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• 21. [Article] A study of in stream complexity in three Oregon Coast Range watersheds

  This study investigates patterns of physical structure organization in stream networks. In particular, it seeks to describe patterns of wood, boulders, pools and slope that are evident in stream channels ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A study of in stream complexity in three Oregon Coast Range watersheds Author: Anderson, Paul Khalil This study investigates patterns of physical structure organization in stream networks. In particular, it seeks to describe patterns of wood, boulders, pools and slope that are evident in stream channels and to determine whether patterns of these elements are influenced by network-level controls. The four in-stream parameters were combined to produce a metric of complexity, which was used to investigate differences in patters and organization of in-stream structure within and between watersheds. Research was conducted in three Oregon Coast Range watersheds' Rogers Creek in the Northern Oregon Coast Range, and Turner and Elk Creeks in the South Central Oregon Coast Range. Rogers, Turner and Elk Creeks were 26km2, 12km2, and 17km2 respectively and fell into two distinct geologic regions, basalt geology in the north and sandstone geology in the south. Fifteen km of stream were surveyed in 60 meter segments for a total of 246 stream segments observations. There were 77, 70, and 99 study segments in Rogers, Turner and Elk Creeks respectively. The network-level controls investigated were stream junctions, channel constraint, and debris flows. It was hypothesized that these network-level controls influence in-stream complexity by encouraging uneven distribution of large material which in turn influences stream slope and pooi abundance. Network-level controls where associated with differing patterns of complexity in each watershed. The influence of the network-level control was in part dependent on factors including: geologic setting, stream slope differences and difference in disturbance regimes. Stream junctions and constrained segments were found to be associated with some of the highest values of complexity, while recent debris flows were associated with lower complexity values. Several of the hypotheses described in the Network Dynamics Hypothesis (Benda et al. 2004b) were investigated using a geographic information system (GIS) and data derived from a digital elevation model (DEM). The GIS was used to test for relationships between field measured complexity and stream network parameters that were developed using a program for DEM analysis. DEM derived data for the contributing area, junction angle and debris flow potential at sample points illustrated a weak relationship with complexity. By better understanding the influence of network level controls on complexity it may be possible to improve the understanding of how stream networks connect hillslope and riparian environments, thereby aiding watershed management and identifying locations of diverse habitat in the stream network. Title: A study of in stream complexity in three Oregon Coast Range watersheds Author: Anderson, Paul Khalil This study investigates patterns of physical structure organization in stream networks. In particular, it seeks to describe patterns of wood, boulders, pools and slope that are evident in stream channels and to determine whether patterns of these elements are influenced by network-level controls. The four in-stream parameters were combined to produce a metric of complexity, which was used to investigate differences in patters and organization of in-stream structure within and between watersheds. Research was conducted in three Oregon Coast Range watersheds' Rogers Creek in the Northern Oregon Coast Range, and Turner and Elk Creeks in the South Central Oregon Coast Range. Rogers, Turner and Elk Creeks were 26km2, 12km2, and 17km2 respectively and fell into two distinct geologic regions, basalt geology in the north and sandstone geology in the south. Fifteen km of stream were surveyed in 60 meter segments for a total of 246 stream segments observations. There were 77, 70, and 99 study segments in Rogers, Turner and Elk Creeks respectively. The network-level controls investigated were stream junctions, channel constraint, and debris flows. It was hypothesized that these network-level controls influence in-stream complexity by encouraging uneven distribution of large material which in turn influences stream slope and pooi abundance. Network-level controls where associated with differing patterns of complexity in each watershed. The influence of the network-level control was in part dependent on factors including: geologic setting, stream slope differences and difference in disturbance regimes. Stream junctions and constrained segments were found to be associated with some of the highest values of complexity, while recent debris flows were associated with lower complexity values. Several of the hypotheses described in the Network Dynamics Hypothesis (Benda et al. 2004b) were investigated using a geographic information system (GIS) and data derived from a digital elevation model (DEM). The GIS was used to test for relationships between field measured complexity and stream network parameters that were developed using a program for DEM analysis. DEM derived data for the contributing area, junction angle and debris flow potential at sample points illustrated a weak relationship with complexity. By better understanding the influence of network level controls on complexity it may be possible to improve the understanding of how stream networks connect hillslope and riparian environments, thereby aiding watershed management and identifying locations of diverse habitat in the stream network. Close

• 22. [Article] Behavior of stream inflows to a stratifying field reservoir

  The behavior of a stream upon entering a field reservoir was studied at various stages of stratification. The principal field techniques included fluorometric and temperature surveys. General relationships ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Behavior of stream inflows to a stratifying field reservoir Author: Chasse, James Peter The behavior of a stream upon entering a field reservoir was studied at various stages of stratification. The principal field techniques included fluorometric and temperature surveys. General relationships were obtained, between dimensional and locational characteristics of the inflow current and the thermal structure of the impoundment. As predicted by analytical and experimental development, the entrainment of the ambient water body by the entering stream was primarily a function of the entrance velocity and the temperature differential between the two bodies of water. Entrainment displayed a seasonal variation. Field temperature profiles were applied to an analytical model and the results reviewed with respect to the entrance mixing. Inflow mixing was among the least significant of the energy exchange mechanisms in influencing reservoir temperature structure. Title: Behavior of stream inflows to a stratifying field reservoir Author: Chasse, James Peter The behavior of a stream upon entering a field reservoir was studied at various stages of stratification. The principal field techniques included fluorometric and temperature surveys. General relationships were obtained, between dimensional and locational characteristics of the inflow current and the thermal structure of the impoundment. As predicted by analytical and experimental development, the entrainment of the ambient water body by the entering stream was primarily a function of the entrance velocity and the temperature differential between the two bodies of water. Entrainment displayed a seasonal variation. Field temperature profiles were applied to an analytical model and the results reviewed with respect to the entrance mixing. Inflow mixing was among the least significant of the energy exchange mechanisms in influencing reservoir temperature structure. Close

• 23. [Article] Historical alterations to the Columbia River Gorge as a result of transportation infrastructure, 1850-1900

  Featuring high waterfalls and forested cliffs, and displaying a remarkable transition between the Pacific and Interior west, the Columbia River Gorge reveals the grandeur of western landscapes. Yet the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Historical alterations to the Columbia River Gorge as a result of transportation infrastructure, 1850-1900 Author: Daniel, Isaac B. Featuring high waterfalls and forested cliffs, and displaying a remarkable transition between the Pacific and Interior west, the Columbia River Gorge reveals the grandeur of western landscapes. Yet the landscape that one sees today is an amalgamation of the Gorge's natural setting and its unique human history. Historical research on the Gorge is deficient, as few studies have addressed landscape change that occurred prior to the twentieth century. This research explores a significant yet underrepresented chapter in the Gorge's history, focusing on the second half of the nineteenth century. Specifically, this research examines changes in the land that resulted from building transportation infrastructure during this era, namely the development of portage, wagon, and military roads and in-stream navigational aids. Utilizing methods drawn from historical geography, this research employs a wide range of primary source materials, including journals, photographs, surveys, and construction records, to assess landscape change. Results from this study indicate a high spatial extent of landscape impacts resulting from transportation infrastructure put in place between 1850 and 1900. The clearing of floodplain forests, coupled with changes in the hydrography of the river channel brought about by the construction of the Cascade canal and lock, led to significant changes in ecological functions, including nutrient cycling and sediment retention. These results provide suggestions for restoration efforts in the Gorge and also hold important applications for historical interpretation in the contemporary National Scenic Area. There are also broad implications for researchers seeking a broader understanding of changes in western riparian landscapes during this period. Title: Historical alterations to the Columbia River Gorge as a result of transportation infrastructure, 1850-1900 Author: Daniel, Isaac B. Featuring high waterfalls and forested cliffs, and displaying a remarkable transition between the Pacific and Interior west, the Columbia River Gorge reveals the grandeur of western landscapes. Yet the landscape that one sees today is an amalgamation of the Gorge's natural setting and its unique human history. Historical research on the Gorge is deficient, as few studies have addressed landscape change that occurred prior to the twentieth century. This research explores a significant yet underrepresented chapter in the Gorge's history, focusing on the second half of the nineteenth century. Specifically, this research examines changes in the land that resulted from building transportation infrastructure during this era, namely the development of portage, wagon, and military roads and in-stream navigational aids. Utilizing methods drawn from historical geography, this research employs a wide range of primary source materials, including journals, photographs, surveys, and construction records, to assess landscape change. Results from this study indicate a high spatial extent of landscape impacts resulting from transportation infrastructure put in place between 1850 and 1900. The clearing of floodplain forests, coupled with changes in the hydrography of the river channel brought about by the construction of the Cascade canal and lock, led to significant changes in ecological functions, including nutrient cycling and sediment retention. These results provide suggestions for restoration efforts in the Gorge and also hold important applications for historical interpretation in the contemporary National Scenic Area. There are also broad implications for researchers seeking a broader understanding of changes in western riparian landscapes during this period. Close

