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• 671. [Article] Hydraulic predictors and seasonal distribution of Manayunkia speciosa density in the Klamath River, CA, with implications for ceratomyxosis, a disease of salmon and trout

  The freshwater polychaete Manayunkia speciosa was identified as an obligate host of the salmonid parasite Ceratomyxa shasta in 1997, prompting increased research on the small benthic invertebrate. Ceratomyxa ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hydraulic predictors and seasonal distribution of Manayunkia speciosa density in the Klamath River, CA, with implications for ceratomyxosis, a disease of salmon and trout Author: Jordan, Michelle S. The freshwater polychaete Manayunkia speciosa was identified as an obligate host of the salmonid parasite Ceratomyxa shasta in 1997, prompting increased research on the small benthic invertebrate. Ceratomyxa shasta infection in fish can cause mortality, and presents a disease risk for both hatchery and wild salmon and trout. Ceratomyxa shasta is endemic to rivers of the Pacific Northwest, and its effects have been particularly well documented in the Klamath River, Oregon and California. One option for managing C. shasta impacts is by decreasing densities of M. speciosa through habitat manipulation, thus decreasing amplification of the parasite. The Klamath River is regulated by irrigation and hydropower dams, thus manipulating the hydrograph to destabilize habitat is a possibility. Decreasing habitat through flow manipulation requires a thorough understanding of the hydraulic environment of polychaete habitat, and how that environment changes with discharge. This thesis proposes an influence diagram of physical variables driving M. speciosa density, and investigates several of them. Samples were collected for enumerating M. speciosa density from nine sites in the Klamath River over 15 months, and seasonal density changes were examined, as were the relationships between density and hydraulic variables (depth, average velocity, substrate size, Reynolds number, Froude number). Density increased directly with depth and inversely with velocity, and was greater on small (silt, sand) and large (boulder, bedrock) substrate relative to medium substrate (gravel, cobble). Density was highest in the summer (July, August, September), and there was evidence that summer densities were influenced by spring discharges through the mechanism of substrate mobilization. Differences in infection prevalence among seasons and habitats were also investigated; however, very low overall incidence of infection limited any conclusions. Based on these results, it is recommended that habitat modeling for management of M. speciosa populations include a habitat stability component that incorporates s whether peak discharge the previous year surpassed a stability threshold. Title: Hydraulic predictors and seasonal distribution of Manayunkia speciosa density in the Klamath River, CA, with implications for ceratomyxosis, a disease of salmon and trout Author: Jordan, Michelle S. The freshwater polychaete Manayunkia speciosa was identified as an obligate host of the salmonid parasite Ceratomyxa shasta in 1997, prompting increased research on the small benthic invertebrate. Ceratomyxa shasta infection in fish can cause mortality, and presents a disease risk for both hatchery and wild salmon and trout. Ceratomyxa shasta is endemic to rivers of the Pacific Northwest, and its effects have been particularly well documented in the Klamath River, Oregon and California. One option for managing C. shasta impacts is by decreasing densities of M. speciosa through habitat manipulation, thus decreasing amplification of the parasite. The Klamath River is regulated by irrigation and hydropower dams, thus manipulating the hydrograph to destabilize habitat is a possibility. Decreasing habitat through flow manipulation requires a thorough understanding of the hydraulic environment of polychaete habitat, and how that environment changes with discharge. This thesis proposes an influence diagram of physical variables driving M. speciosa density, and investigates several of them. Samples were collected for enumerating M. speciosa density from nine sites in the Klamath River over 15 months, and seasonal density changes were examined, as were the relationships between density and hydraulic variables (depth, average velocity, substrate size, Reynolds number, Froude number). Density increased directly with depth and inversely with velocity, and was greater on small (silt, sand) and large (boulder, bedrock) substrate relative to medium substrate (gravel, cobble). Density was highest in the summer (July, August, September), and there was evidence that summer densities were influenced by spring discharges through the mechanism of substrate mobilization. Differences in infection prevalence among seasons and habitats were also investigated; however, very low overall incidence of infection limited any conclusions. Based on these results, it is recommended that habitat modeling for management of M. speciosa populations include a habitat stability component that incorporates s whether peak discharge the previous year surpassed a stability threshold. Close

• 672. [Article] Salmon fisheries of the coastal rivers of Oregon south of the Columbia

  In spite of the progressive restrictions of the commercial river fishery during the past fifty years, the trend of the salmon populations of the coastal rivers has been downward. It is almost impossible ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Salmon fisheries of the coastal rivers of Oregon south of the Columbia Author: Gharrett, John T., Oregon. Fish Commission, Hodges, John I. In spite of the progressive restrictions of the commercial river fishery during the past fifty years, the trend of the salmon populations of the coastal rivers has been downward. It is almost impossible to isolate and analyze separately the causes of this decline, and any attempt to saddle one factor with the responsibility is an oversimplification of the facts. The salmon runs have too long been taken for granted. During the rapid development of the coastal area, the welfare of the fish was ignored. The physical character of the watersheds was changed as the timber was stripped off, and in these same operations streams were blocked by log jams, mill dams, splash dams and even the gravel from the spawning beds of the streams was removed to be used in road construction. At the same time other water uses were developed for power and irrigation. While the productive capacity of the streams was being reduced and the runs resultantly lowered, the fishermen competed with each other for the remaining fish and blamed one another for the lack of fish. Apparently, at no time until recent years was a serious program developed or even considered for the conservation of the salmon runs. To date with the possible exception of one or two instances pollution has not been a serious factor in the decline of the salmon runs. The commercial river fisheries are of considerable importance to the economy of various communities on the Oregon coast. They also provide a source of salmon to those who have no other access to this productive natural resource. The recreational salmon fishery is also an important source of income to Oregon coastal communities. It is, therefore, important to these communities and the State as a whole that the salmon runs be maintained at their maximum productive level. To accomplish this the Oregon Fish Commission has developed a long range management program for the coastal rivers. This encompasses stream clearance and improvement projects, the use of artificial propagation in introducing runs and supplementing natural runs, and the close regulation of the commercial river and offshore fisheries. This program has not been underway long enough to ascertain its success, but in several instances it appears to offer promise. However, close check is being kept on the runs in order that the results of this program can be evaluated as soon as possible. The stream surveys and other observations indicate that the coastal rivers and their salmon populations are not beyond redemption, and that under proper management can be made to yield annually several times their present production. Title: Salmon fisheries of the coastal rivers of Oregon south of the Columbia Author: Gharrett, John T., Oregon. Fish Commission, Hodges, John I. In spite of the progressive restrictions of the commercial river fishery during the past fifty years, the trend of the salmon populations of the coastal rivers has been downward. It is almost impossible to isolate and analyze separately the causes of this decline, and any attempt to saddle one factor with the responsibility is an oversimplification of the facts. The salmon runs have too long been taken for granted. During the rapid development of the coastal area, the welfare of the fish was ignored. The physical character of the watersheds was changed as the timber was stripped off, and in these same operations streams were blocked by log jams, mill dams, splash dams and even the gravel from the spawning beds of the streams was removed to be used in road construction. At the same time other water uses were developed for power and irrigation. While the productive capacity of the streams was being reduced and the runs resultantly lowered, the fishermen competed with each other for the remaining fish and blamed one another for the lack of fish. Apparently, at no time until recent years was a serious program developed or even considered for the conservation of the salmon runs. To date with the possible exception of one or two instances pollution has not been a serious factor in the decline of the salmon runs. The commercial river fisheries are of considerable importance to the economy of various communities on the Oregon coast. They also provide a source of salmon to those who have no other access to this productive natural resource. The recreational salmon fishery is also an important source of income to Oregon coastal communities. It is, therefore, important to these communities and the State as a whole that the salmon runs be maintained at their maximum productive level. To accomplish this the Oregon Fish Commission has developed a long range management program for the coastal rivers. This encompasses stream clearance and improvement projects, the use of artificial propagation in introducing runs and supplementing natural runs, and the close regulation of the commercial river and offshore fisheries. This program has not been underway long enough to ascertain its success, but in several instances it appears to offer promise. However, close check is being kept on the runs in order that the results of this program can be evaluated as soon as possible. The stream surveys and other observations indicate that the coastal rivers and their salmon populations are not beyond redemption, and that under proper management can be made to yield annually several times their present production. Close

