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• 11. [Article] 4Atlas.pdf

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: 4Atlas.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Title: 4Atlas.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Close

• 12. [Article] 5Decision-makingHumanImpacts.pdf

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: 5Decision-makingHumanImpacts.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Title: 5Decision-makingHumanImpacts.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Close

• 13. [Article] 6SampleAnalysisMaps.pdf

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: 6SampleAnalysisMaps.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Title: 6SampleAnalysisMaps.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Close

• 14. [Article] 7Appendix.pdf

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: 7Appendix.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Title: 7Appendix.pdf Author: Metro Regional Services Close

• 15. [Article] Constraints to urban park visitation: Conceptual connections and spatial attributes for traditionally well-served and underserved residents

  Connecting with nature is associated with social, physical, and emotional benefits such as stress relief, improved physical health, and lower crime. Parks and other natural areas offer spaces in which ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Constraints to urban park visitation: Conceptual connections and spatial attributes for traditionally well-served and underserved residents Author: Rushing, Jaclyn R. Connecting with nature is associated with social, physical, and emotional benefits such as stress relief, improved physical health, and lower crime. Parks and other natural areas offer spaces in which to connect with nature and reap these and other benefits (e.g., family bonding, social events, learning). Despite increasing populations of racial and ethnic minorities in the United States of America, these groups are underrepresented in many outdoor recreation activities and in visitation to many parks and other protected areas. This underrepresentation and other attributes of park visitation can be partially explained through the theoretical lens of constraints to recreation. Constraints are factors that limit participation, affect leisure preferences, and / or reduce enjoyment and satisfaction with recreation experiences. Examples of constraints include inability to afford park fees, fear of crime in parks, and lack of available leisure time. This thesis contains two standalone articles focusing on resident constraints to visiting urban parks and other natural areas in the Portland, Oregon (USA) metropolitan region. These articles examine: (a) the most common constraints to visiting these parks and natural areas, and whether these constraints vary between traditionally well-served (i.e., white majority residents) and underserved (i.e., ethnic and racial minorities) populations; (b) relationships among constraints, park visitation, and place attachment for both of these groups of residents; and (c) how constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities) are distributed spatially across this metropolitan region. Data were obtained from mail and online questionnaires completed by two samples of residents in Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties: (a) a proportionate random sample of residents mostly targeting the following groups: African Americans / Blacks, American Indians, Asians, Hispanics / Latinos, Middle Eastern peoples, and Slavic / Eastern European peoples (i.e., probability sample); and (b) a convenience sample of Opt-In panel members (i.e., nonprobability sample). Questionnaires were completed by a total of 3,328 residents across these samples, and the data were weighted by the most recent Census based on county, age, sex (male, female), and education to be representative of adult residents in this region. Race and other demographics were consistent with the Census after weighting. Results of the first article showed that the primary constraints to visiting parks and natural areas in this urban region were being too busy to visit, limited knowledge about Metro parks, and lack of access to these places (Metro parks are managed by Metro, which is the main regional government for Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties). There were no differences in these constraints and most other constraints between traditionally underserved and well-served populations. Traditionally underserved residents, however, were significantly more constrained than the well-served residents were by race and cultural issues at parks, as well as lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. Traditionally well-served residents visited all parks and natural areas in the region significantly more often than did the underserved residents, but there were no differences in visitation to Metro parks or their favorite park. There were also no differences between the two groups in their attachment to their favorite park. Constraints and visitation explained 15% of the variance in attachment for well-served residents and 38% for underserved residents, and constraints explained 4% of the variance in visitation for well-served residents and 26% for underserved residents. The strongest negative predictor of attachment for well-served residents was Metro parks are not the best places, followed by limited access to these places and disinterest in visiting parks and natural areas. The strongest positive predictor for well-served resident attachment was frequency of visitation, followed by race and cultural issues at Metro parks, and lack of facilities and services in these areas. For underserved residents, the strongest negative predictor of attachment was costs followed by Metro parks are not the best places and limited knowledge about these places. Positive predictors of attachment for these residents included frequency of visitation and lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. The only predictor of visitation to their favorite park for well-served residents was fear of visiting other areas (positive relationship), whereas visitation for underserved residents was negatively associated with limited access to Metro parks and positively associated with costs of visiting other areas. The second article used a Geographic Information System (GIS) and hot spot analysis of the survey data to determine any spatial patterns in constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities). Results revealed two major trends: (a) in the northeast area of the region, there is a clustering of minority residents overlapping with the most constrained hot spots and these residents were most affected by constraints associated with health and lack of recreation partners; and (b) residents in