• 24. [Article] Oregon Stream Gaging Network Evaluation: Meeting the Oregon Water Resources Department’s Current and Future Data Needs

  Presented at The Oregon Water Conference, May 24-25, 2011, Corvallis, OR.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Oregon Stream Gaging Network Evaluation: Meeting the Oregon Water Resources Department’s Current and Future Data Needs Author: La Marche, Jonathan L. Presented at The Oregon Water Conference, May 24-25, 2011, Corvallis, OR. Title: Oregon Stream Gaging Network Evaluation: Meeting the Oregon Water Resources Department’s Current and Future Data Needs Author: La Marche, Jonathan L. Presented at The Oregon Water Conference, May 24-25, 2011, Corvallis, OR. Close

• 25. [Article] Quantifying physical habitat in wadeable streams : surface waters

  We describe concepts, rationale, and analytical procedures for characterizing physical habitat in wadeable streams based on raw data generated from methods similar or equal to those of Kaufmann and Robison ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Quantifying physical habitat in wadeable streams : surface waters Author: Robison, E. George, Seeliger, Curt, Levine, Paul, Peck, David V., Kaufmann, Phillip R. We describe concepts, rationale, and analytical procedures for characterizing physical habitat in wadeable streams based on raw data generated from methods similar or equal to those of Kaufmann and Robison (in PB99-139156). We provide guidance for calculating measures or indices of stream size and gradient, sinuosity, substrate size and stability, habitat complexity and cover, woody debris size and abundance, residual pool dimensions and frequency, riparian vegetation cover and structure, anthropogenic disturbances, and channel-riparian interaction. We evaluated sampling precision of field habitat survey methods employed by EMAP in several hundred streams in Oregon and the Mid-Atlantic region, comparing variance among streams ('signals') with variance between repeat stream visits (measurement 'noise'). The final measure of the utility of a habitat approach is whether it is useful for interpreting controls on biota or impacts of human activity. Title: Quantifying physical habitat in wadeable streams : surface waters Author: Robison, E. George, Seeliger, Curt, Levine, Paul, Peck, David V., Kaufmann, Phillip R. We describe concepts, rationale, and analytical procedures for characterizing physical habitat in wadeable streams based on raw data generated from methods similar or equal to those of Kaufmann and Robison (in PB99-139156). We provide guidance for calculating measures or indices of stream size and gradient, sinuosity, substrate size and stability, habitat complexity and cover, woody debris size and abundance, residual pool dimensions and frequency, riparian vegetation cover and structure, anthropogenic disturbances, and channel-riparian interaction. We evaluated sampling precision of field habitat survey methods employed by EMAP in several hundred streams in Oregon and the Mid-Atlantic region, comparing variance among streams ('signals') with variance between repeat stream visits (measurement 'noise'). The final measure of the utility of a habitat approach is whether it is useful for interpreting controls on biota or impacts of human activity. Close

