension of the plate boundary décollement, the Main Himalayan thrust (MHT). We constrain the convergence rate across the SRT by determining the slip rate for the Kalabagh fault (KF), a tear fault that is linked with the SRT at depth. Based on the age and offset of two alluvial fan apexes from their source canyons, we estimate a slip rate of between 9 and 27 mm/yr (~12-17 mm/yr best estimate) for the KF-SRT fault system. This rate matches well with the geodetically-constrained creep rate for the MHT at depth, suggesting the entire slip budget for the Pakistan Himalaya is accommodated at the thrust front. Because the SRT is cored by salt, the earthquake potential for the fault is inferred to be low, although evidence for seismogenic Holocene rupture on the Kalabagh fault, which is also locally lined with salt, suggests that the frontal fault ruptures in plate boundary earthquakes on the MHT. The primary implications of these findings are that convergence in the Pakistan Himalaya is focused at the thrust front rather than distributed between different faults across the plate boundary. In the Kashmir Himalaya, multiple active faults along the plate boundary suggest that Indo-Eurasian convergence is partitioned between the thrust front and faults to the north. To test how much deformation occurs within the overriding plate, we characterized deformation for the Balapora fault, a high-angle reverse fault on the southwest side of the Kashmir Valley. Based on dated offset stream terraces and alluvial fans, the slip rate for the Balapora fault is consistently between 0.3 and 0.5 mm/yr over time scales varying by an order magnitude between about 40 ka and 400 ka. These slip rates translate to shortening rates of 0.1 mm/yr, or less than 1% of the convergence rate across the Kashmir Himalaya. Earthquake recurrence for the Balapora fault is several thousand years, which is consistent with the low slip rate for the fault. The inference is thus that, the majority of convergence in the Kashmir Himalaya is accommodated near the thrust front, as in the Pakistan Himalaya. For California, a new database was created from thousands of measurements of slip resulting from one or more historical to prehistoric earthquakes for use in seismic hazard models. A new rating scheme characterizes the quality of the offsets. Multiple methods to estimate slip during the last event, average slip and slip-per-event are used to analyze the data. These data provide a first order check for models of earthquake behavior. With the advent of high resolution topographic datasets such as LiDAR, the new methodology serves as a template for inclusion of rapidly-accumulating topographic and paleoseismic data in California as well as to regions such as the Himalayan front, as those types of data are adopted. Close

• 358. [Article] Disease resistance and spring phenological characteristics of Ribes L. germplasm

  North American cultivation of Ribes L. may expand as small fruit growers seek species to diversify horticultural crops. The Ribes industry was suppressed for decades out of fear that cultivated black currants ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Disease resistance and spring phenological characteristics of Ribes L. germplasm Author: Dalton, Daniel T. North American cultivation of Ribes L. may expand as small fruit growers seek species to diversify horticultural crops. The Ribes industry was suppressed for decades out of fear that cultivated black currants and gooseberries would intensify the fungal disease white pine blister rust (WPBR) on five-needle pine (Pinus L. section Quinquefoliae) species. These pines were historically vital to the timber industry. Today, plant breeders seek to strengthen the Ribes small fruit industry through production of material suitable for North American conditions. Paramount to this effort is the development of resistance against major pests and diseases. Growers must be able to recognize the attributes of available genotypes prior to field establishment. The objectives of this research were to determine disease resistance and phenological characteristics of Ribes selections at the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Clonal Germplasm Repository (NCGR) in Corvallis, Oregon. Since the early 1930's, plant breeders have used immune black currant (R. nigrum L.) germplasm as a control tactic against the exotic WPBR, caused by the basidiomycete fungus Cronartium ribicola J.C. Fischer. In 1999, a seedling population was generated at the NCGR from a cross involving susceptible pistillate R. nigrum 'Ben Lomond' and immune staminate parent R. ussuriense Jancz. x R. nigrum 'Consort.' To test the inheritance of resistance in the F₁ population, aeciospore and urediniospore treatments were applied in 2008 to single-leaf softwood cuttings under controlled conditions in a greenhouse. Resistant F₁ phenotypes segregated in a 1:1 ratio consistent with the pattern of simple dominant inheritance of a single gene. Artificial inoculations testing aeciospore and urediniospore infectivity produced equivalent disease severity in the experimental Ribes genotypes. Resistance to the native powdery mildew fungus, Podosphaera mors-uvae (Schwein.) U. Brown and S. Takamatsu, was also evaluated in the F₁ population. Individuals segregated for resistance in a 1:3 ratio after exposure to elevated disease pressure in the greenhouse. Fifteen F₁ genotypes were resistant to both fungal pathogens and are candidates for further breeding trials. In a second study, five years of spring phenological survey data were analyzed using a growing degree-day (GDD) model, with the objective to identify cultivars adapted to North American conditions. Ribes section Calobotrya was the earliest group to reach "first bloom," followed sequentially by R. [superscript]xnidigrolaria Bauer hybrid species, section Symphocalyx, section Grossularia, section Ribes, and lastly, section Botrycarpum. Early and late-flowering accessions were identified for each taxon. Title: Disease resistance and spring phenological characteristics of Ribes L. germplasm Author: Dalton, Daniel T. North American cultivation of Ribes L. may expand as small fruit growers seek species to diversify horticultural crops. The Ribes industry was suppressed for decades out of fear that cultivated black currants and gooseberries would intensify the fungal disease white pine blister rust (WPBR) on five-needle pine (Pinus L. section Quinquefoliae) species. These pines were historically vital to the timber industry. Today, plant breeders seek to strengthen the Ribes small fruit industry through production of material suitable for North American conditions. Paramount to this effort is the development of resistance against major pests and diseases. Growers must be able to recognize the attributes of available genotypes prior to field establishment. The objectives of this research were to determine disease resistance and phenological characteristics of Ribes selections at the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Clonal Germplasm Repository (NCGR) in Corvallis, Oregon. Since the early 1930's, plant breeders have used immune black currant (R. nigrum L.) germplasm as a control tactic against the exotic WPBR, caused by the basidiomycete fungus Cronartium ribicola J.C. Fischer. In 1999, a seedling population was generated at the NCGR from a cross involving susceptible pistillate R. nigrum 'Ben Lomond' and immune staminate parent R. ussuriense Jancz. x R. nigrum 'Consort.' To test the inheritance of resistance in the F₁ population, aeciospore and urediniospore treatments were applied in 2008 to single-leaf softwood cuttings under controlled conditions in a greenhouse. Resistant F₁ phenotypes segregated in a 1:1 ratio consistent with the pattern of simple dominant inheritance of a single gene. Artificial inoculations testing aeciospore and urediniospore infectivity produced equivalent disease severity in the experimental Ribes genotypes. Resistance to the native powdery mildew fungus, Podosphaera mors-uvae (Schwein.) U. Brown and S. Takamatsu, was also evaluated in the F₁ population. Individuals segregated for resistance in a 1:3 ratio after exposure to elevated disease pressure in the greenhouse. Fifteen F₁ genotypes were resistant to both fungal pathogens and are candidates for further breeding trials. In a second study, five years of spring phenological survey data were analyzed using a growing degree-day (GDD) model, with the objective to identify cultivars adapted to North American conditions. Ribes section Calobotrya was the earliest group to reach "first bloom," followed sequentially by R. [superscript]xnidigrolaria Bauer hybrid species, section Symphocalyx, section Grossularia, section Ribes, and lastly, section Botrycarpum. Early and late-flowering accessions were identified for each taxon. Close

• 359. [Article] Biogeography of nonindigenous species: from description to prediction

  Nonindigenous species are a major threat to the ecological integrity and biodiversity of marine and estuarine ecosystems. To become a successful invader, species must pass through four phases: (1) survive ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biogeography of nonindigenous species: from description to prediction Author: Reusser, Deborah A. Nonindigenous species are a major threat to the ecological integrity and biodiversity of marine and estuarine ecosystems. To become a successful invader, species must pass through four phases: (1) survive transport, (2) survive release, (3) establish a population, and (4) expand their range. To better understand these processes, an integrated framework was designed to capture life history characteristics, environmental preferences, dispersal mechanisms, and geographic distribution information for both native and nonindigenous marine and estuarine flora and fauna. Key aspects of this framework include: 1) consistent terminology; 2) translation of numerical habitat values and physiological requirements into classes; 3) development of classification schemas for natural history, environmental attributes, and geographic distributions; and 4) integration of biotic attributes to allow database queries on single or multiple species across spatial scales. Species data for the North Pacific were collected from the literature, local surveys, and regional databases. Ballast water discharges have been identified as a major source of species introductions. To predict the potential rate of invasion from ballast water, a linear invasion model predicting per capita invasion probabilities (PCIP) of new invaders was developed based on historic invasion rates and ballast discharge volumes for estuaries on the west coast of the United States. While the probability of invasion is likely to vary with ballast discharge values, organism concentrations in the ballast, and invasibility of individual ports, the PCIP provides a quantitative methodology for establishing protective ballast water discharge standards based on organism concentrations, the approach being used to regulate ballast water discharges both nationally and internationally. Habitat or niche models can be used to predict a nonindigenous species’ potential distribution in invaded areas over several spatial scales. The utility of non-parametric multiplicative regression (NPMR) was evaluated for predicting habitat- and estuary-scale distributions of native and nonindigenous species. Results indicate that NPMR generally performs well at both spatial scales and that distributions of nonindigenous species are predicted as well as those of native species. Development of approaches for regulating ballast water and identifying areas at risk through predictive modeling are useful tools in the management of the nonindigenous species threat. Title: Biogeography of nonindigenous species: from description to prediction Author: Reusser, Deborah A. Nonindigenous species are a major threat to the ecological integrity and biodiversity of marine and estuarine ecosystems. To become a successful invader, species must pass through four phases: (1) survive transport, (2) survive release, (3) establish a population, and (4) expand their range. To better understand these processes, an integrated framework was designed to capture life history characteristics, environmental preferences, dispersal mechanisms, and geographic distribution information for both native and nonindigenous marine and estuarine flora and fauna. Key aspects of this framework include: 1) consistent terminology; 2) translation of numerical habitat values and physiological requirements into classes; 3) development of classification schemas for natural history, environmental attributes, and geographic distributions; and 4) integration of biotic attributes to allow database queries on single or multiple species across spatial scales. Species data for the North Pacific were collected from the literature, local surveys, and regional databases. Ballast water discharges have been identified as a major source of species introductions. To predict the potential rate of invasion from ballast water, a linear invasion model predicting per capita invasion probabilities (PCIP) of new invaders was developed based on historic invasion rates and ballast discharge volumes for estuaries on the west coast of the United States. While the probability of invasion is likely to vary with ballast discharge values, organism concentrations in the ballast, and invasibility of individual ports, the PCIP provides a quantitative methodology for establishing protective ballast water discharge standards based on organism concentrations, the approach being used to regulate ballast water discharges both nationally and internationally. Habitat or niche models can be used to predict a nonindigenous species’ potential distribution in invaded areas over several spatial scales. The utility of non-parametric multiplicative regression (NPMR) was evaluated for predicting habitat- and estuary-scale distributions of native and nonindigenous species. Results indicate that NPMR generally performs well at both spatial scales and that distributions of nonindigenous species are predicted as well as those of native species. Development of approaches for regulating ballast water and identifying areas at risk through predictive modeling are useful tools in the management of the nonindigenous species threat. Close

• 360. [Article] Habitat characteristics associated with abundance of band-tailed pigeons and use of mineral sites in the Pacific Northwest

  Index counts for the Pacific Coast race of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata monilis) have declined by -2% per year since survey efforts began in the 1950's and 60's. Mineral sites, important resources ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Habitat characteristics associated with abundance of band-tailed pigeons and use of mineral sites in the Pacific Northwest Author: Overton, Cory T. Index counts for the Pacific Coast race of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata monilis) have declined by -2% per year since survey efforts began in the 1950's and 60's. Mineral sites, important resources with high ion concentrations, are regularly visited by band-tailed pigeons which nest in surrounding forest lands. I used both ad hoc measurements of mineral site characteristics and composition and configuration of habitat types adjacent to mineral sites to develop models predicting band-tailed pigeon abundance at mineral sites, in the Pacific Northwest. Band-tailed pigeons were counted weekly during the summers of 2001 and 2002 at 20 mineral sites. Since, many mineral sites have been abandoned by band-tailed pigeons, I tested for an association between land use types mineral site use by band-tailed pigeons using a database of 69 currently used and 20 historically used mineral sites in Oregon. Lastly, I investigated the association between the timing and duration of precipitation on index counts of band-tailed pigeons at 20 mineral sites. Abundance of band-tailed pigeons was positively associated with habitat dominance, (i.e. 1-Shannon's Evenness or homogeneity of landcover types) at a scale larger than band-tailed pigeon home range size and with distance to the nearest adjacent mineral site. Both a quadratic effect of latitude and use of an indicator variable for regional variation in abundance were also present in top ranked models. Both latitudinal effects predicted an increase in birds from central Oregon to southern Washington, then a decrease from central Washington to British Columbia. My findings suggest that: 1) large areas of homogeneous landcover are important for band-tailed pigeons, 2) distribution of mineral sites is associated with the abundance of band-tailed pigeons, and 3) relative density of band-tailed pigeons in the Pacific Northwest exhibits a latitudinal gradient with more birds counted near the middle of their breeding range. Use of mineral sites in Oregon by band-tailed pigeons was associated with both the amount of forest cover (or lack thereof), and the amount of land under either private ownership or under special management to preserve biodiversity. Higher probability of mineral site use was predicted with increasing forest cover and special status land, lower probability of use was predicted with increasing non-forested landcover and private land. Four hot springs in Oregon were known to have once been used by band-tailed pigeons by no longer are, no hot springs are known to be currently used by band-tailed. Title: Habitat characteristics associated with abundance of band-tailed pigeons and use of mineral sites in the Pacific Northwest Author: Overton, Cory T. Index counts for the Pacific Coast race of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata monilis) have declined by -2% per year since survey efforts began in the 1950's and 60's. Mineral sites, important resources with high ion concentrations, are regularly visited by band-tailed pigeons which nest in surrounding forest lands. I used both ad hoc measurements of mineral site characteristics and composition and configuration of habitat types adjacent to mineral sites to develop models predicting band-tailed pigeon abundance at mineral sites, in the Pacific Northwest. Band-tailed pigeons were counted weekly during the summers of 2001 and 2002 at 20 mineral sites. Since, many mineral sites have been abandoned by band-tailed pigeons, I tested for an association between land use types mineral site use by band-tailed pigeons using a database of 69 currently used and 20 historically used mineral sites in Oregon. Lastly, I investigated the association between the timing and duration of precipitation on index counts of band-tailed pigeons at 20 mineral sites. Abundance of band-tailed pigeons was positively associated with habitat dominance, (i.e. 1-Shannon's Evenness or homogeneity of landcover types) at a scale larger than band-tailed pigeon home range size and with distance to the nearest adjacent mineral site. Both a quadratic effect of latitude and use of an indicator variable for regional variation in abundance were also present in top ranked models. Both latitudinal effects predicted an increase in birds from central Oregon to southern Washington, then a decrease from central Washington to British Columbia. My findings suggest that: 1) large areas of homogeneous landcover are important for band-tailed pigeons, 2) distribution of mineral sites is associated with the abundance of band-tailed pigeons, and 3) relative density of band-tailed pigeons in the Pacific Northwest exhibits a latitudinal gradient with more birds counted near the middle of their breeding range. Use of mineral sites in Oregon by band-tailed pigeons was associated with both the amount of forest cover (or lack thereof), and the amount of land under either private ownership or under special management to preserve biodiversity. Higher probability of mineral site use was predicted with increasing forest cover and special status land, lower probability of use was predicted with increasing non-forested landcover and private land. Four hot springs in Oregon were known to have once been used by band-tailed pigeons by no longer are, no hot springs are known to be currently used by band-tailed. Close

• 361. [Article] The great fires : Indian burning and catastrophic forest fire patterns of the Oregon Coast Range, 1491-1951

  The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between land management practices of Indian communities prior to contact with Europeans and the nature or character of subsequent catastrophic forest fires ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The great fires : Indian burning and catastrophic forest fire patterns of the Oregon Coast Range, 1491-1951 Author: Zybach, Bob The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between land management practices of Indian communities prior to contact with Europeans and the nature or character of subsequent catastrophic forest fires in the Oregon Coast Range. The research focus is spatial and temporal patterns of Indian burning across the landscape from 1491 until 1848, and corresponding patterns of catastrophic fire events from 1849 until 1951. Archival and anthropological research methods were used to obtain early surveys, maps, drawings, photographs, interviews, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) inventories, eyewitness accounts and other sources of evidence that document fire history. Data were tabulated, mapped, and digitized as new GIS layers for purposes of comparative analysis. An abundance of historical evidence was found to exist that is useful for reconstructing precontact vegetation patterns and human burning practices in western Oregon. The data also proved useful for documenting local and regional forest fire histories. Precontact Indians used fire to produce landscape patterns of trails, patches, fields, woodlands, forests and grasslands that varied from time to time and place to place, partly due to demographic, cultural, topographic, and climatic differences that existed throughout the Coast Range. Native plants were systematically managed by local Indian families in even-aged stands, usually dominated by a single species, throughout all river basins of the study area. Oak, filberts, camas, wapato, tarweed, yampah, strawberries, huckleberries, brackenfern, nettles, and other plants were raised in select areas by all known tribes, over long periods of time. However, current scientific and policy assumptions regarding the abundance and extent of precontact western Oregon old-growth forests may be in error. This study demonstrates a high rate of coincidence between the land management practices of precontact Indian communities, and the causes, timing, boundaries, severity, and extent of subsequent catastrophic forest fires in the same areas. Information provided by this study should be of value to researchers, wildlife managers, forest landowners, and others with an interest in the history and resources of the Oregon Coast Range. Title: The great fires : Indian burning and catastrophic forest fire patterns of the Oregon Coast Range, 1491-1951 Author: Zybach, Bob The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between land management practices of Indian communities prior to contact with Europeans and the nature or character of subsequent catastrophic forest fires in the Oregon Coast Range. The research focus is spatial and temporal patterns of Indian burning across the landscape from 1491 until 1848, and corresponding patterns of catastrophic fire events from 1849 until 1951. Archival and anthropological research methods were used to obtain early surveys, maps, drawings, photographs, interviews, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) inventories, eyewitness accounts and other sources of evidence that document fire history. Data were tabulated, mapped, and digitized as new GIS layers for purposes of comparative analysis. An abundance of historical evidence was found to exist that is useful for reconstructing precontact vegetation patterns and human burning practices in western Oregon. The data also proved useful for documenting local and regional forest fire histories. Precontact Indians used fire to produce landscape patterns of trails, patches, fields, woodlands, forests and grasslands that varied from time to time and place to place, partly due to demographic, cultural, topographic, and climatic differences that existed throughout the Coast Range. Native plants were systematically managed by local Indian families in even-aged stands, usually dominated by a single species, throughout all river basins of the study area. Oak, filberts, camas, wapato, tarweed, yampah, strawberries, huckleberries, brackenfern, nettles, and other plants were raised in select areas by all known tribes, over long periods of time. However, current scientific and policy assumptions regarding the abundance and extent of precontact western Oregon old-growth forests may be in error. This study demonstrates a high rate of coincidence between the land management practices of precontact Indian communities, and the causes, timing, boundaries, severity, and extent of subsequent catastrophic forest fires in the same areas. Information provided by this study should be of value to researchers, wildlife managers, forest landowners, and others with an interest in the history and resources of the Oregon Coast Range. Close

• 362. [Article] Curriculum synthesis and amelioration : a case study of undergraduate civil engineering

