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• 231. [Article] Unpacking docent practice in free choice science learning settings : a qualitative study documenting the what and whys of docent interpretive practice

  Museum settings including aquariums, zoos and science centers rely heavily on their volunteer docent populations to interact with and communicate science and conservation concepts to the visiting public. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Unpacking docent practice in free choice science learning settings : a qualitative study documenting the what and whys of docent interpretive practice Author: Good, Laura H. Museum settings including aquariums, zoos and science centers rely heavily on their volunteer docent populations to interact with and communicate science and conservation concepts to the visiting public. The interactions docents have with museum visitors are important to meeting the educational expectations of museums and improving public science literacy as a whole, yet research to date is limited around docent practice, docents' reflections on that practice nor the sources for docents to learn that practice. Thus, we have little understanding of the interpretive practice docents actually undertake whilst interacting with visitors, why they choose to enact particular strategies, and how they came to learn those practices. Using a grounded qualitative approach within a framework of mediated action and cultural historical activity theory, this case study utilized video observations of docent practice at a science center, pre and post observation interviews, and focus groups to 1) document docent practices for engaging visitors, 2) explain those practices from the docents' own perspectives, and 3) examine those practices from the point of view of how they align with teaching and learning theories and interpretive practice. Thematic analysis using constant comparative methods demonstrate four claims about docent practice: 1) docents view teaching in the museum as opportunities to spark interest with these new experiences. Practices are chosen to engage visitors in these experiences. Docents choose to highlight these experiences as they believe they are reasons to be engaged; 2) docents as teachers are perceptive about their audience. They pay attention to patterns and provide information in response to those patterns. Docents utilize a shared repertoire of practice and information in their community developed from understanding visitor patterns of interest; 3) docents care about their setting and the exhibits within it. They also care about the visitor experience as a whole, and have to be flexible when working with different types of learners. They believe that being a docent means balancing potentially conflicting roles; and 4) docents use interpretation as a pedagogy to engage visitors with science and create personally meaningful experiences. Analysis of significant interactions between docents and visitors shows that such practices are mediated through a variety of discursive and physical tools and implemented by docents as a means of engaging visitors with science and conservation. Moreover, most of these skills appear to be learned on-the-job within their communities of practice, and while specific docent actions and skills may be different across contexts, member checks with docents working in other museum settings demonstrate the resonance of the findings across contexts. The findings of the study are placed in the context of interpretation theories of communication as well as research on docents as lifelong, free-choice learners both facilitating and participating in societal STEM learning activity. Findings and methods of research from this study are valuable to the greater understanding of how docents learn and enact interpretive practice and the development of more effective professional development for docents in museum settings. Title: Unpacking docent practice in free choice science learning settings : a qualitative study documenting the what and whys of docent interpretive practice Author: Good, Laura H. Museum settings including aquariums, zoos and science centers rely heavily on their volunteer docent populations to interact with and communicate science and conservation concepts to the visiting public. The interactions docents have with museum visitors are important to meeting the educational expectations of museums and improving public science literacy as a whole, yet research to date is limited around docent practice, docents' reflections on that practice nor the sources for docents to learn that practice. Thus, we have little understanding of the interpretive practice docents actually undertake whilst interacting with visitors, why they choose to enact particular strategies, and how they came to learn those practices. Using a grounded qualitative approach within a framework of mediated action and cultural historical activity theory, this case study utilized video observations of docent practice at a science center, pre and post observation interviews, and focus groups to 1) document docent practices for engaging visitors, 2) explain those practices from the docents' own perspectives, and 3) examine those practices from the point of view of how they align with teaching and learning theories and interpretive practice. Thematic analysis using constant comparative methods demonstrate four claims about docent practice: 1) docents view teaching in the museum as opportunities to spark interest with these new experiences. Practices are chosen to engage visitors in these experiences. Docents choose to highlight these experiences as they believe they are reasons to be engaged; 2) docents as teachers are perceptive about their audience. They pay attention to patterns and provide information in response to those patterns. Docents utilize a shared repertoire of practice and information in their community developed from understanding visitor patterns of interest; 3) docents care about their setting and the exhibits within it. They also care about the visitor experience as a whole, and have to be flexible when working with different types of learners. They believe that being a docent means balancing potentially conflicting roles; and 4) docents use interpretation as a pedagogy to engage visitors with science and create personally meaningful experiences. Analysis of significant interactions between docents and visitors shows that such practices are mediated through a variety of discursive and physical tools and implemented by docents as a means of engaging visitors with science and conservation. Moreover, most of these skills appear to be learned on-the-job within their communities of practice, and while specific docent actions and skills may be different across contexts, member checks with docents working in other museum settings demonstrate the resonance of the findings across contexts. The findings of the study are placed in the context of interpretation theories of communication as well as research on docents as lifelong, free-choice learners both facilitating and participating in societal STEM learning activity. Findings and methods of research from this study are valuable to the greater understanding of how docents learn and enact interpretive practice and the development of more effective professional development for docents in museum settings. Close

• 232. [Article] Theory of Action for Pro-Environmental Behavior Change at Zoos & Aquariums