• 673. [Article] Analysis of evapotranspiration for various climatic regimes using geostatistics

  Research was conducted to determine the applicability of using the theory of regionalized variables or geostatistics in characterizing the spatial variability of reference evapotranspiration (ETr) over ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Analysis of evapotranspiration for various climatic regimes using geostatistics Author: Nuss, Jeffery L. Research was conducted to determine the applicability of using the theory of regionalized variables or geostatistics in characterizing the spatial variability of reference evapotranspiration (ETr) over various climatic regimes for the state of Oregon. The state was divided into five climatic regions based on topographic features and local meteorological conditions: 1) Coast, 2) Willamette Valley, 3) Southwestern Valley, 4) North East, and 5) South East. The local ETr estimates provided from the FAO-modified Blaney Criddle method were divided into their respective regions and averaged over the three years. The variogram analysis was performed on the average ETr estimates for May through September in each region. Model variograms were fitted to the calculated sample variograms and a cross validation routine performed to test the chosen model. For four out of the five subregions, a verified spherical model was obtained for the individual months. Difficulties related to the low number of samples representing the region made it difficult to confirm model variograms in region 3. The model variograms determined for the average ETr estimates were used as the model variograms for the individual years (1985, 1986, 1987) to test the hypothesis that one model variogram could represent the spatial correlation of ETr for the region. Due to the inconsistencies seen in the analysis, no valid conclusions could be made to support this hypothesis. It is recommended that developing the model variograms from long term average ETr estimates instead of the short three year average could provide better results when applied to individual years. Kriging was performed on the average ETr estimates for July and September in regions 1, 2, 4, and 5. From the kriging analysis, estimates of ETr along with the standard deviation over a grid representing the region were produced. Contour maps were plotted using the gridded information of kriged ETr and standard deviation of the kriged estimates. The results of these contour maps proved to be a good representation of the ETr estimates within most of the regions. It was noticed that the values of ETr of individual meteorological stations within the regions influenced the shape of the contour lines and the shape did not necessarily correspond to topographic effects in Oregon. One explanation is that the weather stations used for the ETr estimates are generally representative of the valleys in each region. For use in hydrologic modeling or irrigation system design and scheduling in valleys, the kriged ETr estimates could be very satisfactory. However, for use in large scale hydrologic modeling or global circulation models, a method to account for the topographic effects must be included in the kriged ETr estimates. A method that might prove successful is developing a spatial correlation between ETr and elevation through a geostatistical technique termed cokriging. Another problem with the regional analysis was comparison at regional boundaries. To effectively utilize these contour maps for the whole state, there must be some method to deal with the transition zones between regions. A possibility is to combine kriged estimates from each region into one file representing the whole state and producing contour plots for the overall data file. The use of geostatistics is becoming more common in hydrology and its use is expected to grow. From this work, geostatistics proved to be a possible tool to generate estimates and computerized plots of reference evapotranspiration (ETr). However, there are difficulties to overcome for geostatistics to be applied operationally in estimating regional evapotranspiration. Title: Analysis of evapotranspiration for various climatic regimes using geostatistics Author: Nuss, Jeffery L. Research was conducted to determine the applicability of using the theory of regionalized variables or geostatistics in characterizing the spatial variability of reference evapotranspiration (ETr) over various climatic regimes for the state of Oregon. The state was divided into five climatic regions based on topographic features and local meteorological conditions: 1) Coast, 2) Willamette Valley, 3) Southwestern Valley, 4) North East, and 5) South East. The local ETr estimates provided from the FAO-modified Blaney Criddle method were divided into their respective regions and averaged over the three years. The variogram analysis was performed on the average ETr estimates for May through September in each region. Model variograms were fitted to the calculated sample variograms and a cross validation routine performed to test the chosen model. For four out of the five subregions, a verified spherical model was obtained for the individual months. Difficulties related to the low number of samples representing the region made it difficult to confirm model variograms in region 3. The model variograms determined for the average ETr estimates were used as the model variograms for the individual years (1985, 1986, 1987) to test the hypothesis that one model variogram could represent the spatial correlation of ETr for the region. Due to the inconsistencies seen in the analysis, no valid conclusions could be made to support this hypothesis. It is recommended that developing the model variograms from long term average ETr estimates instead of the short three year average could provide better results when applied to individual years. Kriging was performed on the average ETr estimates for July and September in regions 1, 2, 4, and 5. From the kriging analysis, estimates of ETr along with the standard deviation over a grid representing the region were produced. Contour maps were plotted using the gridded information of kriged ETr and standard deviation of the kriged estimates. The results of these contour maps proved to be a good representation of the ETr estimates within most of the regions. It was noticed that the values of ETr of individual meteorological stations within the regions influenced the shape of the contour lines and the shape did not necessarily correspond to topographic effects in Oregon. One explanation is that the weather stations used for the ETr estimates are generally representative of the valleys in each region. For use in hydrologic modeling or irrigation system design and scheduling in valleys, the kriged ETr estimates could be very satisfactory. However, for use in large scale hydrologic modeling or global circulation models, a method to account for the topographic effects must be included in the kriged ETr estimates. A method that might prove successful is developing a spatial correlation between ETr and elevation through a geostatistical technique termed cokriging. Another problem with the regional analysis was comparison at regional boundaries. To effectively utilize these contour maps for the whole state, there must be some method to deal with the transition zones between regions. A possibility is to combine kriged estimates from each region into one file representing the whole state and producing contour plots for the overall data file. The use of geostatistics is becoming more common in hydrology and its use is expected to grow. From this work, geostatistics proved to be a possible tool to generate estimates and computerized plots of reference evapotranspiration (ETr). However, there are difficulties to overcome for geostatistics to be applied operationally in estimating regional evapotranspiration. Close

• 674. [Article] Present-day and future contributions of glacier melt to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River : implications for water management