• 26. [Article] The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature

  Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature Author: Diabat, Mousa Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, and channel structure directly influence stream temperature. Numerous studies indicate that increased average air temperature during the past century has led to stream warming across the world. The trend of stream warming was also present in spring-fed watersheds, where summer flow has decreased. In addition, anthropogenic practices that alter the natural landscape and channel structure, such as forest management, agriculture, and mining contributed to stream warming. For example, deforested and unshaded stream reaches or dredged channels were warmer than shaded reaches and meandering streams. Stream temperatures in North American lotic habitats are of a specific concern due to their significant economic, cultural, and ecological value. With climate projections indicating that air temperature will only continue to rise throughout the 21st century, cold- or cool-water organisms, especially fishes, will be affected. Therefore, there is a strong need to better understand the impacts of changing climate, riparian landscape, and channel structure on a stream's heat budget. This may assist in restoring the historic thermal regime in impacted sites and mitigating the impacts of future climate change. This study looks into the relative influences of the different factors on a stream's heat budget with three manuscripts: one on stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming, one on stream temperature response to changes in air temperature, flow, and riparian vegetation, and one on stream temperature response to air warming and channel reconstruction. I used the software Heat Source version 8.05 to simulate stream temperature for all three analyses along the Middle Fork John Day River, Oregon USA. Two of the manuscripts were applied to an upper 37 km section of the Middle Fork John Day River (presented in chapter 2 and 3), where the third manuscript was applied to a 1.5-km section. The sensitivity analysis of stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming (Chapter 2: Diel Timing of Warmer Air under Climate Change Affects Magnitude, Timing, and Duration of Stream Temperature Change) was based on scenarios representing uniform air warming over the diel period, daytime warming, and nighttime warming. Uniform warming of air temperature is a simple representation of increases in the average daily or monthly temperatures generated by the 'delta method'. The delta method relies on adding a constant value to the air temperature time-series data. This constant value is the difference (delta) between base case average air temperatures and the projected one. Scenarios of daytime or nighttime warming represent conditions under which most of the warming of the air occurs during the daytime or the nighttime, respectively. I simulated the stream temperature response to warmer air conditions of +2 °C and +4 °C in daily average for all three cases of air warming conditions. The three cases of different diel distributions of air warming generated 7-day average daily maximum stream temperature (7DADM) increases of approximately +1.8 °C ± 0.1 °C at the downstream end of the study section relative to the base case. In most parts of the reach, the three distributions of air warming generated different ranges of stream temperatures, different 7DADM values, different durations of stream temperature changes, and different average daily temperatures. Changes of stream temperature were out of phase with imposed changes of air temperature. Therefore, nighttime warming of air temperatures would cause the greatest increase in maximum daily stream temperature, which typically occurs during the daytime. The sensitivity analysis of the relative influences of changes in air temperature, stream flow, and riparian vegetation on stream temperature (Chapter 3: Assessing Stream Temperature Response to Cumulative Influence of Changing Air Temperature, Flow, and Riparian Vegetation). This study summarized stream temperature simulation in 36 scenarios representing possible manifestations of 21st century climate conditions and land management strategies. In addition to existing conditions (base case) of flow, air temperature, and riparian vegetation, scenarios consisted of: two air temperature increases of 2 °C and 4 °C, two stream flow variations of +30% and -30%, three spatially uniform riparian vegetation conditions that create averages of effective shade 7%, 34%, and 79%, in addition to 14% for base case conditions. Results suggest that variation in riparian vegetation was the dominant factor influencing stream temperature because it regulates incoming shortwave radiation, the largest heat input to the stream, while variation in stream flow has a negligible influence. Results indicated that increasing the effective shade along the study section, particularly in the currently unshaded sections, could mitigate the influence of increasing air temperature, and would reduce stream temperature maxima below current values even under future climate conditions of warmer air. With the small influence it had, increasing stream flow reduced the 7DADM under low shade conditions. However, increasing stream flow showed counterintuitive results as it contributed to increasing stream temperature maxima when the stream was heavily shaded. The applied study examined the stream temperature response to restoration practices and their potential to mitigate the influence of warmer air conditions (Chapter 4: Estimating Stream Temperature Response to Restoring Channel and Riparian Vegetation and the Potential to Mitigate Warmer Air Conditions). This study focused on a 1.5 km section along the upper part of the Middle Fork John Day River that was modified due to past anthropogenic activities of mining for gold and timber harvest. Currently, the riparian vegetation of the study site is mostly shrubs and stands of short trees. Restoration designs call for the restoration of both the channel structure and replanting the riparian vegetation. Simulation results showed that the 7DADM was higher in the restored channel than the existing channel with both conditions of low and high effective shade conditions. However, a combined restoration practice of channel reconstruction and medium effective shade conditions reduced stream temperature maxima more than restoring riparian vegetation alone. In addition, results showed that restoring riparian vegetation was sufficient to mitigate the influence of warmer air on stream temperature, while restoring the channel alone is not. Heat budget analysis showed that heat accumulation during the daytime increased in the restored channel, which was longer, narrower, and deeper than the existing channel. It is important to emphasize that stream temperature is one of many goals that restoration activities aim to improve. Furthermore, differences in 7DADM among the different scenarios of restoration are negligible. Such small differences could hardly be measure. While this study examined a short section of 1.5 km, longer stream sections may increase the differences in 7DADM. Primary conclusions of this study are: 1) daily maxima of stream temperature will increase in response to increased air temperature regardless of the distribution of air warming during the diel cycle; 2) nighttime air warming caused a greater increase in stream temperature maximum than daytime warming; 3) riparian vegetation was the dominant factor on stream's heat budget, more than air temperature or stream flow; 4) restoring riparian vegetation mitigated the influence of warmer air; 5) restoring channel structure alone was not sufficient to lower temperature maxima; and 6) restoration project was most successful in improving degraded stream temperature when combined with channel reconstruction and improved riparian shade. Title: The influence of climate change and restoration on stream temperature Author: Diabat, Mousa Water temperature is an essential property of a stream. Temperature regulates physical and biochemical processes in aquatic habitats. Various factors related to climatic conditions, landscape characteristics, and channel structure directly influence stream temperature. Numerous studies indicate that increased average air temperature during the past century has led to stream warming across the world. The trend of stream warming was also present in spring-fed watersheds, where summer flow has decreased. In addition, anthropogenic practices that alter the natural landscape and channel structure, such as forest management, agriculture, and mining contributed to stream warming. For example, deforested and unshaded stream reaches or dredged channels were warmer than shaded reaches and meandering streams. Stream temperatures in North American lotic habitats are of a specific concern due to their significant economic, cultural, and ecological value. With climate projections indicating that air temperature will only continue to rise throughout the 21st century, cold- or cool-water organisms, especially fishes, will be affected. Therefore, there is a strong need to better understand the impacts of changing climate, riparian landscape, and channel structure on a stream's heat budget. This may assist in restoring the historic thermal regime in impacted sites and mitigating the impacts of future climate change. This study looks into the relative influences of the different factors on a stream's heat budget with three manuscripts: one on stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming, one on stream temperature response to changes in air temperature, flow, and riparian vegetation, and one on stream temperature response to air warming and channel reconstruction. I used the software Heat Source version 8.05 to simulate stream temperature for all three analyses along the Middle Fork John Day River, Oregon USA. Two of the manuscripts were applied to an upper 37 km section of the Middle Fork John Day River (presented in chapter 2 and 3), where the third manuscript was applied to a 1.5-km section. The sensitivity analysis of stream temperature response to diel timing of air warming (Chapter 2: Diel Timing of Warmer Air under Climate Change Affects Magnitude, Timing, and Duration of Stream Temperature Change) was based on scenarios representing uniform air warming over the diel period, daytime warming, and nighttime warming. Uniform warming of air temperature is a simple representation of increases in the average daily or monthly temperatures generated by the 'delta method'. The delta method relies on adding a constant value to the air temperature time-series data. This constant value is the difference (delta) between base case average air temperatures and the projected one. Scenarios of daytime or nighttime warming represent conditions under which most of the warming of the air occurs during the daytime or the nighttime, respectively. I simulated the stream temperature response to warmer air conditions of +2 °C and +4 °C in daily average for all three cases of air warming conditions. The three cases of different diel distributions of air warming generated 7-day average daily maximum stream temperature (7DADM) increases of approximately +1.8 °C ± 0.1 °C at the downstream end of the study section relative to the base case. In most parts of the reach, the three distributions of air warming generated different ranges of stream temperatures, different 7DADM values, different durations of stream temperature changes, and different average daily temperatures. Changes of stream temperature were out of phase with imposed changes of air temperature. Therefore, nighttime warming of air temperatures would cause the greatest increase in maximum daily stream temperature, which typically occurs during the daytime. The sensitivity analysis of the relative influences of changes in air temperature, stream flow, and riparian vegetation on stream temperature (Chapter 3: Assessing Stream Temperature Response to Cumulative Influence of Changing Air Temperature, Flow, and Riparian Vegetation). This study summarized stream temperature simulation in 36 scenarios representing possible manifestations of 21st century climate conditions and land management strategies. In addition to existing conditions (base case) of flow, air temperature, and riparian vegetation, scenarios consisted of: two air temperature increases of 2 °C and 4 °C, two stream flow variations of +30% and -30%, three spatially uniform riparian vegetation conditions that create averages of effective shade 7%, 34%, and 79%, in addition to 14% for base case conditions. Results suggest that variation in riparian vegetation was the dominant factor influencing stream temperature because it regulates incoming shortwave radiation, the largest heat input to the stream, while variation in stream flow has a negligible influence. Results indicated that increasing the effective shade along the study section, particularly in the currently unshaded sections, could mitigate the influence of increasing air temperature, and would reduce stream temperature maxima below current values even under future climate conditions of warmer air. With the small influence it had, increasing stream flow reduced the 7DADM under low shade conditions. However, increasing stream flow showed counterintuitive results as it contributed to increasing stream temperature maxima when the stream was heavily shaded. The applied study examined the stream temperature response to restoration practices and their potential to mitigate the influence of warmer air conditions (Chapter 4: Estimating Stream Temperature Response to Restoring Channel and Riparian Vegetation and the Potential to Mitigate Warmer Air Conditions). This study focused on a 1.5 km section along the upper part of the Middle Fork John Day River that was modified due to past anthropogenic activities of mining for gold and timber harvest. Currently, the riparian vegetation of the study site is mostly shrubs and stands of short trees. Restoration designs call for the restoration of both the channel structure and replanting the riparian vegetation. Simulation results showed that the 7DADM was higher in the restored channel than the existing channel with both conditions of low and high effective shade conditions. However, a combined restoration practice of channel reconstruction and medium effective shade conditions reduced stream temperature maxima more than restoring riparian vegetation alone. In addition, results showed that restoring riparian vegetation was sufficient to mitigate the influence of warmer air on stream temperature, while restoring the channel alone is not. Heat budget analysis showed that heat accumulation during the daytime increased in the restored channel, which was longer, narrower, and deeper than the existing channel. It is important to emphasize that stream temperature is one of many goals that restoration activities aim to improve. Furthermore, differences in 7DADM among the different scenarios of restoration are negligible. Such small differences could hardly be measure. While this study examined a short section of 1.5 km, longer stream sections may increase the differences in 7DADM. Primary conclusions of this study are: 1) daily maxima of stream temperature will increase in response to increased air temperature regardless of the distribution of air warming during the diel cycle; 2) nighttime air warming caused a greater increase in stream temperature maximum than daytime warming; 3) riparian vegetation was the dominant factor on stream's heat budget, more than air temperature or stream flow; 4) restoring riparian vegetation mitigated the influence of warmer air; 5) restoring channel structure alone was not sufficient to lower temperature maxima; and 6) restoration project was most successful in improving degraded stream temperature when combined with channel reconstruction and improved riparian shade. Close

• 27. [Article] Geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange flow in mountain streams