  The dynamic philosophy of education as applied to the undergraduate Civil Engineering program has been influenced by such factors as the introduction of new theories, the demands and needs of our society ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Curriculum synthesis and amelioration : a case study of undergraduate civil engineering Author: Hamernik, Robert E. The dynamic philosophy of education as applied to the undergraduate Civil Engineering program has been influenced by such factors as the introduction of new theories, the demands and needs of our society and the personnel responsible for teaching. These changes are reflected in the curriculum as witnessed by a historical development leading to the philosophy of the past two decades during which time significant emphasis has been placed on an increased scientific base in undergraduate education. To evaluate this shift and its effect on the educational product, a total of 464 questionnaires were mailed to various private and governmental agencies, and the industry representative was asked to randomly select a respondent with the only limitation being a Civil Engineering graduate of preferably five years or less. A response of 78.7 percent of all the questionnaires mailed was received with the graduates identifying their major work responsibility as either design oriented, management, construction or research. The survey form contained a series of questions developed from two given statements relative to the current philosophy upon which the curriculum is based and also the role of the professor with emphasis on research and teacher preparation. To analyze the input data, a t-Test statistic was derived so that each responsibility composite profile could be tested against the total response. A similar analysis was made for the graduates based on government or private industry employment. In addition, the questionnaire was designed to provide data so that an undergraduate curriculum could be constructed from a mathematical model using the number of semester units per academic subject area as the parameters. A computer program was written to evaluate the subject unit distribution matrix, assuming a curriculum which consisted of 130 units, for the total response and for each of the four work responsibility divisions. These values were compared to a typical curriculum computed from the programs offered by fifty ECPD accredited universities and colleges across the United States. The findings of this study showed that a majority, 81.9 percent of the total response, favored redirecting the primary educational goal of the undergraduate Civil Engineering program to insure adequate exposure to the art of engineering. Likewise, the graduates expressed concern over the lack of student involvement in the engineering program during the first two years of study, improving the quality of teaching and felt a need for additional student-faculty exchange and contact outside the formal classroom activities. Relative to the role of research and its implications to effective teachings the response indicated that practical experience would be more relevant to teaching. In addition the data further revealed that academic advancement should not be so closely dependent upon the research efforts of the professor. The curriculum developed yielded a redistribution of 14 units, equivalent to 10.8 percent of the total units, with the largest increase devoted to additional study in the area of engineering analysis and design. Title: Curriculum synthesis and amelioration : a case study of undergraduate civil engineering Author: Hamernik, Robert E. The dynamic philosophy of education as applied to the undergraduate Civil Engineering program has been influenced by such factors as the introduction of new theories, the demands and needs of our society and the personnel responsible for teaching. These changes are reflected in the curriculum as witnessed by a historical development leading to the philosophy of the past two decades during which time significant emphasis has been placed on an increased scientific base in undergraduate education. To evaluate this shift and its effect on the educational product, a total of 464 questionnaires were mailed to various private and governmental agencies, and the industry representative was asked to randomly select a respondent with the only limitation being a Civil Engineering graduate of preferably five years or less. A response of 78.7 percent of all the questionnaires mailed was received with the graduates identifying their major work responsibility as either design oriented, management, construction or research. The survey form contained a series of questions developed from two given statements relative to the current philosophy upon which the curriculum is based and also the role of the professor with emphasis on research and teacher preparation. To analyze the input data, a t-Test statistic was derived so that each responsibility composite profile could be tested against the total response. A similar analysis was made for the graduates based on government or private industry employment. In addition, the questionnaire was designed to provide data so that an undergraduate curriculum could be constructed from a mathematical model using the number of semester units per academic subject area as the parameters. A computer program was written to evaluate the subject unit distribution matrix, assuming a curriculum which consisted of 130 units, for the total response and for each of the four work responsibility divisions. These values were compared to a typical curriculum computed from the programs offered by fifty ECPD accredited universities and colleges across the United States. The findings of this study showed that a majority, 81.9 percent of the total response, favored redirecting the primary educational goal of the undergraduate Civil Engineering program to insure adequate exposure to the art of engineering. Likewise, the graduates expressed concern over the lack of student involvement in the engineering program during the first two years of study, improving the quality of teaching and felt a need for additional student-faculty exchange and contact outside the formal classroom activities. Relative to the role of research and its implications to effective teachings the response indicated that practical experience would be more relevant to teaching. In addition the data further revealed that academic advancement should not be so closely dependent upon the research efforts of the professor. The curriculum developed yielded a redistribution of 14 units, equivalent to 10.8 percent of the total units, with the largest increase devoted to additional study in the area of engineering analysis and design. Close

• 363. [Article] Natural history and evolution of a color polymorphism in Rana pipiens, the northern leopard frog

  A primary goal of population genetics is to identify the role of microevolutionary forces in producing observed patterns of molecular and phenotypic variation. I conducted four studies in the northern ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Natural history and evolution of a color polymorphism in Rana pipiens, the northern leopard frog Author: Hoffman, Eric Adam A primary goal of population genetics is to identify the role of microevolutionary forces in producing observed patterns of molecular and phenotypic variation. I conducted four studies in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens, to determine just how mutation, migration, genetic drift, and selection influenced, genetic structure of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), nuclear DNA, and a single locus polymorphism that determines dorsal coloration. In the first study, I surveyed the literature concerning color and pattern polymorphisms in anurans. I conclude that anuran polymorphisms remain a rich but largely unexploited system for studying the evolution of phenotypic variation in nature. In the second study, I compared mitochondrial DNA variation from 35 populations distributed across the species' range. A phylogenetic analysis indicated R. pipiens is split into two deeply divergent mtDNA groups, a western group and an eastern group. Phylogeographic and demographic analyses indicated that although restricted gene flow with isolation by distance explained the majority of the processes influencing current genetic structure, population bottlenecks and expansions also played an important role. In the third study, I investigated mtDNA and microsatellite variation in Pacific Northwest populations of R. pipiens, where a recent range contraction had occurred. I found that peripheral populations had reduced levels of genetic variation compared to more interior populations. Moreover, I found that historic samples from peripheral population already had reduced levels of genetic variation. Therefore, low diversity in the remnant populations could not be ascribed to the recent range contraction. In the fourth study, I compared genetic structure from a suite of putatively neutral molecular markers with that derived from the color polymorphism locus. Genetic structure at the color locus, assessed both spatially and temporally, was indistinguishable from structure at neutral loci. This study exemplifies the importance of investigating for evidence of selective maintenance before studies attempt to measure the selective mechanisms maintaining a polymorphism. Overall, my research helps to elucidate how biogeographic and microevolutionary forces influence a wide-spread North American species, R. pipiens. Title: Natural history and evolution of a color polymorphism in Rana pipiens, the northern leopard frog Author: Hoffman, Eric Adam A primary goal of population genetics is to identify the role of microevolutionary forces in producing observed patterns of molecular and phenotypic variation. I conducted four studies in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens, to determine just how mutation, migration, genetic drift, and selection influenced, genetic structure of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), nuclear DNA, and a single locus polymorphism that determines dorsal coloration. In the first study, I surveyed the literature concerning color and pattern polymorphisms in anurans. I conclude that anuran polymorphisms remain a rich but largely unexploited system for studying the evolution of phenotypic variation in nature. In the second study, I compared mitochondrial DNA variation from 35 populations distributed across the species' range. A phylogenetic analysis indicated R. pipiens is split into two deeply divergent mtDNA groups, a western group and an eastern group. Phylogeographic and demographic analyses indicated that although restricted gene flow with isolation by distance explained the majority of the processes influencing current genetic structure, population bottlenecks and expansions also played an important role. In the third study, I investigated mtDNA and microsatellite variation in Pacific Northwest populations of R. pipiens, where a recent range contraction had occurred. I found that peripheral populations had reduced levels of genetic variation compared to more interior populations. Moreover, I found that historic samples from peripheral population already had reduced levels of genetic variation. Therefore, low diversity in the remnant populations could not be ascribed to the recent range contraction. In the fourth study, I compared genetic structure from a suite of putatively neutral molecular markers with that derived from the color polymorphism locus. Genetic structure at the color locus, assessed both spatially and temporally, was indistinguishable from structure at neutral loci. This study exemplifies the importance of investigating for evidence of selective maintenance before studies attempt to measure the selective mechanisms maintaining a polymorphism. Overall, my research helps to elucidate how biogeographic and microevolutionary forces influence a wide-spread North American species, R. pipiens. Close

• 364. [Article] Industrial engineering in America as a guide for industrial engineering education in Kore

  The purpose of this study is to investigate the direction of future Korean industrial engineering education and to suggest how U.S. experiences can guide Korean developments. The leading indicator concept, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Industrial engineering in America as a guide for industrial engineering education in Kore Author: Ro, In Kyu The purpose of this study is to investigate the direction of future Korean industrial engineering education and to suggest how U.S. experiences can guide Korean developments. The leading indicator concept, correlation coefficients are utilized. The following statistical relationships were developed and the following educational and practical industrial engineering trends in the U.S. are surveyed through literature: 1. Statistical relationships between Korean economy and industry during the 1961 - 1970 period and the U.S. experience during the 1948 - 1957 period. 2. Statistical relationships of IE enrollment to seven manufacturing industries in the U.S. during the 1948 - 195 7 period. 3. The trends of industrial engineering curricula in the U. S. from 1958-1959 to 1971-1972. 4. The trends of industrial engineering education and the practices in the U.S. during the 1962 - 1966 period. It is concluded that the U.S. during the 1948 - 19 57 period is a "leading indicator" for economic and industrial developments in Korea during the 1961 - 1970 period. Therefore, unless Korean developments depart radically from historical patterns, the 1962 - 1965 conditions for industrial engineering in the U. S. should suggest what logically to expect in Korea during the 1975 - 1978 period. Based on these conditions, the following suggestions should guide current industrial engineering developments in Korea: 1. Initial efforts should emphasize traditional industrial engineering subjects that are immediately applicable in Korean economy. 2. The curriculum design should make use of the experience of U. S. developments in industrial engineering education which suggest an integration of basic science with engineering subjects and inclusion of humanities and social sciences. 3. After a basic IE program has been established in Korea, more sophisticated mathematical and statistical tools can be added. Revisions must be made to keep the curriculum current. Graduate studies in industrial engineering should not be initiated until production processes in Korean industries become more complex and can benefit from advanced IE techniques. 4. A faculty development program should be implemented. 5. Plans should be developed to show industry what IE's can do and to get support of government and industry for Cooperative programs. 6. Cooperative programs should be started. 7. Staff and educational resources should be improved. 8. Develop IE technicians. 9. Methods for serving small and medium industries should be developed. Many of the obstacles facing the introduction of industrial engineering to Korea can be overcome by actions such as affiliating Korean and U. S. universities, exchanging study teams and consultants, advertising by publications and conferences what can be gained by using IE tools, acquiring IE reference materials and sponsoring IE consultations for small Korean industries. Title: Industrial engineering in America as a guide for industrial engineering education in Kore Author: Ro, In Kyu The purpose of this study is to investigate the direction of future Korean industrial engineering education and to suggest how U.S. experiences can guide Korean developments. The leading indicator concept, correlation coefficients are utilized. The following statistical relationships were developed and the following educational and practical industrial engineering trends in the U.S. are surveyed through literature: 1. Statistical relationships between Korean economy and industry during the 1961 - 1970 period and the U.S. experience during the 1948 - 1957 period. 2. Statistical relationships of IE enrollment to seven manufacturing industries in the U.S. during the 1948 - 195 7 period. 3. The trends of industrial engineering curricula in the U. S. from 1958-1959 to 1971-1972. 4. The trends of industrial engineering education and the practices in the U.S. during the 1962 - 1966 period. It is concluded that the U.S. during the 1948 - 19 57 period is a "leading indicator" for economic and industrial developments in Korea during the 1961 - 1970 period. Therefore, unless Korean developments depart radically from historical patterns, the 1962 - 1965 conditions for industrial engineering in the U. S. should suggest what logically to expect in Korea during the 1975 - 1978 period. Based on these conditions, the following suggestions should guide current industrial engineering developments in Korea: 1. Initial efforts should emphasize traditional industrial engineering subjects that are immediately applicable in Korean economy. 2. The curriculum design should make use of the experience of U. S. developments in industrial engineering education which suggest an integration of basic science with engineering subjects and inclusion of humanities and social sciences. 3. After a basic IE program has been established in Korea, more sophisticated mathematical and statistical tools can be added. Revisions must be made to keep the curriculum current. Graduate studies in industrial engineering should not be initiated until production processes in Korean industries become more complex and can benefit from advanced IE techniques. 4. A faculty development program should be implemented. 5. Plans should be developed to show industry what IE's can do and to get support of government and industry for Cooperative programs. 6. Cooperative programs should be started. 7. Staff and educational resources should be improved. 8. Develop IE technicians. 9. Methods for serving small and medium industries should be developed. Many of the obstacles facing the introduction of industrial engineering to Korea can be overcome by actions such as affiliating Korean and U. S. universities, exchanging study teams and consultants, advertising by publications and conferences what can be gained by using IE tools, acquiring IE reference materials and sponsoring IE consultations for small Korean industries. Close

• 365. [Article] Age and growth of young-of-the-year Lost River suckers Deltistes luxatus and shortnose suckers Chasmistes brevirostris of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

  Upper Klamath Lake in southern Oregon has two species of lacustrine suckers, Lost River sucker Deltistes luxatus and shortnose sucker Chasmistes brevirostris that were historically abundant. Results of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Age and growth of young-of-the-year Lost River suckers Deltistes luxatus and shortnose suckers Chasmistes brevirostris of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Logan, Daniel Joseph Upper Klamath Lake in southern Oregon has two species of lacustrine suckers, Lost River sucker Deltistes luxatus and shortnose sucker Chasmistes brevirostris that were historically abundant. Results of surveys performed in the mid-1980's indicated that populations of both species were declining and ageing with apparent recruitment failure in most years since 1970. In 1988 both species were listed as endangered species and high priority has been placed on investigating recruitment of Upper Klamath Lake suckers. Lapilli are the preferred otolith for ageing suckers. Lapilli form predictably on the day of hatch, have the most conservative morphology of the three otoliths, and deposit easily discernable increments that begin on the day of hatch and proceed daily, and grow in a predictable relationship with somatic growth. Ages estimated by otolith analysis and resulting hatch dates of young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker were consistent annually and consistent with reported spawning period for suckers from Upper Klamath Lake. Otolith increment analysis is necessarily lethal, whereas scale circuli analysis is not lethal. My findings suggest that scale circuli count is an inefficient estimator of daily Daily age estimates for age in young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker. any given circuli count varied by approximately 51 days in Lost River sucker and 30 days Additionally, my results do not accurately predict the size or age at in shortnose sucker. which scales are formed, thereby invalidating an assumption of age and growth models. Consequently, scale circuli analysis cannot be used to produce accurate estimates of age or growth for young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker. Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker achieve a relatively large size by the autumn of their first year, consistent with other members of Catostomidae. Interspecific difference in growth rates was evident in each year with Lost River sucker exhibiting faster growth than shortnose sucker in each year. Abundance of young-of-the-year suckers does not appear to be strongly correlated to somatic growth rate, though hatch date and environmental parameters are highly correlated with abundance. In both Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker, in years with the highest abundance (1991 and 1993), the mean hatch dates of surviving fish were later than in years with the lowest abundance. Also, young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker experienced wide environmental fluctuations in Upper Klamath Lake as seasonal limnological and climatic variation create a dynamic habitat for young suckers. Water temperature, precipitation, air temperature, and minimum lake elevation are all strongly correlated to abundance of young-of-the-year suckers. Title: Age and growth of young-of-the-year Lost River suckers Deltistes luxatus and shortnose suckers Chasmistes brevirostris of Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon Author: Logan, Daniel Joseph Upper Klamath Lake in southern Oregon has two species of lacustrine suckers, Lost River sucker Deltistes luxatus and shortnose sucker Chasmistes brevirostris that were historically abundant. Results of surveys performed in the mid-1980's indicated that populations of both species were declining and ageing with apparent recruitment failure in most years since 1970. In 1988 both species were listed as endangered species and high priority has been placed on investigating recruitment of Upper Klamath Lake suckers. Lapilli are the preferred otolith for ageing suckers. Lapilli form predictably on the day of hatch, have the most conservative morphology of the three otoliths, and deposit easily discernable increments that begin on the day of hatch and proceed daily, and grow in a predictable relationship with somatic growth. Ages estimated by otolith analysis and resulting hatch dates of young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker were consistent annually and consistent with reported spawning period for suckers from Upper Klamath Lake. Otolith increment analysis is necessarily lethal, whereas scale circuli analysis is not lethal. My findings suggest that scale circuli count is an inefficient estimator of daily Daily age estimates for age in young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker. any given circuli count varied by approximately 51 days in Lost River sucker and 30 days Additionally, my results do not accurately predict the size or age at in shortnose sucker. which scales are formed, thereby invalidating an assumption of age and growth models. Consequently, scale circuli analysis cannot be used to produce accurate estimates of age or growth for young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker. Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker achieve a relatively large size by the autumn of their first year, consistent with other members of Catostomidae. Interspecific difference in growth rates was evident in each year with Lost River sucker exhibiting faster growth than shortnose sucker in each year. Abundance of young-of-the-year suckers does not appear to be strongly correlated to somatic growth rate, though hatch date and environmental parameters are highly correlated with abundance. In both Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker, in years with the highest abundance (1991 and 1993), the mean hatch dates of surviving fish were later than in years with the lowest abundance. Also, young-of-the-year Lost River sucker and shortnose sucker experienced wide environmental fluctuations in Upper Klamath Lake as seasonal limnological and climatic variation create a dynamic habitat for young suckers. Water temperature, precipitation, air temperature, and minimum lake elevation are all strongly correlated to abundance of young-of-the-year suckers. Close

• 366. [Article] Intraethnic diversity : an exploratory study of ethnic identity of Chinese American adolescents

  The purpose of the study was to explore the ethnic identity of Chinese American adolescents through the investigation of relationships between ethnic identity and selected demographic, sociocultural, and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Intraethnic diversity : an exploratory study of ethnic identity of Chinese American adolescents Author: Lee, Phyllis S. The purpose of the study was to explore the ethnic identity of Chinese American adolescents through the investigation of relationships between ethnic identity and selected demographic, sociocultural, and psychological characteristics. Data were obtained from 106 Chinese American youth between the ages of 14 and 21 through the use of two instruments designed for the study. Three dimensions of ethnic identity were measured by subscales of the Sinoethnic Identity Scale. Demographic, sociocultural, and psychological data were obtained from the Background Information Survey. The strongest ethnic identities were found in the traditional, or core, dimension which was comprised of fundamental values, customs, and traditions. Weaker ethnic identities were exhibited in the intermediate, or familial, dimension which was responsible for the transmission of the ethnic culture as well as the preparations for interfacing the larger society. It was suspected that this dimension held the greatest potential for intercultural and intragenerational conflicts for Chinese American adolescents. The neutral stance taken in the societal dimension suggested two divergent interpretations: students may be exhibiting ambivalent feelings toward their ethnic identities within the scheme of life, or students may have come to terms with the notion of bicultural identities. Step-wise multiple regression was used to analyze the data. School achievement emerged as the most significant variable in the traditional dimension, suggesting that a Chinese heritage may not ensure school success, but school success contributed to the definition of being Chinese. In the familial dimension it was found that the gender of the subject was the most important variable. Subjects appeared to be highly socialized into ethnically appropriate sex roles, although there were indications of disagreement with the actual practice of these roles. Church attendance was identified as the most significant variable of the societal dimension. Those who attended church exhibited stronger agreement with ethnically appropriate social behaviors and expressed preferences for social activities and relationships within the ethnic community. The findings indicated that ethnic identity was a multidimensional aspect in the lives of Chinese American youth. The three dimensions that comprised Chinese ethnic identity appeared to be differentially affected by demographic, sociocultural, and psychological phenomena. It was also speculated that there was a relationship between the acknowledgement and expression of ethnic identity and historical and contemporary social , economic, and political conditions of society. The range of intraethnic diversity expressed by Chinese American adolescents suggested the need for reexamination of assumptions and expectations currently held by educational personnel. Recommendations for future research which might lead to the provision of educational policies and practices appropriate to Chinese American youth, a more informed understanding of the Chinese experience in the United States, and a greater understanding of the impact of ethnic identity in the lives of minority youth were presented. Title: Intraethnic diversity : an exploratory study of ethnic identity of Chinese American adolescents Author: Lee, Phyllis S. The purpose of the study was to explore the ethnic identity of Chinese American adolescents through the investigation of relationships between ethnic identity and selected demographic, sociocultural, and psychological characteristics. Data were obtained from 106 Chinese American youth between the ages of 14 and 21 through the use of two instruments designed for the study. Three dimensions of ethnic identity were measured by subscales of the Sinoethnic Identity Scale. Demographic, sociocultural, and psychological data were obtained from the Background Information Survey. The strongest ethnic identities were found in the traditional, or core, dimension which was comprised of fundamental values, customs, and traditions. Weaker ethnic identities were exhibited in the intermediate, or familial, dimension which was responsible for the transmission of the ethnic culture as well as the preparations for interfacing the larger society. It was suspected that this dimension held the greatest potential for intercultural and intragenerational conflicts for Chinese American adolescents. The neutral stance taken in the societal dimension suggested two divergent interpretations: students may be exhibiting ambivalent feelings toward their ethnic identities within the scheme of life, or students may have come to terms with the notion of bicultural identities. Step-wise multiple regression was used to analyze the data. School achievement emerged as the most significant variable in the traditional dimension, suggesting that a Chinese heritage may not ensure school success, but school success contributed to the definition of being Chinese. In the familial dimension it was found that the gender of the subject was the most important variable. Subjects appeared to be highly socialized into ethnically appropriate sex roles, although there were indications of disagreement with the actual practice of these roles. Church attendance was identified as the most significant variable of the societal dimension. Those who attended church exhibited stronger agreement with ethnically appropriate social behaviors and expressed preferences for social activities and relationships within the ethnic community. The findings indicated that ethnic identity was a multidimensional aspect in the lives of Chinese American youth. The three dimensions that comprised Chinese ethnic identity appeared to be differentially affected by demographic, sociocultural, and psychological phenomena. It was also speculated that there was a relationship between the acknowledgement and expression of ethnic identity and historical and contemporary social , economic, and political conditions of society. The range of intraethnic diversity expressed by Chinese American adolescents suggested the need for reexamination of assumptions and expectations currently held by educational personnel. Recommendations for future research which might lead to the provision of educational policies and practices appropriate to Chinese American youth, a more informed understanding of the Chinese experience in the United States, and a greater understanding of the impact of ethnic identity in the lives of minority youth were presented. Close

• 367. [Article] Why aren't pigeon guillemots in Prince William Sound, Alaska recovering from the Exxon Valdez oil spill?