  In recent years, zoos and aquariums have become prominent centers for environmental education and have focused much of their organizational efforts towards conservation and inspiring conservation action ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Theory of Action for Pro-Environmental Behavior Change at Zoos & Aquariums Author: Canzoneri, Nicolette M. In recent years, zoos and aquariums have become prominent centers for environmental education and have focused much of their organizational efforts towards conservation and inspiring conservation action among visitors. However, there is little research available to support the efficacy of these efforts, especially in relation to the behavioral outcomes associated with much of their programming. Because of the global reach of zoos and aquariums; their unique ability to directly connect people to wildlife; the educational capacity being built within the industry; and their interest in understanding how to effectively encourage pro-environmental behavior through live animal experiences, research geared at unpacking the various approaches towards behavior change incorporated into programming at these facilities is an important gap to be filled. As such, my research sought to identify how programs are developed, implemented, and evaluated in zoos and aquariums. Additionally, I also investigated the colloquial usage of behavior change theories as part of program design. I specifically chose to study programming that incorporates live animals as this component is often mentioned by industry professionals as being an important part of programs and in fostering pro-environmental behavior. My research included four different Association of Zoos and Aquariums accredited facilities located on the West Coast of the United States that resulted in data collection from ten interview participants, seven observations, and analysis of 22 pertinent documents (e.g., organization mission statements, strategic plans, and white papers). I analyzed this data in the form of a composite case which assimilated information gathered from each facility into the depiction of one, fictional case (the “West Coast Zoo and Aquarium”). The composite case highlights the typical program development process and describes differences in approaches between the education and husbandry departments at the zoo. Further analysis of the composite case uncovered a common theory of action for behavior change across locations: education programs coupled with animal experiences lead to behavior change. Unfortunately, this theory of action is missing components necessary for actual behavior change to be seen. I suggest an expanded model for program development incorporating applied behavior analysis techniques and community-based social marketing strategies to address the lack of behavioral theory incorporated into programming. This research assists in moving both the zoo and aquarium industry and the applied behavior analysis profession forward towards solutions that positively impact the environment. Title: Theory of Action for Pro-Environmental Behavior Change at Zoos & Aquariums Author: Canzoneri, Nicolette M. In recent years, zoos and aquariums have become prominent centers for environmental education and have focused much of their organizational efforts towards conservation and inspiring conservation action among visitors. However, there is little research available to support the efficacy of these efforts, especially in relation to the behavioral outcomes associated with much of their programming. Because of the global reach of zoos and aquariums; their unique ability to directly connect people to wildlife; the educational capacity being built within the industry; and their interest in understanding how to effectively encourage pro-environmental behavior through live animal experiences, research geared at unpacking the various approaches towards behavior change incorporated into programming at these facilities is an important gap to be filled. As such, my research sought to identify how programs are developed, implemented, and evaluated in zoos and aquariums. Additionally, I also investigated the colloquial usage of behavior change theories as part of program design. I specifically chose to study programming that incorporates live animals as this component is often mentioned by industry professionals as being an important part of programs and in fostering pro-environmental behavior. My research included four different Association of Zoos and Aquariums accredited facilities located on the West Coast of the United States that resulted in data collection from ten interview participants, seven observations, and analysis of 22 pertinent documents (e.g., organization mission statements, strategic plans, and white papers). I analyzed this data in the form of a composite case which assimilated information gathered from each facility into the depiction of one, fictional case (the “West Coast Zoo and Aquarium”). The composite case highlights the typical program development process and describes differences in approaches between the education and husbandry departments at the zoo. Further analysis of the composite case uncovered a common theory of action for behavior change across locations: education programs coupled with animal experiences lead to behavior change. Unfortunately, this theory of action is missing components necessary for actual behavior change to be seen. I suggest an expanded model for program development incorporating applied behavior analysis techniques and community-based social marketing strategies to address the lack of behavioral theory incorporated into programming. This research assists in moving both the zoo and aquarium industry and the applied behavior analysis profession forward towards solutions that positively impact the environment. Close

• 233. [Article] Conservation genetics of Kincaid's lupine : a threatened plant of western Oregon and southwest Washington grasslands