  Simulations of stream-subsurface water exchange (hyporheic exchange) using a three-dimensional steady state groundwater flow model and a particle tracking model in unconstrained and constrained reaches ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange flow in mountain streams Author: Kasahara, Tamao Simulations of stream-subsurface water exchange (hyporheic exchange) using a three-dimensional steady state groundwater flow model and a particle tracking model in unconstrained and constrained reaches of small (2nd-order) and intermediate (5th-order) mountain streams were conducted to estimate the effects of geomorphic features on the extent, volume and residence time of hyporheic exchange flow. Study sites were located in the Lookout Creek drainage in the western Cascades of Oregon. Stream water and water table elevations and saturated hydraulic conductivity were collected from four field sites. Steps were the dominant geomorphic features creating vertical complexity in 2nd-order streams and dominating hyporheic exchange flow. The removal of steps from the simulation models of 2nd-order stream reduced the total volume of hyporheic exchange by 54 %. Furthermore, hyporheic exchange flows resulting from steps had relatively short residence times. Horizontal complexity, resulting from secondary channels and channel splits, had strong effects on hyporheic exchange, as did vertically extensive features, such as riffles, in 5th-order streams. Removal of secondary channels, channel splits and riffles from the simulation models reduced hyporheic exchange flow by 25 %, 30 % and 40 %, respectively. Secondary channels contributed to hyporheic exchange with relatively long residence time, where as channel splits and riffles contributed to hyporheic exchange with short residence time. Thus, multiple features strongly contributed to the creation of hyporheic exchange flow and drove various types of the exchange flows. Also, the simulation results and stream survey showed that the interactions between multiple features, for example secondary channels and riffles, enhanced hyporheic exchange. Because horizontally extensive features were important in driving hyporheic exchange flow in the studied unconstrained reaches, the width of the valley floor strongly controlled hyporheic exchange flow in 5th-order streams. Geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange flow differed between the two stream sizes sampled. Second-order streams had a single key geomorphic feature (i.e. steps) influencing the hyporheic exchange flow, whereas multiple geomorphic features (i.e. riffles, secondary channels and channel splits) were important in 5 b-order streams. As a result, residence time distribution of hyporheic exchange flow was narrow in 2nd- order stream and wide in 5th-order stream. Title: Geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange flow in mountain streams Author: Kasahara, Tamao Simulations of stream-subsurface water exchange (hyporheic exchange) using a three-dimensional steady state groundwater flow model and a particle tracking model in unconstrained and constrained reaches of small (2nd-order) and intermediate (5th-order) mountain streams were conducted to estimate the effects of geomorphic features on the extent, volume and residence time of hyporheic exchange flow. Study sites were located in the Lookout Creek drainage in the western Cascades of Oregon. Stream water and water table elevations and saturated hydraulic conductivity were collected from four field sites. Steps were the dominant geomorphic features creating vertical complexity in 2nd-order streams and dominating hyporheic exchange flow. The removal of steps from the simulation models of 2nd-order stream reduced the total volume of hyporheic exchange by 54 %. Furthermore, hyporheic exchange flows resulting from steps had relatively short residence times. Horizontal complexity, resulting from secondary channels and channel splits, had strong effects on hyporheic exchange, as did vertically extensive features, such as riffles, in 5th-order streams. Removal of secondary channels, channel splits and riffles from the simulation models reduced hyporheic exchange flow by 25 %, 30 % and 40 %, respectively. Secondary channels contributed to hyporheic exchange with relatively long residence time, where as channel splits and riffles contributed to hyporheic exchange with short residence time. Thus, multiple features strongly contributed to the creation of hyporheic exchange flow and drove various types of the exchange flows. Also, the simulation results and stream survey showed that the interactions between multiple features, for example secondary channels and riffles, enhanced hyporheic exchange. Because horizontally extensive features were important in driving hyporheic exchange flow in the studied unconstrained reaches, the width of the valley floor strongly controlled hyporheic exchange flow in 5th-order streams. Geomorphic controls on hyporheic exchange flow differed between the two stream sizes sampled. Second-order streams had a single key geomorphic feature (i.e. steps) influencing the hyporheic exchange flow, whereas multiple geomorphic features (i.e. riffles, secondary channels and channel splits) were important in 5 b-order streams. As a result, residence time distribution of hyporheic exchange flow was narrow in 2nd- order stream and wide in 5th-order stream. Close

• 28. [Article] Ecology of populations of Van Dyke's salamanders in the Cascade Range of Washington State

  The Van Dyke's salamander (Plethodon vandyke,) is a rare species endemic to Washington State. It has been found in cool moist microhabitats along streams, splash zones of waterfalls, and headwater seeps. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Ecology of populations of Van Dyke's salamanders in the Cascade Range of Washington State Author: McIntyre, Aimee P. The Van Dyke's salamander (Plethodon vandyke,) is a rare species endemic to Washington State. It has been found in cool moist microhabitats along streams, splash zones of waterfalls, and headwater seeps. We explored the association of the Van Dyke's salamander with hydrologic condition, geomorphology, disturbance characteristics, and vegetation structure in first- and second-order streams, and headwater seeps in the Cascade Range of Washington. We conducted salamander surveys and measured habitat characteristics at 50 streams and 40 seeps May-October 2000-2002. We described Van Dyke's salamander occurrence in stream and seep sites at three spatial scales: between sites, within sites, and between microhabitat sites. Using presence and absence as the response, we fit logistic regression models predicting Van Dyke's salamander occurrence. To identify the model that best fit the data, we ranked a priori models using Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). Results were consistent for both stream and seep sites, at all three spatial scales. Best approximating models indicated that Van Dyke's salamander occurrence at sites was related to geological and hydrological habitat characteristics that provided hydnc and thermal stability. The probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence along streams was associated with habitat characteristics that protected salamanders from exposure, provided a source cover, and stream habitat types providing splash zone areas. Between streams, Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was positively associated with the proportion of valley walls with canopy cover <5%, the proportion of the stream channel dominated by bedrock, boulder, or soil substrates, and additional stream channels entering the main channel. Within streams, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence increased with the presence of non-forested areas, the presence of bedrock dominated stream habitat types, and the presence of vertical or V-shaped valley wall morphology. Between microhabitat sites, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence increased with an absence of trees, the presence of seeps, and the presence of small cobble sized substrates. The probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence in seeps was associated with habitat characteristics that protected salamanders within the larger landscape, provided a moisture gradient from dry to saturated, and the presence of cover objects. Between seeps, Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was positively associated with seep faces having a dry and sheeting hydrology, and with seep faces >5 m high. Within seeps, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was negatively associated with seeps that had proportionately more point measures of total overhead cover that were >25%. Between microhabitat sites, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was positively associated with an increase in the percent cover of small cobble, small gravel, and bedrock substrates. We conducted mark-recapture surveys of the Van Dyke's salamander at two high-gradient stream sites located within the Cascade Range of Washington State, June-November 2002. Sites known to support populations of the Van Dyke's salamander were chosen, and were ecologically different. One site, lacking significant overstory and located within the blast zone created by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, was surveyed 10 times. The other site, located in an old-growth coniferous stand, was surveyed 11 times. Abundance of salamanders at the blast zone site was estimated to be 458 (95% Cl: 306-739). Abundance of salamanders at the old-growth site was estimated to be 100 individuals (95% Cl: 61-209). Capture probabilities were extremely low (5 = <0.10) for all trapping occasions at both sites, with an average capture probability for the two sites of 0.038 (range = 0.02-0.09). Analysis of movement patterns suggested that most individual salamanders had home ranges <2 m, at least when moving on or near the surface. Individuals were recaptured under the same cover object as initial capture 36% of the time, and 89% of the recaptured individuals moved <2 m. Our results indicated that populations of the Van Dyke's salamander were rare on the landscape, even within the species documented range. Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was associated with geological and hydrological habitat characteristics that created microhabitats favorable for a species that is especially sensitive to heat and drying due to physiological constraints. Animals were difficult to detect due to fossorial habits and low capture probabilities, and it is likely that the Van Dyke's salamander was not detected even at sites where it existed. Life history characteristics, such as lunglessness and fossorial habits, low capture probabilities, and low abundances make it difficult to manage for and protect the Van Dyke's salamander. However, habitat associations may be used to identify and protect habitats suitable for Van Dyke's salamander occurrence. Title: Ecology of populations of Van Dyke's salamanders in the Cascade Range of Washington State Author: McIntyre, Aimee P. The Van Dyke's salamander (Plethodon vandyke,) is a rare species endemic to Washington State. It has been found in cool moist microhabitats along streams, splash zones of waterfalls, and headwater seeps. We explored the association of the Van Dyke's salamander with hydrologic condition, geomorphology, disturbance characteristics, and vegetation structure in first- and second-order streams, and headwater seeps in the Cascade Range of Washington. We conducted salamander surveys and measured habitat characteristics at 50 streams and 40 seeps May-October 2000-2002. We described Van Dyke's salamander occurrence in stream and seep sites at three spatial scales: between sites, within sites, and between microhabitat sites. Using presence and absence as the response, we fit logistic regression models predicting Van Dyke's salamander occurrence. To identify the model that best fit the data, we ranked a priori models using Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). Results were consistent for both stream and seep sites, at all three spatial scales. Best approximating models indicated that Van Dyke's salamander occurrence at sites was related to geological and hydrological habitat characteristics that provided hydnc and thermal stability. The probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence along streams was associated with habitat characteristics that protected salamanders from exposure, provided a source cover, and stream habitat types providing splash zone areas. Between streams, Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was positively associated with the proportion of valley walls with canopy cover <5%, the proportion of the stream channel dominated by bedrock, boulder, or soil substrates, and additional stream channels entering the main channel. Within streams, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence increased with the presence of non-forested areas, the presence of bedrock dominated stream habitat types, and the presence of vertical or V-shaped valley wall morphology. Between microhabitat sites, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence increased with an absence of trees, the presence of seeps, and the presence of small cobble sized substrates. The probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence in seeps was associated with habitat characteristics that protected salamanders within the larger landscape, provided a moisture gradient from dry to saturated, and the presence of cover objects. Between seeps, Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was positively associated with seep faces having a dry and sheeting hydrology, and with seep faces >5 m high. Within seeps, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was negatively associated with seeps that had proportionately more point measures of total overhead cover that were >25%. Between microhabitat sites, the probability of Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was positively associated with an increase in the percent cover of small cobble, small gravel, and bedrock substrates. We conducted mark-recapture surveys of the Van Dyke's salamander at two high-gradient stream sites located within the Cascade Range of Washington State, June-November 2002. Sites known to support populations of the Van Dyke's salamander were chosen, and were ecologically different. One site, lacking significant overstory and located within the blast zone created by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, was surveyed 10 times. The other site, located in an old-growth coniferous stand, was surveyed 11 times. Abundance of salamanders at the blast zone site was estimated to be 458 (95% Cl: 306-739). Abundance of salamanders at the old-growth site was estimated to be 100 individuals (95% Cl: 61-209). Capture probabilities were extremely low (5 = <0.10) for all trapping occasions at both sites, with an average capture probability for the two sites of 0.038 (range = 0.02-0.09). Analysis of movement patterns suggested that most individual salamanders had home ranges <2 m, at least when moving on or near the surface. Individuals were recaptured under the same cover object as initial capture 36% of the time, and 89% of the recaptured individuals moved <2 m. Our results indicated that populations of the Van Dyke's salamander were rare on the landscape, even within the species documented range. Van Dyke's salamander occurrence was associated with geological and hydrological habitat characteristics that created microhabitats favorable for a species that is especially sensitive to heat and drying due to physiological constraints. Animals were difficult to detect due to fossorial habits and low capture probabilities, and it is likely that the Van Dyke's salamander was not detected even at sites where it existed. Life history characteristics, such as lunglessness and fossorial habits, low capture probabilities, and low abundances make it difficult to manage for and protect the Van Dyke's salamander. However, habitat associations may be used to identify and protect habitats suitable for Van Dyke's salamander occurrence. Close