  The Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba) is now the only species of marine bird in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska that is listed as "not recovering" on the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (EVOS) Trustee Council's ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Why aren't pigeon guillemots in Prince William Sound, Alaska recovering from the Exxon Valdez oil spill? Author: Bixler, Kirsten S. The Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba) is now the only species of marine bird in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska that is listed as "not recovering" on the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (EVOS) Trustee Council's Injured Resources List and has shown no sign of population recovery. During the 20 years since EVOS, the guillemot population in PWS has gradually declined by nearly 50% following the initial mortality event caused by direct contact with spilled oil. This decline has continued even though there is no longer evidence that guillemots are negatively affected by residual oil from EVOS. My objectives in this study were to (1) identify the primary factor now limiting Pigeon Guillemot population recovery at the Naked Island group, the most important historical breeding area for guillemots in PWS, and (2) determine whether guillemot population trends across PWS are consistent with my understanding of the primary limiting factor. I investigated two competing hypotheses for the lack of guillemot recovery at the Naked Island group: availability of high quality prey (i.e., schooling forage fish) and nest predation. The prevalence of schooling forage fish in the diet of Pigeon Guillemots at the Naked Island group has not recovered to pre- EVOS levels. However, data from both aerial surveys and beach seines provided evidence of an increase in abundance of schooling forage fish near the Naked Island group since the late 1990s. Yet between 1990 and 2008, there was a precipitous 12% per annum decline in the guillemot population at the Naked Island group, where mink are present, while at the nearby mink-free Smith Island group guillemot numbers were stable. The mortality rate of guillemot eggs and chicks at the Naked Island group was high during the late 1990s, largely attributable to predation by mink. The weight of evidence indicates that predation by mink is now the primary factor limiting the reproductive success and population recovery of Pigeon Guillemots at the Naked Island group. Differences in guillemot population trends between the Naked Island group and the remainder of PWS are also consistent with the mink predation hypothesis. The median decline in density of Pigeon Guillemots along transects at the Naked Island group was much greater (> 7 times) than the decline along transects throughout the remainder of PWS. The proportion of all guillemots in isolated pairs (as opposed to multi-pair groups) increased substantially only at the Naked Island group. This is consistent with the hypothesis that mink predation negatively affected guillemot colonies more than isolated nesting pairs; perhaps because guillemot nests in colonies were more apparent or more accessible to mink. At other high-density guillemot nesting areas in PWS, average group size of guillemots declined from 12 to 8 individuals suggesting that other factors may play a role in constraining of guillemots on a region-wide scale, perhaps availability of schooling forage fishes. Nevertheless, I conclude that the key to restoring the injured guillemot population at the Naked Island group is to eliminate mink predation pressure on guillemot eggs, nestlings, and attending adults. Title: Why aren't pigeon guillemots in Prince William Sound, Alaska recovering from the Exxon Valdez oil spill? Author: Bixler, Kirsten S. The Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba) is now the only species of marine bird in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska that is listed as "not recovering" on the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (EVOS) Trustee Council's Injured Resources List and has shown no sign of population recovery. During the 20 years since EVOS, the guillemot population in PWS has gradually declined by nearly 50% following the initial mortality event caused by direct contact with spilled oil. This decline has continued even though there is no longer evidence that guillemots are negatively affected by residual oil from EVOS. My objectives in this study were to (1) identify the primary factor now limiting Pigeon Guillemot population recovery at the Naked Island group, the most important historical breeding area for guillemots in PWS, and (2) determine whether guillemot population trends across PWS are consistent with my understanding of the primary limiting factor. I investigated two competing hypotheses for the lack of guillemot recovery at the Naked Island group: availability of high quality prey (i.e., schooling forage fish) and nest predation. The prevalence of schooling forage fish in the diet of Pigeon Guillemots at the Naked Island group has not recovered to pre- EVOS levels. However, data from both aerial surveys and beach seines provided evidence of an increase in abundance of schooling forage fish near the Naked Island group since the late 1990s. Yet between 1990 and 2008, there was a precipitous 12% per annum decline in the guillemot population at the Naked Island group, where mink are present, while at the nearby mink-free Smith Island group guillemot numbers were stable. The mortality rate of guillemot eggs and chicks at the Naked Island group was high during the late 1990s, largely attributable to predation by mink. The weight of evidence indicates that predation by mink is now the primary factor limiting the reproductive success and population recovery of Pigeon Guillemots at the Naked Island group. Differences in guillemot population trends between the Naked Island group and the remainder of PWS are also consistent with the mink predation hypothesis. The median decline in density of Pigeon Guillemots along transects at the Naked Island group was much greater (> 7 times) than the decline along transects throughout the remainder of PWS. The proportion of all guillemots in isolated pairs (as opposed to multi-pair groups) increased substantially only at the Naked Island group. This is consistent with the hypothesis that mink predation negatively affected guillemot colonies more than isolated nesting pairs; perhaps because guillemot nests in colonies were more apparent or more accessible to mink. At other high-density guillemot nesting areas in PWS, average group size of guillemots declined from 12 to 8 individuals suggesting that other factors may play a role in constraining of guillemots on a region-wide scale, perhaps availability of schooling forage fishes. Nevertheless, I conclude that the key to restoring the injured guillemot population at the Naked Island group is to eliminate mink predation pressure on guillemot eggs, nestlings, and attending adults. Close

• 368. [Article] Community-based sea turtle conservation in Baja, Mexico : integrating science and culture

  This thesis discusses both theoretical and practical considerations inherent in conducting community-based research within a case study of sea turtle conservation in Baja California, Mexico. A brief background, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Community-based sea turtle conservation in Baja, Mexico : integrating science and culture Author: Bird, Kristin E. This thesis discusses both theoretical and practical considerations inherent in conducting community-based research within a case study of sea turtle conservation in Baja California, Mexico. A brief background, including the general ecology, status and distribution of sea turtles of the Baja peninsula is presented, with an overview of the current and historic use and management of sea turtles. Several sets of theories provide the context within which the case example is analyzed. A discussion of how concepts of "science" and "knowledge" are shaped and how these perceptions impact choices made in natural resource management and planning is presented. This includes a brief discussion of conservation ethics and conservation rationale, as well as a review of the debates surrounding indigenous knowledge and its application in conservation. A review of community-based efforts in sea turtle conservation is also presented. The data and analysis offered in this thesis is the result of two field seasons working as a member of an interdisciplinary sea turtle conservation team: conducting biological studies, surveys, informal and semi-structured interviews and participant observation. The major goal of this research project was to evaluate a people-oriented approach to conservation. The objectives of the Baja sea turtle conservation project included: the involvement of fishing communities in the development of conservation projects, the involvement of local students and fishermen in the collection of data and the public sharing of research results on a regular basis. Results of this case study suggest that through dependence on the host community for food, equipment, labor and guidance a special connection was established, fostering trust and building the partnerships necessary for long-term conservation success. For this reason, fishermen and other members of the local host communities were more willing to cooperate with outsiders and share their intimate knowledge of their environment - including information on the daily movements and distribution of sea turtles. It is crucial that the fishermen feel empowered before they choose to participate in the sea turtle conservation efforts. They must be viewed, and view themselves, as an integral part of the conservation team contributing valuable knowledge and ideas, not just acting as boat drivers and guides for outside researchers within the host community. Community meetings served as an outlet to voice concerns and share information. The active involvement and participation of local communities is a highly effective tool in the sea turtle conservation efforts in the region. Title: Community-based sea turtle conservation in Baja, Mexico : integrating science and culture Author: Bird, Kristin E. This thesis discusses both theoretical and practical considerations inherent in conducting community-based research within a case study of sea turtle conservation in Baja California, Mexico. A brief background, including the general ecology, status and distribution of sea turtles of the Baja peninsula is presented, with an overview of the current and historic use and management of sea turtles. Several sets of theories provide the context within which the case example is analyzed. A discussion of how concepts of "science" and "knowledge" are shaped and how these perceptions impact choices made in natural resource management and planning is presented. This includes a brief discussion of conservation ethics and conservation rationale, as well as a review of the debates surrounding indigenous knowledge and its application in conservation. A review of community-based efforts in sea turtle conservation is also presented. The data and analysis offered in this thesis is the result of two field seasons working as a member of an interdisciplinary sea turtle conservation team: conducting biological studies, surveys, informal and semi-structured interviews and participant observation. The major goal of this research project was to evaluate a people-oriented approach to conservation. The objectives of the Baja sea turtle conservation project included: the involvement of fishing communities in the development of conservation projects, the involvement of local students and fishermen in the collection of data and the public sharing of research results on a regular basis. Results of this case study suggest that through dependence on the host community for food, equipment, labor and guidance a special connection was established, fostering trust and building the partnerships necessary for long-term conservation success. For this reason, fishermen and other members of the local host communities were more willing to cooperate with outsiders and share their intimate knowledge of their environment - including information on the daily movements and distribution of sea turtles. It is crucial that the fishermen feel empowered before they choose to participate in the sea turtle conservation efforts. They must be viewed, and view themselves, as an integral part of the conservation team contributing valuable knowledge and ideas, not just acting as boat drivers and guides for outside researchers within the host community. Community meetings served as an outlet to voice concerns and share information. The active involvement and participation of local communities is a highly effective tool in the sea turtle conservation efforts in the region. Close

• 369. [Article] A study of health insurance coverage and health care utilization in North Dakota

  Access to health care in North Dakota, a frontier state, has been a widely debated policy issue. Historically, the focus of North Dakota health policy efforts has been directed to issues pertaining to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A study of health insurance coverage and health care utilization in North Dakota Author: Knudson-Buresh, Alana Access to health care in North Dakota, a frontier state, has been a widely debated policy issue. Historically, the focus of North Dakota health policy efforts has been directed to issues pertaining to the provision of health care services. During the economic recession of the I 980s, an out-migration of North Dakota residents left the state with a smaller population in 1990 than it had in 1930, the only state to experience this population shift. In response to these demographic shifts, the North Dakota Health Task Force was formed to develop a health care reform strategy that addressed geographical and financial health care access issues. Over 2,000 North Dakota families were surveyed to provide the Task Force and other policy makers with information about North Dakota residents' health insurance coverage and health care utilization. The purpose of this research was to examine what variables impact access to health insurance coverage and utilization of health care services in North Dakota. Three access areas were addressed: financial, geographical and cultural. To examine financial access, health insurance coverage was examined. Among the non-institutionalized ND residents, the greatest proportion of uninsured were young adults; although, all North Dakotans were found to be at risk. The health insurance findings mirrored many other studies' findings in which males, part-time workers and rural dwellers were the most likely to go without insurance. In addition, health insurance appears to serve as a gatekeeper for obtaining health care services. A surprising finding was that geographic barriers were not a hindrance to obtaining health care. Yet, Native Americans covered by Indian Health Service were less likely to obtain health care than the uninsured indicating there may be some cultural barriers for this population. Other findings included: the uninsured go without health care and report lower health status more frequently than the insured; poverty level is positively correlated with health status; among those with no regular source of health care, the insured report they do not need health care while the uninsured report they cannot afford it. Comparisons of rural and urban dwellers also are included in the analyses. Title: A study of health insurance coverage and health care utilization in North Dakota Author: Knudson-Buresh, Alana Access to health care in North Dakota, a frontier state, has been a widely debated policy issue. Historically, the focus of North Dakota health policy efforts has been directed to issues pertaining to the provision of health care services. During the economic recession of the I 980s, an out-migration of North Dakota residents left the state with a smaller population in 1990 than it had in 1930, the only state to experience this population shift. In response to these demographic shifts, the North Dakota Health Task Force was formed to develop a health care reform strategy that addressed geographical and financial health care access issues. Over 2,000 North Dakota families were surveyed to provide the Task Force and other policy makers with information about North Dakota residents' health insurance coverage and health care utilization. The purpose of this research was to examine what variables impact access to health insurance coverage and utilization of health care services in North Dakota. Three access areas were addressed: financial, geographical and cultural. To examine financial access, health insurance coverage was examined. Among the non-institutionalized ND residents, the greatest proportion of uninsured were young adults; although, all North Dakotans were found to be at risk. The health insurance findings mirrored many other studies' findings in which males, part-time workers and rural dwellers were the most likely to go without insurance. In addition, health insurance appears to serve as a gatekeeper for obtaining health care services. A surprising finding was that geographic barriers were not a hindrance to obtaining health care. Yet, Native Americans covered by Indian Health Service were less likely to obtain health care than the uninsured indicating there may be some cultural barriers for this population. Other findings included: the uninsured go without health care and report lower health status more frequently than the insured; poverty level is positively correlated with health status; among those with no regular source of health care, the insured report they do not need health care while the uninsured report they cannot afford it. Comparisons of rural and urban dwellers also are included in the analyses. Close

• 370. [Article] A methodology for analysis of historic textiles Ancon, Peru

  Twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles in the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department (AIM) of Oregon State University were reported to be from Ancon, Peru. A methodology was developed to confirm ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A methodology for analysis of historic textiles Ancon, Peru Author: Ishikawa, Sally Jo Twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles in the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department (AIM) of Oregon State University were reported to be from Ancon, Peru. A methodology was developed to confirm the exact provenance of the AIM textiles. Technical fabrication characteristics were utilized to describe certain known Ancon woven textiles and to analyze the twenty-four AIM textiles; then comparisons were attempted between the two groups to determine if internal patterns for each were identical. A literature and collection survey identified ten documented reports of known Ancon woven textiles. The previously recorded information of the known Ancon pieces was summarized. Technical fabrication characteristics for each AIM textile were observed and recorded. The technical fabrication characteristics included weave structure, thread count, fiber content, direction of spin, ply, degree of twist, yarn diameter, color and motif. Frequencies and especially developed analysis tools were utilized to identify internal patterns. Hypothesis 1 stated that information about the technical fabrication elements of Ancon woven textiles in certain other collections can be organized into integrated patterns. Hypothesis 1 was not supported because data recorded on Ancon woven textiles was incomplete, and therefore only able to give limited frequencies. Hypothesis 2 was supported: The twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles from the Costume and Textile Collection of the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department of Oregon State University will have similar patterns in technical fabrication elements. An analysis tool was developed to show patterns within technical fabrication elements. Thread count, direction of spin, ply, and degree of twist exhibited internal patterns. Hypothesis 3 stated that the provenance of twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles, from the Costume and Textile Collection of the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department of Oregon State University is Ancon, Peru. This hypothesis could not be tested because technical fabrication patterns for the known Ancon weavings were not complete and could not be statistically analyzed. Even though the two sets of data populations (data from known Ancon textiles and data from the AIM collection) could not be compared statistically, some information was gained by a review and comparison of simple frequencies of internal patterns. Thread count frequencies for both populations exhibited internal patterns. Title: A methodology for analysis of historic textiles Ancon, Peru Author: Ishikawa, Sally Jo Twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles in the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department (AIM) of Oregon State University were reported to be from Ancon, Peru. A methodology was developed to confirm the exact provenance of the AIM textiles. Technical fabrication characteristics were utilized to describe certain known Ancon woven textiles and to analyze the twenty-four AIM textiles; then comparisons were attempted between the two groups to determine if internal patterns for each were identical. A literature and collection survey identified ten documented reports of known Ancon woven textiles. The previously recorded information of the known Ancon pieces was summarized. Technical fabrication characteristics for each AIM textile were observed and recorded. The technical fabrication characteristics included weave structure, thread count, fiber content, direction of spin, ply, degree of twist, yarn diameter, color and motif. Frequencies and especially developed analysis tools were utilized to identify internal patterns. Hypothesis 1 stated that information about the technical fabrication elements of Ancon woven textiles in certain other collections can be organized into integrated patterns. Hypothesis 1 was not supported because data recorded on Ancon woven textiles was incomplete, and therefore only able to give limited frequencies. Hypothesis 2 was supported: The twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles from the Costume and Textile Collection of the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department of Oregon State University will have similar patterns in technical fabrication elements. An analysis tool was developed to show patterns within technical fabrication elements. Thread count, direction of spin, ply, and degree of twist exhibited internal patterns. Hypothesis 3 stated that the provenance of twenty-four woven Pre-Columbian textiles, from the Costume and Textile Collection of the Apparel, Interiors and Merchandising Department of Oregon State University is Ancon, Peru. This hypothesis could not be tested because technical fabrication patterns for the known Ancon weavings were not complete and could not be statistically analyzed. Even though the two sets of data populations (data from known Ancon textiles and data from the AIM collection) could not be compared statistically, some information was gained by a review and comparison of simple frequencies of internal patterns. Thread count frequencies for both populations exhibited internal patterns. Close

• 371. [Article] Women of valor : the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur, St. Paul, Oregon, 1844-1852

  In 1986, researchers from Oregon State University, led by Dr. David Brauner, came to the small Catholic community of St. Paul, Oregon as part of ongoing research on the French-Canadian inhabitants of the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Women of valor : the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur, St. Paul, Oregon, 1844-1852 Author: Poet, Rebecca McClelland In 1986, researchers from Oregon State University, led by Dr. David Brauner, came to the small Catholic community of St. Paul, Oregon as part of ongoing research on the French-Canadian inhabitants of the Willamette Valley between 1829 and the mid-1860s. They were searching for the remains of the first Catholic Mission in the Pacific Northwest. What they found was a cellar belonging to nuns who ran a boarding school for the daughters of the French-Canadians between 1844 and 1852. These women were upper-middle class Belgians belonging to the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur order. The purpose of this research was to examine the archaeological data recovered from this project to see whether this novel situation was recognizable in the archaeological record. Secondly the objective was to intensively review the written record to determine details regarding the daily lives of these women. The final objective was to see what the combination of literature and archaeology can reveal about the texture of their lives. The research was divided into three phases: field archaeology, literature search, and artifact analysis. Field archaeology was accomplished over two field seasons and included pedestrian survey and surface collection and test pit and block excavation. Artifact analysis was loosely structured on a functional classification developed by Roderick Sprague. Artifacts were broken into three study units: block excavation, surface collection, and test pit excavation. Six Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur set foot on the shores of the Oregon Territory on August 1, 1844. They were the first Catholic nuns to come to the Pacific Northwest. Coming at the invitation of Father Francis Norbert Blanchet, they set up a boarding school for the daughters of the retired French-Canadian fur trappers who had settled in the Willamette Valley. Their school was in the small Catholic community of St. Paul. During their short stay in St. Paul they taught school while learning to survive. They developed skills such as bread-making, clothes washing, carpentry, livestock husbandry, and gardening. They left the Willamette Valley in 1852 and moved to San Jose in California where they established a college. The written record shows that the site where the Sisters lived served a dual function as a religious and educational facility and as a homestead. Archaeological evidence exists for the educational facility and homestead, but the religious aspect of the site was not apparent. The historical record shows that the inhabitants of the site were unique individuals within the location of French Prairie. The archaeology supports this, but does not definitively indicate gender, class, or ethnicity. Title: Women of valor : the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur, St. Paul, Oregon, 1844-1852 Author: Poet, Rebecca McClelland In 1986, researchers from Oregon State University, led by Dr. David Brauner, came to the small Catholic community of St. Paul, Oregon as part of ongoing research on the French-Canadian inhabitants of the Willamette Valley between 1829 and the mid-1860s. They were searching for the remains of the first Catholic Mission in the Pacific Northwest. What they found was a cellar belonging to nuns who ran a boarding school for the daughters of the French-Canadians between 1844 and 1852. These women were upper-middle class Belgians belonging to the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur order. The purpose of this research was to examine the archaeological data recovered from this project to see whether this novel situation was recognizable in the archaeological record. Secondly the objective was to intensively review the written record to determine details regarding the daily lives of these women. The final objective was to see what the combination of literature and archaeology can reveal about the texture of their lives. The research was divided into three phases: field archaeology, literature search, and artifact analysis. Field archaeology was accomplished over two field seasons and included pedestrian survey and surface collection and test pit and block excavation. Artifact analysis was loosely structured on a functional classification developed by Roderick Sprague. Artifacts were broken into three study units: block excavation, surface collection, and test pit excavation. Six Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur set foot on the shores of the Oregon Territory on August 1, 1844. They were the first Catholic nuns to come to the Pacific Northwest. Coming at the invitation of Father Francis Norbert Blanchet, they set up a boarding school for the daughters of the retired French-Canadian fur trappers who had settled in the Willamette Valley. Their school was in the small Catholic community of St. Paul. During their short stay in St. Paul they taught school while learning to survive. They developed skills such as bread-making, clothes washing, carpentry, livestock husbandry, and gardening. They left the Willamette Valley in 1852 and moved to San Jose in California where they established a college. The written record shows that the site where the Sisters lived served a dual function as a religious and educational facility and as a homestead. Archaeological evidence exists for the educational facility and homestead, but the religious aspect of the site was not apparent. The historical record shows that the inhabitants of the site were unique individuals within the location of French Prairie. The archaeology supports this, but does not definitively indicate gender, class, or ethnicity. Close

• 372. [Article] The effect of precipitation variation on soil moisture, soil nitrogen, nitrogen response and winter wheat yields in eastern Oregon