  Kincaid's lupine (Lupinus oreganus Heller) is a federally listed threatened species native to remnant grassland of western Oregon and southwestern Washington, and is the primary larval host plant of a ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conservation genetics of Kincaid's lupine : a threatened plant of western Oregon and southwest Washington grasslands Author: Severns, Paul M. Kincaid's lupine (Lupinus oreganus Heller) is a federally listed threatened species native to remnant grassland of western Oregon and southwestern Washington, and is the primary larval host plant of a once thought extinct butterfly, Plebejus icarioides fenderi Macy. Past studies concerning Kincaid's lupine reproduction suggested that populations may suffer reductions in fitness and progeny vigor due to inbreeding depression, but no direct investigation into range-wide patterns of genetic variation has been undertaken. I used nuclear DNA and chloroplast DNA simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to determine genet size and patterns of non-adventitious rhizomatous lupine spread, to estimate the number of genets within Kincaid's lupine populations, and to assess whether seed transfer for the purpose of genetic rescue is an appropriate genetics management strategy for Kincaid's lupine. Patterns of allelic diversity at nDNA SSR loci within study patches revealed that non-adventitious spread of rhizomes can extend to at least 27 m and may dominate a portion of a lupine patch or small population. However, genet spread and arrangement in study patches were sufficiently integrated such that interplantlet Bombus foraging flights exceeding 2 m had > 90% probability of occurring between different genets. Within-lupine patch genetic diversity was well-undersampled, refuting the supposition that Kincaid's lupine populations suffer from inbreeding depression due to small effective population sizes. Estimation of Kincaid's lupine abundance through leaf cover and inflorescence number was tightly correlated with plantlet number, a unit of vegetative and sexual growth, within lupine patches but the relationship was not consistent between patches within populations or between populations. We used genet to plantlet ratios (determined through genotyping) and plantlet density to estimate genet population size in Kincaid's lupine patches. Because of the strong correlation between cover and plantlet density, historically collected lupine abundance data could be used to estimate genet population size provided that plantlet density is calibrated to patch-specific cover measurements. Within patches and populations across the range of Kincaid's lupine there was little DNA evidence suggesting severe inbreeding. Only one of 24 populations and five study patches had strong statistical evidence of a recent genetic bottleneck despite the range-wide fragmentation of lupine populations and habitat. Mean population fixation index values for nearly half of the populations were near Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations and only one small lupine population had a F-value > 0.20, suggestive of high inbreeding levels. Half of the populations actually had an excess of heterozygotes, suggesting that genetic diversity is not being lost. Chloroplast DNA coincides well with the observation that genetic diversity is not being lost through inbreeding or genetic bottlenecking in Kincaid's lupine. The mean number of cpDNA haplotypes per population was approximately 4 maternal lineages, which is very high for an animal pollinated plant with heavy seeds that have limited dispersal. Even relatively small populations of Kincaid's lupine had 2 or more cpDNA haplotypes, indicating that populations are not severely inbred. Both nuclear and chloroplast DNA SSR genetic marker diversity suggests that Kincaid's lupine does not require genetic rescue for effective conservation. Due to the longevity of Kincaid's lupine and the apparently large amount of within population genetic diversity, the encouragement of natural recruitment from vegetation management that improves habitat conditions is likely to maintain the relatively large amount of genetic diversity within Kincaid's lupine populations. Title: Conservation genetics of Kincaid's lupine : a threatened plant of western Oregon and southwest Washington grasslands Author: Severns, Paul M. Kincaid's lupine (Lupinus oreganus Heller) is a federally listed threatened species native to remnant grassland of western Oregon and southwestern Washington, and is the primary larval host plant of a once thought extinct butterfly, Plebejus icarioides fenderi Macy. Past studies concerning Kincaid's lupine reproduction suggested that populations may suffer reductions in fitness and progeny vigor due to inbreeding depression, but no direct investigation into range-wide patterns of genetic variation has been undertaken. I used nuclear DNA and chloroplast DNA simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to determine genet size and patterns of non-adventitious rhizomatous lupine spread, to estimate the number of genets within Kincaid's lupine populations, and to assess whether seed transfer for the purpose of genetic rescue is an appropriate genetics management strategy for Kincaid's lupine. Patterns of allelic diversity at nDNA SSR loci within study patches revealed that non-adventitious spread of rhizomes can extend to at least 27 m and may dominate a portion of a lupine patch or small population. However, genet spread and arrangement in study patches were sufficiently integrated such that interplantlet Bombus foraging flights exceeding 2 m had > 90% probability of occurring between different genets. Within-lupine patch genetic diversity was well-undersampled, refuting the supposition that Kincaid's lupine populations suffer from inbreeding depression due to small effective population sizes. Estimation of Kincaid's lupine abundance through leaf cover and inflorescence number was tightly correlated with plantlet number, a unit of vegetative and sexual growth, within lupine patches but the relationship was not consistent between patches within populations or between populations. We used genet to plantlet ratios (determined through genotyping) and plantlet density to estimate genet population size in Kincaid's lupine patches. Because of the strong correlation between cover and plantlet density, historically collected lupine abundance data could be used to estimate genet population size provided that plantlet density is calibrated to patch-specific cover measurements. Within patches and populations across the range of Kincaid's lupine there was little DNA evidence suggesting severe inbreeding. Only one of 24 populations and five study patches had strong statistical evidence of a recent genetic bottleneck despite the range-wide fragmentation of lupine populations and habitat. Mean population fixation index values for nearly half of the populations were near Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations and only one small lupine population had a F-value > 0.20, suggestive of high inbreeding levels. Half of the populations actually had an excess of heterozygotes, suggesting that genetic diversity is not being lost. Chloroplast DNA coincides well with the observation that genetic diversity is not being lost through inbreeding or genetic bottlenecking in Kincaid's lupine. The mean number of cpDNA haplotypes per population was approximately 4 maternal lineages, which is very high for an animal pollinated plant with heavy seeds that have limited dispersal. Even relatively small populations of Kincaid's lupine had 2 or more cpDNA haplotypes, indicating that populations are not severely inbred. Both nuclear and chloroplast DNA SSR genetic marker diversity suggests that Kincaid's lupine does not require genetic rescue for effective conservation. Due to the longevity of Kincaid's lupine and the apparently large amount of within population genetic diversity, the encouragement of natural recruitment from vegetation management that improves habitat conditions is likely to maintain the relatively large amount of genetic diversity within Kincaid's lupine populations. Close

• 234. [Article] An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

  Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Close

• 235. [Article] Dynamics of crab larvae (Anomura, Brachyura) off the central Oregon coast, 1969-1971