• 29. [Article] Amphibian communities and physical characteristics of intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in western Oregon

  Intermittent, headwater streams recently have been recognized as important components of forest ecosystems and have been provided increased protection by the Northwest Forest Plan. However, few studies ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Amphibian communities and physical characteristics of intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in western Oregon Author: Lee, Yu Man Intermittent, headwater streams recently have been recognized as important components of forest ecosystems and have been provided increased protection by the Northwest Forest Plan. However, few studies have examined their distribution, dynamics, and ecological roles, such as habitat for wildlife. My goal was to provide additional information on the ecology of intermittent streams in the Pacific Northwest. I examined and compared hydrologic, water quality, and physical characteristics of 16 intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in the central Cascade Range in western Oregon. I documented amphibian communities and habitat associations in these streams during spring and summer. I used comparisons of current habitat conditions and amphibian communities between stand types to gain insight into potential impacts of timber harvesting on these stream systems. Of the streams surveyed in old-growth and young forest stands, relatively few (23%) were designated as intermittent based on my definition which included presence of a definable channel, evidence of annual scour and deposition, and lack of surface flow along at least 90% of the stream length. Intermittent streams in old-growth stands exhibited the following characteristics: (1) annual flow pattern in which streams started to dry in May and June and were mostly dry by July; (2) lengthy annual flow durations (range 6-11 months); (3) cool and stable daily stream temperatures; (4) primarily coarse substrates, such as cobbles and pebbles; (5) streamside vegetation comprised of predominantly coniferous overstories, and plant species associated with uplands or dry site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site conditions, such as red alder, oxalis, red huckleberry, and vine maple (Steinblums et al. 1984, Bilby 1988); and (6) low to moderate densities of large wood, mostly moderately- and well-decayed. Study streams in young forest appeared to dry about one to two months later than the streams in old growth but had similar annual flow durations. They also were characterized by higher daily stream temperatures, similar diel fluctuations, finer substrates, more deciduous overstory and herbaceous understory cover, and lower densities of moderately-decayed large wood. Differences in habitat conditions between stand types may be attributed to timber harvesting as well as discrepancies in physiographic and geological factors, such as elevationgradient, and soil type. Amphibian communities in spring and summer were comprised primarily of the Cascade torrent salamander (Rhyacotriton cascadae), Dunn's salamander (Plethodon dunni), and Pacific giant salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus). Amphibian communities in streams in young forest stands exhibited different species composition and seasonal patterns in total density from those in old growth. Cascade torrent salamanders and Dunn's salamanders maintained similar densities and biomass between spring and summer by potentially adopting drought avoidance strategies. Species differed in their use of habitat types and associations with habitat features. In general, amphibian species were positively correlated with percent surface flow, water depth, intermediate-sized substrates and negatively associated with overstory canopy cover, elevation, and wood cover. Results of my study suggest that intermittent streams may warrant protection for their potential effects on downstream habitat and water quality and for their role as habitat for aquatic species, such as amphibians. Streamside vegetation should be maintained along intermittent channels to provide shade protection for water temperature regulation and sources of large woody debris and other allochthonous energy input, to help stabilize slopes, and to minimize erosion and sedimentation. At a minimum, intermittent stream channels should receive protection from physical disturbance during timber harvesting operations. However, since intermittent stream systems are highly variable, management should address individual site conditions and vary accordingly. Title: Amphibian communities and physical characteristics of intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in western Oregon Author: Lee, Yu Man Intermittent, headwater streams recently have been recognized as important components of forest ecosystems and have been provided increased protection by the Northwest Forest Plan. However, few studies have examined their distribution, dynamics, and ecological roles, such as habitat for wildlife. My goal was to provide additional information on the ecology of intermittent streams in the Pacific Northwest. I examined and compared hydrologic, water quality, and physical characteristics of 16 intermittent streams in old-growth and young forest stands in the central Cascade Range in western Oregon. I documented amphibian communities and habitat associations in these streams during spring and summer. I used comparisons of current habitat conditions and amphibian communities between stand types to gain insight into potential impacts of timber harvesting on these stream systems. Of the streams surveyed in old-growth and young forest stands, relatively few (23%) were designated as intermittent based on my definition which included presence of a definable channel, evidence of annual scour and deposition, and lack of surface flow along at least 90% of the stream length. Intermittent streams in old-growth stands exhibited the following characteristics: (1) annual flow pattern in which streams started to dry in May and June and were mostly dry by July; (2) lengthy annual flow durations (range 6-11 months); (3) cool and stable daily stream temperatures; (4) primarily coarse substrates, such as cobbles and pebbles; (5) streamside vegetation comprised of predominantly coniferous overstories, and plant species associated with uplands or dry site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site site conditions, such as Oregon-grape and salal, as well as riparian areas or wet site conditions, such as red alder, oxalis, red huckleberry, and vine maple (Steinblums et al. 1984, Bilby 1988); and (6) low to moderate densities of large wood, mostly moderately- and well-decayed. Study streams in young forest appeared to dry about one to two months later than the streams in old growth but had similar annual flow durations. They also were characterized by higher daily stream temperatures, similar diel fluctuations, finer substrates, more deciduous overstory and herbaceous understory cover, and lower densities of moderately-decayed large wood. Differences in habitat conditions between stand types may be attributed to timber harvesting as well as discrepancies in physiographic and geological factors, such as elevationgradient, and soil type. Amphibian communities in spring and summer were comprised primarily of the Cascade torrent salamander (Rhyacotriton cascadae), Dunn's salamander (Plethodon dunni), and Pacific giant salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosus). Amphibian communities in streams in young forest stands exhibited different species composition and seasonal patterns in total density from those in old growth. Cascade torrent salamanders and Dunn's salamanders maintained similar densities and biomass between spring and summer by potentially adopting drought avoidance strategies. Species differed in their use of habitat types and associations with habitat features. In general, amphibian species were positively correlated with percent surface flow, water depth, intermediate-sized substrates and negatively associated with overstory canopy cover, elevation, and wood cover. Results of my study suggest that intermittent streams may warrant protection for their potential effects on downstream habitat and water quality and for their role as habitat for aquatic species, such as amphibians. Streamside vegetation should be maintained along intermittent channels to provide shade protection for water temperature regulation and sources of large woody debris and other allochthonous energy input, to help stabilize slopes, and to minimize erosion and sedimentation. At a minimum, intermittent stream channels should receive protection from physical disturbance during timber harvesting operations. However, since intermittent stream systems are highly variable, management should address individual site conditions and vary accordingly. Close