  The semi-arid regions of the Pacific Northwest are characterized by a high degree of annual temperature and precipitation variation. As a result of this climatic variation, dryland nitrogen fertilizer ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effect of precipitation variation on soil moisture, soil nitrogen, nitrogen response and winter wheat yields in eastern Oregon Author: Glenn, D. M. (David Michael) The semi-arid regions of the Pacific Northwest are characterized by a high degree of annual temperature and precipitation variation. As a result of this climatic variation, dryland nitrogen fertilizer trials on fallow- ,wheat rotations typically demonstrate a variable response. Wheat growers in the area must not only cope with this climatic variation and its sundry effects upon their livelihood, they must also make decisions regarding the future level of anticipated climatic variation. The specific objectives were to: 1) develop a climatically responsive yield potential prediction model for soft white winter wheat from historical data at the Sherman Branch Experiment Station (Moro, OR); 2) modify this model for use on commercial fields; 3) field simulate five fallow-crop precipitation patterns characteristic of the variation found in the Sherman county area of eastern Oregon in order to test the yield potential model: 4) examine the effects of precipitation variation on nitrogen fertilizer responses, moisture storage and depletion and nitrogen mineralization; and 5) establish a quantitative relationship between precipitation/ soil moisture and nitrate accumulation in both the fallow and crop seasons. Two interacting regression models were developed to estimate grain yield levels in the 250-350 mm precipitation zone of eastern Oregon. The first model estimates yield potential from monthly precipitation and temperature values. The second model estimates the percent grain reduction due to delayed crop emergence. The grain yield model was adapted to commercial fields using a Productivity Index factor (PI). The PI is a measure of the productivity of other locations in relation to the Sherman Branch Experiment Station, using water-use-efficiency (WUE) as the basis of comparison. The field simulation of five fallow-crop precipitation patterns demonstrated that the maximum grain yield response occurred at 40 kg N (soil + fertilizer)/metric ton. The grain yield model demonstrated a 15% level of accuracy on a commercial field basis in both field trials and a survey of past production levels (1972-1980). It was hypothesized that the distribution of precipitation in the fallow and crop periods had an effect on both the amount and distribution of stored soil moisture. The field simulation demonstrated that more soil moisture was stored at the 90-240 cm depths by the patterns with more fallow season precipitation when measured in March of the crop year. Soil moisture storage and storage efficiencies fluctuated throughout the fallow and crop periods. At the cessation of the winter precipitation season in both the fallow and crop periods (March), the storage efficiency was highest when low levels of precipitation occurred. At this point in time, the mean crop period storage efficiency was 10% below the mean fallow period storage efficiency (34 and 44%, respectively) in both simulation studies. Soil moisture, temperature and immobilization requirements of crop residues interact to affect the net amount of nitrogen mineralization. The mineralization model proposed by Stanford and Smith (1972) was tested under field conditions. When the nitrogen immobilization requirement of the crop residues was included, the actual and predicted values were in agreement at the close of the 1978 fallow period. A nitrogen deficit was predicted at the 0-30 cm depth at the close of the 1980 fallow; however, the actual levels indicated a net accumulation of nitrate-nitrogen. Crop season mineralization, inferred from Mitscherlick and a-value extrapolations, in 1979 demonstrated that there was a decreasing amount of net mineralization during the crop season with increasing amounts of both fallow and crop season precipitation. Crop season mineralization in 1980 indicated that there was no net accumulation of nitrogen, rather a tie-up of 14 kg N/ha. This result reflects both the unsatisfied immobilization requirement predicted for the 1979 fallow season and crop season denitrification. Title: The effect of precipitation variation on soil moisture, soil nitrogen, nitrogen response and winter wheat yields in eastern Oregon Author: Glenn, D. M. (David Michael) The semi-arid regions of the Pacific Northwest are characterized by a high degree of annual temperature and precipitation variation. As a result of this climatic variation, dryland nitrogen fertilizer trials on fallow- ,wheat rotations typically demonstrate a variable response. Wheat growers in the area must not only cope with this climatic variation and its sundry effects upon their livelihood, they must also make decisions regarding the future level of anticipated climatic variation. The specific objectives were to: 1) develop a climatically responsive yield potential prediction model for soft white winter wheat from historical data at the Sherman Branch Experiment Station (Moro, OR); 2) modify this model for use on commercial fields; 3) field simulate five fallow-crop precipitation patterns characteristic of the variation found in the Sherman county area of eastern Oregon in order to test the yield potential model: 4) examine the effects of precipitation variation on nitrogen fertilizer responses, moisture storage and depletion and nitrogen mineralization; and 5) establish a quantitative relationship between precipitation/ soil moisture and nitrate accumulation in both the fallow and crop seasons. Two interacting regression models were developed to estimate grain yield levels in the 250-350 mm precipitation zone of eastern Oregon. The first model estimates yield potential from monthly precipitation and temperature values. The second model estimates the percent grain reduction due to delayed crop emergence. The grain yield model was adapted to commercial fields using a Productivity Index factor (PI). The PI is a measure of the productivity of other locations in relation to the Sherman Branch Experiment Station, using water-use-efficiency (WUE) as the basis of comparison. The field simulation of five fallow-crop precipitation patterns demonstrated that the maximum grain yield response occurred at 40 kg N (soil + fertilizer)/metric ton. The grain yield model demonstrated a 15% level of accuracy on a commercial field basis in both field trials and a survey of past production levels (1972-1980). It was hypothesized that the distribution of precipitation in the fallow and crop periods had an effect on both the amount and distribution of stored soil moisture. The field simulation demonstrated that more soil moisture was stored at the 90-240 cm depths by the patterns with more fallow season precipitation when measured in March of the crop year. Soil moisture storage and storage efficiencies fluctuated throughout the fallow and crop periods. At the cessation of the winter precipitation season in both the fallow and crop periods (March), the storage efficiency was highest when low levels of precipitation occurred. At this point in time, the mean crop period storage efficiency was 10% below the mean fallow period storage efficiency (34 and 44%, respectively) in both simulation studies. Soil moisture, temperature and immobilization requirements of crop residues interact to affect the net amount of nitrogen mineralization. The mineralization model proposed by Stanford and Smith (1972) was tested under field conditions. When the nitrogen immobilization requirement of the crop residues was included, the actual and predicted values were in agreement at the close of the 1978 fallow period. A nitrogen deficit was predicted at the 0-30 cm depth at the close of the 1980 fallow; however, the actual levels indicated a net accumulation of nitrate-nitrogen. Crop season mineralization, inferred from Mitscherlick and a-value extrapolations, in 1979 demonstrated that there was a decreasing amount of net mineralization during the crop season with increasing amounts of both fallow and crop season precipitation. Crop season mineralization in 1980 indicated that there was no net accumulation of nitrogen, rather a tie-up of 14 kg N/ha. This result reflects both the unsatisfied immobilization requirement predicted for the 1979 fallow season and crop season denitrification. Close

• 373. [Article] Synecological features of a natural headland prairie on the Oregon coast

  The study of the vegetation of one of the natural coastal prairies in Oregon was undertaken for the purpose of describing some of its synecological features. Specific objectives of the study were to describe ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Synecological features of a natural headland prairie on the Oregon coast Author: Davidson, Eric Duncan The study of the vegetation of one of the natural coastal prairies in Oregon was undertaken for the purpose of describing some of its synecological features. Specific objectives of the study were to describe certain plant assemblages in the study area, present phenological relationships on some of the assemblages, and discuss and illustrate some examples of evidence of succession on the study area. The study area is a prairie located on a headland about one mile north of the Tillamook-Lincoln county line (Sec. 3 in T6S, R11W). This prairie is one of the many situated on the headland bluffs and slopes along the northern Pacific coast. During an initial period of reconnaissance, familiarization with the plant species and communities in the study area was gained. Several surveys along most of the Oregon coast were made to compare the study area with other coastal prairies. A total of 38 distinctive stands of vegetation within the prairie were sampled in a series of five repetitive sessions from January to October in 1966. Presence and vegetative cover of species were recorded. In addition, soil depths in these stands were recorded. Seven transects from the prairie through the ecotone to the forest were established and the presence of species along them was recorded. With the aid of an association table five distinctive communities were differentiated in the sampled stands. These were: 1. Equisetum maximum community, restricted to sites with high soil moisture during the entire year. 2. Polystichum munitum-Rubus parviflorus community, usually on soils 18 inches deep or less. Species in this community form the major part of the ecotone vegetation. 3. Carex obnupta community, usually on soils 12 inches deep or less. Carex is the only important species in this community. 4. Artemisia suksdorfii-Solidago canadensis community, found on the exposed, south-facing end of the prairie on deep soils. It is a community found commonly in prairies farther north on the coast. 5. Solidago canadensis community, situated farther up in the prairie than the Artemisia-Solidago community, on deep soils. It was judged to be an earlier successional stage of the Artemisia-Solidago community. Two more groups were apparent in the table, but these were judged not to be distinct communities in the field. These were: 6. Lupinus littoralis group, considered part of the internal pattern of one or more of the large grassy communities not sampled. The peculiar grouping of Lupinus littoralis is attributed to the large, heavy seeds of that species which always drop directly to the ground, rather than being distributed farther by the wind. 7. Angelica lucida-Rubus spectabilis group, judged to be an aberrant form of the Polystichum-Rubus parviflorus community. A discussion of successional aspects of this and other coastal prairies on the Pacific coast was based on the results of field work carried out during this study, a knowledge of activities on this prairie from 1916 to the present time, and on historical accounts and old photographs concerning the coastal vegetation. It was tentatively concluded that the coastal prairies were maintained for long periods in the past mostly by fires set by the coastal Indians who lived on them. When the white settlers arrived with their cattle and sheep, many prairies, including the study area, were maintained by grazing pressure, and the spread of hardy introduced grasses was encouraged. The stands sampled in the study area were thought to have become established during a period of no stock grazing from 1938 to the present time. It was suggested that the Polystichum munitum-Rubus parviflorus community may provide sites for the growth of Picea sitchensis within this prairie. Title: Synecological features of a natural headland prairie on the Oregon coast Author: Davidson, Eric Duncan The study of the vegetation of one of the natural coastal prairies in Oregon was undertaken for the purpose of describing some of its synecological features. Specific objectives of the study were to describe certain plant assemblages in the study area, present phenological relationships on some of the assemblages, and discuss and illustrate some examples of evidence of succession on the study area. The study area is a prairie located on a headland about one mile north of the Tillamook-Lincoln county line (Sec. 3 in T6S, R11W). This prairie is one of the many situated on the headland bluffs and slopes along the northern Pacific coast. During an initial period of reconnaissance, familiarization with the plant species and communities in the study area was gained. Several surveys along most of the Oregon coast were made to compare the study area with other coastal prairies. A total of 38 distinctive stands of vegetation within the prairie were sampled in a series of five repetitive sessions from January to October in 1966. Presence and vegetative cover of species were recorded. In addition, soil depths in these stands were recorded. Seven transects from the prairie through the ecotone to the forest were established and the presence of species along them was recorded. With the aid of an association table five distinctive communities were differentiated in the sampled stands. These were: 1. Equisetum maximum community, restricted to sites with high soil moisture during the entire year. 2. Polystichum munitum-Rubus parviflorus community, usually on soils 18 inches deep or less. Species in this community form the major part of the ecotone vegetation. 3. Carex obnupta community, usually on soils 12 inches deep or less. Carex is the only important species in this community. 4. Artemisia suksdorfii-Solidago canadensis community, found on the exposed, south-facing end of the prairie on deep soils. It is a community found commonly in prairies farther north on the coast. 5. Solidago canadensis community, situated farther up in the prairie than the Artemisia-Solidago community, on deep soils. It was judged to be an earlier successional stage of the Artemisia-Solidago community. Two more groups were apparent in the table, but these were judged not to be distinct communities in the field. These were: 6. Lupinus littoralis group, considered part of the internal pattern of one or more of the large grassy communities not sampled. The peculiar grouping of Lupinus littoralis is attributed to the large, heavy seeds of that species which always drop directly to the ground, rather than being distributed farther by the wind. 7. Angelica lucida-Rubus spectabilis group, judged to be an aberrant form of the Polystichum-Rubus parviflorus community. A discussion of successional aspects of this and other coastal prairies on the Pacific coast was based on the results of field work carried out during this study, a knowledge of activities on this prairie from 1916 to the present time, and on historical accounts and old photographs concerning the coastal vegetation. It was tentatively concluded that the coastal prairies were maintained for long periods in the past mostly by fires set by the coastal Indians who lived on them. When the white settlers arrived with their cattle and sheep, many prairies, including the study area, were maintained by grazing pressure, and the spread of hardy introduced grasses was encouraged. The stands sampled in the study area were thought to have become established during a period of no stock grazing from 1938 to the present time. It was suggested that the Polystichum munitum-Rubus parviflorus community may provide sites for the growth of Picea sitchensis within this prairie. Close

• 374. [Article] Hybrid approach to estimating nearshore bathymetry using remote sensing

  The characterization of bathymetry and its time evolution is very important for both oceanographic science applications, and for societal reasons relating to coastal engineering and development. Historically, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hybrid approach to estimating nearshore bathymetry using remote sensing Author: Catalán Mondaca, Patricio A. The characterization of bathymetry and its time evolution is very important for both oceanographic science applications, and for societal reasons relating to coastal engineering and development. Historically, the process of depth surveying has been costly and labor-intensive. This is especially true in nearshore regions, hence a method that is both economic and reliable is of great interest. In this regard, depth inversion techniques take advantage of the interaction between the surface wave field and the underlying bathymetry such that observations of surface wave propagation can be coupled with a dispersion relation to infer bathymetry. Using field measurements, several different types of wave observation data have been tested in inversion methods, e.g. arrays of pressure sensors (Holland, 2001), marine radar (Bell, 1999), aerial photogrammetry (Dugan et al., 2001) and video imagery (Stockdon and Holman, 2000). Typically, these studies use the linear wave dispersion relation and measured wave phase speeds (c) to perform the inversion, and agreement is generally good in intermediate water depths in the absence of currents; errors increase as waves enter shallow water, increase in nonlinearity, and eventually break. In addition, numerical techniques exist that account for some nonlinear processes (e.g. Kennedy et al., 2000b; Misra et al., 2003) but they require more input data, usually in the form of high resolution free surface measurements. These nonlinear methods can potentially make improved depth estimates, however, they have only been tested with synthetic data. In this study, we undertake a novel approach for investigating phase speeds of nonlinear waves and the potential for using them for depth inversions. The approach is novel in the sense that our observational data set consists of both in situ and remotely sensed data and also high resolution numerical data for interpolating between the in situ measurements. Our observations were made from a set of laboratory experiments conducted in large scale wave flume. Laboratory wave conditions included both regular and random waves and a range of wave heights and periods were considered. The final data set used for the depth inversion algorithm was reduced to regular cases only. The wave height profile H(x) is simulated with high spatial resolution using a combined refraction/difraction model REF/DIF1 (Kirby and Dairymple, 1994), where the in situ data is used for calibration. Next, wave parameters such as phase speed, wavenumber and frequency are estimated based on the remote video measurements. The resulting hybrid data set is used as input for performing depth inversion including nonlinearity using the composite dispersion relation of Kirby and Dalrymple (1986). Results indicate that inclusion of nonlinearity significantly improves the retrieved depths, especially in shallow water. The resulting degree of accuracy is comparable with previous observations for intermediate water. Analysis of the error suggests that the main source of error can be attributed to the phase speed estimation, thus it is apparent that the composite dispersion equation is capable of explaining the principal physical process well. Title: Hybrid approach to estimating nearshore bathymetry using remote sensing Author: Catalán Mondaca, Patricio A. The characterization of bathymetry and its time evolution is very important for both oceanographic science applications, and for societal reasons relating to coastal engineering and development. Historically, the process of depth surveying has been costly and labor-intensive. This is especially true in nearshore regions, hence a method that is both economic and reliable is of great interest. In this regard, depth inversion techniques take advantage of the interaction between the surface wave field and the underlying bathymetry such that observations of surface wave propagation can be coupled with a dispersion relation to infer bathymetry. Using field measurements, several different types of wave observation data have been tested in inversion methods, e.g. arrays of pressure sensors (Holland, 2001), marine radar (Bell, 1999), aerial photogrammetry (Dugan et al., 2001) and video imagery (Stockdon and Holman, 2000). Typically, these studies use the linear wave dispersion relation and measured wave phase speeds (c) to perform the inversion, and agreement is generally good in intermediate water depths in the absence of currents; errors increase as waves enter shallow water, increase in nonlinearity, and eventually break. In addition, numerical techniques exist that account for some nonlinear processes (e.g. Kennedy et al., 2000b; Misra et al., 2003) but they require more input data, usually in the form of high resolution free surface measurements. These nonlinear methods can potentially make improved depth estimates, however, they have only been tested with synthetic data. In this study, we undertake a novel approach for investigating phase speeds of nonlinear waves and the potential for using them for depth inversions. The approach is novel in the sense that our observational data set consists of both in situ and remotely sensed data and also high resolution numerical data for interpolating between the in situ measurements. Our observations were made from a set of laboratory experiments conducted in large scale wave flume. Laboratory wave conditions included both regular and random waves and a range of wave heights and periods were considered. The final data set used for the depth inversion algorithm was reduced to regular cases only. The wave height profile H(x) is simulated with high spatial resolution using a combined refraction/difraction model REF/DIF1 (Kirby and Dairymple, 1994), where the in situ data is used for calibration. Next, wave parameters such as phase speed, wavenumber and frequency are estimated based on the remote video measurements. The resulting hybrid data set is used as input for performing depth inversion including nonlinearity using the composite dispersion relation of Kirby and Dalrymple (1986). Results indicate that inclusion of nonlinearity significantly improves the retrieved depths, especially in shallow water. The resulting degree of accuracy is comparable with previous observations for intermediate water. Analysis of the error suggests that the main source of error can be attributed to the phase speed estimation, thus it is apparent that the composite dispersion equation is capable of explaining the principal physical process well. Close

• 375. [Article] Tidal and atmospheric forcing of the upper ocean in the Gulf of California, Part 2: Surface heat flux

  Satellite infrared imagery and coastal meteorological data for March 1984 through February 1985 are used to estimate the net annual surface heat flux for the northern Gulf of California. The average annual ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Tidal and atmospheric forcing of the upper ocean in the Gulf of California, Part 2: Surface heat flux Author: Abbott, Mark R., Winant, Clinton D., Paden, Cynthia A. Satellite infrared imagery and coastal meteorological data for March 1984 through February 1985 are used to estimate the net annual surface heat flux for the northern Gulf of California. The average annual surface heat flux for the area north of Guaymas and Santa Rosalia is estimated to be +74 W m-2 for the 1984–1985 time period. This is comparable to the +20–50 W m-2 previously obtained from heat and freshwater transport estimates made with hydrographic surveys from different years and months. The spatial distribution of the net surface heat flux shows a net gain of heat over the whole northern gulf. Except for a local maximum near San Esteban Island, the largest heat gain (+110–120 W m-2) occurs in the Ballenas and Salsipuedes channels, where strong tidal mixing produces anomalously cold sea surface temperatures (SSTs) over much of the year. The lowest heat gain occurs in the Guaymas Basin (+40–50 W m-2), where SSTs are consistently warmer. In the relatively shallow northern basin the net surface heat flux is fairly uniform, with a net annual gain of approximately +70 W m-2. A local minimum in heat gain (approximately +60 W m-2) is observed over the shelf in the northwest, where spring and summer surface temperatures are particularly high. A similar minimum in heat gain over the shelf was observed in a separate study in which historical SSTs and 7 years (1979–1986) of meteorological data from Puerto Penasco were used to estimate the net surface heat flux for the northern basin. In that study, however, the heat fluxes were higher, with a gain of +100 W m-2 over the shelf and +114 W m-2 in the northern basin. These larger values are directly attributable to the higher humidities in the 1979–1986 study compared to the 1984-1985 satellite study. Significant interannual variations in humidity appear to occur in the northern gulf, with relatively high humidities during El Niño years and low humidities during anti-El Niño years. High humidities reduce evaporation and the associated latent heat loss, promoting a net annual heat gain. In the northern Gulf of California, however, tidal mixing appears to play a key role in the observed gain of heat. Deep mixing in the island region produces a persistent pool of cold water which is mixed horizontally by the large-scale circulation, lowering surface temperatures over most of the northern gulf. These cold SSTs decrease evaporation by reducing the saturation vapor pressure of the overlying air. As a result, heat loss is substantially reduced, even when humidities are low. By removing heat from the surface, tidal mixing alters the time scale of air-sea interaction and reduces or possibly even inhibits the formation of deep water masses via convection. Over climatological timescales, it may be tidal mixing that ultimately maintains the estuarinelike circulation in the northern Gulf of California, differentiating it from the Mediterranean and Red seas, which lose heat to the atmosphere. Title: Tidal and atmospheric forcing of the upper ocean in the Gulf of California, Part 2: Surface heat flux Author: Abbott, Mark R., Winant, Clinton D., Paden, Cynthia A. Satellite infrared imagery and coastal meteorological data for March 1984 through February 1985 are used to estimate the net annual surface heat flux for the northern Gulf of California. The average annual surface heat flux for the area north of Guaymas and Santa Rosalia is estimated to be +74 W m-2 for the 1984–1985 time period. This is comparable to the +20–50 W m-2 previously obtained from heat and freshwater transport estimates made with hydrographic surveys from different years and months. The spatial distribution of the net surface heat flux shows a net gain of heat over the whole northern gulf. Except for a local maximum near San Esteban Island, the largest heat gain (+110–120 W m-2) occurs in the Ballenas and Salsipuedes channels, where strong tidal mixing produces anomalously cold sea surface temperatures (SSTs) over much of the year. The lowest heat gain occurs in the Guaymas Basin (+40–50 W m-2), where SSTs are consistently warmer. In the relatively shallow northern basin the net surface heat flux is fairly uniform, with a net annual gain of approximately +70 W m-2. A local minimum in heat gain (approximately +60 W m-2) is observed over the shelf in the northwest, where spring and summer surface temperatures are particularly high. A similar minimum in heat gain over the shelf was observed in a separate study in which historical SSTs and 7 years (1979–1986) of meteorological data from Puerto Penasco were used to estimate the net surface heat flux for the northern basin. In that study, however, the heat fluxes were higher, with a gain of +100 W m-2 over the shelf and +114 W m-2 in the northern basin. These larger values are directly attributable to the higher humidities in the 1979–1986 study compared to the 1984-1985 satellite study. Significant interannual variations in humidity appear to occur in the northern gulf, with relatively high humidities during El Niño years and low humidities during anti-El Niño years. High humidities reduce evaporation and the associated latent heat loss, promoting a net annual heat gain. In the northern Gulf of California, however, tidal mixing appears to play a key role in the observed gain of heat. Deep mixing in the island region produces a persistent pool of cold water which is mixed horizontally by the large-scale circulation, lowering surface temperatures over most of the northern gulf. These cold SSTs decrease evaporation by reducing the saturation vapor pressure of the overlying air. As a result, heat loss is substantially reduced, even when humidities are low. By removing heat from the surface, tidal mixing alters the time scale of air-sea interaction and reduces or possibly even inhibits the formation of deep water masses via convection. Over climatological timescales, it may be tidal mixing that ultimately maintains the estuarinelike circulation in the northern Gulf of California, differentiating it from the Mediterranean and Red seas, which lose heat to the atmosphere. Close

• 376. [Article] Impacts of climate change and adaptation strategy selection under constrained conditions in Ben Tre province, Vietnam

  EEPSEA and World Fish Center

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Impacts of climate change and adaptation strategy selection under constrained conditions in Ben Tre province, Vietnam Author: Le, Huyen Trang EEPSEA and World Fish Center Title: Impacts of climate change and adaptation strategy selection under constrained conditions in Ben Tre province, Vietnam Author: Le, Huyen Trang EEPSEA and World Fish Center Close

• 377. [Article] Dynamics of Vector-Host Interactions in Avian Communities in Four Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Foci in the Northeastern US

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by the Public Library of Science. The published article can be found at: http://journals.plos.org/...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Dynamics of Vector-Host Interactions in Avian Communities in Four Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Foci in the Northeastern US Author: Molaei, Goudarz, Andreadis, Theodore G., Armstrong, Philip M., Muller, Tim, Thomas, Michael C., Shepard, John J., Medlock, Jan This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by the Public Library of Science. The published article can be found at: http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/ Title: Dynamics of Vector-Host Interactions in Avian Communities in Four Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Foci in the Northeastern US Author: Molaei, Goudarz, Andreadis, Theodore G., Armstrong, Philip M., Muller, Tim, Thomas, Michael C., Shepard, John J., Medlock, Jan This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by the Public Library of Science. The published article can be found at: http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/ Close

• 378. [Article] Canyon Grasslands of the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area : How have they changed over time and what is their future trajectory?