  Bimonthly plankton samples were collected from 1969 through 1971 along a transect off the central Oregon continental shelf (44° 39. l'N) to document the species of crab larvae present, their seasonality, and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Dynamics of crab larvae (Anomura, Brachyura) off the central Oregon coast, 1969-1971 Author: Lough, Robert Gregory, 1943- Bimonthly plankton samples were collected from 1969 through 1971 along a transect off the central Oregon continental shelf (44° 39. l'N) to document the species of crab larvae present, their seasonality, and their onshore-offshore distribution in relation to seasonal changes in oceanographic conditions. A comprehensive key with plates is given for the 41 species of crab larvae identified from the samples. Although some larvae occur every month of the year, the larvae of most species were found from February through July within ten nautical miles of the coast. Sea surface temperatures reached their highest annual values in May-June, coincident with the period of peak larval abundance. Many species of larvae which appeared in late winter-early spring of 1970 appeared later and more abundantly in late spring-early summer during 1971, apparently because of the colder winter-spring the latter year. The highest densities of crab larvae (Pachycheles pubescens, Fabia subquadrata, Pinnixa littoralis, Cancer oregonensis, Pugettia spp., and Pagurus ochotensis) were observed at stations one and three miles from shore. Adults of these speci.es inhabit the intertidal and sublittoral zone. The major mechanism retaining larvae within three to five miles of the coast is believed to be the strong onshore component of the surface currents regardless of the season. The behavior of the larvae in determining their position in the water column and the conservative effect of tidal currents also play an important role in their nearshore retention. Evidence is given relating the transport of the more abundant larvae to the intensity of coastal upwelling, although offshore transport is generally limited to within ten miles of the coast, Those few nearshore species (Cancer oregonensis, Cancer magister, Pugettia spp., Lophopanopeus beilus Emerita analoga), whose larvae are found consistently offshore (beyond ten miles), usually occur in comparatively high densities during late-spring and summer when the prevailing sea surface flow is offshore, have a relatively long pelagic life, and may exhibit a strong photopositive response during the early mega.lopa stage. The larval dynamics of the economically important Dungeness crab, Cancer magister, were given special attention. An apparent mass mortality occurred in the early zoeal stages during the 1971 season. This was associated with sea surface salinity and temperature in analyses of covariance, but larval survival predicted through response surface techniques and gut-fullness analysis did not substantially explain their sparseness. Multiple regres sion analyses indicated that environmental conditions during the critical larval period explained 60-70% of the variability in crab landings for some ports four years later. February precipitation, indicative of coastal surface salinity, for southern Oregon and northern California coastal stations was the environmental variable most highly predictive of crab landings for ports of southern Washington and northern Oregon. The evidence suggests that a prime factor limiting the strength of the Dungeness crab's harvestable year-class four years later is low salinity during the early larval phase in February. Various pairs of species whose larvae are similar in morphology, seasonal occurrence, and distribution are compared and contrasted in their pelagic niches. The role of the pelagic larva as a dispersal mechanism, the contribution f its morphology and behavior to the success of the species, and reproductive strategies such as brood size, number, and timing are discussed. Title: Dynamics of crab larvae (Anomura, Brachyura) off the central Oregon coast, 1969-1971 Author: Lough, Robert Gregory, 1943- Bimonthly plankton samples were collected from 1969 through 1971 along a transect off the central Oregon continental shelf (44° 39. l'N) to document the species of crab larvae present, their seasonality, and their onshore-offshore distribution in relation to seasonal changes in oceanographic conditions. A comprehensive key with plates is given for the 41 species of crab larvae identified from the samples. Although some larvae occur every month of the year, the larvae of most species were found from February through July within ten nautical miles of the coast. Sea surface temperatures reached their highest annual values in May-June, coincident with the period of peak larval abundance. Many species of larvae which appeared in late winter-early spring of 1970 appeared later and more abundantly in late spring-early summer during 1971, apparently because of the colder winter-spring the latter year. The highest densities of crab larvae (Pachycheles pubescens, Fabia subquadrata, Pinnixa littoralis, Cancer oregonensis, Pugettia spp., and Pagurus ochotensis) were observed at stations one and three miles from shore. Adults of these speci.es inhabit the intertidal and sublittoral zone. The major mechanism retaining larvae within three to five miles of the coast is believed to be the strong onshore component of the surface currents regardless of the season. The behavior of the larvae in determining their position in the water column and the conservative effect of tidal currents also play an important role in their nearshore retention. Evidence is given relating the transport of the more abundant larvae to the intensity of coastal upwelling, although offshore transport is generally limited to within ten miles of the coast, Those few nearshore species (Cancer oregonensis, Cancer magister, Pugettia spp., Lophopanopeus beilus Emerita analoga), whose larvae are found consistently offshore (beyond ten miles), usually occur in comparatively high densities during late-spring and summer when the prevailing sea surface flow is offshore, have a relatively long pelagic life, and may exhibit a strong photopositive response during the early mega.lopa stage. The larval dynamics of the economically important Dungeness crab, Cancer magister, were given special attention. An apparent mass mortality occurred in the early zoeal stages during the 1971 season. This was associated with sea surface salinity and temperature in analyses of covariance, but larval survival predicted through response surface techniques and gut-fullness analysis did not substantially explain their sparseness. Multiple regres sion analyses indicated that environmental conditions during the critical larval period explained 60-70% of the variability in crab landings for some ports four years later. February precipitation, indicative of coastal surface salinity, for southern Oregon and northern California coastal stations was the environmental variable most highly predictive of crab landings for ports of southern Washington and northern Oregon. The evidence suggests that a prime factor limiting the strength of the Dungeness crab's harvestable year-class four years later is low salinity during the early larval phase in February. Various pairs of species whose larvae are similar in morphology, seasonal occurrence, and distribution are compared and contrasted in their pelagic niches. The role of the pelagic larva as a dispersal mechanism, the contribution f its morphology and behavior to the success of the species, and reproductive strategies such as brood size, number, and timing are discussed. Close