  Glaciers are effective reservoirs because they moderate variations in runoff and supply reliable flow during drought periods. Thus, there needs to be a clear understanding of the influence of glacier runoff ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Present-day and future contributions of glacier melt to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River : implications for water management Author: Phillippe, Jeff Glaciers are effective reservoirs because they moderate variations in runoff and supply reliable flow during drought periods. Thus, there needs to be a clear understanding of the influence of glacier runoff at both the basin and catchment scale. The objectives of this study were to quantify the late summer contributions of glacier melt to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River and to simulate potential impacts of climate change on late summer streamflow. The Upper Middle Fork Hood River catchment (50.6 km²) is located on the northeast flanks of Mount Hood Oregon. Discharge measurements and isotope samples were used to calculate glacier meltwater contributions to the entire catchment, which feeds into a major water diversion used for farmland irrigation. Data were collected over the period August 10 - September 7, 2007. This late summer period was selected because there is typically little rain and suspected high glacier melt contributions. Discharge measurements taken at glacier termini, show that just two of the mountains glaciers, Eliot and Coe, contributed 41% of the total surface water in the catchment. The Eliot Glacier contributed 87% of the total flow in the Eliot Creek, while the Coe Glacier supplied 31% of the runoff in Coe Creek. Isotopic analyses, which include the inputs of all other glacier surfaces in the catchment, show a total glacier contribution of 88% from the Eliot Glacier to the Eliot Creek, in excellent agreement with the streamflow measurements. Isotopes also showed an 88% contribution from the Coe Glacier to the Coe Creek, higher than the amount measured from streamflow. This latter discrepancy is likely due to undersampling of streamflow from the Coe Glacier. During the isotope measurement period, overall contributions of both Coe and Eliot Glaciers to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River were 62 - 74% of catchment discharge. A temperature index model was used to simulate projected impacts of glacier recession and warmer temperatures on streamflow. The Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) was chosen for this task because it has been shown to effectively model runoff in glacierized catchments where there are limited meteorological records. SRM was calibrated using the 2007 discharge records to quantify August – September glacier runoff in the Upper Middle Fork catchment under a variety of glacier and temperature scenarios. SRM simulations indicate that runoff from the catchment glaciers are highly sensitive to changes in glacial area, glacier debris-cover, and air temperature. Model simulations show that glacier recession has a greater effect on runoff than do projected temperature increases. Thus, even without warmer summer temperatures, glacier contributions to streamflow will decrease as long as the glacier continues to lose mass. Applying both current glacier recession rates and a 2°C temperature forcing, the model predicts a decrease of 31% of late summer glacier runoff by 2059, most of which is lost in August. This study suggests that glaciers currently play a significant hydrological role in the headwater catchments of the Hood River Basin at a time when water is needed most, and that these contributions are projected to diminish over time. Title: Present-day and future contributions of glacier melt to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River : implications for water management Author: Phillippe, Jeff Glaciers are effective reservoirs because they moderate variations in runoff and supply reliable flow during drought periods. Thus, there needs to be a clear understanding of the influence of glacier runoff at both the basin and catchment scale. The objectives of this study were to quantify the late summer contributions of glacier melt to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River and to simulate potential impacts of climate change on late summer streamflow. The Upper Middle Fork Hood River catchment (50.6 km²) is located on the northeast flanks of Mount Hood Oregon. Discharge measurements and isotope samples were used to calculate glacier meltwater contributions to the entire catchment, which feeds into a major water diversion used for farmland irrigation. Data were collected over the period August 10 - September 7, 2007. This late summer period was selected because there is typically little rain and suspected high glacier melt contributions. Discharge measurements taken at glacier termini, show that just two of the mountains glaciers, Eliot and Coe, contributed 41% of the total surface water in the catchment. The Eliot Glacier contributed 87% of the total flow in the Eliot Creek, while the Coe Glacier supplied 31% of the runoff in Coe Creek. Isotopic analyses, which include the inputs of all other glacier surfaces in the catchment, show a total glacier contribution of 88% from the Eliot Glacier to the Eliot Creek, in excellent agreement with the streamflow measurements. Isotopes also showed an 88% contribution from the Coe Glacier to the Coe Creek, higher than the amount measured from streamflow. This latter discrepancy is likely due to undersampling of streamflow from the Coe Glacier. During the isotope measurement period, overall contributions of both Coe and Eliot Glaciers to the Upper Middle Fork Hood River were 62 - 74% of catchment discharge. A temperature index model was used to simulate projected impacts of glacier recession and warmer temperatures on streamflow. The Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) was chosen for this task because it has been shown to effectively model runoff in glacierized catchments where there are limited meteorological records. SRM was calibrated using the 2007 discharge records to quantify August – September glacier runoff in the Upper Middle Fork catchment under a variety of glacier and temperature scenarios. SRM simulations indicate that runoff from the catchment glaciers are highly sensitive to changes in glacial area, glacier debris-cover, and air temperature. Model simulations show that glacier recession has a greater effect on runoff than do projected temperature increases. Thus, even without warmer summer temperatures, glacier contributions to streamflow will decrease as long as the glacier continues to lose mass. Applying both current glacier recession rates and a 2°C temperature forcing, the model predicts a decrease of 31% of late summer glacier runoff by 2059, most of which is lost in August. This study suggests that glaciers currently play a significant hydrological role in the headwater catchments of the Hood River Basin at a time when water is needed most, and that these contributions are projected to diminish over time. Close