  The canyon grasslands of the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area (HCNRA) are a unique ecosystem within the Pacific Northwest Bunchgrass Region (PNWBR) with a long history of natural and anthropogenic ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Canyon Grasslands of the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area : How have they changed over time and what is their future trajectory? Author: Pack, Samantha J. The canyon grasslands of the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area (HCNRA) are a unique ecosystem within the Pacific Northwest Bunchgrass Region (PNWBR) with a long history of natural and anthropogenic disturbances including fire, invasive species introduction, historical livestock grazing, and cultivation. Even with this history, these canyon grasslands contain some of the last remnants of the Pacific Northwest Bunchgrass Region. For thousands of years, these grasslands were occupied by the Nez Perce Tribe and have been grazed since the 1700s. In addition to grazing, settlers cultivated many parts of the HCNRA and some of these homesteads can still be seen today. Both historical and current land uses are strongly influenced by the natural topography of these canyon grasslands, with the highest concentration of land use centered on benchlands while steep canyon slopes avoided cultivation and were used less by livestock. The different plant associations of these grasslands are also influenced by the unique topography of the HCNRA due to the relationships between soil moisture and depth and abrupt alterations in aspect, slope, and elevation. Very few studies have examined the plant associations of the canyon grasslands of the HCNRA, even fewer have asked how they have changed over time, and there are no studies looking into their future trajectory by assessing the seed bank. The first study in my thesis (Chapter 2) focused on how canyon grasslands have changed over time using a repeated survey of vegetation from four different plant associations within the Lower Imnaha Subbasin. From the original study conducted in 1981, a total of 19 different plots in four plant associations were chosen to be resampled in 2014. Since the original study was used to classify seral stages within the plant associations, these successional stages were used to determine if the plant communities had transitioned between the seral classes over the 33 year-time-period. In addition, given the importance of topography to these grasslands, elevation, slope, and aspect were evaluated for their relationship to successional changes. Both Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) and Indicator Species Analysis were used to verify the seral stage classifications for each plot in 1981 and 2014. To evaluate how each association had changed between sampling years, Multi-response Permutation Procedures (MRPP) and NMS were used. Most of these plant associations were relatively stable and had, for the most part, remained at the same seral stage or transitioned to a later seral stage. Among the plant associations, slope was the topographical variable that appeared most related to the transitions in seral stages. Steeper slopes either remained at the same seral stage or transitioned to a later one, while gentler slopes (< 20%) tended to shift from later to earlier seral stages. A relatively new introduced annual grass to the region, Ventenata dubia (not present in the 1981 sampling), was found in three of the four plant associations and was most abundant on the benchlands. The results of this resurvey suggest that topography is related to both the distribution of plant associations and which sites will shift in seral stage over time across the canyon grasslands of the Lower Imnaha Subbasin. The second study of my thesis (Chapter 3) focused on using a seed bank study as one of the many ways to examine the future trajectory of the plant communities in the canyon grasslands of the Lower Imnaha Subbasin, with a particular focus on the benchlands. The seed bank contains the regenerative pool for plant communities and represents the potential for a community to respond to disturbances. The seed bank from benchland sites in one plant association was evaluated in relation to the standing vegetation, successional stage, and historical cultivation. To my knowledge, this was the first seed bank study for the grasslands of this region. Vegetation cover and soil samples were collected from 8 sites, including two previously cultivated and two reference noncultivated sites. NMS was used to extract the strongest community gradients, which naturally separated out the seral stage classifications of the vegetation. To evaluate differences between the vegetation and the seed bank, between successional stages, and between cultivation histories, MRPP was used. Results from the seed bank study are consistent with many other studies around the world in perennial grasslands showing that the vegetation and seed bank are often dissimilar. Similarities between the vegetation and seed bank were highest in the annual grass dominated stage compared to the early seral stage. The effects of cultivation appear to still be evident in the seed bank, where cultivated sites have significantly more introduced grasses compared to noncultivated sites (p < 0.05). There was an overall greater abundance of introduced annual forb and grass species in the seed bank on these benchland sites, suggesting that they may be native seed limited and could easily shift to invasive species dominance after further disturbance, especially on previously cultivated areas. The results of both of these studies suggest that benchlands and lower sloped sites surrounding them in the canyon grasslands of the Lower Imnaha Subbasin may less resistant and resilient to disturbance. Priorities for future research and management may also need to focus on the plant communities of benchlands in these unique grasslands. Title: Canyon Grasslands of the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area : How have they changed over time and what is their future trajectory? Author: Pack, Samantha J. The canyon grasslands of the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area (HCNRA) are a unique ecosystem within the Pacific Northwest Bunchgrass Region (PNWBR) with a long history of natural and anthropogenic disturbances including fire, invasive species introduction, historical livestock grazing, and cultivation. Even with this history, these canyon grasslands contain some of the last remnants of the Pacific Northwest Bunchgrass Region. For thousands of years, these grasslands were occupied by the Nez Perce Tribe and have been grazed since the 1700s. In addition to grazing, settlers cultivated many parts of the HCNRA and some of these homesteads can still be seen today. Both historical and current land uses are strongly influenced by the natural topography of these canyon grasslands, with the highest concentration of land use centered on benchlands while steep canyon slopes avoided cultivation and were used less by livestock. The different plant associations of these grasslands are also influenced by the unique topography of the HCNRA due to the relationships between soil moisture and depth and abrupt alterations in aspect, slope, and elevation. Very few studies have examined the plant associations of the canyon grasslands of the HCNRA, even fewer have asked how they have changed over time, and there are no studies looking into their future trajectory by assessing the seed bank. The first study in my thesis (Chapter 2) focused on how canyon grasslands have changed over time using a repeated survey of vegetation from four different plant associations within the Lower Imnaha Subbasin. From the original study conducted in 1981, a total of 19 different plots in four plant associations were chosen to be resampled in 2014. Since the original study was used to classify seral stages within the plant associations, these successional stages were used to determine if the plant communities had transitioned between the seral classes over the 33 year-time-period. In addition, given the importance of topography to these grasslands, elevation, slope, and aspect were evaluated for their relationship to successional changes. Both Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) and Indicator Species Analysis were used to verify the seral stage classifications for each plot in 1981 and 2014. To evaluate how each association had changed between sampling years, Multi-response Permutation Procedures (MRPP) and NMS were used. Most of these plant associations were relatively stable and had, for the most part, remained at the same seral stage or transitioned to a later seral stage. Among the plant associations, slope was the topographical variable that appeared most related to the transitions in seral stages. Steeper slopes either remained at the same seral stage or transitioned to a later one, while gentler slopes (< 20%) tended to shift from later to earlier seral stages. A relatively new introduced annual grass to the region, Ventenata dubia (not present in the 1981 sampling), was found in three of the four plant associations and was most abundant on the benchlands. The results of this resurvey suggest that topography is related to both the distribution of plant associations and which sites will shift in seral stage over time across the canyon grasslands of the Lower Imnaha Subbasin. The second study of my thesis (Chapter 3) focused on using a seed bank study as one of the many ways to examine the future trajectory of the plant communities in the canyon grasslands of the Lower Imnaha Subbasin, with a particular focus on the benchlands. The seed bank contains the regenerative pool for plant communities and represents the potential for a community to respond to disturbances. The seed bank from benchland sites in one plant association was evaluated in relation to the standing vegetation, successional stage, and historical cultivation. To my knowledge, this was the first seed bank study for the grasslands of this region. Vegetation cover and soil samples were collected from 8 sites, including two previously cultivated and two reference noncultivated sites. NMS was used to extract the strongest community gradients, which naturally separated out the seral stage classifications of the vegetation. To evaluate differences between the vegetation and the seed bank, between successional stages, and between cultivation histories, MRPP was used. Results from the seed bank study are consistent with many other studies around the world in perennial grasslands showing that the vegetation and seed bank are often dissimilar. Similarities between the vegetation and seed bank were highest in the annual grass dominated stage compared to the early seral stage. The effects of cultivation appear to still be evident in the seed bank, where cultivated sites have significantly more introduced grasses compared to noncultivated sites (p < 0.05). There was an overall greater abundance of introduced annual forb and grass species in the seed bank on these benchland sites, suggesting that they may be native seed limited and could easily shift to invasive species dominance after further disturbance, especially on previously cultivated areas. The results of both of these studies suggest that benchlands and lower sloped sites surrounding them in the canyon grasslands of the Lower Imnaha Subbasin may less resistant and resilient to disturbance. Priorities for future research and management may also need to focus on the plant communities of benchlands in these unique grasslands. Close

• 379. [Article] The historic and contemporary ecology of western Cascade meadows : archeology, vegetation, and macromoth ecology

  Montane meadows in the western Cascades of Oregon occupy approximately 5% of the landscape, but contribute greatly to the region's biodiversity. Western Cascades meadows are dynamic parts of the landscape ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The historic and contemporary ecology of western Cascade meadows : archeology, vegetation, and macromoth ecology Author: Highland, Steven A. Montane meadows in the western Cascades of Oregon occupy approximately 5% of the landscape, but contribute greatly to the region's biodiversity. Western Cascades meadows are dynamic parts of the landscape and have contracted by over 50% in the past two hundred years in the HJ Andrews Experimental Forest (hereafter Andrews Forest). Many studies have linked the loss of meadows with local extirpation of species and loss of regional biodiversity, but these processes depend upon the factors that create and maintain meadows, and how species respond to meadow configuration. The prehistory of these meadows is poorly understood, as is the contemporary ecology. This study combined previously collected archeological and moth datasets, aerial photographs, and new plant, tree core, and moth data to investigate interactions between landforms, disturbance, vegetation, and moth abundance and diversity in montane meadows of the western Cascades of Oregon. Burning by prehistoric people may have created and maintained montane meadows, but relatively little evidence remains of the activities of prehistoric peoples in the western Cascades. This study assessed the extent to which prehistoric people preferentially used different landforms and vegetation types by inferring use from landscape distributions of archaeological sites. Descriptions of 359 previously recorded and four newly discovered archeological sites in the McKenzie River watershed of western Oregon were examined using GIS and chi-square analysis to determine how sites were distributed relative to classified vegetation and landforms of the 3700-km² McKenzie River watershed. The high ridges of the HJ Andrews Experimental Forest were analyzed using air photo change detection and archaeological field surveys to identify how archeological sites were distributed relative to landforms and vegetation communities, including meadows. The field surveys documented physical evidence (archeological sites) confirming Native American use of the meadows and surrounding open forests. The locations of these sites indicate that Native Americans utilized the edges between large open meadows and open forests, as well as gently sloping open meadows. The prior extent of meadows (before air photos) was estimated by dendrochronology of 220 trees along present-day and inferred past meadow edges. Forest age structure and the open-grown forms of Douglas fir suggests a much more open habitat, potentially due to fire, was present more than 200 years ago. Moths are major consumers of vegetation when in caterpillar stage and are food sources for many birds and mammals, and contribute greatly to the insect diversity in a region. Moth species richness and abundance may be associated with the distribution of vegetation communities and seasonal timing, and the conservation of rare moths may depend on the conservation of rare vegetation habitats. A dataset of moths sampled 10 times/year at 20 locations in the 64-km² Andrews Forest over the period 2004-2008 was analyzed using generalized linear mixed models (GLMM), non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS), multi-response permutation procedure (MRPP), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and two tailed t-test to identify the overall patterns of rare and common moth distribution as well as moth community relationships to structurally and taxonomically derived vegetation classes and seasonality. Five hundred fourteen species and 69,168 macromoth individuals were identified. Moth species abundance and diversity were significantly higher in low elevation coniferous forests than in other vegetation types, according to the GLMM. Sixty-six rare moth species were significantly associated with high elevation open habitats. Species associated with meadows also were significantly more likely to be hardwood or herb-feeders than conifer-feeders as caterpillars, based on ANOVAs. The 26 most common moth species were significantly associated with low elevation coniferous forests and were more likely to be conifer-feeders as caterpillars, based on ANOVAs. Common moth species were significantly more likely to emerge earlier in warmer years than in cooler years, based on a two-tailed t-test. Managing the western Cascades landscape for moth biodiversity and for moth abundance requires maintenance and potentially expansion of rare upland habitats as well as lowland coniferous forests. Montane meadows in the Andrews Forest are contracting in size, but it is not known how these changes have affected moth and plant biodiversity. The rate and pattern of meadow contraction from 1949 to 2005 along the high ridges of the Andrews Forest were analyzed using air photo change detection. Overall meadows contracted by nearly 50% from 1949 to 2005, but rates of meadow loss were much higher for the largest meadow complexes. Plant community diversity in seventeen meadows and the diversity, abundance, and community structure of moths at 98 locations sampled in the summers of 2008, 2009, and 2010 were related to measures of meadow size, isolation, and other variables using cluster analysis (CLA), MRPP, NMS, and generalized additive models (GAMs). Plant diversity in meadows was significantly positively related to meadow area in 1949 and the distance of the meadow from the road, based on GAM analysis. Plant community structure was most closely correlated with meadow area in 1949 and slope, based on CLA, MRPP, and NMS analysis. Calendar day explained the most variation in moth species richness, abundance, and community structure, but the next most important explanatory variables differed according to feeding guild, based on GAMs. Richness, abundance, and community structure of herb-feeding moths was related to meadow area in 1949 and elevation. For angiosperm-feeding moths, area-perimeter ratio in 2005 explained the most variation in richness, abundance, and community structure after calendar day. For gymnosperm-feeding moths, meadow area change from 1949-2005, a variable measuring the amount of increase in coniferous tree cover, explained the most variation in richness, abundance, and community structure after calendar day. The abundance and diversity of herb-feeding moths and meadow plants exhibited a lagged response to habitat loss, which may indicate an extinction debt. In contrast, angiosperm-and gymnosperm-feeding moths responded quickly (within 50 years) to increases in their habitat. Managing for the conservation of biodiversity in the upper elevations of the Andrews Forest will require targeted management strategies for different groups of organisms. Herb-feeding moths and meadow plants will benefit from expansion of open meadow habitat, while angiosperm and gymnosperm-feeders will require the maintenance of edge environments and coniferous forests. Title: The historic and contemporary ecology of western Cascade meadows : archeology, vegetation, and macromoth ecology Author: Highland, Steven A. Montane meadows in the western Cascades of Oregon occupy approximately 5% of the landscape, but contribute greatly to the region's biodiversity. Western Cascades meadows are dynamic parts of the landscape and have contracted by over 50% in the past two hundred years in the HJ Andrews Experimental Forest (hereafter Andrews Forest). Many studies have linked the loss of meadows with local extirpation of species and loss of regional biodiversity, but these processes depend upon the factors that create and maintain meadows, and how species respond to meadow configuration. The prehistory of these meadows is poorly understood, as is the contemporary ecology. This study combined previously collected archeological and moth datasets, aerial photographs, and new plant, tree core, and moth data to investigate interactions between landforms, disturbance, vegetation, and moth abundance and diversity in montane meadows of the western Cascades of Oregon. Burning by prehistoric people may have created and maintained montane meadows, but relatively little evidence remains of the activities of prehistoric peoples in the western Cascades. This study assessed the extent to which prehistoric people preferentially used different landforms and vegetation types by inferring use from landscape distributions of archaeological sites. Descriptions of 359 previously recorded and four newly discovered archeological sites in the McKenzie River watershed of western Oregon were examined using GIS and chi-square analysis to determine how sites were distributed relative to classified vegetation and landforms of the 3700-km² McKenzie River watershed. The high ridges of the HJ Andrews Experimental Forest were analyzed using air photo change detection and archaeological field surveys to identify how archeological sites were distributed relative to landforms and vegetation communities, including meadows. The field surveys documented physical evidence (archeological sites) confirming Native American use of the meadows and surrounding open forests. The locations of these sites indicate that Native Americans utilized the edges between large open meadows and open forests, as well as gently sloping open meadows. The prior extent of meadows (before air photos) was estimated by dendrochronology of 220 trees along present-day and inferred past meadow edges. Forest age structure and the open-grown forms of Douglas fir suggests a much more open habitat, potentially due to fire, was present more than 200 years ago. Moths are major consumers of vegetation when in caterpillar stage and are food sources for many birds and mammals, and contribute greatly to the insect diversity in a region. Moth species richness and abundance may be associated with the distribution of vegetation communities and seasonal timing, and the conservation of rare moths may depend on the conservation of rare vegetation habitats. A dataset of moths sampled 10 times/year at 20 locations in the 64-km² Andrews Forest over the period 2004-2008 was analyzed using generalized linear mixed models (GLMM), non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS), multi-response permutation procedure (MRPP), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and two tailed t-test to identify the overall patterns of rare and common moth distribution as well as moth community relationships to structurally and taxonomically derived vegetation classes and seasonality. Five hundred fourteen species and 69,168 macromoth individuals were identified. Moth species abundance and diversity were significantly higher in low elevation coniferous forests than in other vegetation types, according to the GLMM. Sixty-six rare moth species were significantly associated with high elevation open habitats. Species associated with meadows also were significantly more likely to be hardwood or herb-feeders than conifer-feeders as caterpillars, based on ANOVAs. The 26 most common moth species were significantly associated with low elevation coniferous forests and were more likely to be conifer-feeders as caterpillars, based on ANOVAs. Common moth species were significantly more likely to emerge earlier in warmer years than in cooler years, based on a two-tailed t-test. Managing the western Cascades landscape for moth biodiversity and for moth abundance requires maintenance and potentially expansion of rare upland habitats as well as lowland coniferous forests. Montane meadows in the Andrews Forest are contracting in size, but it is not known how these changes have affected moth and plant biodiversity. The rate and pattern of meadow contraction from 1949 to 2005 along the high ridges of the Andrews Forest were analyzed using air photo change detection. Overall meadows contracted by nearly 50% from 1949 to 2005, but rates of meadow loss were much higher for the largest meadow complexes. Plant community diversity in seventeen meadows and the diversity, abundance, and community structure of moths at 98 locations sampled in the summers of 2008, 2009, and 2010 were related to measures of meadow size, isolation, and other variables using cluster analysis (CLA), MRPP, NMS, and generalized additive models (GAMs). Plant diversity in meadows was significantly positively related to meadow area in 1949 and the distance of the meadow from the road, based on GAM analysis. Plant community structure was most closely correlated with meadow area in 1949 and slope, based on CLA, MRPP, and NMS analysis. Calendar day explained the most variation in moth species richness, abundance, and community structure, but the next most important explanatory variables differed according to feeding guild, based on GAMs. Richness, abundance, and community structure of herb-feeding moths was related to meadow area in 1949 and elevation. For angiosperm-feeding moths, area-perimeter ratio in 2005 explained the most variation in richness, abundance, and community structure after calendar day. For gymnosperm-feeding moths, meadow area change from 1949-2005, a variable measuring the amount of increase in coniferous tree cover, explained the most variation in richness, abundance, and community structure after calendar day. The abundance and diversity of herb-feeding moths and meadow plants exhibited a lagged response to habitat loss, which may indicate an extinction debt. In contrast, angiosperm-and gymnosperm-feeding moths responded quickly (within 50 years) to increases in their habitat. Managing for the conservation of biodiversity in the upper elevations of the Andrews Forest will require targeted management strategies for different groups of organisms. Herb-feeding moths and meadow plants will benefit from expansion of open meadow habitat, while angiosperm and gymnosperm-feeders will require the maintenance of edge environments and coniferous forests. Close