the southwest area of the region were most affected by constraints associated with limited knowledge and access to parks. Specific implications of these results for both management and research are discussed in this thesis. In general, however, these results may inform local agency objectives associated with reaching and engaging various populations, including ethnic and racial minorities. These findings also contribute to the literature by exploring relationships among constraints, park visitation, and attachment between traditionally well-served and underserved populations, and also by applying a GIS analysis of survey data to understand spatial aspects of constraints for each of these populations. Title: Constraints to urban park visitation: Conceptual connections and spatial attributes for traditionally well-served and underserved residents Author: Rushing, Jaclyn R. Connecting with nature is associated with social, physical, and emotional benefits such as stress relief, improved physical health, and lower crime. Parks and other natural areas offer spaces in which to connect with nature and reap these and other benefits (e.g., family bonding, social events, learning). Despite increasing populations of racial and ethnic minorities in the United States of America, these groups are underrepresented in many outdoor recreation activities and in visitation to many parks and other protected areas. This underrepresentation and other attributes of park visitation can be partially explained through the theoretical lens of constraints to recreation. Constraints are factors that limit participation, affect leisure preferences, and / or reduce enjoyment and satisfaction with recreation experiences. Examples of constraints include inability to afford park fees, fear of crime in parks, and lack of available leisure time. This thesis contains two standalone articles focusing on resident constraints to visiting urban parks and other natural areas in the Portland, Oregon (USA) metropolitan region. These articles examine: (a) the most common constraints to visiting these parks and natural areas, and whether these constraints vary between traditionally well-served (i.e., white majority residents) and underserved (i.e., ethnic and racial minorities) populations; (b) relationships among constraints, park visitation, and place attachment for both of these groups of residents; and (c) how constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities) are distributed spatially across this metropolitan region. Data were obtained from mail and online questionnaires completed by two samples of residents in Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties: (a) a proportionate random sample of residents mostly targeting the following groups: African Americans / Blacks, American Indians, Asians, Hispanics / Latinos, Middle Eastern peoples, and Slavic / Eastern European peoples (i.e., probability sample); and (b) a convenience sample of Opt-In panel members (i.e., nonprobability sample). Questionnaires were completed by a total of 3,328 residents across these samples, and the data were weighted by the most recent Census based on county, age, sex (male, female), and education to be representative of adult residents in this region. Race and other demographics were consistent with the Census after weighting. Results of the first article showed that the primary constraints to visiting parks and natural areas in this urban region were being too busy to visit, limited knowledge about Metro parks, and lack of access to these places (Metro parks are managed by Metro, which is the main regional government for Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties). There were no differences in these constraints and most other constraints between traditionally underserved and well-served populations. Traditionally underserved residents, however, were significantly more constrained than the well-served residents were by race and cultural issues at parks, as well as lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. Traditionally well-served residents visited all parks and natural areas in the region significantly more often than did the underserved residents, but there were no differences in visitation to Metro parks or their favorite park. There were also no differences between the two groups in their attachment to their favorite park. Constraints and visitation explained 15% of the variance in attachment for well-served residents and 38% for underserved residents, and constraints explained 4% of the variance in visitation for well-served residents and 26% for underserved residents. The strongest negative predictor of attachment for well-served residents was Metro parks are not the best places, followed by limited access to these places and disinterest in visiting parks and natural areas. The strongest positive predictor for well-served resident attachment was frequency of visitation, followed by race and cultural issues at Metro parks, and lack of facilities and services in these areas. For underserved residents, the strongest negative predictor of attachment was costs followed by Metro parks are not the best places and limited knowledge about these places. Positive predictors of attachment for these residents included frequency of visitation and lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. The only predictor of visitation to their favorite park for well-served residents was fear of visiting other areas (positive relationship), whereas visitation for underserved residents was negatively associated with limited access to Metro parks and positively associated with costs of visiting other areas. The second article used a Geographic Information System (GIS) and hot spot analysis of the survey data to determine any spatial patterns in constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities). Results revealed two major trends: (a) in the northeast area of the region, there is a clustering of minority residents overlapping with the most constrained hot spots and these residents were most affected by constraints associated with health and lack of recreation partners; and (b) residents in the southwest area of the region were most affected by constraints associated with limited knowledge and access to parks. Specific implications of these results for both management and research are discussed in this thesis. In general, however, these results may inform local agency objectives associated with reaching and engaging various populations, including ethnic and racial minorities. These findings also contribute to the literature by exploring relationships among constraints, park visitation, and attachment between traditionally well-served and underserved populations, and also by applying a GIS analysis of survey data to understand spatial aspects of constraints for each of these populations. Close