• 675. [Article] A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon

  The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon Author: Johnson, Neal S. The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses has been impeded by institutional constraints and the scarcity of information regarding instream flow benefits. The objectives of this thesis were to provide preliminary economic data on the value of instream water in "producing" recreational fishing and to examine the effect of forestry, agriculture, and livestock practices on temporal streamflow patterns and anadromous fish production. The steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) sport fishery within the John Day River basin in north-central Oregon provided the setting for this research. The interdisciplinary methodology employed in estimating the marginal value of water with respect to steelhead production consisted of two tasks. The first task involved valuing a marginal change in the quality of the steelhead recreational fishery. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was selected for this purpose. Both open- and closed-ended willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions were included in a questionnaire administered to John Day River steelhead anglers during the 1986/87 steelhead fishing season. Survey data were analyzed to arrive at individual and aggregate bid functions relating WTP to expected angling success rates. Results indicate that, under current conditions, the average angler is willing to pay approximately $7.20 to catch an additional steelhead. The second task of the instream water valuation methodology was directed at deriving a streamflow/steelhead production relationship. By including variables influencing steelhead production in a Ricker stock-recruitment model, it was possible to develop a model which could be estimated using linear regression techniques. Some difficulty arose, however, with interpretation of the model due to the unavailability of cohort escapement data and the subsequent use of standing crop data. While possibly masking the true magnitude of streamflow's effect on fish production, this drawback was not deemed limiting within the general context of the interdisciplinary methodology. Results of the biological model conformed to a priori expectations. Increases in summer and winter streamflows led to increased steelhead survival, whereas higher spring flows increased mortality levels. Other results indicate that the John Day Dam was responsible for a 31.5 percent decline in the population index for the 1969-1983 period. Combining the economic and biological results into one equation yielded an estimate of the marginal value of summer instream water in "producing" recreational steelhead angling. Similar equations were developed for winter and spring flows. The marginal value of water in producing recreational steelhead fishing within the John Day basin was estimated at $0.56 per acre-foot for summer flows, $0.046 for winter flows, and -$0.075 for spring flows. By including out-of-basin benefits, these values increased to $2.26, $0.19, and -$0.30, respectively. In comparison, water's value in irrigation within the John Day basin has been estimated at between $10 to $24 per acre-foot. However, nonuse values of steelhead, as well as the increased production of other fish species (such as spring chinook salmon) were not included in the instream water values. In addition, no attempt was made at valuing instream water's contribution to boating, camping, or other benefit-producing activities. A secondary objective of this thesis was to briefly examine the possible benefits accruing to other instream and out-of-stream users due to an alteration in streamflow patterns. In addition, the impact of activities by other resource users -- namely forestry, agriculture, and livestock production --on anadromous fish production was reviewed. Improper management practices by these activities can negatively impact the aquatic and riparian ecosystems. While no firm conclusions were drawn, it appears the quality of these ecosystems, as opposed to the amount of streamflow, has the largest marginal impact on anadromous fish populations. Title: A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon Author: Johnson, Neal S. The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses has been impeded by institutional constraints and the scarcity of information regarding instream flow benefits. The objectives of this thesis were to provide preliminary economic data on the value of instream water in "producing" recreational fishing and to examine the effect of forestry, agriculture, and livestock practices on temporal streamflow patterns and anadromous fish production. The steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) sport fishery within the John Day River basin in north-central Oregon provided the setting for this research. The interdisciplinary methodology employed in estimating the marginal value of water with respect to steelhead production consisted of two tasks. The first task involved valuing a marginal change in the quality of the steelhead recreational fishery. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was selected for this purpose. Both open- and closed-ended willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions were included in a questionnaire administered to John Day River steelhead anglers during the 1986/87 steelhead fishing season. Survey data were analyzed to arrive at individual and aggregate bid functions relating WTP to expected angling success rates. Results indicate that, under current conditions, the average angler is willing to pay approximately $7.20 to catch an additional steelhead. The second task of the instream water valuation methodology was directed at deriving a streamflow/steelhead production relationship. By including variables influencing steelhead production in a Ricker stock-recruitment model, it was possible to develop a model which could be estimated using linear regression techniques. Some difficulty arose, however, with interpretation of the model due to the unavailability of cohort escapement data and the subsequent use of standing crop data. While possibly masking the true magnitude of streamflow's effect on fish production, this drawback was not deemed limiting within the general context of the interdisciplinary methodology. Results of the biological model conformed to a priori expectations. Increases in summer and winter streamflows led to increased steelhead survival, whereas higher spring flows increased mortality levels. Other results indicate that the John Day Dam was responsible for a 31.5 percent decline in the population index for the 1969-1983 period. Combining the economic and biological results into one equation yielded an estimate of the marginal value of summer instream water in "producing" recreational steelhead angling. Similar equations were developed for winter and spring flows. The marginal value of water in producing recreational steelhead fishing within the John Day basin was estimated at $0.56 per acre-foot for summer flows, $0.046 for winter flows, and -$0.075 for spring flows. By including out-of-basin benefits, these values increased to $2.26, $0.19, and -$0.30, respectively. In comparison, water's value in irrigation within the John Day basin has been estimated at between $10 to $24 per acre-foot. However, nonuse values of steelhead, as well as the increased production of other fish species (such as spring chinook salmon) were not included in the instream water values. In addition, no attempt was made at valuing instream water's contribution to boating, camping, or other benefit-producing activities. A secondary objective of this thesis was to briefly examine the possible benefits accruing to other instream and out-of-stream users due to an alteration in streamflow patterns. In addition, the impact of activities by other resource users -- namely forestry, agriculture, and livestock production --on anadromous fish production was reviewed. Improper management practices by these activities can negatively impact the aquatic and riparian ecosystems. While no firm conclusions were drawn, it appears the quality of these ecosystems, as opposed to the amount of streamflow, has the largest marginal impact on anadromous fish populations. Close

• 676. [Article] Understanding the impact of climate change on snowpack extent and measurement in the Columbia River Basin and nested sub basins

  Shifting climate patterns in the Columbia River basin are affecting snow pack, and, as a result, stream flow throughout the region. In the Oregon Cascades, ever growing populations, and their associated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Understanding the impact of climate change on snowpack extent and measurement in the Columbia River Basin and nested sub basins Author: Brown, Aimee Lyn Shifting climate patterns in the Columbia River basin are affecting snow pack, and, as a result, stream flow throughout the region. In the Oregon Cascades, ever growing populations, and their associated activities, place increasing stress on an already over allocated hydrologic system. Political pressures, including the possibility of renegotiation or termination of the Columbia River Treaty between the United States and Canada; societal pressures, including a desire for ecosystem services and fish habitat; and economic pressures, including a need for adequate streamflow for hydropower generation and irrigation, all necessitate a better understanding of current and future snow pack. This work focuses on analyzing the ability of the current snowpack measurement system to represent and capture snowpack in the Columbia River basin and its sub basins under both today’s climate and future climates. In addition, this work develops a more comprehensive knowledge of the impact climate warming will have on snow-covered areas across the region. To determine the efficacy of current snow water equivalence (SWE) measurement sites, the locations and characteristics of sites in the McKenzie River Basin, a sub basin of the Columbia River basin, were considered. SWE was distributed through the basin using the physically based model, SnowModel. SWE values at the four SNOTEL sites in the basin ranged from 0.18-0.37 m at peak SWE. Three of the sites had SWE values greater than 180% of average SWE of the snow covered area. Using elevation, aspect and slope, a 16-node binary regression tree explained controlling variables on SWE at the basin scale. As expected, elevation is the primary determinant in SWE distribution, however, the influence of different parameters shifted throughout the accumulation and ablation seasons. Updated high resolution PRISM precipitation and temperature data are used to map areas within the Columbia River basin and two nested sub basins that are at risk of turning from winter snow dominated precipitation regimes to winter rain dominated under warming scenarios ranging from 1-3°C. Within the Columbia River basin, the Oregon Cascades exhibit the greatest degree of sensitivity to changes in precipitation. Under a 2°C warming scenario, an increase that the International Panel on Climate Change finds highly likely to occur within the next 30 years, 30% of current-day snow covered area in Oregon’s Willamette River Basin will be at risk of turning from snow to rain. The water storage that will be lost if such a change does occur (0.73 km3) is equivalent to more than 8 months worth of water at the current rate of water use in the basin. Data from nine regional stations in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Weather Service (NWS) Cooperative Observer Program were used to validate placement of snow by the model. The conclusions of this work suggest that the placement of snow measurement sites requires refinement and improvement if the measurements are to accurately represent basin wide snowpack today and in the future. Water and natural resource managers will find the results presented here useful for siting future measurement locations that capture and represent SWE during times of interest. While political, societal and economic pressures will only increase, these findings provide early steps for the creation of a more robust system that has the potential to help stakeholders make informed decisions about their water resources, their communities and their needs. Title: Understanding the impact of climate change on snowpack extent and measurement in the Columbia River Basin and nested sub basins Author: Brown, Aimee Lyn Shifting climate patterns in the Columbia River basin are affecting snow pack, and, as a result, stream flow throughout the region. In the Oregon Cascades, ever growing populations, and their associated activities, place increasing stress on an already over allocated hydrologic system. Political pressures, including the possibility of renegotiation or termination of the Columbia River Treaty between the United States and Canada; societal pressures, including a desire for ecosystem services and fish habitat; and economic pressures, including a need for adequate streamflow for hydropower generation and irrigation, all necessitate a better understanding of current and future snow pack. This work focuses on analyzing the ability of the current snowpack measurement system to represent and capture snowpack in the Columbia River basin and its sub basins under both today’s climate and future climates. In addition, this work develops a more comprehensive knowledge of the impact climate warming will have on snow-covered areas across the region. To determine the efficacy of current snow water equivalence (SWE) measurement sites, the locations and characteristics of sites in the McKenzie River Basin, a sub basin of the Columbia River basin, were considered. SWE was distributed through the basin using the physically based model, SnowModel. SWE values at the four SNOTEL sites in the basin ranged from 0.18-0.37 m at peak SWE. Three of the sites had SWE values greater than 180% of average SWE of the snow covered area. Using elevation, aspect and slope, a 16-node binary regression tree explained controlling variables on SWE at the basin scale. As expected, elevation is the primary determinant in SWE distribution, however, the influence of different parameters shifted throughout the accumulation and ablation seasons. Updated high resolution PRISM precipitation and temperature data are used to map areas within the Columbia River basin and two nested sub basins that are at risk of turning from winter snow dominated precipitation regimes to winter rain dominated under warming scenarios ranging from 1-3°C. Within the Columbia River basin, the Oregon Cascades exhibit the greatest degree of sensitivity to changes in precipitation. Under a 2°C warming scenario, an increase that the International Panel on Climate Change finds highly likely to occur within the next 30 years, 30% of current-day snow covered area in Oregon’s Willamette River Basin will be at risk of turning from snow to rain. The water storage that will be lost if such a change does occur (0.73 km3) is equivalent to more than 8 months worth of water at the current rate of water use in the basin. Data from nine regional stations in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Weather Service (NWS) Cooperative Observer Program were used to validate placement of snow by the model. The conclusions of this work suggest that the placement of snow measurement sites requires refinement and improvement if the measurements are to accurately represent basin wide snowpack today and in the future. Water and natural resource managers will find the results presented here useful for siting future measurement locations that capture and represent SWE during times of interest. While political, societal and economic pressures will only increase, these findings provide early steps for the creation of a more robust system that has the potential to help stakeholders make informed decisions about their water resources, their communities and their needs. Close