• 380. [Article] Predictability and Constraints on the Structure of Ecological Communities in the Context of Climate Change

  Ecologists must increasingly balance the need for accurate predictions about how ecosystems will be affected by climate change, against the fact that making such predictions at the ecosystem-level may ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Predictability and Constraints on the Structure of Ecological Communities in the Context of Climate Change Author: Barner, Allison K. Ecologists must increasingly balance the need for accurate predictions about how ecosystems will be affected by climate change, against the fact that making such predictions at the ecosystem-level may be infeasible. Although information about responses of individual species to a changing environment is increasing, scaling such information to the community level is challenging. To date, predicting responses of ecological communities to climate change is constrained by limited theoretical and empirical knowledge about the response of communities and ecosystems to change. My dissertation addresses several knowledge gaps in our understanding of community structure under climate change. This research draws from a rich experimental tradition in the species-diverse model ecosystem of the US Pacific Northwest rocky intertidal to test ecological theory. In Chapter 2, I assessed whether the response of multiple species of coralline algae to global change could be predicted from basic first principles of chemistry, physiology, and ecology. Given the rate of global change, and the time-consuming process of experimentally determining species responses to climate change, I hypothesized that species can be grouped using existing theory, either by their evolutionary relatedness or by their ecological traits, such that climate responses are similar within a group. Such a scheme would greatly reduce the number of experiments needed to characterize species climate vulnerability, requiring the characterization of the response of groups of species to climate change, rather than individual species. Using a suite of five co-occurring species of intertidal articulated coralline algae (Corallina vancouveriensis, Corallina officinalis, Bossiella plumosa, Bossiella orbiginiana, and Calliarthron tuberculosum), I applied this framework to generate ten mutually exclusive hypotheses that could explain organismal response to ocean acidification, a consequence of global climate change that threatens marine calcifying species. I found that all species had similar responses to ocean acidification, and that responses were generally predicted by the body size of the individual. Despite the power that such a framework provides in understanding group-level response to climate change, predicting community-level response requires knowledge of how organisms affect one another. In Chapter 3, I quantified species interactions in a series of removal experiments to estimate the reciprocal effects between a canopy-forming intertidal kelp (Saccharina sessilis) and a suite of understory species that persist beneath the kelp canopy. This experiment was replicated in different oceanographic conditions across a large latitudinal gradient, as a step towards understanding how interactions might change with climate change. However, the experiment demonstrated that interactions between the canopy and understory were consistent among different environmental conditions. Furthermore, the strongest effect was that of understory species, particularly articulated coralline turf algae, on the canopy species. The coralline turf algae both facilitated the recruitment of the canopy species and buffered the canopy from abiotic stress during its adult life stage. Combining experimental results and observational surveys, a hypothesized interaction network for these species was constructed, highlighting the importance of direct and indirect species interactions in promoting species coexistence. A long-standing controversy in ecology is whether or not species interactions can be inferred from observational data, as opposed to from experimental tests. Although the rocky intertidal ecosystem is unique for its ease of experimental manipulation, quantifying species interactions experimentally is often difficult or impossible. As an alternative, many have turned to statistical methods to estimate species interactions from observational data, namely, from patterns in species pairwise co-occurrences. In Chapter 4, I examined these co-occurrence methods and their potential relationship to experimentally measured species interactions. I first used a suite of different co-occurrence methods to generate a set of predicted species interactions of macrophytes and invertebrates from observational surveys conducted in the rocky intertidal zone of Oregon. I then compared the predicted species interactions to the same pairwise species interactions determined experimentally and assembled from the literature. Overall, of the seven methods tested, each generated a different set of predicted species interactions from the same data, and all methods predicted interactions that did not match those in the experimental database. Thus, predicting species interactions from patterns in occurrence remains elusive. Importantly, much work remains to be done to understand the link between species co-occurrences and their actual interactions with one another on the landscape. A key limiting frontier in climate change ecology is determining the influence of species interactions on species distributions across the landscape, and the sensitivity of such interactions to changes in climate. Finally, in Chapter 5, I used theory from the published literature and knowledge from my previous chapters to make predictions the recovery of low rocky intertidal communities after a disturbance. The process of community development after disturbance has been studied in many ways, from the successional studies of the early 1900s, to modern community assembly theory. In recent years, a focus on the unpredictability of community assembly has emerged, paying particular attention to the role of historical contingency, or priority effects, in determining the recovery trajectory of a community. Priority effects occur when the arrival of a species after a disturbance inalterably changes the composition of the developing community, driving the assembly of widely different communities at a small spatial scale. I conducted a community assembly experiment in three different low intertidal zone community "types", each characterized by different dominant macrophyte species (Saccharina sessilis, Phyllospadix spp., and algal "turfs"). Replicating this experiment at six sites along the Oregon coast, I found that both regional and local dynamics constrain the recovery of communities after disturbance. Half of the time, the community returned to the state of the nearby community type. The remaining communities were influenced by priority effects that could be predicted based on 1) regional dynamics favoring some species over others, or 2) the timing of arrival of important facilitating species. Overall, understanding the dynamic relationship between the persistence of diverse communities and a changing environment remains one of the challenges of our time. My dissertation highlights some of the challenges in predicting the future composition of communities under climate change, but also provides some ways forward. Integration of experimental, theoretical, and observational studies builds the scaffolding of prediction, whereby understanding the constraints on species physiology, the interactions among species, and community assembly can help frame the context in which predictions are made. Title: Predictability and Constraints on the Structure of Ecological Communities in the Context of Climate Change Author: Barner, Allison K. Ecologists must increasingly balance the need for accurate predictions about how ecosystems will be affected by climate change, against the fact that making such predictions at the ecosystem-level may be infeasible. Although information about responses of individual species to a changing environment is increasing, scaling such information to the community level is challenging. To date, predicting responses of ecological communities to climate change is constrained by limited theoretical and empirical knowledge about the response of communities and ecosystems to change. My dissertation addresses several knowledge gaps in our understanding of community structure under climate change. This research draws from a rich experimental tradition in the species-diverse model ecosystem of the US Pacific Northwest rocky intertidal to test ecological theory. In Chapter 2, I assessed whether the response of multiple species of coralline algae to global change could be predicted from basic first principles of chemistry, physiology, and ecology. Given the rate of global change, and the time-consuming process of experimentally determining species responses to climate change, I hypothesized that species can be grouped using existing theory, either by their evolutionary relatedness or by their ecological traits, such that climate responses are similar within a group. Such a scheme would greatly reduce the number of experiments needed to characterize species climate vulnerability, requiring the characterization of the response of groups of species to climate change, rather than individual species. Using a suite of five co-occurring species of intertidal articulated coralline algae (Corallina vancouveriensis, Corallina officinalis, Bossiella plumosa, Bossiella orbiginiana, and Calliarthron tuberculosum), I applied this framework to generate ten mutually exclusive hypotheses that could explain organismal response to ocean acidification, a consequence of global climate change that threatens marine calcifying species. I found that all species had similar responses to ocean acidification, and that responses were generally predicted by the body size of the individual. Despite the power that such a framework provides in understanding group-level response to climate change, predicting community-level response requires knowledge of how organisms affect one another. In Chapter 3, I quantified species interactions in a series of removal experiments to estimate the reciprocal effects between a canopy-forming intertidal kelp (Saccharina sessilis) and a suite of understory species that persist beneath the kelp canopy. This experiment was replicated in different oceanographic conditions across a large latitudinal gradient, as a step towards understanding how interactions might change with climate change. However, the experiment demonstrated that interactions between the canopy and understory were consistent among different environmental conditions. Furthermore, the strongest effect was that of understory species, particularly articulated coralline turf algae, on the canopy species. The coralline turf algae both facilitated the recruitment of the canopy species and buffered the canopy from abiotic stress during its adult life stage. Combining experimental results and observational surveys, a hypothesized interaction network for these species was constructed, highlighting the importance of direct and indirect species interactions in promoting species coexistence. A long-standing controversy in ecology is whether or not species interactions can be inferred from observational data, as opposed to from experimental tests. Although the rocky intertidal ecosystem is unique for its ease of experimental manipulation, quantifying species interactions experimentally is often difficult or impossible. As an alternative, many have turned to statistical methods to estimate species interactions from observational data, namely, from patterns in species pairwise co-occurrences. In Chapter 4, I examined these co-occurrence methods and their potential relationship to experimentally measured species interactions. I first used a suite of different co-occurrence methods to generate a set of predicted species interactions of macrophytes and invertebrates from observational surveys conducted in the rocky intertidal zone of Oregon. I then compared the predicted species interactions to the same pairwise species interactions determined experimentally and assembled from the literature. Overall, of the seven methods tested, each generated a different set of predicted species interactions from the same data, and all methods predicted interactions that did not match those in the experimental database. Thus, predicting species interactions from patterns in occurrence remains elusive. Importantly, much work remains to be done to understand the link between species co-occurrences and their actual interactions with one another on the landscape. A key limiting frontier in climate change ecology is determining the influence of species interactions on species distributions across the landscape, and the sensitivity of such interactions to changes in climate. Finally, in Chapter 5, I used theory from the published literature and knowledge from my previous chapters to make predictions the recovery of low rocky intertidal communities after a disturbance. The process of community development after disturbance has been studied in many ways, from the successional studies of the early 1900s, to modern community assembly theory. In recent years, a focus on the unpredictability of community assembly has emerged, paying particular attention to the role of historical contingency, or priority effects, in determining the recovery trajectory of a community. Priority effects occur when the arrival of a species after a disturbance inalterably changes the composition of the developing community, driving the assembly of widely different communities at a small spatial scale. I conducted a community assembly experiment in three different low intertidal zone community "types", each characterized by different dominant macrophyte species (Saccharina sessilis, Phyllospadix spp., and algal "turfs"). Replicating this experiment at six sites along the Oregon coast, I found that both regional and local dynamics constrain the recovery of communities after disturbance. Half of the time, the community returned to the state of the nearby community type. The remaining communities were influenced by priority effects that could be predicted based on 1) regional dynamics favoring some species over others, or 2) the timing of arrival of important facilitating species. Overall, understanding the dynamic relationship between the persistence of diverse communities and a changing environment remains one of the challenges of our time. My dissertation highlights some of the challenges in predicting the future composition of communities under climate change, but also provides some ways forward. Integration of experimental, theoretical, and observational studies builds the scaffolding of prediction, whereby understanding the constraints on species physiology, the interactions among species, and community assembly can help frame the context in which predictions are made. Close

• 381. [Article] Population Genetics of American Pika (Ochotona princeps) : Investigating Gene Flow and Genetic Diversity Across Multiple, Complex Landscapes

  American pikas (Ochotona princeps) are considered an indicator species of climate change. Adaptations for cold climates and active winters make pikas particularly sensitive to increasing temperatures. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Population Genetics of American Pika (Ochotona princeps) : Investigating Gene Flow and Genetic Diversity Across Multiple, Complex Landscapes Author: Castillo, Jessica A. American pikas (Ochotona princeps) are considered an indicator species of climate change. Adaptations for cold climates and active winters make pikas particularly sensitive to increasing temperatures. This, combined with evidence that multiple historically occupied populations have been extirpated within the past century, contributed to American pikas becoming a focal species for climate change research. This dissertation is primarily the product of a collaboration among the National Parks Service and multiple academic institutions whose principal goal was to assess the vulnerability of the American pika within eight national parks representing a variety of habitat types and environmental conditions. While much of the previous climate change-related research on American pikas has focused on how climate affects occupancy, this work sought to establish how landscape characteristics and climate may interact and influence dispersal, population connectivity, and ultimately population vulnerability or resilience. I addressed these questions using population and landscape genetics approaches within nine national parks, two national wildlife refuges, and a national forest. American pikas represent one of the best described mammalian metapopulation systems. They are restricted to rocky habitats, such as talus and lava, which are frequently patchily distributed on the landscape, both at the local and regional scales. Functional connectivity, the combination of habitat configuration and an organism’s ability to move through the landscape, is essential for maintaining robust genetic populations. This is particularly true within metapopulations which, by definition, rely on dispersal of individuals among habitat patches for overall long-term stability. In Chapters 1 and 2, I used a landscape genetics approach to identify features that either promote or inhibit dispersal of American pikas. There has been significant debate over the past few years about the best statistical approaches within landscape genetics and the appropriateness of certain methods in particular. In Chapter 1, I used Crater Lake National Park as a test case to evaluate the effectiveness of Mantel and partial Mantel tests in a causal modeling framework to correctly identify underlying landscape variables (e.g., topography, aspect, water barriers) and their effect on gene flow. I demonstrated, through simulations, that this approach was able to correctly identify the landscape variables, but not precisely the magnitude of their effect on gene flow. I concluded that while results need to be interpreted with caution, this method was effective for identifying which variables are important in shaping functional connectivity. In Chapter 2, I applied the causal modeling approach from Chapter 1 to seven additional study sites. I identified a general trend that south-west facing aspects pose greater resistance to dispersal than north and east-facing aspects, suggesting that exposure to high temperatures may limit dispersal in American pikas. I also found that amount and configuration of habitat (i.e., rocky substrate) influenced the degree to which other landscape variables impact dispersal. I then applied the models of landscape resistance to investigate habitat patch connectivity within each site using a graph theoretic approach. This allowed me to assess overall patch connectivity, as well as identify specific patches and areas within study sites that are particularly important for maintaining functional connectivity, or in contrast, at risk of becoming isolated. Functional connectivity is an important component when assessing population vulnerability because it describes the ability of genetic material to flow through the landscape. A loss of gene flow can lead to isolation of population segments, reduction of effective population size, loss of genetic diversity and subsequent erosion of evolutionary potential, and ultimately metapopulation collapse. However, other factors including habitat area and quality, affect effective population size and population stability. Genetic diversity is the material upon which evolution acts. In the face of rapid environmental change, species must either shift their range in order to track their ecological niche, or adapt in situ to the new environment. The former strategy requires sufficient available habitat as well as dispersal ability, which is unlikely for American pikas. Genetic diversity, therefore, is an important indicator of long-term population viability. In Chapter 3, I quantified genetic diversity within thirteen study sites and investigated the relationship between genetic diversity and environmental variables related to climate as well as habitat configuration and quality. As expected, habitat area was important at both the local and regional scales. Temperature was also a significant predictor of genetic diversity, with hotter sites having lower genetic diversity. However, and somewhat surprisingly, precipitation was a better predictor of genetic diversity than temperature, with sites receiving moderate levels of precipitation having higher genetic diversity. I also compared population differentiation among study sites and identified sites that are particularly distinct. In the process of the above analyses, I also identified a previously undescribed contact zone between the northern and southern Rocky Mountain genetic lineages, recognized as separate subspecies, within Rocky Mountain National Park. Climate change is predicted to affect habitat quality and landscape permeability, both of which have detectable genetic consequences. In Chapter 4, I quantified genetic diversity and structure within two study sites, Yosemite and Lassen Volcanic National Parks, from two sampling periods separated by approximately a century in time. I extracted DNA from historic study skins housed in the University of California Berkeley Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ) and compared multilocus microsatellite genotypes to those generated from modern fecal and tissue samples. Additionally, the historic survey data, including specimens, field journals, and other artifacts, were used in a series of systematic resurveys and subsequent species distribution modelling by other researchers. The nature of national parks as protected areas affords the opportunity to isolate the effects of climate change to a greater degree than other areas that have also experienced significant land use changes. I found no evidence for a change in genetic diversity within these two sites, consistent with observations from other studies that occupancy has remained relatively stable. I did find some evidence suggesting increasing population differentiation, potentially as a result of eroding landscape permeability. These results provide an important baseline for comparison with other sites, as well as reference points for future genetic monitoring of these populations. In Chapter 5, I provide general synthesis and conclusions, as well as considerations for future research. Title: Population Genetics of American Pika (Ochotona princeps) : Investigating Gene Flow and Genetic Diversity Across Multiple, Complex Landscapes Author: Castillo, Jessica A. American pikas (Ochotona princeps) are considered an indicator species of climate change. Adaptations for cold climates and active winters make pikas particularly sensitive to increasing temperatures. This, combined with evidence that multiple historically occupied populations have been extirpated within the past century, contributed to American pikas becoming a focal species for climate change research. This dissertation is primarily the product of a collaboration among the National Parks Service and multiple academic institutions whose principal goal was to assess the vulnerability of the American pika within eight national parks representing a variety of habitat types and environmental conditions. While much of the previous climate change-related research on American pikas has focused on how climate affects occupancy, this work sought to establish how landscape characteristics and climate may interact and influence dispersal, population connectivity, and ultimately population vulnerability or resilience. I addressed these questions using population and landscape genetics approaches within nine national parks, two national wildlife refuges, and a national forest. American pikas represent one of the best described mammalian metapopulation systems. They are restricted to rocky habitats, such as talus and lava, which are frequently patchily distributed on the landscape, both at the local and regional scales. Functional connectivity, the combination of habitat configuration and an organism’s ability to move through the landscape, is essential for maintaining robust genetic populations. This is particularly true within metapopulations which, by definition, rely on dispersal of individuals among habitat patches for overall long-term stability. In Chapters 1 and 2, I used a landscape genetics approach to identify features that either promote or inhibit dispersal of American pikas. There has been significant debate over the past few years about the best statistical approaches within landscape genetics and the appropriateness of certain methods in particular. In Chapter 1, I used Crater Lake National Park as a test case to evaluate the effectiveness of Mantel and partial Mantel tests in a causal modeling framework to correctly identify underlying landscape variables (e.g., topography, aspect, water barriers) and their effect on gene flow. I demonstrated, through simulations, that this approach was able to correctly identify the landscape variables, but not precisely the magnitude of their effect on gene flow. I concluded that while results need to be interpreted with caution, this method was effective for identifying which variables are important in shaping functional connectivity. In Chapter 2, I applied the causal modeling approach from Chapter 1 to seven additional study sites. I identified a general trend that south-west facing aspects pose greater resistance to dispersal than north and east-facing aspects, suggesting that exposure to high temperatures may limit dispersal in American pikas. I also found that amount and configuration of habitat (i.e., rocky substrate) influenced the degree to which other landscape variables impact dispersal. I then applied the models of landscape resistance to investigate habitat patch connectivity within each site using a graph theoretic approach. This allowed me to assess overall patch connectivity, as well as identify specific patches and areas within study sites that are particularly important for maintaining functional connectivity, or in contrast, at risk of becoming isolated. Functional connectivity is an important component when assessing population vulnerability because it describes the ability of genetic material to flow through the landscape. A loss of gene flow can lead to isolation of population segments, reduction of effective population size, loss of genetic diversity and subsequent erosion of evolutionary potential, and ultimately metapopulation collapse. However, other factors including habitat area and quality, affect effective population size and population stability. Genetic diversity is the material upon which evolution acts. In the face of rapid environmental change, species must either shift their range in order to track their ecological niche, or adapt in situ to the new environment. The former strategy requires sufficient available habitat as well as dispersal ability, which is unlikely for American pikas. Genetic diversity, therefore, is an important indicator of long-term population viability. In Chapter 3, I quantified genetic diversity within thirteen study sites and investigated the relationship between genetic diversity and environmental variables related to climate as well as habitat configuration and quality. As expected, habitat area was important at both the local and regional scales. Temperature was also a significant predictor of genetic diversity, with hotter sites having lower genetic diversity. However, and somewhat surprisingly, precipitation was a better predictor of genetic diversity than temperature, with sites receiving moderate levels of precipitation having higher genetic diversity. I also compared population differentiation among study sites and identified sites that are particularly distinct. In the process of the above analyses, I also identified a previously undescribed contact zone between the northern and southern Rocky Mountain genetic lineages, recognized as separate subspecies, within Rocky Mountain National Park. Climate change is predicted to affect habitat quality and landscape permeability, both of which have detectable genetic consequences. In Chapter 4, I quantified genetic diversity and structure within two study sites, Yosemite and Lassen Volcanic National Parks, from two sampling periods separated by approximately a century in time. I extracted DNA from historic study skins housed in the University of California Berkeley Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ) and compared multilocus microsatellite genotypes to those generated from modern fecal and tissue samples. Additionally, the historic survey data, including specimens, field journals, and other artifacts, were used in a series of systematic resurveys and subsequent species distribution modelling by other researchers. The nature of national parks as protected areas affords the opportunity to isolate the effects of climate change to a greater degree than other areas that have also experienced significant land use changes. I found no evidence for a change in genetic diversity within these two sites, consistent with observations from other studies that occupancy has remained relatively stable. I did find some evidence suggesting increasing population differentiation, potentially as a result of eroding landscape permeability. These results provide an important baseline for comparison with other sites, as well as reference points for future genetic monitoring of these populations. In Chapter 5, I provide general synthesis and conclusions, as well as considerations for future research. Close