• 16. [Article] Wetland compensatory mitigation in Oregon : a program evaluation with a focus on Portland metro area projects

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Wetland compensatory mitigation in Oregon : a program evaluation with a focus on Portland metro area projects Author: Oregon. Division of State Lands, Franklin, Kenneth T., Shaich, Joel A., United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Region X. Oregon Operations Office Title: Wetland compensatory mitigation in Oregon : a program evaluation with a focus on Portland metro area projects Author: Oregon. Division of State Lands, Franklin, Kenneth T., Shaich, Joel A., United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Region X. Oregon Operations Office Close

• 17. [Article] An instrument system for measurement of evapotranspiration by the eddy correlation method

  A fast response meteorological instrument system for measuring parameters used in calculating evapotranspiration above a forest stand is described. Comprised of Gill-type propeller anemometers, Brady-array ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An instrument system for measurement of evapotranspiration by the eddy correlation method Author: U.S. International Biological Program. Coniferous Forest Biome, Belt, George H., King, Jack, University of Washington, Baily, Everett Minnich, 1938- A fast response meteorological instrument system for measuring parameters used in calculating evapotranspiration above a forest stand is described. Comprised of Gill-type propeller anemometers, Brady-array humidity sensors, thermistor air-temperature sensors and a Metro-Data digital tape recorder, the system was designed to measure eddy fluctuations in the range from one to 0.005 cycles per second. Details of the shop-built signal conditioning circuitry for the Brady-array are presented along with a discussion of apparatus and techniques employed to calibrate the sensors as a part of the instrument system. Problems with electrical noise and condensation within instrument packages which occurred during field trials are also discussed. Title: An instrument system for measurement of evapotranspiration by the eddy correlation method Author: U.S. International Biological Program. Coniferous Forest Biome, Belt, George H., King, Jack, University of Washington, Baily, Everett Minnich, 1938- A fast response meteorological instrument system for measuring parameters used in calculating evapotranspiration above a forest stand is described. Comprised of Gill-type propeller anemometers, Brady-array humidity sensors, thermistor air-temperature sensors and a Metro-Data digital tape recorder, the system was designed to measure eddy fluctuations in the range from one to 0.005 cycles per second. Details of the shop-built signal conditioning circuitry for the Brady-array are presented along with a discussion of apparatus and techniques employed to calibrate the sensors as a part of the instrument system. Problems with electrical noise and condensation within instrument packages which occurred during field trials are also discussed. Close

• 18. [Article] The effectiveness of the spatial assimilation theory in describing current settlement patterns of Polish immigrants in Portland, OR

  The settlement patterns of European immigrants arriving around the turn of the 20th Century have been described using the theory of spatial assimilation. Recent academic literature has called into question ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effectiveness of the spatial assimilation theory in describing current settlement patterns of Polish immigrants in Portland, OR Author: Latta, Brian The settlement patterns of European immigrants arriving around the turn of the 20th Century have been described using the theory of spatial assimilation. Recent academic literature has called into question whether this theory is still relevant in describing the settlement patterns of recent non-European immigrant groups, but has not been addressed whether or not this theory is still effective in describing continued European immigration. This research evaluated US census data to determine that a Polish ethnic enclave in the metro region of Portland, Oregon does not exist. Additionally, the absence of the Polish enclave appears to have a positive impact on the acculturation and assimilation of the Polish immigrants in the study area. Title: The effectiveness of the spatial assimilation theory in describing current settlement patterns of Polish immigrants in Portland, OR Author: Latta, Brian The settlement patterns of European immigrants arriving around the turn of the 20th Century have been described using the theory of spatial assimilation. Recent academic literature has called into question whether this theory is still relevant in describing the settlement patterns of recent non-European immigrant groups, but has not been addressed whether or not this theory is still effective in describing continued European immigration. This research evaluated US census data to determine that a Polish ethnic enclave in the metro region of Portland, Oregon does not exist. Additionally, the absence of the Polish enclave appears to have a positive impact on the acculturation and assimilation of the Polish immigrants in the study area. Close