• 677. [Article] Movement of elemental constituents in sagehill loamy sand treated with municipal waste

  Metropolitan solid wastes and sewage sludges present a serious disposal problem for many communities. To assess the feasibility of disposal or utilization of these waste products on soils, a study was initiated ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Movement of elemental constituents in sagehill loamy sand treated with municipal waste Author: Halvorson, Gary Alfred Metropolitan solid wastes and sewage sludges present a serious disposal problem for many communities. To assess the feasibility of disposal or utilization of these waste products on soils, a study was initiated to evaluate plant growth and soil elemental interactions on a loamy fine sand treated with metropolitan waste. Shredded municipal refuse and sewage materials were added to Sagehill loamy fine sand in both irrigated field plots and laboratory lysimeters at rates of 0, 100, 200, and 400 ton/acre and 0, 5500, 11,000, and 22,000 gal/acre, respectively. Ammonium sulfate fertilizer was added in 1972 to the fescue and alfalfa plots at rates of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 lb of N/acre/year and 80, 200, 400, and 600 lb of N/acre/year, respectively. Fawn fescue and Sernac alfalfa yields were measured and soil and plant samples collected for chemical analysis. Shredded metropolitan waste and sewage sludge at rates comparable to the field study were added to plexiglass columns, ten in x three ft, packed with Sagehill loamy fine sand to simulate the natural soil profile. Nitrogen fertilizer, 240 lb N/acre/2 week interval, was added and the columns were either continuously, 1.4 in/2 day, or intermittently, 1.4 in/2 hr every 2 days, leached. Approximately the same volume of water was applied to all columns. The columns were leached for six months, allowed to dry for six months, and then leached an additional 28 days to simulate a second year of leaching. Percolation water samples were collected for chemical analysis. The concentration of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, P, and organic-N in the Sagehill loamy sand on the field plots and in the laboratory lysimeters increased with waste additions. The concentration of NO₃-N and NH₄-N increased mainly as a result of N fertilizer additions. The pH of the surface soil decreased to approximately 5.0 with the addition of ammonium sulfate; however, the pH of the leachate from the soil columns remained above 7.0 because of the carbonate accumulation in the lower portion of the soil profile. Sodium in comparison to Mg, Ca, and K leached through the soil columns most rapidly; however much of the added Na was not leached. Iron movement in the soil profile of the leaching columns related directly to a decrease in pH and the development of reducing conditions. The concentration of extractable Mn in the soil increased with the decrease in the pH of the surface soil associated with the ammonium sulfate fertilizer application. The concentration of extractable Cu, Zn, and P in the soil to the incorporation depth of the refuse was very high compared to the check soil as a result of Cu, Zn, and P additions in the waste and a decrease in pH. Very little movement of Cu, Zn, or P occurred below the incorporation depth of the refuse. The NO₃-N moved readily through the profile of the waste treated plots. Comparatively little NH₄-N moved through the profile of the field plots. The NH₄-N and NO₃-N did not appear in the leachate from the waste treated columns until after a delay of 40-90 days. This delay was due to the immobilization of the added nitrogen by increased microbial activity. In the second simulated year of leaching the NO₃ -N concentration of the leachate from the waste treated columns increased from a range of 0.28 to 49 ppm at the end of year one to 18 to 400 ppm. The NO₃ -N concentration subsequently decreased rapidly to 0.42 to 43 ppm with additional water application. Data from the field plots most closely paralleled the data from the intermittently leached columns while the continuously leached columns represented a more extreme environment particularly with regard to the reducing conditions that developed in them. Unless strong reducing conditions occurred in the profile, NO₃-N was the only ion studied which posed an apparent threat to ground water quality. Land application of municipal refuse at levels less than 400 ton/acre is a suitable method of disposal. The optimum rate appeared to be 100 ton/acre. At this rate the refuse was easily incorporated into the soil, plant elemental uptake problems were minimal, and unfavorable chemical changes such as the development of reducing conditions in the 400 ton/acre refuse treated plots did not generally occur. Title: Movement of elemental constituents in sagehill loamy sand treated with municipal waste Author: Halvorson, Gary Alfred Metropolitan solid wastes and sewage sludges present a serious disposal problem for many communities. To assess the feasibility of disposal or utilization of these waste products on soils, a study was initiated to evaluate plant growth and soil elemental interactions on a loamy fine sand treated with metropolitan waste. Shredded municipal refuse and sewage materials were added to Sagehill loamy fine sand in both irrigated field plots and laboratory lysimeters at rates of 0, 100, 200, and 400 ton/acre and 0, 5500, 11,000, and 22,000 gal/acre, respectively. Ammonium sulfate fertilizer was added in 1972 to the fescue and alfalfa plots at rates of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 lb of N/acre/year and 80, 200, 400, and 600 lb of N/acre/year, respectively. Fawn fescue and Sernac alfalfa yields were measured and soil and plant samples collected for chemical analysis. Shredded metropolitan waste and sewage sludge at rates comparable to the field study were added to plexiglass columns, ten in x three ft, packed with Sagehill loamy fine sand to simulate the natural soil profile. Nitrogen fertilizer, 240 lb N/acre/2 week interval, was added and the columns were either continuously, 1.4 in/2 day, or intermittently, 1.4 in/2 hr every 2 days, leached. Approximately the same volume of water was applied to all columns. The columns were leached for six months, allowed to dry for six months, and then leached an additional 28 days to simulate a second year of leaching. Percolation water samples were collected for chemical analysis. The concentration of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, P, and organic-N in the Sagehill loamy sand on the field plots and in the laboratory lysimeters increased with waste additions. The concentration of NO₃-N and NH₄-N increased mainly as a result of N fertilizer additions. The pH of the surface soil decreased to approximately 5.0 with the addition of ammonium sulfate; however, the pH of the leachate from the soil columns remained above 7.0 because of the carbonate accumulation in the lower portion of the soil profile. Sodium in comparison to Mg, Ca, and K leached through the soil columns most rapidly; however much of the added Na was not leached. Iron movement in the soil profile of the leaching columns related directly to a decrease in pH and the development of reducing conditions. The concentration of extractable Mn in the soil increased with the decrease in the pH of the surface soil associated with the ammonium sulfate fertilizer application. The concentration of extractable Cu, Zn, and P in the soil to the incorporation depth of the refuse was very high compared to the check soil as a result of Cu, Zn, and P additions in the waste and a decrease in pH. Very little movement of Cu, Zn, or P occurred below the incorporation depth of the refuse. The NO₃-N moved readily through the profile of the waste treated plots. Comparatively little NH₄-N moved through the profile of the field plots. The NH₄-N and NO₃-N did not appear in the leachate from the waste treated columns until after a delay of 40-90 days. This delay was due to the immobilization of the added nitrogen by increased microbial activity. In the second simulated year of leaching the NO₃ -N concentration of the leachate from the waste treated columns increased from a range of 0.28 to 49 ppm at the end of year one to 18 to 400 ppm. The NO₃ -N concentration subsequently decreased rapidly to 0.42 to 43 ppm with additional water application. Data from the field plots most closely paralleled the data from the intermittently leached columns while the continuously leached columns represented a more extreme environment particularly with regard to the reducing conditions that developed in them. Unless strong reducing conditions occurred in the profile, NO₃-N was the only ion studied which posed an apparent threat to ground water quality. Land application of municipal refuse at levels less than 400 ton/acre is a suitable method of disposal. The optimum rate appeared to be 100 ton/acre. At this rate the refuse was easily incorporated into the soil, plant elemental uptake problems were minimal, and unfavorable chemical changes such as the development of reducing conditions in the 400 ton/acre refuse treated plots did not generally occur. Close