• 236. [Article] Rearing density as a driver of adaptation to captivity and traits under selection by domestication in hatchery reared steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

  Releasing hatchery reared salmon and steelhead to supplement threatened and endangered populations is a widely used conservation tool. One issue with this strategy is hatchery fish have lower reproductive ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Rearing density as a driver of adaptation to captivity and traits under selection by domestication in hatchery reared steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Author: Thompson, Neil F. (Neil Frederick) Releasing hatchery reared salmon and steelhead to supplement threatened and endangered populations is a widely used conservation tool. One issue with this strategy is hatchery fish have lower reproductive fitness than wild fish when spawning in the wild. One of the drivers of fitness loss in steelhead is adaptation to captivity via domestication selection. Although a cause of fitness loss is known, the mechanism and traits which domestication selection is acting on remain unknown. In a series of experiments using steelhead, (Oncohynchus mykiss) I evaluated if: (1) high growth rate is being selected for in captivity; (2) if high levels of dominance correlate with fitness at release from the hatchery and (3) if reducing rearing density has an effect on the opportunity for domestication selection to act. I found that body size did not differ between first generation hatchery fish and wild fish reared in a common environment. Mother's body size and date of spawning was correlated with body size of offspring in the hatchery. Larger mothers and earlier spawn dates resulted in larger offspring. I hypothesize that early spawned families had lower metabolic rates during embryonic development due to a chilling treatment that hatchery staff use to synchronize development across all spawning events. By reducing metabolic rate during development more energy could have been used for somatic growth compared to later spawned families. Hatchery juveniles are more aggressive than wild fish, but dominance level did not influence fitness in the hatchery environment in my experiments. A potential explanation for this result is that physiological characters that are correlated with dominance are truly under selection and dominance is simply a correlated response. The correlation between physiological characteristics (e.g. metabolic rate) and dominance may not be as strong in a novel environment, influencing the negative result. Lastly, I found lowering rearing density did not have an effect on the opportunity for selection to act in captivity. Equal amounts of variance in performance among families existed in high and low density. Additionally, rank order performance across densities was highly correlated (0.82-0.95 Spearman rank correlation) demonstrating that families that perform best in captivity will do so regardless of rearing density. Results from these experiments led to developing a novel model of how increased density might exacerbate domestication selection. In salmonids, the relationship between body size at release and probability of return tends to be strongly logistic, approaching truncation selection. Under high rearing density only the best pre-adapted families to captivity (having maladaptive traits for the wild environment) are able to grow above the threshold for high survival and return in large numbers to spawn. Families that are poorly adapted to the hatchery (with traits that have higher fitness in the wild) do not attain the threshold body size and return in relatively small numbers to spawn. Because the main effect of increased density is to shift the body size of all families downward, high density could simply reduce the number of families that are above the minimum body size to return, resulting in strong among-family selection. Title: Rearing density as a driver of adaptation to captivity and traits under selection by domestication in hatchery reared steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Author: Thompson, Neil F. (Neil Frederick) Releasing hatchery reared salmon and steelhead to supplement threatened and endangered populations is a widely used conservation tool. One issue with this strategy is hatchery fish have lower reproductive fitness than wild fish when spawning in the wild. One of the drivers of fitness loss in steelhead is adaptation to captivity via domestication selection. Although a cause of fitness loss is known, the mechanism and traits which domestication selection is acting on remain unknown. In a series of experiments using steelhead, (Oncohynchus mykiss) I evaluated if: (1) high growth rate is being selected for in captivity; (2) if high levels of dominance correlate with fitness at release from the hatchery and (3) if reducing rearing density has an effect on the opportunity for domestication selection to act. I found that body size did not differ between first generation hatchery fish and wild fish reared in a common environment. Mother's body size and date of spawning was correlated with body size of offspring in the hatchery. Larger mothers and earlier spawn dates resulted in larger offspring. I hypothesize that early spawned families had lower metabolic rates during embryonic development due to a chilling treatment that hatchery staff use to synchronize development across all spawning events. By reducing metabolic rate during development more energy could have been used for somatic growth compared to later spawned families. Hatchery juveniles are more aggressive than wild fish, but dominance level did not influence fitness in the hatchery environment in my experiments. A potential explanation for this result is that physiological characters that are correlated with dominance are truly under selection and dominance is simply a correlated response. The correlation between physiological characteristics (e.g. metabolic rate) and dominance may not be as strong in a novel environment, influencing the negative result. Lastly, I found lowering rearing density did not have an effect on the opportunity for selection to act in captivity. Equal amounts of variance in performance among families existed in high and low density. Additionally, rank order performance across densities was highly correlated (0.82-0.95 Spearman rank correlation) demonstrating that families that perform best in captivity will do so regardless of rearing density. Results from these experiments led to developing a novel model of how increased density might exacerbate domestication selection. In salmonids, the relationship between body size at release and probability of return tends to be strongly logistic, approaching truncation selection. Under high rearing density only the best pre-adapted families to captivity (having maladaptive traits for the wild environment) are able to grow above the threshold for high survival and return in large numbers to spawn. Families that are poorly adapted to the hatchery (with traits that have higher fitness in the wild) do not attain the threshold body size and return in relatively small numbers to spawn. Because the main effect of increased density is to shift the body size of all families downward, high density could simply reduce the number of families that are above the minimum body size to return, resulting in strong among-family selection. Close