• 19. [Article] Residents’ drivers and barriers to participation in the Backyard Habitat Certification Program: Study of socio-ecological factors in Madison South neighborhood in NE Portland

  As urban development fractures and reduces available habitat for birds and other wildlife, conservationists are increasing pursuing strategies to improve the habitat value of privately owned yards in and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Residents’ drivers and barriers to participation in the Backyard Habitat Certification Program: Study of socio-ecological factors in Madison South neighborhood in NE Portland Author: Powel, Jinnet As urban development fractures and reduces available habitat for birds and other wildlife, conservationists are increasing pursuing strategies to improve the habitat value of privately owned yards in and around cities. The Backyard Habitat Certification Program is a collaborative effort between the Portland Audubon Society and the Columbia Land Trust that has a two pronged mission: to increase the amount of available habitat for wildlife in the Portland Metro region by encouraging homeowners of lots one acre or less to naturescape their yards; and to increase stewardship and conservation awareness by broadening their participant base. Backyard Habitat’s agency in achieving both goals is linked to 1) their effectiveness at engaging and enrolling residents, 2) residents’ access to greenspace, and 3) their interest and agency in naturescaping their yards. Based on circumstantial evidence, Backyard Habitat is concerned they are not capturing the racial and ethnic diversity of the communities that they serve. This suggests that cultural and/or structural factors are limiting thier access to private yards and scope in providing conservation education. This study begins to explore the drivers and barriers to participation in the Northeast Portland neighborhood of Madison South with the objective of providing community specific and generalizable recommendations on how Backyard Habitat could broaden and deepen participation. Madison South was chosen as the study site because Backyard Habitat would like to increase participation there in order to enhance the impact of a large-scale habitat restoration project: the Dharma Rain Zen Center’s development at Siskiyou Square. The study used a social-ecological framework to explore both ecological and sociological factors that could serve as drivers or barriers to residents in choosing 1) to naturescape and 2) to participate in the Backyard Habitat Certification Program. The study consisted of three phases and looked at two scales of analysis: structural and cultural factors at the societal level and at the individual scale. Phase 1 assessed societal structural and cultural factors within the neighborhood (n= 5,314) including racial and ethnic diversity, language fluency, tenure status, and the value and distribution of greenspace using a combination of US Census data and publicly available on-line mapping tools (Metro Maps, Portland Maps, and Intertwine Alliance’s Regional Conservation Strategy overlays, Google Maps). Phase 2 and 3 consisted of smaller group of participants(n=28) that lived within 200m Siskiyou Square, and used mixed methods door-to-door surveys and guided interviews to explore individual interests, beliefs, and constraints shaping both desired and actual yard use. Phase 2 included the use of a yard-type instrument that allowed participants to indicate their interest in naturescaped, highly manicured, and predominantly permaculture yards by selecting among photographs. The study found that Madison South would be a good neighborhood for Backyard Habitat to engage with the purpose of diversifying their base since it was a relatively diverse racial and ethnic neighborhood within the Portland Metro region. However, since homeownership was disproportionately limited to White and Asian residents, the author recommends that Backyard Habitat should consider strategies for including renters in order to engage a representative demographic. Considering the percentage of rented, single-family homes with yards around the Siskiyou Square neighborhood, such strategies could serve Backyard Habitat’s ecological goals. The study identified limited English as a likely barrier for engaging some homeowners, particularly elderly Vietnamese. However the participant pool was too small to identify preferences, such desired as yard-type, along racial or ethnic lines. With 19% of homes owned by racial and ethnic minorities, Backyard Habitat should consider strategies for further identifying, and overcoming cultural barriers. The survey, interview questionnaire and yard-type instrument appeared useful at identifying receptivity to naturescaping and strategies for broadening participation. Based on