• 678. [Article] Refractory metals processing waste utilization on Dayton silty clay loam soil

  Waste products from industry have often been disposed in landfills without regard for any beneficial uses of the product in agricultural production. This research was conducted to determine the effect ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Refractory metals processing waste utilization on Dayton silty clay loam soil Author: Polson, Richard Lewis Waste products from industry have often been disposed in landfills without regard for any beneficial uses of the product in agricultural production. This research was conducted to determine the effect of a refractory metal processing waste product on (a) soil chemical and physical properties, (b) perennial ryegrass forage quality and seed yield, and (c) percolation water quality. Refractory metals processing waste was applied either as a slurry or dried to Dayton silty clay loam (sicl) at rates of 0, 5, 10, 25, and 50 tons/acre. Ammonium nitrate, concentrated superphosphate, muriate of potash, calcium sulfate, and lime were added to optimize plant growth. Lime, gypsum, and phosphorus fertilizer variables were incorporated into the study to investigate specific beneficial or problems areas associated with the waste product. The waste and fertilizers were tilled into the soil, and all plots seeded with perennial ryegrass (var. Linn) and irrigated. Elements found in the waste in excess of one percent included: Zr, Ca, F, Fe, Al, S, and C (as CO₃). Those elements found in concentrations ranging between 0.1 and 1.0 percent included: Hf, Mg, Na, Pb, P, NH₄-N, and K. The concentration of Cd, Ci, Co, Cr, Ni, Mn, and Mo were less than 1000 ppm. Soil pH, soluble salts, extractable Ca, Mg, NH₄-N, Zn, Ni, S, and F and the total Zr, Hf, and Pb content of the soil increased with waste application, while extractable Fe, Mn, and P levels decreased with waste application. Extractable Na, K, NO₃-N, Al, and Cu levels were not affected by waste application. The soluble salt content decreased from greater than 4.0 mmhos /cm in the fall to less than 1.7 mmnos /cm in the spring. The extractable Mg, Na, K, NH₄, NO₃, P, S, and Zn also decreased in the spring as compared to the fall levels. Acid extractable P levels were less than the minimum required for optimum crop production, 30 ppm. Iron, Mn, and Ni availability increased with time, due to the wet, reduced soil conditions present between sampling periods. Water percolation through the Dayton sicl soil increased with waste application, but soil moisture retention was not changed. Perennial ryegrass dry matter yields were not significantly changed by waste product additions, and were similar to yields obtained in commercial farm operations. Mean yields ranged from 2.6 to 3.3 tons/acre on the soils treated with dry waste, and 2.8 to 4.0 tons/acre on soils treated with the waste slurry. Clean seed yields were slightly less than normal, ranging from 754 to 1238 lbs /acre. The subnormal seed yields were probably due to seed loss during harvesting and cleaning. The waste additions did not affect seed viability. The Ca, Mg, K, P. Fe, Al, Mn, Cr, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Mo, F, Zr, Hf, and Pb contents of the perennial ryegrass were not significantly affected by waste application. The S, Na, and N uptake by the ryegrass increased at application rates of 50 ton/acre, compared to control plots, which indicated that the waste product may serve as a N and S fertilizer. Plant P levels were not significantly depressed by waste application, despite decreases in acid available P levels. Addition of 100 lbs P /acre did not significantly improve P uptake compared to soil treated with 25 lbs P/acre and similar amounts of waste. Ryegrass grown on soil that received no lime or waste showed significant reductions in uptake of Ca and Mo, compared to control plots. The addition of waste, 25 ton/acre, eliminated these reductions. The application of the waste product to the soil may pose a threat of fluoride pollution to groundwaters which would require special management practices. No other elemental hazards to groundwater were suggested. Utilization of refractory metals processing waste on Dayton sicl appears to be a viable waste disposal alternative, providing that further study establishes that F does not pose a threat to groundwaters under field conditions. Title: Refractory metals processing waste utilization on Dayton silty clay loam soil Author: Polson, Richard Lewis Waste products from industry have often been disposed in landfills without regard for any beneficial uses of the product in agricultural production. This research was conducted to determine the effect of a refractory metal processing waste product on (a) soil chemical and physical properties, (b) perennial ryegrass forage quality and seed yield, and (c) percolation water quality. Refractory metals processing waste was applied either as a slurry or dried to Dayton silty clay loam (sicl) at rates of 0, 5, 10, 25, and 50 tons/acre. Ammonium nitrate, concentrated superphosphate, muriate of potash, calcium sulfate, and lime were added to optimize plant growth. Lime, gypsum, and phosphorus fertilizer variables were incorporated into the study to investigate specific beneficial or problems areas associated with the waste product. The waste and fertilizers were tilled into the soil, and all plots seeded with perennial ryegrass (var. Linn) and irrigated. Elements found in the waste in excess of one percent included: Zr, Ca, F, Fe, Al, S, and C (as CO₃). Those elements found in concentrations ranging between 0.1 and 1.0 percent included: Hf, Mg, Na, Pb, P, NH₄-N, and K. The concentration of Cd, Ci, Co, Cr, Ni, Mn, and Mo were less than 1000 ppm. Soil pH, soluble salts, extractable Ca, Mg, NH₄-N, Zn, Ni, S, and F and the total Zr, Hf, and Pb content of the soil increased with waste application, while extractable Fe, Mn, and P levels decreased with waste application. Extractable Na, K, NO₃-N, Al, and Cu levels were not affected by waste application. The soluble salt content decreased from greater than 4.0 mmhos /cm in the fall to less than 1.7 mmnos /cm in the spring. The extractable Mg, Na, K, NH₄, NO₃, P, S, and Zn also decreased in the spring as compared to the fall levels. Acid extractable P levels were less than the minimum required for optimum crop production, 30 ppm. Iron, Mn, and Ni availability increased with time, due to the wet, reduced soil conditions present between sampling periods. Water percolation through the Dayton sicl soil increased with waste application, but soil moisture retention was not changed. Perennial ryegrass dry matter yields were not significantly changed by waste product additions, and were similar to yields obtained in commercial farm operations. Mean yields ranged from 2.6 to 3.3 tons/acre on the soils treated with dry waste, and 2.8 to 4.0 tons/acre on soils treated with the waste slurry. Clean seed yields were slightly less than normal, ranging from 754 to 1238 lbs /acre. The subnormal seed yields were probably due to seed loss during harvesting and cleaning. The waste additions did not affect seed viability. The Ca, Mg, K, P. Fe, Al, Mn, Cr, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Mo, F, Zr, Hf, and Pb contents of the perennial ryegrass were not significantly affected by waste application. The S, Na, and N uptake by the ryegrass increased at application rates of 50 ton/acre, compared to control plots, which indicated that the waste product may serve as a N and S fertilizer. Plant P levels were not significantly depressed by waste application, despite decreases in acid available P levels. Addition of 100 lbs P /acre did not significantly improve P uptake compared to soil treated with 25 lbs P/acre and similar amounts of waste. Ryegrass grown on soil that received no lime or waste showed significant reductions in uptake of Ca and Mo, compared to control plots. The addition of waste, 25 ton/acre, eliminated these reductions. The application of the waste product to the soil may pose a threat of fluoride pollution to groundwaters which would require special management practices. No other elemental hazards to groundwater were suggested. Utilization of refractory metals processing waste on Dayton sicl appears to be a viable waste disposal alternative, providing that further study establishes that F does not pose a threat to groundwaters under field conditions. Close