• 237. [Article] Identification and characterization of type III effector proteins in plant-associated bacteria

  Symbioses between microbes and multicellular eukaryotes are found in all biomes, and encompass a spectrum of symbiotic lifestyles that includes parasitism and disease, commensalism, and mutually beneficial ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Identification and characterization of type III effector proteins in plant-associated bacteria Author: Thomas, William J. Symbioses between microbes and multicellular eukaryotes are found in all biomes, and encompass a spectrum of symbiotic lifestyles that includes parasitism and disease, commensalism, and mutually beneficial interdependent host-microbe relationships. Regardless of outcome, these symbiotic lifestyles are governed by a complex molecular "courtship" between microbe and potential host. This courtship is the primary determinant of the host range of a given microsymbiont. Host immunity poses a formidable barrier to the establishment of host-microbe relationships, and the majority of microbial suitors will be thwarted by it. Only by successfully "wooing" the host cell's immune defenses with the appropriate molecular signals can a microsymbiont successfully colonize its host. A strategy common to microsymbionts across the spectrum of symbiotic lifestyles and host organisms is the delivery of microbial-encoded effector proteins into the cytoplasm of host cells to manipulate the host cell's molecular machinery for the purposes of subverting host immunity. Bacteria, in particular, have adapted a number of secretion systems for this purpose. The most well-characterized of these is the type III secretion system (T3SS), a molecular apparatus that specializes in injecting type III effector (T3Es) proteins directly into host cells. The work in this thesis focuses on T3Es of plant-associated bacteria, with particular emphasis on mutualistic bacteria. We present evidence that collections of T3Es from Sinorhizobium fredii and Bradyrhizobium japonicum are, in stark contrast to those of phytopathogenic bacteria, in a co-evolutionary equilibrium with their hosts. This equilibrium is characterized by highly conserved T3E collections consisting of many "core" T3Es with little variation in nucleotide sequence. The T3Es of Mesorhizobium loti MAFF303099 suggest a completely different picture of the evolution of T3Es. MAFF303099 recently acquired its T3SS locus, and the work in this thesis provides an evolutionary snapshot of a mutualist that is innovating a T3E collection primarily through horizontal gene transfer. Collectively, this work represents the first comprehensive catalog of T3Es of rhizobia and, in the case of Sinorhizobium and Bradyrhizobium, the first evidence of purifying selection for T3Es. Title: Identification and characterization of type III effector proteins in plant-associated bacteria Author: Thomas, William J. Symbioses between microbes and multicellular eukaryotes are found in all biomes, and encompass a spectrum of symbiotic lifestyles that includes parasitism and disease, commensalism, and mutually beneficial interdependent host-microbe relationships. Regardless of outcome, these symbiotic lifestyles are governed by a complex molecular "courtship" between microbe and potential host. This courtship is the primary determinant of the host range of a given microsymbiont. Host immunity poses a formidable barrier to the establishment of host-microbe relationships, and the majority of microbial suitors will be thwarted by it. Only by successfully "wooing" the host cell's immune defenses with the appropriate molecular signals can a microsymbiont successfully colonize its host. A strategy common to microsymbionts across the spectrum of symbiotic lifestyles and host organisms is the delivery of microbial-encoded effector proteins into the cytoplasm of host cells to manipulate the host cell's molecular machinery for the purposes of subverting host immunity. Bacteria, in particular, have adapted a number of secretion systems for this purpose. The most well-characterized of these is the type III secretion system (T3SS), a molecular apparatus that specializes in injecting type III effector (T3Es) proteins directly into host cells. The work in this thesis focuses on T3Es of plant-associated bacteria, with particular emphasis on mutualistic bacteria. We present evidence that collections of T3Es from Sinorhizobium fredii and Bradyrhizobium japonicum are, in stark contrast to those of phytopathogenic bacteria, in a co-evolutionary equilibrium with their hosts. This equilibrium is characterized by highly conserved T3E collections consisting of many "core" T3Es with little variation in nucleotide sequence. The T3Es of Mesorhizobium loti MAFF303099 suggest a completely different picture of the evolution of T3Es. MAFF303099 recently acquired its T3SS locus, and the work in this thesis provides an evolutionary snapshot of a mutualist that is innovating a T3E collection primarily through horizontal gene transfer. Collectively, this work represents the first comprehensive catalog of T3Es of rhizobia and, in the case of Sinorhizobium and Bradyrhizobium, the first evidence of purifying selection for T3Es. Close

• 238. [Article] Genetic patterns of demography and diversity in eastern North Pacific rockfishes (genus Sebastes)