• 382. [Article] Coastal sand dunes of Oregon and Washington

  In Part I the environment of the coastal dunes of Oregon and Washington is analyzed. Most of the substratum is a narrow foreland or terrace, in part submerged, that borders the mountain front. Temperature ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Coastal sand dunes of Oregon and Washington Author: Cooper, William Skinner, 1884- In Part I the environment of the coastal dunes of Oregon and Washington is analyzed. Most of the substratum is a narrow foreland or terrace, in part submerged, that borders the mountain front. Temperature is relatively low in summer and rarely reaches the freezing point in winter. Winter precipitation is heavy, and there is almost no snow; there is a pronounced deficiency in precipitation in summer. The summer wind is a very constant afternoon sea breeze from north to northwest; winter winds are variable but include frequent southwest gales. Longshore currents are governed by the seasonal winds, moving southward in summer and northward in winter. The regional vegetation is dense, tall conifer forest. The influence of man has been comparatively slight: in prehistoric times the starting of forest fires; in historic time moderate disturbance due to grazing and recent efforts to control the movement of the sand. Part II deals with forms and processes. The simplest combination of elements comprises sand, wind, and water. Interaction of these produces two patterns. In the transverse-ridge pattern the individual unit is a ridge essentially normal to the summer wind and moving with it; it is asymmetric in profile with gentle windward slope and steep leeward slope (slipface). Origin and maintenance of this profile are explained in accordance with principles developed in the field of aerodynamics, and conclusions arrived at deductively are confirmed by slow-motion photography of smoke streams on the dunes. The oblique-ridge pattern occurs only where there is full exposure to both seasonal winds, plenty of space, and plenty of sand. These conditions are met only in Region III (Coos Bay dune sheet). The units are much more massive than the transverse ridges and are essentially stationary. Their trend lies between the means of summer and winter winds. A theoretical explanation of their origin and maintenance is presented, and the oblique ridges and the "longitudinal dunes" of certain desert regions are compared. Neither transverse nor oblique ridge is found in stabilized condition. The factor vegetation added to the other three-sand, wind, and water-promotes stabilization. On a prograding shore, successive beach ridges are quickly captured and fixed, and retain their initial form indefinitely. On a retrograding shore the processes are exceedingly complex and involve repeated stabilization and rejuvenation. Two cases are presented: flat shore, with and without abundant sand supply; stabilized dune masses undergoing erosion. In the latter case, the commoner, development involves the following phases: trough blowout, merging of troughs, reduction to deflation base, and precipitation ridge, which may in time become completely stabilized while still retaining its characteristic form. In places sheltered from one or the other of the seasonal winds, usually the summer wind, giant parabola dunes, which may likewise become fixed by vegetation, develop. Part III is a description of the dune localities of the Oregon-Washington coast and an account of their history. Forty per cent of this coast bears dunes of greater or lesser magnitude. Thirty dune localities are grouped in four regions. Region I includes four localities north of Tillamook Head, Oregon, making a continuous strip 53 km long, that bears the parallel beach-dune-ridge pattern associated with progradation. The forms in Regions II, III, and IV, heterogeneous and complex, are those characteristic of retrograding shores. The two principal stabilized forms are the precipitation ridge and the parabola dune. In Regions II, III, and IV the existing features came into being mainly during the last grand period of sea-level rise, and the seaward portions of massive parabola complexes have been sliced away in varying degree by the advancing sea. The beach-ridge dunes of Region I were formed during the period of comparatively stable sea level, with a probable small net lowering, which followed the maximum of sea advance and has extended to the present. Progradation here during this period, in contrast with almost none south of Tillamook Head, has been possible because of the ample bed load carried to the coast by the Columbia River. South of Tillamook Head there is, in a number of well-distributed localities, evidence of three episodes of advance. The first is represented by the strip of thoroughly stabilized dunes that nearly everywhere forms the inner marginal part of the dune complexes. This episode reached its culmination before the sea had attained its maximum of advance-attested by the slicing away of portions of completely stabilized masses. The second advance for the most part fell short of the first, though in a few places it overpassed the limits of the latter; present condition ranges from complete stabilization to vigorous activity. The third episode is represented by active dunes with open access to the shore. In certain localities there are only an inner strip of stabilized dunes and an outer zone of active dunes. It is assumed that in these the visible effects of the second and third episodes have merged. An earlier cycle of dune development, similar to the modern one in character and extent, is proved by eolian sediments containing altered podzolic soils, which make a minor part of the mantle of unconsolidated materials that lies upon the rock platform of the 30-m terrace. The dunes of which these masses are remnants were formed during the next-to-the-last grand period of submergence. Development of the dunes of Regions II, III, and IV, associated with the grand period of submergence, is assigned to the period of deglaciation that followed the Wisconsin maximum, and mainly to the period of rapid deglaciation that began after the Valders-Mankato advance. The beach-ridge dunes of Region I, on the other hand, have developed in their entirety in the time since sea-level rise was succeeded by stability. By analogy, the earlier cycle of dune development was associated with the waning phase of Illinoian glaciation, and it may be assumed that similar dune cycles were associated with the earlier glaciations of the Pleistocene. Title: Coastal sand dunes of Oregon and Washington Author: Cooper, William Skinner, 1884- In Part I the environment of the coastal dunes of Oregon and Washington is analyzed. Most of the substratum is a narrow foreland or terrace, in part submerged, that borders the mountain front. Temperature is relatively low in summer and rarely reaches the freezing point in winter. Winter precipitation is heavy, and there is almost no snow; there is a pronounced deficiency in precipitation in summer. The summer wind is a very constant afternoon sea breeze from north to northwest; winter winds are variable but include frequent southwest gales. Longshore currents are governed by the seasonal winds, moving southward in summer and northward in winter. The regional vegetation is dense, tall conifer forest. The influence of man has been comparatively slight: in prehistoric times the starting of forest fires; in historic time moderate disturbance due to grazing and recent efforts to control the movement of the sand. Part II deals with forms and processes. The simplest combination of elements comprises sand, wind, and water. Interaction of these produces two patterns. In the transverse-ridge pattern the individual unit is a ridge essentially normal to the summer wind and moving with it; it is asymmetric in profile with gentle windward slope and steep leeward slope (slipface). Origin and maintenance of this profile are explained in accordance with principles developed in the field of aerodynamics, and conclusions arrived at deductively are confirmed by slow-motion photography of smoke streams on the dunes. The oblique-ridge pattern occurs only where there is full exposure to both seasonal winds, plenty of space, and plenty of sand. These conditions are met only in Region III (Coos Bay dune sheet). The units are much more massive than the transverse ridges and are essentially stationary. Their trend lies between the means of summer and winter winds. A theoretical explanation of their origin and maintenance is presented, and the oblique ridges and the "longitudinal dunes" of certain desert regions are compared. Neither transverse nor oblique ridge is found in stabilized condition. The factor vegetation added to the other three-sand, wind, and water-promotes stabilization. On a prograding shore, successive beach ridges are quickly captured and fixed, and retain their initial form indefinitely. On a retrograding shore the processes are exceedingly complex and involve repeated stabilization and rejuvenation. Two cases are presented: flat shore, with and without abundant sand supply; stabilized dune masses undergoing erosion. In the latter case, the commoner, development involves the following phases: trough blowout, merging of troughs, reduction to deflation base, and precipitation ridge, which may in time become completely stabilized while still retaining its characteristic form. In places sheltered from one or the other of the seasonal winds, usually the summer wind, giant parabola dunes, which may likewise become fixed by vegetation, develop. Part III is a description of the dune localities of the Oregon-Washington coast and an account of their history. Forty per cent of this coast bears dunes of greater or lesser magnitude. Thirty dune localities are grouped in four regions. Region I includes four localities north of Tillamook Head, Oregon, making a continuous strip 53 km long, that bears the parallel beach-dune-ridge pattern associated with progradation. The forms in Regions II, III, and IV, heterogeneous and complex, are those characteristic of retrograding shores. The two principal stabilized forms are the precipitation ridge and the parabola dune. In Regions II, III, and IV the existing features came into being mainly during the last grand period of sea-level rise, and the seaward portions of massive parabola complexes have been sliced away in varying degree by the advancing sea. The beach-ridge dunes of Region I were formed during the period of comparatively stable sea level, with a probable small net lowering, which followed the maximum of sea advance and has extended to the present. Progradation here during this period, in contrast with almost none south of Tillamook Head, has been possible because of the ample bed load carried to the coast by the Columbia River. South of Tillamook Head there is, in a number of well-distributed localities, evidence of three episodes of advance. The first is represented by the strip of thoroughly stabilized dunes that nearly everywhere forms the inner marginal part of the dune complexes. This episode reached its culmination before the sea had attained its maximum of advance-attested by the slicing away of portions of completely stabilized masses. The second advance for the most part fell short of the first, though in a few places it overpassed the limits of the latter; present condition ranges from complete stabilization to vigorous activity. The third episode is represented by active dunes with open access to the shore. In certain localities there are only an inner strip of stabilized dunes and an outer zone of active dunes. It is assumed that in these the visible effects of the second and third episodes have merged. An earlier cycle of dune development, similar to the modern one in character and extent, is proved by eolian sediments containing altered podzolic soils, which make a minor part of the mantle of unconsolidated materials that lies upon the rock platform of the 30-m terrace. The dunes of which these masses are remnants were formed during the next-to-the-last grand period of submergence. Development of the dunes of Regions II, III, and IV, associated with the grand period of submergence, is assigned to the period of deglaciation that followed the Wisconsin maximum, and mainly to the period of rapid deglaciation that began after the Valders-Mankato advance. The beach-ridge dunes of Region I, on the other hand, have developed in their entirety in the time since sea-level rise was succeeded by stability. By analogy, the earlier cycle of dune development was associated with the waning phase of Illinoian glaciation, and it may be assumed that similar dune cycles were associated with the earlier glaciations of the Pleistocene. Close

• 383. [Article] The Japanese beef market in a disequilibrium econometrics framework : implications for the U.S. - Japan beef market access agreement

  The success of the U.S. government in persuading Japan to liberalize the beef market is viewed as a relief to the U.S. beef industry. The economic benefit (to the U.S. beef producers!) of the trade liberalization ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Japanese beef market in a disequilibrium econometrics framework : implications for the U.S. - Japan beef market access agreement Author: Anteneh, Berhanu The success of the U.S. government in persuading Japan to liberalize the beef market is viewed as a relief to the U.S. beef industry. The economic benefit (to the U.S. beef producers!) of the trade liberalization however is yet to be seen. The size of this benefit is determined, among others, by (a) the net change in Japan's retail price due to the liberalization, (b) the price elasticity of demand for the U.S. beef in Japan, (c) the degree of price rise in the world market, and (d) the export capacity of the domestic sector. Availability of alternative beef sources and the degree of substitutability between the U.S. beef and those alternatives affect factor (b) and factor (d) depends on the extent to which beef and other meat products substitute each other in the domestic market both in production and consumption. Evaluation of the U.S. - Japan Beef Market Access Agreement (BMAA) therefore has become a high policy profile. In the interest of assessing possible policy effects of BMAA, several researchers have attempted to parameterize and quantify the Japanese demand for beef. The fact that this market is (a) semi-isolated from the rest of the world by restrictive import quota, (b) managed domestically by government parastatal, and (c) characterized by multi- and intensely differentiated beef with no parallel historical data has made the choice of economic theory and methodology difficult. While most researchers (Group 1) relied on conventional method [e.g. 55; 125], others (Group 2) [2] contend that managed import market may better be explained by a model of political nature. By assuming the usual competitive market behavior, Group 1 underestimates possible implications of existing market structure for building and estimating conventional econometric models. Group 2, on the other hand, limits itself to normative analysis. Due to the absence of consensus among researchers regarding implications of policy-relevant parameters, the desirability of the BMAA is still an unsettled policy issue. The general purpose of this study has been to generate some further information on Japan's beef market. In pursuant of this objective, an attempt is made to (a) show how significant the beef quality issue is in evaluating that market, (b) test the market equilibrium hypothesis, and (c) upon the acceptance of the alternative (disequilibrium) hypothesis, estimate the structural parameters from a model specified in the light of imperfections in the market. This fills the void in previous studies. Drawing on existing literature, the beef quality categories are shown to have been narrowing and, in fact, converging to the two middle categories, medium and common grades. It is suggested that future market studies may benefit from concentrating on these two grades in assessing competitiveness and substitutability with domestic beef. Understanding the nature of this convergence (i.e whether the shift is attributable to changes in cost or preference structure) may contribute to sound policy making. Based on (a) increased concentration in production and distribution sectors, (b) government intervention in beef and related markets, (c) high degree heterogeneity in beef, and (d) short-run supply inflexibility due to long fattening period and restrictive import policy, the Japanese beef market was hypothesized to have been in disequilibria due to incomplete market information. In testing this hypothesis, two data sets were used -Statistical Yearbook and the Family Income and Expenditure Survey. For reference purposes, they are referred to as Market I and Market II respectively. The equilibrium hypothesis was tested for uniform and upward and downward differential adjustment speeds. The uniform adjustment rate estimated from the reduced form price equation supports the hypothesis in both markets. The structural equations were then adjusted in the light of the imperfections in the market and structural parameters estimated using non-linear three stage least squares. Both upward and downward adjustment speeds in Market I suggest perfect flexibility in prices on annual basis. In Market II, prices are found to have been flexible downward but rigid otherwise. The upward rigidity in prices suggest excess demand. Perfect flexibility in prices on annual basis however may not suggest market equilibrium in a period less than a year. Consumers are found to be more price responsive than in previous studies implying a greater response of the demand for beef imports to changes in prices due to the liberalization than envisaged by previous studies. The demand for beef however is income inelastic suggesting a partial offsetting in the incremental demand for imports. Finally, consumers respond to changes in beef retail prices by consuming less fish and poultry. Title: The Japanese beef market in a disequilibrium econometrics framework : implications for the U.S. - Japan beef market access agreement Author: Anteneh, Berhanu The success of the U.S. government in persuading Japan to liberalize the beef market is viewed as a relief to the U.S. beef industry. The economic benefit (to the U.S. beef producers!) of the trade liberalization however is yet to be seen. The size of this benefit is determined, among others, by (a) the net change in Japan's retail price due to the liberalization, (b) the price elasticity of demand for the U.S. beef in Japan, (c) the degree of price rise in the world market, and (d) the export capacity of the domestic sector. Availability of alternative beef sources and the degree of substitutability between the U.S. beef and those alternatives affect factor (b) and factor (d) depends on the extent to which beef and other meat products substitute each other in the domestic market both in production and consumption. Evaluation of the U.S. - Japan Beef Market Access Agreement (BMAA) therefore has become a high policy profile. In the interest of assessing possible policy effects of BMAA, several researchers have attempted to parameterize and quantify the Japanese demand for beef. The fact that this market is (a) semi-isolated from the rest of the world by restrictive import quota, (b) managed domestically by government parastatal, and (c) characterized by multi- and intensely differentiated beef with no parallel historical data has made the choice of economic theory and methodology difficult. While most researchers (Group 1) relied on conventional method [e.g. 55; 125], others (Group 2) [2] contend that managed import market may better be explained by a model of political nature. By assuming the usual competitive market behavior, Group 1 underestimates possible implications of existing market structure for building and estimating conventional econometric models. Group 2, on the other hand, limits itself to normative analysis. Due to the absence of consensus among researchers regarding implications of policy-relevant parameters, the desirability of the BMAA is still an unsettled policy issue. The general purpose of this study has been to generate some further information on Japan's beef market. In pursuant of this objective, an attempt is made to (a) show how significant the beef quality issue is in evaluating that market, (b) test the market equilibrium hypothesis, and (c) upon the acceptance of the alternative (disequilibrium) hypothesis, estimate the structural parameters from a model specified in the light of imperfections in the market. This fills the void in previous studies. Drawing on existing literature, the beef quality categories are shown to have been narrowing and, in fact, converging to the two middle categories, medium and common grades. It is suggested that future market studies may benefit from concentrating on these two grades in assessing competitiveness and substitutability with domestic beef. Understanding the nature of this convergence (i.e whether the shift is attributable to changes in cost or preference structure) may contribute to sound policy making. Based on (a) increased concentration in production and distribution sectors, (b) government intervention in beef and related markets, (c) high degree heterogeneity in beef, and (d) short-run supply inflexibility due to long fattening period and restrictive import policy, the Japanese beef market was hypothesized to have been in disequilibria due to incomplete market information. In testing this hypothesis, two data sets were used -Statistical Yearbook and the Family Income and Expenditure Survey. For reference purposes, they are referred to as Market I and Market II respectively. The equilibrium hypothesis was tested for uniform and upward and downward differential adjustment speeds. The uniform adjustment rate estimated from the reduced form price equation supports the hypothesis in both markets. The structural equations were then adjusted in the light of the imperfections in the market and structural parameters estimated using non-linear three stage least squares. Both upward and downward adjustment speeds in Market I suggest perfect flexibility in prices on annual basis. In Market II, prices are found to have been flexible downward but rigid otherwise. The upward rigidity in prices suggest excess demand. Perfect flexibility in prices on annual basis however may not suggest market equilibrium in a period less than a year. Consumers are found to be more price responsive than in previous studies implying a greater response of the demand for beef imports to changes in prices due to the liberalization than envisaged by previous studies. The demand for beef however is income inelastic suggesting a partial offsetting in the incremental demand for imports. Finally, consumers respond to changes in beef retail prices by consuming less fish and poultry. Close

• 384. [Article] White-breasted nuthatch density and nesting ecology in oak woodlands of the Willamette Valley, Oregon

  Habitat loss causes a reduction in available resources for wildlife, alters the configuration of remaining habitat, and may isolate wildlife populations. White-breasted nuthatches (Sitta carolinensis) ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: White-breasted nuthatch density and nesting ecology in oak woodlands of the Willamette Valley, Oregon Author: Viste-Sparkman, Karen Habitat loss causes a reduction in available resources for wildlife, alters the configuration of remaining habitat, and may isolate wildlife populations. White-breasted nuthatches (Sitta carolinensis) are experiencing long-term population declines in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, where they are historically associated with oak woodlands. As secondary cavity-nesters, white-breasted nuthatches may be limited by the availability of existing cavities for nesting and roosting. Oak vegetation in the Willamette Valley has changed since European-American settlement times from vast areas of open oak savanna to isolated closed-canopy stands separated by agricultural fields. We examined nuthatch density, nest cavity selection, and nest success in relation to oak woodland structure and landscape context. We conducted point transect surveys in 3 strata: woodland interiors, large woodland edges, and small woodlands. We located and monitored nuthatch nests and sampled vegetation at nest locations and matching random locations around each nest. Woodland structure and edge density were measured at a 178-m radius (home range) scale, and landscape context was measured using vegetation cover within a 1-km radius around point transects and nests. We used program DISTANCE to fit detection functions and calculate nuthatch densities. We used conditional logistic regression to compare nest locations with random locations, and analyzed nest success with Mayfield logistic regression. White-breasted nuthatch density was significantly higher in small woodlands than in edges of large woodlands, which had higher nuthatch density than woodland interiors. Density of nuthatches increased with a combination of oak cover within a 1-km radius of the point, edge density within a 178-m radius, and number of oak trees >50 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) within a 100-m radius. Nest cavities were situated in oak trees containing more cavities than random oak trees that had cavities, and oak trees used as nest trees had a larger dbh than oak trees within random plots. Local woodland structure at nest locations was characterized by larger trees, measured by greater mean dbh, canopy cover, and basal area of oaks than random locations within the home range. Nest success in natural cavities was 71% and was not predicted by attributes of nest cavities, nest trees, local woodland structure at nests, woodland structure at the home range scale, or landscape context. These results suggest that the most suitable habitat for white-breasted nuthatches in the Willamette Valley includes oak woodlands in close proximity to one another with a high proportion of edge and mature oak trees. Managers should preserve trees containing cavities and large oak trees whenever possible. Thinning of small oaks and removal of conifers in oak woodlands to create more open, savanna-like conditions may also promote the development of larger oaks with more spreading branches, providing more opportunities for cavities to form and more foraging surface area for nuthatches. Title: White-breasted nuthatch density and nesting ecology in oak woodlands of the Willamette Valley, Oregon Author: Viste-Sparkman, Karen Habitat loss causes a reduction in available resources for wildlife, alters the configuration of remaining habitat, and may isolate wildlife populations. White-breasted nuthatches (Sitta carolinensis) are experiencing long-term population declines in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, where they are historically associated with oak woodlands. As secondary cavity-nesters, white-breasted nuthatches may be limited by the availability of existing cavities for nesting and roosting. Oak vegetation in the Willamette Valley has changed since European-American settlement times from vast areas of open oak savanna to isolated closed-canopy stands separated by agricultural fields. We examined nuthatch density, nest cavity selection, and nest success in relation to oak woodland structure and landscape context. We conducted point transect surveys in 3 strata: woodland interiors, large woodland edges, and small woodlands. We located and monitored nuthatch nests and sampled vegetation at nest locations and matching random locations around each nest. Woodland structure and edge density were measured at a 178-m radius (home range) scale, and landscape context was measured using vegetation cover within a 1-km radius around point transects and nests. We used program DISTANCE to fit detection functions and calculate nuthatch densities. We used conditional logistic regression to compare nest locations with random locations, and analyzed nest success with Mayfield logistic regression. White-breasted nuthatch density was significantly higher in small woodlands than in edges of large woodlands, which had higher nuthatch density than woodland interiors. Density of nuthatches increased with a combination of oak cover within a 1-km radius of the point, edge density within a 178-m radius, and number of oak trees >50 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) within a 100-m radius. Nest cavities were situated in oak trees containing more cavities than random oak trees that had cavities, and oak trees used as nest trees had a larger dbh than oak trees within random plots. Local woodland structure at nest locations was characterized by larger trees, measured by greater mean dbh, canopy cover, and basal area of oaks than random locations within the home range. Nest success in natural cavities was 71% and was not predicted by attributes of nest cavities, nest trees, local woodland structure at nests, woodland structure at the home range scale, or landscape context. These results suggest that the most suitable habitat for white-breasted nuthatches in the Willamette Valley includes oak woodlands in close proximity to one another with a high proportion of edge and mature oak trees. Managers should preserve trees containing cavities and large oak trees whenever possible. Thinning of small oaks and removal of conifers in oak woodlands to create more open, savanna-like conditions may also promote the development of larger oaks with more spreading branches, providing more opportunities for cavities to form and more foraging surface area for nuthatches. Close