• 679. [Article] The fertilizer value of shrimp and crab processing wastes

  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 prohibits the discharge of seafood processing solid wastes into navigable waters after July 1, 1977. Oregon shrimp and crab processors must use ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The fertilizer value of shrimp and crab processing wastes Author: Costa, Robert Edward The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 prohibits the discharge of seafood processing solid wastes into navigable waters after July 1, 1977. Oregon shrimp and crab processors must use other methods of disposal for the 15 to 30 million pounds of solid waste generated annually. The application of shrimp and crab wastes to nearby agricultural land can consume the wastes generated at major processing ports. As they came from the processing plant, shrimp and crab solid wastes contained 1.3% to 1.6% N, 0.47% to 0.54% P, other nutrients, 7% to 14% CaCO₃ equivalent, and 64% to 78% water. A greenhouse experiment was established to determine the effects of 1) grinding the wastes, 2) surface vs. incorporated waste applications, and 3) waste applications vs. inorganic N applied at equivalent N rates (56, 168, and 336 kg N/ha) with applications of P, S, and lime supplied with the inorganic N only. The fertilizer materials were applied on two coastal soils, and two pasture crops were grown. Forage yields and the P concentration in 'Potomac' orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) were significantly higher with incorporated waste applications than with surface waste applications. Application method did not affect the P concentration in New Zealand white clover (Trifolium repens L. ). The difference in crop response between application methods would assumably be less under field conditions than was measured in the greenhouse. Grinding crab waste significantly increased forage yields when the waste was surface applied, but not when incorporated with the soil. Unground shrimp waste gave significantly higher forage yields than ground shrimp waste. No significant difference occurred in the forage yields, the N uptake by orchardgrass, or the P concentrations in orchardgrass and white clover among applications of shrimp waste, crab waste, and inorganic nutrients with lime. Applications of shrimp and crab wastes increased white clover yields over the control by a factor of more than 3.5 on Knappa silt loam (pH 4.9 - 5.0) but did not measurably increase the soil pH. It was assumed that the wastes, in the immediate area of the shell material, increased the availability of Ca, P, S, and Mo, decreased soluble soil Al, and allowed effective rhizobial nodulation and N fixation. Increasing application rates of shrimp and crab wastes to Knappa and Nehalem silt loams significantly increased the extractable soil P and Ca, and significantly decreased the extractable soil K after 28 weeks of orchardgrass growth. No consistent effect on soil pH was measured. In a second greenhouse experiment, N rates of 165 and 330 kg/ha and P rates of 61 and 122 kg/ha were supplied by shrimp waste and by inorganic sources to a limed coastal soil in a 2 x 2 x 2 complete factorial arrangement. Applications of shrimp waste resulted in significantly higher orchardgrass yields and P uptake than applications of the inorganic nutrients, but no significant difference occurred in the N uptake. In an irrigated coastal pasture, fresh shrimp waste was applied at 6,726, 17,936, and 35,872 kg/ha and ammonium phosphate (16-20-0 15 S) was applied at 224 and 448 kg/ha and a stand of orchardgrass was established. Forage yields were higher with shrimp waste than with ammonium phosphate. Shrimp waste applications beyond 17,936 kg/ha did not further increase the forage yield or P uptake. Shrimp waste applications increased extractable soil P, SO₄ -S, soluble salts, and NO₃ -N, but resulted in a depletion of soil K when measured at the end of the growing season. Shrimp and crab processing wastes are effective sources of N and P for crop plants and should be applied at rates necessary to supply the recommended rates of N. Title: The fertilizer value of shrimp and crab processing wastes Author: Costa, Robert Edward The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 prohibits the discharge of seafood processing solid wastes into navigable waters after July 1, 1977. Oregon shrimp and crab processors must use other methods of disposal for the 15 to 30 million pounds of solid waste generated annually. The application of shrimp and crab wastes to nearby agricultural land can consume the wastes generated at major processing ports. As they came from the processing plant, shrimp and crab solid wastes contained 1.3% to 1.6% N, 0.47% to 0.54% P, other nutrients, 7% to 14% CaCO₃ equivalent, and 64% to 78% water. A greenhouse experiment was established to determine the effects of 1) grinding the wastes, 2) surface vs. incorporated waste applications, and 3) waste applications vs. inorganic N applied at equivalent N rates (56, 168, and 336 kg N/ha) with applications of P, S, and lime supplied with the inorganic N only. The fertilizer materials were applied on two coastal soils, and two pasture crops were grown. Forage yields and the P concentration in 'Potomac' orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) were significantly higher with incorporated waste applications than with surface waste applications. Application method did not affect the P concentration in New Zealand white clover (Trifolium repens L. ). The difference in crop response between application methods would assumably be less under field conditions than was measured in the greenhouse. Grinding crab waste significantly increased forage yields when the waste was surface applied, but not when incorporated with the soil. Unground shrimp waste gave significantly higher forage yields than ground shrimp waste. No significant difference occurred in the forage yields, the N uptake by orchardgrass, or the P concentrations in orchardgrass and white clover among applications of shrimp waste, crab waste, and inorganic nutrients with lime. Applications of shrimp and crab wastes increased white clover yields over the control by a factor of more than 3.5 on Knappa silt loam (pH 4.9 - 5.0) but did not measurably increase the soil pH. It was assumed that the wastes, in the immediate area of the shell material, increased the availability of Ca, P, S, and Mo, decreased soluble soil Al, and allowed effective rhizobial nodulation and N fixation. Increasing application rates of shrimp and crab wastes to Knappa and Nehalem silt loams significantly increased the extractable soil P and Ca, and significantly decreased the extractable soil K after 28 weeks of orchardgrass growth. No consistent effect on soil pH was measured. In a second greenhouse experiment, N rates of 165 and 330 kg/ha and P rates of 61 and 122 kg/ha were supplied by shrimp waste and by inorganic sources to a limed coastal soil in a 2 x 2 x 2 complete factorial arrangement. Applications of shrimp waste resulted in significantly higher orchardgrass yields and P uptake than applications of the inorganic nutrients, but no significant difference occurred in the N uptake. In an irrigated coastal pasture, fresh shrimp waste was applied at 6,726, 17,936, and 35,872 kg/ha and ammonium phosphate (16-20-0 15 S) was applied at 224 and 448 kg/ha and a stand of orchardgrass was established. Forage yields were higher with shrimp waste than with ammonium phosphate. Shrimp waste applications beyond 17,936 kg/ha did not further increase the forage yield or P uptake. Shrimp waste applications increased extractable soil P, SO₄ -S, soluble salts, and NO₃ -N, but resulted in a depletion of soil K when measured at the end of the growing season. Shrimp and crab processing wastes are effective sources of N and P for crop plants and should be applied at rates necessary to supply the recommended rates of N. Close