  The 100 North Pacific rockfish species in the genus Sebastes are highly diverse. Rockfishes fertilize their eggs internally and release swimming larvae. Complex courting behaviors may allow female rockfish ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Genetic patterns of demography and diversity in eastern North Pacific rockfishes (genus Sebastes) Author: Johansson, Mattias Lars The 100 North Pacific rockfish species in the genus Sebastes are highly diverse. Rockfishes fertilize their eggs internally and release swimming larvae. Complex courting behaviors may allow female rockfish to be selective about their mates and may promote and maintain speciation. In this study, I applied genetic techniques to survey the factors that structure rockfish populations and have potential to affect speciation. First, I used microsatellites to test the hypothesis that the rangewide signal of isolation-by-distance previously identified in copper rockfish is the result of localized habitat or oceanographic breaks. I found significant population divergence at both the whole-coast and Oregon-coast scales. I also identified a weak but significant barrier to larval migration south of Newport, Oregon. Second, I used a candidate gene approach to assess the possibility that olfactory receptor related to class A, type 2 (Ora2) genes could differentiate species at mating. I characterized sequence variation in Ora2 genes between five distantly-related rockfishes and tested for evidence of positive selection. My results suggest that rockfishes possess a single, highly conserved Ora2 gene. Although evidence of positive selection was found for nine amino acids, shared alleles were found across all five study species. This suggests that the Ora2 gene in isolation could not differentiate species during mating season. Finally, I tested the hypothesis that rockfishes mate non-randomly based on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genotype, as has been seen in other fishes. I characterized MHC genotypes of copper and quillback rockfish in a captive-mating population, identified parents of fourteen broods, and drew inferences about mate choice based on known parentage. I found a significant proportion of multiple-fathered broods, a high degree of hybridization, and that these two species possess multiple, highly-variable MHC genes. I did not find strong evidence that females selected males based on MHC. This may be because larval survival is stochastic, which promotes a bet-hedging strategy, rather than a high degree of selectivity. This work complements our understanding of the population genetics of nearshore rockfishes, and offers a first look at two gene families that may function in mate choice to avoid hybridization and improve larval quality. Title: Genetic patterns of demography and diversity in eastern North Pacific rockfishes (genus Sebastes) Author: Johansson, Mattias Lars The 100 North Pacific rockfish species in the genus Sebastes are highly diverse. Rockfishes fertilize their eggs internally and release swimming larvae. Complex courting behaviors may allow female rockfish to be selective about their mates and may promote and maintain speciation. In this study, I applied genetic techniques to survey the factors that structure rockfish populations and have potential to affect speciation. First, I used microsatellites to test the hypothesis that the rangewide signal of isolation-by-distance previously identified in copper rockfish is the result of localized habitat or oceanographic breaks. I found significant population divergence at both the whole-coast and Oregon-coast scales. I also identified a weak but significant barrier to larval migration south of Newport, Oregon. Second, I used a candidate gene approach to assess the possibility that olfactory receptor related to class A, type 2 (Ora2) genes could differentiate species at mating. I characterized sequence variation in Ora2 genes between five distantly-related rockfishes and tested for evidence of positive selection. My results suggest that rockfishes possess a single, highly conserved Ora2 gene. Although evidence of positive selection was found for nine amino acids, shared alleles were found across all five study species. This suggests that the Ora2 gene in isolation could not differentiate species during mating season. Finally, I tested the hypothesis that rockfishes mate non-randomly based on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genotype, as has been seen in other fishes. I characterized MHC genotypes of copper and quillback rockfish in a captive-mating population, identified parents of fourteen broods, and drew inferences about mate choice based on known parentage. I found a significant proportion of multiple-fathered broods, a high degree of hybridization, and that these two species possess multiple, highly-variable MHC genes. I did not find strong evidence that females selected males based on MHC. This may be because larval survival is stochastic, which promotes a bet-hedging strategy, rather than a high degree of selectivity. This work complements our understanding of the population genetics of nearshore rockfishes, and offers a first look at two gene families that may function in mate choice to avoid hybridization and improve larval quality. Close

• 239. [Article] Watershed-scale vegetation patterns in a late-successional forest landscape in the Oregon Coast Range