• 30. [Article] The optimal allocation of watershed conservation funding : a case study of the John Day River Basin, Oregon

  This study determines the optimal allocation of watershed conservation funds in the John Day River Basin, Oregon. Fund managers can use a variety of targeting schemes to allocate their limited resources. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The optimal allocation of watershed conservation funding : a case study of the John Day River Basin, Oregon Author: Skelton, Katharine This study determines the optimal allocation of watershed conservation funds in the John Day River Basin, Oregon. Fund managers can use a variety of targeting schemes to allocate their limited resources. Depending on which targeting criteria is used, they may or may not be achieving the maximum environmental benefits per dollar expended, a policy goal that is increasingly being adopted for conservation programs. Previous studies have provided the theory behind this optimal allocation of funds, but none, to the researcher's knowledge, have attempted a case study to illustrate the optimal allocation of funds as well as the misallocations that could result. Watershed conservation policies are very important, especially here in the Pacific Northwest where salmonid populations are endangered. As stream temperatures are lowered, salmonid recruitment increases. Improvements in riparian vegetation provide stream shade and bank stability. Shade decreases stream temperatures by preventing solar radiation from reaching the stream, while bank stability allows streams to become narrower and deeper, with more vegetative overhang. Narrower streams have less surface area to come in contact with solar radiation and vegetative overhang provides additional shade. A simultaneous equation system was used to estimate stream temperature and fish recruitment models for the thirteen streams studied, classified into three environmental attribute clusters. Fish recruitment models were developed for rainbow trout, Chinook salmon and speckled dace. Marginal values for rainbow trout and Chinook salmon from previous studies were used to calculate the total marginal benefits to society from increasing cold-water salmonid species. The analytical models were the basis for determining the optimal fund allocation, after considering the cumulative, indirect and correlated benefits derived from improving riparian vegetation conditions. Policy managers and previous studies have failed to consider these additional environmental benefits, particularly jointly produced benefits. Two scenarios were determined for the optimal fund allocation, based on the riparian conditions of the surveyed stream reaches. The riparian conditions are reported using a vegetative use index from one (the worst conditions) to four (the best conditions). Under the first scenario, which assumes a full range of riparian conditions, Granite Creek should receive funding priority with $51,756 in marginal social benefits received from improving the streamside vegetative use rating from one to four, for one mile of stream. Deerdorff Creek and Reynolds Creek would be the next two streams to receive funding, respectively, both for a vegetative use improvement from one to two. The second scenario assumes that only vegetative conditions in the surveyed segments exist in the stream. Under these circumstances, only six of the thirteen streams would even be considered for funding, with Granite Creek again receiving priority. Improving the vegetative use rating in Granite Creek from three to four, for one stream mile, will produce $9355 in marginal social benefits. Murderer's Creek and Camp Creek would be the next streams to receive funding for a vegetative use improvement from three to four and one to two, respectively. In addition to determining the optimal fund allocation, discussion is included about the policy implications that would result from ignoring the cumulative, indirect and correlated benefits. For the fund misallocation discussion Granite Creek was assumed to be the stream that should be given funding priority for an improvement from three to four only, with Murderer's Creek and Camp Creek receiving funds second and third, respectively. If an on-site, physical criterion is used as the targeting criteria, such as stream temperatures or the riparian vegetation conditions, then the cumulative benefits will be ignored. Two possible misallocations could result when the cumulative effects are ignored. First, streams with very high temperatures may receive funding, even if improvements in the vegetative use index will not lower temperatures enough so that salmonids can survive. Second, streams that have temperatures below the optimal range for salmonids, but have poor riparian vegetation may be funded. Improving streamside vegetation in those streams would be a misallocation of funds. Targeting based on the highest stream temperature criteria would only consider the direct benefits received from improving streamside vegetation. Under a temperature- based targeting criteria, Alder Creek would be the first stream funded with Mountain and Murderer's Creek following. If we assume only two streams could be funded, then there will be a loss of almost all marginal benefits per stream mile. If the change in the stream temperatures is used as the targeting criteria, and indirect benefits are ignored, then Camp Creek would receive funding priority, with Mountain Creek, Granite Creek and Murderer's Creek following. If it is again assumed that only two streams could be funded, this targeting scheme would result in an approximate loss to society of up to 87 percent in marginal benefits, per stream mile Additionally, all of the indirect benefits need to be taken into consideration in order to optimally allocate funds. If Chinook salmon are ignored, and rainbow trout are the only cold-water species taken into account, then society will forgo around 50 percent of marginal social benefits, per stream mile. This is if we assume two streams are funded, and the South Fork is the second stream to receive funds, rather than Murderer's Creek. Granite Creek would still receive funding priority. Finally, correlated benefits, or warm-water species, need to be considered. In this study ignoring the warm-water species would not effect fund allocation, as a marginal social value for speckled dace was not found. Even if we assume the speckled dace is a proxy for warm-water sport fish, such as bass, and the correlated benefits are taken into consideration, funding priority would still be given to Granite Creek. However, under the same assumptions, if the correlated benefits are ignored in Camp Creek, then society will misallocate funds and lose a small portion of marginal social benefits per stream mile. This study points towards small, high elevation streams being given funding priority. Granite Creek should be the first stream to receive funds in the John Day River basin, when funds are optimally allocated. However, if not all of the environmental benefits are taken into consideration, different streams may be targeted. When a temperature-based targeting scheme is used, Alder Creek would be given funding priority, even though no marginal social benefits would be derived. If the change in stream temperatures is used, Camp Creek will receive funds, with a large loss to society in marginal benefits. If not all of the indirect benefits are considered, the South Fork will be funded over Murderer's Creek, and only half of the possible marginal benefits will be received. Finally, when correlated benefits were ignored, the fund allocation in this study was not affected. However, fund managers still have to consider the tradeoffs involved between warm and cold-water adapted fish species. This is especially true if warm-water sport fish or endangered species are the jointly produced benefits. Failing to include all of the environmental benefits that are produced when conservation programs are initiated will lead policy managers to target the wrong streams or basins, and misallocate funds. In addition, using the wrong criteria to prioritize watersheds will also lead managers to misallocate funds. Funds should be allocated so that the total value of environmental benefits is maximized, and not the total amount of resources saved. Title: The optimal allocation of watershed conservation funding : a case study of the John Day River Basin, Oregon Author: Skelton, Katharine This study determines the optimal allocation of watershed conservation funds in the John Day River Basin, Oregon. Fund managers can use a variety of targeting schemes to allocate their limited resources. Depending on which targeting criteria is used, they may or may not be achieving the maximum environmental benefits per dollar expended, a policy goal that is increasingly being adopted for conservation programs. Previous studies have provided the theory behind this optimal allocation of funds, but none, to the researcher's knowledge, have attempted a case study to illustrate the optimal allocation of funds as well as the misallocations that could result. Watershed conservation policies are very important, especially here in the Pacific Northwest where salmonid populations are endangered. As stream temperatures are lowered, salmonid recruitment increases. Improvements in riparian vegetation provide stream shade and bank stability. Shade decreases stream temperatures by preventing solar radiation from reaching the stream, while bank stability allows streams to become narrower and deeper, with more vegetative overhang. Narrower streams have less surface area to come in contact with solar radiation and vegetative overhang provides additional shade. A simultaneous equation system was used to estimate stream temperature and fish recruitment models for the thirteen streams studied, classified into three environmental attribute clusters. Fish recruitment models were developed for rainbow trout, Chinook salmon and speckled dace. Marginal values for rainbow trout and Chinook salmon from previous studies were used to calculate the total marginal benefits to society from increasing cold-water salmonid species. The analytical models were the basis for determining the optimal fund allocation, after considering the cumulative, indirect and correlated benefits derived from improving riparian vegetation conditions. Policy managers and previous studies have failed to consider these additional environmental benefits, particularly jointly produced benefits. Two scenarios were determined for the optimal fund allocation, based on the riparian conditions of the surveyed stream reaches. The riparian conditions are reported using a vegetative use index from one (the worst conditions) to four (the best conditions). Under the first scenario, which assumes a full range of riparian conditions, Granite Creek should receive funding priority with $51,756 in marginal social benefits received from improving the streamside vegetative use rating from one to four, for one mile of stream. Deerdorff Creek and Reynolds Creek would be the next two streams to receive funding, respectively, both for a vegetative use improvement from one to two. The second scenario assumes that only vegetative conditions in the surveyed segments exist in the stream. Under these circumstances, only six of the thirteen streams would even be considered for funding, with Granite Creek again receiving priority. Improving the vegetative use rating in Granite Creek from three to four, for one stream mile, will produce $9355 in marginal social benefits. Murderer's Creek and Camp Creek would be the next streams to receive funding for a vegetative use improvement from three to four and one to two, respectively. In addition to determining the optimal fund allocation, discussion is included about the policy implications that would result from ignoring the cumulative, indirect and correlated benefits. For the fund misallocation discussion Granite Creek was assumed to be the stream that should be given funding priority for an improvement from three to four only, with Murderer's Creek and Camp Creek receiving funds second and third, respectively. If an on-site, physical criterion is used as the targeting criteria, such as stream temperatures or the riparian vegetation conditions, then the cumulative benefits will be ignored. Two possible misallocations could result when the cumulative effects are ignored. First, streams with very high temperatures may receive funding, even if improvements in the vegetative use index will not lower temperatures enough so that salmonids can survive. Second, streams that have temperatures below the optimal range for salmonids, but have poor riparian vegetation may be funded. Improving streamside vegetation in those streams would be a misallocation of funds. Targeting based on the highest stream temperature criteria would only consider the direct benefits received from improving streamside vegetation. Under a temperature- based targeting criteria, Alder Creek would be the first stream funded with Mountain and Murderer's Creek following. If we assume only two streams could be funded, then there will be a loss of almost all marginal benefits per stream mile. If the change in the stream temperatures is used as the targeting criteria, and indirect benefits are ignored, then Camp Creek would receive funding priority, with Mountain Creek, Granite Creek and Murderer's Creek following. If it is again assumed that only two streams could be funded, this targeting scheme would result in an approximate loss to society of up to 87 percent in marginal benefits, per stream mile Additionally, all of the indirect benefits need to be taken into consideration in order to optimally allocate funds. If Chinook salmon are ignored, and rainbow trout are the only cold-water species taken into account, then society will forgo around 50 percent of marginal social benefits, per stream mile. This is if we assume two streams are funded, and the South Fork is the second stream to receive funds, rather than Murderer's Creek. Granite Creek would still receive funding priority. Finally, correlated benefits, or warm-water species, need to be considered. In this study ignoring the warm-water species would not effect fund allocation, as a marginal social value for speckled dace was not found. Even if we assume the speckled dace is a proxy for warm-water sport fish, such as bass, and the correlated benefits are taken into consideration, funding priority would still be given to Granite Creek. However, under the same assumptions, if the correlated benefits are ignored in Camp Creek, then society will misallocate funds and lose a small portion of marginal social benefits per stream mile. This study points towards small, high elevation streams being given funding priority. Granite Creek should be the first stream to receive funds in the John Day River basin, when funds are optimally allocated. However, if not all of the environmental benefits are taken into consideration, different streams may be targeted. When a temperature-based targeting scheme is used, Alder Creek would be given funding priority, even though no marginal social benefits would be derived. If the change in stream temperatures is used, Camp Creek will receive funds, with a large loss to society in marginal benefits. If not all of the indirect benefits are considered, the South Fork will be funded over Murderer's Creek, and only half of the possible marginal benefits will be received. Finally, when correlated benefits were ignored, the fund allocation in this study was not affected. However, fund managers still have to consider the tradeoffs involved between warm and cold-water adapted fish species. This is especially true if warm-water sport fish or endangered species are the jointly produced benefits. Failing to include all of the environmental benefits that are produced when conservation programs are initiated will lead policy managers to target the wrong streams or basins, and misallocate funds. In addition, using the wrong criteria to prioritize watersheds will also lead managers to misallocate funds. Funds should be allocated so that the total value of environmental benefits is maximized, and not the total amount of resources saved. Close