• 680. [Article] Vegetation and animal responses to grazing crested wheatgrass at three intensities and two seasons in southern Idaho

  Land useable for livestock grazing in the western United States is diminishing because of spreading municipalities, irrigation developments, highway construction, recreational demands and withdrawals. Concurrently, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Vegetation and animal responses to grazing crested wheatgrass at three intensities and two seasons in southern Idaho Author: Sharp, Lee Ajax Land useable for livestock grazing in the western United States is diminishing because of spreading municipalities, irrigation developments, highway construction, recreational demands and withdrawals. Concurrently, the demand for livestock and livestock products is increasing because of a rapidly growing population. As a result, production from the grazing land that remains must be increased to satisfy the increased wants of the population. Artificial seeding is improving the forage productivity on large areas of low producing range land in the Intermountain region. Methods of successfully establishing stands of forage plants by artificial means are reasonably well understood, but less information is available about grazing practices that will optimize the returns from these range improvement programs. A nine-year (1957-1965) grazing study was conducted on a crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum and A. desertorum) seeding near Malta, Idaho for the purpose of evaluating plant and animal responses under three intensities of grazing (light, moderate or heavy) in two seasons (spring or fall). With the information obtained, suggested grazing practices for optimum livestock production were developed. Stand density, frequency of occurrence and yield of crested wheatgrass were not affected appreciably during the nine years by light and moderate grazing intensities in the spring. Heavy spring grazing, however, caused a reduction in frequency of occurrence and a lower yield of crested wheatgrass in the latter years of the study. Intensity of grazing in the fall season had little effect on stand density, frequency of occurrence or annual yield of crested wheatgrass. Initial herbage production in the spring was found to be related to the amount of residue remaining after grazing in the previous year. In the heavy spring grazing treatment, each 100 pounds of increased residue produced an average increase of 64 pounds of initial growth. Gains per animal, average daily gains and gains per acre were higher in the spring treatments than in the fall treatments. Average gain per animal and average daily gains were greatest under light and least under heavy grazing in both seasons. Average gains per acre, however, were higher under heavy grazing than light or moderate grazing in both seasons. Plant and animal responses indicate that moderate grazing from early May to late June maintained forage productivity and produced optimum animal response. Forage was wasted with light spring grazing and heavy spring grazing caused a decline in plant vigor, forage productivity and animal response. It was revealed in this study, however, that vigor and production of heavily grazed crested wheatgrass stands could be improved by deferment of grazing for a growing season or two. All intensities of grazing in the fall maintained vigor and production of crested wheatgrass. Gains per animal were slightly less under heavy fall grazing but gains per acre were slightly more than under light or moderate grazing in this season. Information obtained on plant and animal responses indicated that greater livestock production may be realized if the area to be grazed is divided into two or more sections. When this is done, grazing can be alternated between or among the sections in such a way as to allow maximum opportunity for stand maintenance, forage production and animal response. The effectiveness of management programs that developed can be judged by observing the vigor and frequency of occurrence of crested wheatgrass. Dead centers and fragmentation of individual plants of crested wheatgrass occur when grazing is excessive and annual plant species increase in density and frequency. The fragmentation of crested wheatgrass plants into smaller unite made density estimates a less sensitive indication of plant response to grazing than frequency of occurrence. Grazing is abnormally patchy and coarse unpalatable plants are common when the forage is grazed at less than capacity. Title: Vegetation and animal responses to grazing crested wheatgrass at three intensities and two seasons in southern Idaho Author: Sharp, Lee Ajax Land useable for livestock grazing in the western United States is diminishing because of spreading municipalities, irrigation developments, highway construction, recreational demands and withdrawals. Concurrently, the demand for livestock and livestock products is increasing because of a rapidly growing population. As a result, production from the grazing land that remains must be increased to satisfy the increased wants of the population. Artificial seeding is improving the forage productivity on large areas of low producing range land in the Intermountain region. Methods of successfully establishing stands of forage plants by artificial means are reasonably well understood, but less information is available about grazing practices that will optimize the returns from these range improvement programs. A nine-year (1957-1965) grazing study was conducted on a crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum and A. desertorum) seeding near Malta, Idaho for the purpose of evaluating plant and animal responses under three intensities of grazing (light, moderate or heavy) in two seasons (spring or fall). With the information obtained, suggested grazing practices for optimum livestock production were developed. Stand density, frequency of occurrence and yield of crested wheatgrass were not affected appreciably during the nine years by light and moderate grazing intensities in the spring. Heavy spring grazing, however, caused a reduction in frequency of occurrence and a lower yield of crested wheatgrass in the latter years of the study. Intensity of grazing in the fall season had little effect on stand density, frequency of occurrence or annual yield of crested wheatgrass. Initial herbage production in the spring was found to be related to the amount of residue remaining after grazing in the previous year. In the heavy spring grazing treatment, each 100 pounds of increased residue produced an average increase of 64 pounds of initial growth. Gains per animal, average daily gains and gains per acre were higher in the spring treatments than in the fall treatments. Average gain per animal and average daily gains were greatest under light and least under heavy grazing in both seasons. Average gains per acre, however, were higher under heavy grazing than light or moderate grazing in both seasons. Plant and animal responses indicate that moderate grazing from early May to late June maintained forage productivity and produced optimum animal response. Forage was wasted with light spring grazing and heavy spring grazing caused a decline in plant vigor, forage productivity and animal response. It was revealed in this study, however, that vigor and production of heavily grazed crested wheatgrass stands could be improved by deferment of grazing for a growing season or two. All intensities of grazing in the fall maintained vigor and production of crested wheatgrass. Gains per animal were slightly less under heavy fall grazing but gains per acre were slightly more than under light or moderate grazing in this season. Information obtained on plant and animal responses indicated that greater livestock production may be realized if the area to be grazed is divided into two or more sections. When this is done, grazing can be alternated between or among the sections in such a way as to allow maximum opportunity for stand maintenance, forage production and animal response. The effectiveness of management programs that developed can be judged by observing the vigor and frequency of occurrence of crested wheatgrass. Dead centers and fragmentation of individual plants of crested wheatgrass occur when grazing is excessive and annual plant species increase in density and frequency. The fragmentation of crested wheatgrass plants into smaller unite made density estimates a less sensitive indication of plant response to grazing than frequency of occurrence. Grazing is abnormally patchy and coarse unpalatable plants are common when the forage is grazed at less than capacity. Close