the study’s findings and input from participants, the study makes recommendations for how Backyard Habitat can increase participation by being better known, being appealing, and being feasible to a variety of residents. Title: Residents’ drivers and barriers to participation in the Backyard Habitat Certification Program: Study of socio-ecological factors in Madison South neighborhood in NE Portland Author: Powel, Jinnet As urban development fractures and reduces available habitat for birds and other wildlife, conservationists are increasing pursuing strategies to improve the habitat value of privately owned yards in and around cities. The Backyard Habitat Certification Program is a collaborative effort between the Portland Audubon Society and the Columbia Land Trust that has a two pronged mission: to increase the amount of available habitat for wildlife in the Portland Metro region by encouraging homeowners of lots one acre or less to naturescape their yards; and to increase stewardship and conservation awareness by broadening their participant base. Backyard Habitat’s agency in achieving both goals is linked to 1) their effectiveness at engaging and enrolling residents, 2) residents’ access to greenspace, and 3) their interest and agency in naturescaping their yards. Based on circumstantial evidence, Backyard Habitat is concerned they are not capturing the racial and ethnic diversity of the communities that they serve. This suggests that cultural and/or structural factors are limiting thier access to private yards and scope in providing conservation education. This study begins to explore the drivers and barriers to participation in the Northeast Portland neighborhood of Madison South with the objective of providing community specific and generalizable recommendations on how Backyard Habitat could broaden and deepen participation. Madison South was chosen as the study site because Backyard Habitat would like to increase participation there in order to enhance the impact of a large-scale habitat restoration project: the Dharma Rain Zen Center’s development at Siskiyou Square. The study used a social-ecological framework to explore both ecological and sociological factors that could serve as drivers or barriers to residents in choosing 1) to naturescape and 2) to participate in the Backyard Habitat Certification Program. The study consisted of three phases and looked at two scales of analysis: structural and cultural factors at the societal level and at the individual scale. Phase 1 assessed societal structural and cultural factors within the neighborhood (n= 5,314) including racial and ethnic diversity, language fluency, tenure status, and the value and distribution of greenspace using a combination of US Census data and publicly available on-line mapping tools (Metro Maps, Portland Maps, and Intertwine Alliance’s Regional Conservation Strategy overlays, Google Maps). Phase 2 and 3 consisted of smaller group of participants(n=28) that lived within 200m Siskiyou Square, and used mixed methods door-to-door surveys and guided interviews to explore individual interests, beliefs, and constraints shaping both desired and actual yard use. Phase 2 included the use of a yard-type instrument that allowed participants to indicate their interest in naturescaped, highly manicured, and predominantly permaculture yards by selecting among photographs. The study found that Madison South would be a good neighborhood for Backyard Habitat to engage with the purpose of diversifying their base since it was a relatively diverse racial and ethnic neighborhood within the Portland Metro region. However, since homeownership was disproportionately limited to White and Asian residents, the author recommends that Backyard Habitat should consider strategies for including renters in order to engage a representative demographic. Considering the percentage of rented, single-family homes with yards around the Siskiyou Square neighborhood, such strategies could serve Backyard Habitat’s ecological goals. The study identified limited English as a likely barrier for engaging some homeowners, particularly elderly Vietnamese. However the participant pool was too small to identify preferences, such desired as yard-type, along racial or ethnic lines. With 19% of homes owned by racial and ethnic minorities, Backyard Habitat should consider strategies for further identifying, and overcoming cultural barriers. The survey, interview questionnaire and yard-type instrument appeared useful at identifying receptivity to naturescaping and strategies for broadening participation. Based on the study’s findings and input from participants, the study makes recommendations for how Backyard Habitat can increase participation by being better known, being appealing, and being feasible to a variety of residents. Close