• 31. [Article] Trout studies and a stream survey of Crater Lake National Park, Oregon

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Trout studies and a stream survey of Crater Lake National Park, Oregon Author: Wallis, O. L. Title: Trout studies and a stream survey of Crater Lake National Park, Oregon Author: Wallis, O. L. Close

• 32. [Article] A survey of the waters of the South Umpqua Ranger District : Umpqua National Forest

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A survey of the waters of the South Umpqua Ranger District : Umpqua National Forest Author: Roth, A. R. Title: A survey of the waters of the South Umpqua Ranger District : Umpqua National Forest Author: Roth, A. R. Close

• 33. [Article] A suggested outline and procedure for making a sanitary stream survey with particular reference to Mary's River of Oregon

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A suggested outline and procedure for making a sanitary stream survey with particular reference to Mary's River of Oregon Author: Morgan, William D. Title: A suggested outline and procedure for making a sanitary stream survey with particular reference to Mary's River of Oregon Author: Morgan, William D. Close

• 34. [Article] Ocean data assimilation using optimal interpolation with a quasi-geostrophic model

  Copyrighted by American Geophysical Union.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Ocean data assimilation using optimal interpolation with a quasi-geostrophic model Author: Miller, Robert N., Rienecker, Michele M. Copyrighted by American Geophysical Union. Title: Ocean data assimilation using optimal interpolation with a quasi-geostrophic model Author: Miller, Robert N., Rienecker, Michele M. Copyrighted by American Geophysical Union. Close

• 35. [Article] Response of western Oregon stream temperatures to contemporary forest management

  This is the author's peer-reviewed final draft as accepted by the publisher. The final version is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at the Forest Ecology and Management website: http://www.elsev...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Response of western Oregon stream temperatures to contemporary forest management Author: Madsen, Lisa J., Dent, Liz, Groom, Jeremiah D., Fleuret, Jennifer This is the author's peer-reviewed final draft as accepted by the publisher. The final version is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at the Forest Ecology and Management website: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503310/description Title: Response of western Oregon stream temperatures to contemporary forest management Author: Madsen, Lisa J., Dent, Liz, Groom, Jeremiah D., Fleuret, Jennifer This is the author's peer-reviewed final draft as accepted by the publisher. The final version is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at the Forest Ecology and Management website: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503310/description Close

• 36. [Article] Effects of beaver on streams, streamside habitat, and coho salmon fry populations in two coastal Oregon streams