  Knowledge about vegetation patterns and ecological processes in unmanaged, late-successional watersheds is needed to provide a foundation for forest management strategies aimed at conserving native biodiversity. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Watershed-scale vegetation patterns in a late-successional forest landscape in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Wimberly, Michael C. Knowledge about vegetation patterns and ecological processes in unmanaged, late-successional watersheds is needed to provide a foundation for forest management strategies aimed at conserving native biodiversity. I examined influences of environmental variability and disturbance history on forest structure and composition in the Cummins Creek Wilderness, located on the central Oregon coast. Climatic and topographic variables explained the majority of hillslope community composition, while fire history explained most of the variability in hillslope forest structure. Forest structure and composition in riparian areas was related to a climatic gradient as well as position in the stream network. The abundance of two fire-sensitive species, Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock) and Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce), decreased with distance from old-growth patches, possibly reflecting a seed dispersal gradient that occurred following fires 80 to 140 years ago. I developed predictive maps of understory conifer patterns using remote sensing, aerial photographs, digital elevation models and stream maps. I predicted P. sitchensis regeneration based on distance from the coast and topography, and T. heterophylla regeneration based on crown size, percent hardwood composition, topography, and distance from old-growth patches. Although I found statistically significant relationships between understory patterns and GIS predictor variables, the models explained only low to moderate amounts of the overall variability. Landscape-scale simulations of T. heterophylla showed that population expansion through gap-phase recruitment was limited by short seed dispersal distances in closed-canopy forests, the requirement for canopy gap disturbances to facilitate overstory recruitment, and the lag between recruitment and reproduction. Although fine-scale habitat features can influence the amount of regeneration in a gap when seed sources are present, the fire regime may ultimately control the abundance of T. heterophylla at the landscape scale through dispersal limitations. Brief increases in fire frequency can cause a sustained decrease in the amount of T. heterophylla on the landscape once fire frequency is reduced below a threshold value. Our results emphasize the complexity and diversity of forest vegetation at the watershed scale. Environmental variability, disturbance history, and dispersal limitations have all played a role in creating the current landscape patterns in the Cummins Creek Wilderness. Title: Watershed-scale vegetation patterns in a late-successional forest landscape in the Oregon Coast Range Author: Wimberly, Michael C. Knowledge about vegetation patterns and ecological processes in unmanaged, late-successional watersheds is needed to provide a foundation for forest management strategies aimed at conserving native biodiversity. I examined influences of environmental variability and disturbance history on forest structure and composition in the Cummins Creek Wilderness, located on the central Oregon coast. Climatic and topographic variables explained the majority of hillslope community composition, while fire history explained most of the variability in hillslope forest structure. Forest structure and composition in riparian areas was related to a climatic gradient as well as position in the stream network. The abundance of two fire-sensitive species, Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock) and Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce), decreased with distance from old-growth patches, possibly reflecting a seed dispersal gradient that occurred following fires 80 to 140 years ago. I developed predictive maps of understory conifer patterns using remote sensing, aerial photographs, digital elevation models and stream maps. I predicted P. sitchensis regeneration based on distance from the coast and topography, and T. heterophylla regeneration based on crown size, percent hardwood composition, topography, and distance from old-growth patches. Although I found statistically significant relationships between understory patterns and GIS predictor variables, the models explained only low to moderate amounts of the overall variability. Landscape-scale simulations of T. heterophylla showed that population expansion through gap-phase recruitment was limited by short seed dispersal distances in closed-canopy forests, the requirement for canopy gap disturbances to facilitate overstory recruitment, and the lag between recruitment and reproduction. Although fine-scale habitat features can influence the amount of regeneration in a gap when seed sources are present, the fire regime may ultimately control the abundance of T. heterophylla at the landscape scale through dispersal limitations. Brief increases in fire frequency can cause a sustained decrease in the amount of T. heterophylla on the landscape once fire frequency is reduced below a threshold value. Our results emphasize the complexity and diversity of forest vegetation at the watershed scale. Environmental variability, disturbance history, and dispersal limitations have all played a role in creating the current landscape patterns in the Cummins Creek Wilderness. Close

• 240. [Article] Investigating Sexual and Gender-Based Violence as a Weapon of War and a Tool of Genocide against Indigenous Yazidi Women and Girls by ISIS in Iraq

  In the current armed conflicts that have become known to the international community since the sweeping attacks on northern Iraq on Aug. 3, 2014, the Islamic State (ISIS) perpetrated extreme forms of sexual ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Investigating Sexual and Gender-Based Violence as a Weapon of War and a Tool of Genocide against Indigenous Yazidi Women and Girls by ISIS in Iraq Author: Hassen, Suha Hazeem In the current armed conflicts that have become known to the international community since the sweeping attacks on northern Iraq on Aug. 3, 2014, the Islamic State (ISIS) perpetrated extreme forms of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) against a small ancient ethno-religious conservative Yazidi group. ISIS has used SGBV against Yazidi women and girls as an integral part of their military strategy, as a weapon of war, and as a tool of ethnic cleansing and genocide. ISIS employed SGBV as a cheap weapon of war that can achieve many strategic goals at the same time. Thus, ISIS used multiple forms of SGBV such as torture, abduction, slavery, systemic rape and other heinous crimes against the Yazidi women and their families. These crimes included the massacre of men, babies, seniors and disabled women. In addition, ISIS caused the complete destruction of Yazidi villages which caused the displacement of thousands of people. Some of these women and girls are survivors of ISIS captivity, and their current living conditions constitute a human rights crisis. This research was designed to explore and provide a better understanding of how and why ISIS used SGBV and to shed light on its multiple dimensions. It aims to illustrate how the survivors are coping with trauma and to explain the challenges that they continue to face in the aftermath of the ISIS invasions. Title: Investigating Sexual and Gender-Based Violence as a Weapon of War and a Tool of Genocide against Indigenous Yazidi Women and Girls by ISIS in Iraq Author: Hassen, Suha Hazeem In the current armed conflicts that have become known to the international community since the sweeping attacks on northern Iraq on Aug. 3, 2014, the Islamic State (ISIS) perpetrated extreme forms of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) against a small ancient ethno-religious conservative Yazidi group. ISIS has used SGBV against Yazidi women and girls as an integral part of their military strategy, as a weapon of war, and as a tool of ethnic cleansing and genocide. ISIS employed SGBV as a cheap weapon of war that can achieve many strategic goals at the same time. Thus, ISIS used multiple forms of SGBV such as torture, abduction, slavery, systemic rape and other heinous crimes against the Yazidi women and their families. These crimes included the massacre of men, babies, seniors and disabled women. In addition, ISIS caused the complete destruction of Yazidi villages which caused the displacement of thousands of people. Some of these women and girls are survivors of ISIS captivity, and their current living conditions constitute a human rights crisis. This research was designed to explore and provide a better understanding of how and why ISIS used SGBV and to shed light on its multiple dimensions. It aims to illustrate how the survivors are coping with trauma and to explain the challenges that they continue to face in the aftermath of the ISIS invasions. Close