• 20. [Article] Education's effect on poverty: the role of migration and labor markets

  Improving the quality of education and encouraging students to stay in school is one possible strategy for reducing poverty and raising local well-being in rural areas. A potential obstacle to this strategy, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Education's effect on poverty: the role of migration and labor markets Author: Marre, Alexander, Weber, Bruce, Cromartie, John, Gibbs, Robert, Fisher, Monica Improving the quality of education and encouraging students to stay in school is one possible strategy for reducing poverty and raising local well-being in rural areas. A potential obstacle to this strategy, however, is outmigration to metro areas due to the lack of demand for this better-educated rural workforce, and secondarily, the necessity of leaving rural areas to attend college. Even where robust rural job growth exists, the lower wages offered by rural employers dampen the poverty reducing power of education. In this paper, we test for both a "direct" effect of educational attainment on the poverty status of rural adults, which operates through access to higher-quality jobs; and an "indirect" effect, which operates through a higher likelihood of outmigration to urban areas and hence access to higher monetary returns to education. Drawing from a sample of 701 households in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we find that, in general, better-educated rural household heads are more likely to move to urban areas during the 1990s and that poverty status is affected by that move. As a first step in assessing the impact of labor market conditions, we examine the effect of the unemployment rate in the county of origin on the migration decision. Education is a key determinant of economic well-being for both individuals and places. Despite overall improvements, however, rural residents still have significantly lower educational attainment than urban residents. Improving the quality of education and encouraging students to stay in school is one possible strategy for reducing poverty and raising local well-being. A better-educated workforce should have higher incomes. Partridge and Rickman showed that both education levels and increases in attainment explained spatial variation in poverty reduction. Outmigration to metro areas is a potential obstacle to this strategy, however. Migration from rural areas occurs because of the lack of demand for a better-educated rural workforce and the necessity of leaving rural areas to attend college (Gibbs). Outmigration may prevent local human capital levels from reaching the threshold required to attract new industry or encourage expansion in the existing economic base. Even where robust rural job growth exists, the lower skill levels and wages offered by rural employers, on average, both dampen the poverty-reducing power of education and hinder long-term development prospects associated with an increasingly high-skill economy. This study documents a direct and an indirect effect of education on household poverty status. Data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) is used to obtain a sample of 701 working-age (25-64 years of age) household heads that lived in a non-metro county in 1993. The metropolitan and poverty status of their households is observed in 1999. For adults who live in a rural area, greater educational attainment has a direct effect on eventual poverty status by increasing the likelihood of obtaining higher income (wherever they live) and an indirect effect on eventual poverty by increasing the likelihood of moving to an urban place with better income-earning opportunities. Controlling for the fact that better-educated rural adults are more likely to move to urban areas, the study finds that migration has an influence on the likelihood of being poor. Title: Education's effect on poverty: the role of migration and labor markets Author: Marre, Alexander, Weber, Bruce, Cromartie, John, Gibbs, Robert, Fisher, Monica Improving the quality of education and encouraging students to stay in school is one possible strategy for reducing poverty and raising local well-being in rural areas. A potential obstacle to this strategy, however, is outmigration to metro areas due to the lack of demand for this better-educated rural workforce, and secondarily, the necessity of leaving rural areas to attend college. Even where robust rural job growth exists, the lower wages offered by rural employers dampen the poverty reducing power of education. In this paper, we test for both a "direct" effect of educational attainment on the poverty status of rural adults, which operates through access to higher-quality jobs; and an "indirect" effect, which operates through a higher likelihood of outmigration to urban areas and hence access to higher monetary returns to education. Drawing from a sample of 701 households in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we find that, in general, better-educated rural household heads are more likely to move to urban areas during the 1990s and that poverty status is affected by that move. As a first step in assessing the impact of labor market conditions, we examine the effect of the unemployment rate in the county of origin on the migration decision. Education is a key determinant of economic well-being for both individuals and places. Despite overall improvements, however, rural residents still have significantly lower educational attainment than urban residents. Improving the quality of education and encouraging students to stay in school is one possible strategy for reducing poverty and raising local well-being. A better-educated workforce should have higher incomes. Partridge and Rickman showed that both education levels and increases in attainment explained spatial variation in poverty reduction. Outmigration to metro areas is a potential obstacle to this strategy, however. Migration from rural areas occurs because of the lack of demand for a better-educated rural workforce and the necessity of leaving rural areas to attend college (Gibbs). Outmigration may prevent local human capital levels from reaching the threshold required to attract new industry or encourage expansion in the existing economic base. Even where robust rural job growth exists, the lower skill levels and wages offered by rural employers, on average, both dampen the poverty-reducing power of education and hinder long-term development prospects associated with an increasingly high-skill economy. This study documents a direct and an indirect effect of education on household poverty status. Data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) is used to obtain a sample of 701 working-age (25-64 years of age) household heads that lived in a non-metro county in 1993. The metropolitan and poverty status of their households is observed in 1999. For adults who live in a rural area, greater educational attainment has a direct effect on eventual poverty status by increasing the likelihood of obtaining higher income (wherever they live) and an indirect effect on eventual poverty by increasing the likelihood of moving to an urban place with better income-earning opportunities. Controlling for the fact that better-educated rural adults are more likely to move to urban areas, the study finds that migration has an influence on the likelihood of being poor. Close