• 385. [Article] An investigation into modeling snow cover elements at Crater Lake National Park and surrounding environs as an improved "ground truth" method for satellite snow observations

  Streamflow forecasts are essential to the optimal operation of hydroelectric and irrigation reservoirs in the Pacific Northwest. Satellite snow cover observations would aid in these streamflow forecasts by ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An investigation into modeling snow cover elements at Crater Lake National Park and surrounding environs as an improved "ground truth" method for satellite snow observations Author: Hamilton, William L. Streamflow forecasts are essential to the optimal operation of hydroelectric and irrigation reservoirs in the Pacific Northwest. Satellite snow cover observations would aid in these streamflow forecasts by providing snow cover data at regular time intervals. Unfortunately, satellite capability to remotely sense mountain snow cover conditions is indeterminate due to lack of "ground truth." This study focuses on the development of a mountain snow cover model capable of generating snow cover data at a scale useful as "ground truth" for operational satellite snow cover observations. The study area used to develop the snow cover model was Crater Lake National Park and its surrounding environs. Both the physiography (topography and vegetation) and snow climate of the study area were analyzed and found to be quite dynamic. In order to take into account the affects of the dynamic snow climate and physiography upon snow cover conditions, multiple regression analysis was used to create the Crater Lake Snow Model. Forty-five snow core sites were located within the study area. Snow depth and snow water equivalent values were recorded at each site. Eighteen sites located within Crater Lake National Park were sampled on a weekly basis for the 1977-1978 snow year. An additional 16 sites were sampled at high elevations in the Park on a weekly basis from April through June, 1978. The remaining 11 sites comprised the historical snow core data set collected by Soil Conservation Service (S.C.S.) on a monthly basis, January through June, 1948 through 1978. These data sets were statistically reduced using the quasi-constant ratio theory to synthesize values for missing data to temporally unify the data sets. Also the physiographic elements of slope, aspect, elevation, percentage of forest canopy cover, and regional aspect were recorded for each snow core site. The physiographic elements (independent variables) were regressed against the snow core data (dependent variables) to produce snow model equations. Three different Temporal-Spatial Situations (T.S.S. 1, 2, 3) of data were entered into regression analysis. T.S.S. 1 and 2 models were generated from the 11 S.C.S. snow core sites, T.S.S. 1 from 1978 data and T.S.S. 2 for 1948 -1978 data. The T.S.S. 3 model was generated from the 45 snow core site data for 1978. Using the theory of the quasiconstant ratio it was possible to combine the T.S.S. 1, 2, and 3 sets of regression equations to produce a T.S.S. 4 snow model ( a model based upon the 45 sites for the 1948-1978 snow seasons). Subsequently the T.S.S. 1 and 2 snow models were utilized with this derived T.S.S. 4 snow model to produce T.S.S. 3 snow cover models for any month of any year for the 1948 through 1978 period. Validity testing of the model indicates that it has an average error of ± 15.7" for modeled snow depth values and ± 8.2" for modeled snow water equivalent values. The Crater Lake Snow Model has a combined spatial, annual, and long term resolution unequaled in previous snow cover models. The Model's combined high resolving properties give it capabilities of generating mountain snow cover "ground truth." Current studies are being conducted to couple dynamic snow meteorology and LANDSAT digital data to the Model to increase its accuracy and reduce its dependency on snow core data. Also, output of the Model can be used for studies on snow cover affect upon wildlife movement and survival and the determination of source regions of relative runoff from snow melt. Title: An investigation into modeling snow cover elements at Crater Lake National Park and surrounding environs as an improved "ground truth" method for satellite snow observations Author: Hamilton, William L. Streamflow forecasts are essential to the optimal operation of hydroelectric and irrigation reservoirs in the Pacific Northwest. Satellite snow cover observations would aid in these streamflow forecasts by providing snow cover data at regular time intervals. Unfortunately, satellite capability to remotely sense mountain snow cover conditions is indeterminate due to lack of "ground truth." This study focuses on the development of a mountain snow cover model capable of generating snow cover data at a scale useful as "ground truth" for operational satellite snow cover observations. The study area used to develop the snow cover model was Crater Lake National Park and its surrounding environs. Both the physiography (topography and vegetation) and snow climate of the study area were analyzed and found to be quite dynamic. In order to take into account the affects of the dynamic snow climate and physiography upon snow cover conditions, multiple regression analysis was used to create the Crater Lake Snow Model. Forty-five snow core sites were located within the study area. Snow depth and snow water equivalent values were recorded at each site. Eighteen sites located within Crater Lake National Park were sampled on a weekly basis for the 1977-1978 snow year. An additional 16 sites were sampled at high elevations in the Park on a weekly basis from April through June, 1978. The remaining 11 sites comprised the historical snow core data set collected by Soil Conservation Service (S.C.S.) on a monthly basis, January through June, 1948 through 1978. These data sets were statistically reduced using the quasi-constant ratio theory to synthesize values for missing data to temporally unify the data sets. Also the physiographic elements of slope, aspect, elevation, percentage of forest canopy cover, and regional aspect were recorded for each snow core site. The physiographic elements (independent variables) were regressed against the snow core data (dependent variables) to produce snow model equations. Three different Temporal-Spatial Situations (T.S.S. 1, 2, 3) of data were entered into regression analysis. T.S.S. 1 and 2 models were generated from the 11 S.C.S. snow core sites, T.S.S. 1 from 1978 data and T.S.S. 2 for 1948 -1978 data. The T.S.S. 3 model was generated from the 45 snow core site data for 1978. Using the theory of the quasiconstant ratio it was possible to combine the T.S.S. 1, 2, and 3 sets of regression equations to produce a T.S.S. 4 snow model ( a model based upon the 45 sites for the 1948-1978 snow seasons). Subsequently the T.S.S. 1 and 2 snow models were utilized with this derived T.S.S. 4 snow model to produce T.S.S. 3 snow cover models for any month of any year for the 1948 through 1978 period. Validity testing of the model indicates that it has an average error of ± 15.7" for modeled snow depth values and ± 8.2" for modeled snow water equivalent values. The Crater Lake Snow Model has a combined spatial, annual, and long term resolution unequaled in previous snow cover models. The Model's combined high resolving properties give it capabilities of generating mountain snow cover "ground truth." Current studies are being conducted to couple dynamic snow meteorology and LANDSAT digital data to the Model to increase its accuracy and reduce its dependency on snow core data. Also, output of the Model can be used for studies on snow cover affect upon wildlife movement and survival and the determination of source regions of relative runoff from snow melt. Close

• 386. [Article] Emergency contraceptive pills and college women : factors influencing intention and use

  Approximately half of the 6.4 million pregnancies occurring each year in the United States are unintended (Finer & Henshaw, 2006). Unintended pregnancies, defined as pregnancies not wanted at the time ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Emergency contraceptive pills and college women : factors influencing intention and use Author: Nelson, Heather A. Approximately half of the 6.4 million pregnancies occurring each year in the United States are unintended (Finer & Henshaw, 2006). Unintended pregnancies, defined as pregnancies not wanted at the time conception occurs, regardless of contraceptive use (Chandra, Martinez, Mosher, Abma, & Jones, 2005) can have serious repercussions on women, children, and society. For decades, women facing the possibility of an unintended pregnancy following unprotected intercourse, birth control method failure, or sexual assault, have had no choices outside of abortion. Since 1997 however, another option has become available to American women making unintended pregnancy decisions – emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs). Research has indicated that widespread use of ECPs has the potential to prevent 1.5 million of the approximate 3 million unintended pregnancies occurring each year in the US, including as many as 700,000 pregnancies that now result in abortion (Trussell, Stewart, Guest, & Hatcher, 1992). Although 84% of American women have heard of ECPs, only 6% claim to have ever used them (Hoff, Miller, Barefoot, & Greene, 2003). Despite their effectiveness and the public’s awareness of them, ECPs still remain underutilized in many high-risk populations. Explanations for this discrepancy are not readily available. In particular, young adult women attending college are at risk for unintended pregnancy yet we know little about their relationship with ECPs. Although extensive ECP use could have a profound effect on unintended pregnancy rates, we have limited information about the factors that influence a woman's decision to use ECPs. Furthermore, with the US Food and Drug Administration's approval of behind the counter status for the emergency contraceptive Plan B on August 24, 2006, one of the last major external hurdles for women accessing emergency contraceptive pills appears to have been removed. However, it is unknown whether prescription-free availability will be the final factor in women's predisposition to use ECPs or if other intrinsic factors, may in fact, override use. The purpose of this study was to determine the nature and extent of college women's knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes, perceived social norms, and use related to emergency contraceptive pills. Additional goals included: using a conceptual framework to determine which social and behavioral constructs suggested by the contraceptive literature best predict intention to use ECPs and ECP use. Data were collected via an online survey designed by the lead author. A sample of 4,219 female students was drawn from a directory list of students enrolled at Oregon State University during the Spring Quarter of 2004. A total of 1718 women returned usable questionnaires. Key findings were that the majority of sexually active participants (68%, n = 871) had experienced a pregnancy scare in the past yet only 28.3% (n = 362) had ever used ECPs. Further, women had insufficient knowledge about ECPs in order to make informed decisions. Male partners were the most influential social reference in ECP decision-making. Although prescription-free access to ECPs is an historical milestone for reproductive health in the US, this policy change may not be the final step in ensuring that women access and use ECPs when they need them. Intrinsic factors including: knowledge that ECPs prevent pregnancy by interfering with ovulation, knowledge that ECPs are not a form of abortion, and confidence in accessing ECPs in time if needed seem to influence ECP use. In order for ECPs to impact unintended pregnancy rates to the extent research has demonstrated, strategies addressing these internal factors are warranted and must target both women and men. Title: Emergency contraceptive pills and college women : factors influencing intention and use Author: Nelson, Heather A. Approximately half of the 6.4 million pregnancies occurring each year in the United States are unintended (Finer & Henshaw, 2006). Unintended pregnancies, defined as pregnancies not wanted at the time conception occurs, regardless of contraceptive use (Chandra, Martinez, Mosher, Abma, & Jones, 2005) can have serious repercussions on women, children, and society. For decades, women facing the possibility of an unintended pregnancy following unprotected intercourse, birth control method failure, or sexual assault, have had no choices outside of abortion. Since 1997 however, another option has become available to American women making unintended pregnancy decisions – emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs). Research has indicated that widespread use of ECPs has the potential to prevent 1.5 million of the approximate 3 million unintended pregnancies occurring each year in the US, including as many as 700,000 pregnancies that now result in abortion (Trussell, Stewart, Guest, & Hatcher, 1992). Although 84% of American women have heard of ECPs, only 6% claim to have ever used them (Hoff, Miller, Barefoot, & Greene, 2003). Despite their effectiveness and the public’s awareness of them, ECPs still remain underutilized in many high-risk populations. Explanations for this discrepancy are not readily available. In particular, young adult women attending college are at risk for unintended pregnancy yet we know little about their relationship with ECPs. Although extensive ECP use could have a profound effect on unintended pregnancy rates, we have limited information about the factors that influence a woman's decision to use ECPs. Furthermore, with the US Food and Drug Administration's approval of behind the counter status for the emergency contraceptive Plan B on August 24, 2006, one of the last major external hurdles for women accessing emergency contraceptive pills appears to have been removed. However, it is unknown whether prescription-free availability will be the final factor in women's predisposition to use ECPs or if other intrinsic factors, may in fact, override use. The purpose of this study was to determine the nature and extent of college women's knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes, perceived social norms, and use related to emergency contraceptive pills. Additional goals included: using a conceptual framework to determine which social and behavioral constructs suggested by the contraceptive literature best predict intention to use ECPs and ECP use. Data were collected via an online survey designed by the lead author. A sample of 4,219 female students was drawn from a directory list of students enrolled at Oregon State University during the Spring Quarter of 2004. A total of 1718 women returned usable questionnaires. Key findings were that the majority of sexually active participants (68%, n = 871) had experienced a pregnancy scare in the past yet only 28.3% (n = 362) had ever used ECPs. Further, women had insufficient knowledge about ECPs in order to make informed decisions. Male partners were the most influential social reference in ECP decision-making. Although prescription-free access to ECPs is an historical milestone for reproductive health in the US, this policy change may not be the final step in ensuring that women access and use ECPs when they need them. Intrinsic factors including: knowledge that ECPs prevent pregnancy by interfering with ovulation, knowledge that ECPs are not a form of abortion, and confidence in accessing ECPs in time if needed seem to influence ECP use. In order for ECPs to impact unintended pregnancy rates to the extent research has demonstrated, strategies addressing these internal factors are warranted and must target both women and men. Close

• 387. [Article] Distribution, Abundance, and Settlement of Slope-spawning Flatfish during Early Life Stages in the Eastern Bering Sea

  Changes in environmental conditions in marine ecosystems could directly or indirectly influence distribution, abundance, settlement, and size at settlement of flatfish. Understanding species-specific and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution, Abundance, and Settlement of Slope-spawning Flatfish during Early Life Stages in the Eastern Bering Sea Author: Sohn, Dongwha Changes in environmental conditions in marine ecosystems could directly or indirectly influence distribution, abundance, settlement, and size at settlement of flatfish. Understanding species-specific and age-specific responses to environmental variability is important for managing commercially important flatfish stocks. Slope-spawning flatfish whose offspring rely on extensive drift from the slope (spawning) to the shelf (settlement) and which require specific habitat for settlement could be especially vulnerable to environmental variability. Arrowtooth flounder (ATF; Atheresthes stomias), Greenland halibut (GH; Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), and Pacific halibut (PH; Hippoglossus stenolepis) are commercially and ecologically important slope-spawning flatfish species in the eastern Bering Sea (EBS), which has experienced fluctuating warm and cold periods since 2000. Although the three species share many attributes, their population trajectories have fluctuated differently. This difference could result from contrasting responses to environmental variability during early life history. To understand how physical variability of the Bering Sea can differentially affect flatfish ecology from pre-settlement to post-settlement phases, I used a combination of field data, biophysical modeling, and statistical modeling to characterize early life stage attributes (chapter 2), settlement success (chapter 3), and size, abundance, and distribution at settlement (age-0) and age-1 (chapter 4). Based on historical ichthyoplankton survey data for GH and PH, I found that there were species-specific differences in the spatial distribution (vertically and horizontally) and juvenile nursery areas between the two species during early life stages in the EBS. Specifically, I found that PH larvae abruptly move to shallower water as they grow, and cross onto the shelf earlier than GH. This ontogenetic movement has the benefit of allowing PH larvae to take advantage of on-shelf transport to reach their settlement locations. However, an early transition from the slope to the shelf may not equally benefit GH, whose settlement locations are further from the spawning ground. Using a bio-physical modeling approach parameterized on the field data summarized in chapter 2, I found that species-specific variability of early life attributes causes interannual and species-specific variability of GH and PH settlement success in the EBS. GH settlement increased with increasing along-shelf (northwestward) flow whereas PH settlement decreased. GH that spawned in November and December were highly successful at settling while PH settlement was most successful when they spawned in January and February. Furthermore, GH settlement is affected by temperature dependence of pelagic larval duration, but not PH, indicating a strong resilience of PH to temperature induced variations in development and dispersal duration. Using otolith microstructure analysis, I found that variations in size at settlement for ATF are significantly correlated with latitude of sampling location. For GH, their size at settlement is associated with bottom water temperature and sea ice extent. Especially, sea ice coverage has a strong negative correlation with on-shelf winds, which drive along-shelf Ekman transport to southeast impacting dispersal pathways and duration. Size at settlement for ATF increased with increasing latitude of sampling location, which could be impacted by currents. For GH, size at settlement decreased with decreasing bottom water temperature and increasing sea ice extent. Also, my results showed that settlement habitat increases for GH in cold years whereas that of ATF increases in warm years. The bottom temperature of age-0 habitat for both ATF and GH affected on their age-1 abundance; GH age-1 abundance increased with decreasing bottom temperature of age-0 habitat, but no clear directionality was found for ATF. The findings from this study have implications for understanding settlement success and recruitment of slope-spawning flatfish in the EBS. In most cold years when along-shelf flow is generally strong, the level of larval supply of GH to their settlement areas is higher than in warm years. Size at settlement for GH decreased in cold years. The larger amount of suitable habitat for settlement and post-settlement stages could result in lower competition and less predation in comparison to warm years. In support of this hypothesis, I found greater age-1 abundance in cold years, indicating size at settlement in GH may not be critical compared to suitability of habitat features and larval supply to settlement grounds. On the other hand, in cold years with strong along-shelf transport to northwest, PH (or ATF), which settle in the southern part of the EBS, have lower numbers of successful settlers. Size at settlement for ATF increased in cold years, and I assumed that size at settlement for PH may have similar patterns. The amount of suitable habitat after settlement would be smaller, resulting in lower recruitment due to increased competition for limited resources. By studying how physical factors and their variability influence these three flatfish during early life stages, this study provides valuable insight into the response of flatfish stocks to past and future climate changes in the eastern Bering Sea – a system that is especially vulnerable to warming. Title: Distribution, Abundance, and Settlement of Slope-spawning Flatfish during Early Life Stages in the Eastern Bering Sea Author: Sohn, Dongwha Changes in environmental conditions in marine ecosystems could directly or indirectly influence distribution, abundance, settlement, and size at settlement of flatfish. Understanding species-specific and age-specific responses to environmental variability is important for managing commercially important flatfish stocks. Slope-spawning flatfish whose offspring rely on extensive drift from the slope (spawning) to the shelf (settlement) and which require specific habitat for settlement could be especially vulnerable to environmental variability. Arrowtooth flounder (ATF; Atheresthes stomias), Greenland halibut (GH; Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), and Pacific halibut (PH; Hippoglossus stenolepis) are commercially and ecologically important slope-spawning flatfish species in the eastern Bering Sea (EBS), which has experienced fluctuating warm and cold periods since 2000. Although the three species share many attributes, their population trajectories have fluctuated differently. This difference could result from contrasting responses to environmental variability during early life history. To understand how physical variability of the Bering Sea can differentially affect flatfish ecology from pre-settlement to post-settlement phases, I used a combination of field data, biophysical modeling, and statistical modeling to characterize early life stage attributes (chapter 2), settlement success (chapter 3), and size, abundance, and distribution at settlement (age-0) and age-1 (chapter 4). Based on historical ichthyoplankton survey data for GH and PH, I found that there were species-specific differences in the spatial distribution (vertically and horizontally) and juvenile nursery areas between the two species during early life stages in the EBS. Specifically, I found that PH larvae abruptly move to shallower water as they grow, and cross onto the shelf earlier than GH. This ontogenetic movement has the benefit of allowing PH larvae to take advantage of on-shelf transport to reach their settlement locations. However, an early transition from the slope to the shelf may not equally benefit GH, whose settlement locations are further from the spawning ground. Using a bio-physical modeling approach parameterized on the field data summarized in chapter 2, I found that species-specific variability of early life attributes causes interannual and species-specific variability of GH and PH settlement success in the EBS. GH settlement increased with increasing along-shelf (northwestward) flow whereas PH settlement decreased. GH that spawned in November and December were highly successful at settling while PH settlement was most successful when they spawned in January and February. Furthermore, GH settlement is affected by temperature dependence of pelagic larval duration, but not PH, indicating a strong resilience of PH to temperature induced variations in development and dispersal duration. Using otolith microstructure analysis, I found that variations in size at settlement for ATF are significantly correlated with latitude of sampling location. For GH, their size at settlement is associated with bottom water temperature and sea ice extent. Especially, sea ice coverage has a strong negative correlation with on-shelf winds, which drive along-shelf Ekman transport to southeast impacting dispersal pathways and duration. Size at settlement for ATF increased with increasing latitude of sampling location, which could be impacted by currents. For GH, size at settlement decreased with decreasing bottom water temperature and increasing sea ice extent. Also, my results showed that settlement habitat increases for GH in cold years whereas that of ATF increases in warm years. The bottom temperature of age-0 habitat for both ATF and GH affected on their age-1 abundance; GH age-1 abundance increased with decreasing bottom temperature of age-0 habitat, but no clear directionality was found for ATF. The findings from this study have implications for understanding settlement success and recruitment of slope-spawning flatfish in the EBS. In most cold years when along-shelf flow is generally strong, the level of larval supply of GH to their settlement areas is higher than in warm years. Size at settlement for GH decreased in cold years. The larger amount of suitable habitat for settlement and post-settlement stages could result in lower competition and less predation in comparison to warm years. In support of this hypothesis, I found greater age-1 abundance in cold years, indicating size at settlement in GH may not be critical compared to suitability of habitat features and larval supply to settlement grounds. On the other hand, in cold years with strong along-shelf transport to northwest, PH (or ATF), which settle in the southern part of the EBS, have lower numbers of successful settlers. Size at settlement for ATF increased in cold years, and I assumed that size at settlement for PH may have similar patterns. The amount of suitable habitat after settlement would be smaller, resulting in lower recruitment due to increased competition for limited resources. By studying how physical factors and their variability influence these three flatfish during early life stages, this study provides valuable insight into the response of flatfish stocks to past and future climate changes in the eastern Bering Sea – a system that is especially vulnerable to warming. Close