  The effects of beaver (Castor canadensis) on stream morphology, riparian zones, and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) fry in Cape and Cummins Creeks, Oregon, were examined using stream surveys, vegetation ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of beaver on streams, streamside habitat, and coho salmon fry populations in two coastal Oregon streams Author: Bruner, Karen L. The effects of beaver (Castor canadensis) on stream morphology, riparian zones, and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) fry in Cape and Cummins Creeks, Oregon, were examined using stream surveys, vegetation transects, and coho salmon fry counts in 1987. The basin around Cape Creek has been extensively logged since the late 1940's. Cummins Creek is surrounded by primarily old-growth forest. Cape Creek had higher densities of coho fry (P < 0.0004) than Cummins Creek. Coho fry were two to ten times more numerous in pools (P < 0.001) than in glides or riffles, respectively. The density of beaver dams in the autumn on the two streams was 1.2 and 1.1 dams/km on Cummins and Cape Creeks, respectively. By building dams, beaver added 7% and 14% more pool habitat in Cummins and Cape Creeks, respectively. This extra pool habitat was used by coho fry. Beaver ponds were larger than non-beaver ponds and thus contained more coho fry per pond. Densities of coho fry were, however, the same between beaver and non-beaver ponds. Beaver preferred to cut salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), alder (Alnus rubra), and vine maple (Acer circinatum) stems 2-9 cm in diameter for food and dam construction. Mean distance from the stream for foraging was 17.5 m (SDS=10.1). Beaver foraged up to 90 in from the stream bank along tributaries. The percentage of available stems (for salmonberry, alder, and vine maple) cut for the small size class (0.5-3 cm) decreased after 5 in from the stream, after 20 in for the medium size class (3-9 cm) and remained stable out to 30 m for the large size class ( > 9 cm). Most cutting tended to be upstream of the dam site. The mean area affected by cutting around the dam site was 1944 sq. in (SD=921 sq. m). Proximity to a logjam, tributary, or debris slide; midstory conifer cover; overstory conifer cover; and vine maple cover were factors that separated used beaver sites from unused random sites using stepwise discriminant analysis. Proximity to a logjam, tributary, or debris slide was positively associated with the discriminant function and accounted for 50% of the variability in the discriminant function. Vine maple cover was also positively associated with dam location in the discriminant function, while midstory and overstory conifer covers were negatively associated with the dam location. Based on the results of this study, I believe beaver provide extra coho salmon rearing habitat, especially in late summer during reduced water flows. In heavily managed streams, beaver may be able to provide structure and stability in the stream at a much lower cost than stream rehabilitation projects. Title: Effects of beaver on streams, streamside habitat, and coho salmon fry populations in two coastal Oregon streams Author: Bruner, Karen L. The effects of beaver (Castor canadensis) on stream morphology, riparian zones, and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) fry in Cape and Cummins Creeks, Oregon, were examined using stream surveys, vegetation transects, and coho salmon fry counts in 1987. The basin around Cape Creek has been extensively logged since the late 1940's. Cummins Creek is surrounded by primarily old-growth forest. Cape Creek had higher densities of coho fry (P < 0.0004) than Cummins Creek. Coho fry were two to ten times more numerous in pools (P < 0.001) than in glides or riffles, respectively. The density of beaver dams in the autumn on the two streams was 1.2 and 1.1 dams/km on Cummins and Cape Creeks, respectively. By building dams, beaver added 7% and 14% more pool habitat in Cummins and Cape Creeks, respectively. This extra pool habitat was used by coho fry. Beaver ponds were larger than non-beaver ponds and thus contained more coho fry per pond. Densities of coho fry were, however, the same between beaver and non-beaver ponds. Beaver preferred to cut salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), alder (Alnus rubra), and vine maple (Acer circinatum) stems 2-9 cm in diameter for food and dam construction. Mean distance from the stream for foraging was 17.5 m (SDS=10.1). Beaver foraged up to 90 in from the stream bank along tributaries. The percentage of available stems (for salmonberry, alder, and vine maple) cut for the small size class (0.5-3 cm) decreased after 5 in from the stream, after 20 in for the medium size class (3-9 cm) and remained stable out to 30 m for the large size class ( > 9 cm). Most cutting tended to be upstream of the dam site. The mean area affected by cutting around the dam site was 1944 sq. in (SD=921 sq. m). Proximity to a logjam, tributary, or debris slide; midstory conifer cover; overstory conifer cover; and vine maple cover were factors that separated used beaver sites from unused random sites using stepwise discriminant analysis. Proximity to a logjam, tributary, or debris slide was positively associated with the discriminant function and accounted for 50% of the variability in the discriminant function. Vine maple cover was also positively associated with dam location in the discriminant function, while midstory and overstory conifer covers were negatively associated with the dam location. Based on the results of this study, I believe beaver provide extra coho salmon rearing habitat, especially in late summer during reduced water flows. In heavily managed streams, beaver may be able to provide structure and stability in the stream at a much lower cost than stream rehabilitation projects. Close

• 37. [Article] A physical inventory of streams in the Upper Willamette Watershed above the confluence of middle and coast forks of Willamette River : 1964

  Dimensions of paper map: 37" x 37.5".

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A physical inventory of streams in the Upper Willamette Watershed above the confluence of middle and coast forks of Willamette River : 1964 Author: Oregon. State Game Commission. Basin Investigations Section, Thompson, Kenneth E. Dimensions of paper map: 37" x 37.5". Title: A physical inventory of streams in the Upper Willamette Watershed above the confluence of middle and coast forks of Willamette River : 1964 Author: Oregon. State Game Commission. Basin Investigations Section, Thompson, Kenneth E. Dimensions of paper map: 37" x 37.5". Close

• 38. [Article] FEMA floodplain geographic data for select streams in Wallowa County, Oregon

  This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: FEMA floodplain geographic data for select streams in Wallowa County, Oregon Author: Smith, Dawn, Thomas, Samuel, Oregon State University This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary data and information sources to verify the purpose and limitations. The data is provided as-is, without warranty. Title: FEMA floodplain geographic data for select streams in Wallowa County, Oregon Author: Smith, Dawn, Thomas, Samuel, Oregon State University This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary data and information sources to verify the purpose and limitations. The data is provided as-is, without warranty. Close

• 39. [Article] Geospatial depiction of rivers and streams located within Wallowa County, Oregon

  This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Geospatial depiction of rivers and streams located within Wallowa County, Oregon Author: Northwest Hydrography Framework, Thomas, Samuel, Oregon State University This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary data and information sources to verify the purpose and limitations. The data is provided as-is, without warranty. Title: Geospatial depiction of rivers and streams located within Wallowa County, Oregon Author: Northwest Hydrography Framework, Thomas, Samuel, Oregon State University This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary data and information sources to verify the purpose and limitations. The data is provided as-is, without warranty. Close

• 40. [Article] Stream channel response to peak flows in a fifth-order mountain watershed

  This investigation explored how the magnitude, style, and frequency of channel adjustments vary spatially and over time within a 5th-order mountain watershed. Historical data sets, including repeated cross ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Stream channel response to peak flows in a fifth-order mountain watershed Author: Faustini, John M. This investigation explored how the magnitude, style, and frequency of channel adjustments vary spatially and over time within a 5th-order mountain watershed. Historical data sets, including repeated cross section surveys spanning up to 20 years at five sites on 2nd to 5th-order channels and streamflow records spanning up to 50 years, were supplemented by mapping and field reconnaissance activities. The study had two major parts. The first focused on two adjacent, contrasting stream reaches to examine the influence of large woody debris (LWD) on channel morphology and channel response to peak flows in a 3rd-order stream. The upper reach flows through old-growth forest with abundant LWD, while the lower reach was clearcut in 1964-65 and contains little LWD. A 25-year flood in 1996 caused deposition upstream of LWD steps in the old-growth reach alternating with scour between steps, resulting in no net gain or loss of sediment within the reach, while extensive scour and coarsening of the bed occurred in the clearcut reach. These observations suggest that reach-scale channel response was strongly influenced by LWD abundance, but that response at finer scales depends critically on the details of the location and arrangement of LWD. The second part of the study examined the dynamics of channel response to peak flows over two decades, and to two particular large floods during that period, in different portions of the channel network. The cross section data show that the streambed at the study sites is very stable, particularly in lower-order channels. Peak flows that produced detectable change at 90% of cross sections-flows able to cause significant channel adjustments-recur approximately three times as frequently (every 6-7 years) in 4`" to 5`h-order Lookout Creek as in 3rd-order Mack Creek (20-25 years). Flows that produced detectable change at 25% of cross sections are estimated to occur on average every 1.7 to 3.0 years at the study sites. It is estimated that if peak flows of all sizes were increased by only 10% due to anthropogenic impacts (e.g., logging) or climate change, the frequency of peak flows of a magnitude observed to produce significant channel adjustments would increase by approximately 30% in Lookout Creek and 60% in Mack Creek. Title: Stream channel response to peak flows in a fifth-order mountain watershed Author: Faustini, John M. This investigation explored how the magnitude, style, and frequency of channel adjustments vary spatially and over time within a 5th-order mountain watershed. Historical data sets, including repeated cross section surveys spanning up to 20 years at five sites on 2nd to 5th-order channels and streamflow records spanning up to 50 years, were supplemented by mapping and field reconnaissance activities. The study had two major parts. The first focused on two adjacent, contrasting stream reaches to examine the influence of large woody debris (LWD) on channel morphology and channel response to peak flows in a 3rd-order stream. The upper reach flows through old-growth forest with abundant LWD, while the lower reach was clearcut in 1964-65 and contains little LWD. A 25-year flood in 1996 caused deposition upstream of LWD steps in the old-growth reach alternating with scour between steps, resulting in no net gain or loss of sediment within the reach, while extensive scour and coarsening of the bed occurred in the clearcut reach. These observations suggest that reach-scale channel response was strongly influenced by LWD abundance, but that response at finer scales depends critically on the details of the location and arrangement of LWD. The second part of the study examined the dynamics of channel response to peak flows over two decades, and to two particular large floods during that period, in different portions of the channel network. The cross section data show that the streambed at the study sites is very stable, particularly in lower-order channels. Peak flows that produced detectable change at 90% of cross sections-flows able to cause significant channel adjustments-recur approximately three times as frequently (every 6-7 years) in 4`" to 5`h-order Lookout Creek as in 3rd-order Mack Creek (20-25 years). Flows that produced detectable change at 25% of cross sections are estimated to occur on average every 1.7 to 3.0 years at the study sites. It is estimated that if peak flows of all sizes were increased by only 10% due to anthropogenic impacts (e.g., logging) or climate change, the frequency of peak flows of a magnitude observed to produce significant channel adjustments would increase by approximately 30% in Lookout Creek and 60% in Mack Creek. Close