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• 1731. [Article] In vitro and in vivo evaluations of chemically treated ryegrass straw

  Seven in vitro trials were conducted to compare the effects of soaking annual ryegrass straw in solutions of sodium hydroxide (Na₄OH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH), or sodium formate ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: In vitro and in vivo evaluations of chemically treated ryegrass straw Author: Anderson, Daniel Craig Seven in vitro trials were conducted to compare the effects of soaking annual ryegrass straw in solutions of sodium hydroxide (Na₄OH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH), or sodium formate (NaCHO₂) at varying levels. Dry matter digestibility (DDM) was the criterion used to measure treatment response. A 3 x 3 Latin square designed lamb digestion trial, replicated three times, followed these screening trials. Its purpose was to study the effects that NaOH-treated straw had on animal health, feed and water intake, urine excretion and pH, apparent digestibility, nitrogen and energy utilization and sodium and potassium balances. Three feeding trials were also carried out to measure the performance of heifer calves fed untreated, but supplemented ryegrass straw based rations. A 3 x 3 Latin square designed sheep digestion trail supplied additional data on apparent digestibility and nitrogen and energy utilization for three of these rations. Spraying a two percent NaOH solution on straw did not significantly improve DDM while soaking at the same level produced a significant (P<.01) increase. There was no significant difference among particle sizes or treatment times for straw soaked in two percent NaOH. Two, four, six or eight percent levels of either NaOH₂ or KOH solutions significantly (P<.01) enhanced DDM. No significant improvement was noted above the eight percent level. NaCHO₂ significantly (P<.01) increased DDM above native straw, but higher treatment levels were necessary to achieve an equal magnitude of improvement than for NaOH. NH₄OH treatment produced variable results which could not be consistently repeated, but the crude protein (CP) content of treated straw was consistently increased. This was in contrast to NaOH soaking, which significantly (P< .01) degraded CP, acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) with each increase in level. All treatment combinations also produced significant (P< .01) cell wall constituents (CWC) declines below native straw. Straw treated on a solution basis was significantly (P< .01) higher in DDM than that treated on a dry matter basis. However, treated straw DDM was significantly (P< .01) greater in either case than that recorded for untreated straw. Draining off of the NaOH effluent prior to drying significantly (P< .01) reduced DDM. There was a trend for water soaking to depress DDM, but significance was not reached until samples were drained prior to drying. No detrimental effects were noted when lambs consumed unwashed NaOH-soaked straw. Daily dry matter (DM) intake per kg of body weight was significantly (P< .05) reduced for treated straw when compared to untreated. Increased water consumption and urninary excretion (P< .01) were evident when straw soaked in a one percent NaOH solution (ration three) was fed. Urine pH for sheep consuming straw treated on an eight percent dry matter basis (ration two) was significantly (P< .05) reduced below that recorded for urine from sheep fed the other two rations. However, none of the pH's were outside the normal range for ruminants. Treatment two significantly (P< .05) reduced apparent digestibilities for straw, DM, organic matter (OM), energy, CP, ash and cell contents below that for the other two treatments. Treatment three significantly (P< . 05) increased straw, ash, ADF, hemicellulose and CWC apparent digestibilities when compared to untreated straw (ration one). The digestibility of CP was significantly (P< .01) greater in the untreated straw ration. All sheep were in a positive nitrogen balance for the duration of the trials. There was no significant difference in nitrogen balance for lambs fed rations one and three. However, nitrogen retention for lambs receiving ration two was significantly (P< .05) depressed below the quantity retained by lambs on the other two rations. Ration three was clearly superior in terms of either percent nitrogen intake or percent of digested nitrogen. Untreated straw supported a statistically (P<.05) higher level of digestible energy per g DM intake than did either of the treated straw rations. Utilization of the gross energy of ration two was significantly (P< .05) less than that from the other two rations. Ration three supported lower average daily gains than the other two rations (P< .01). No definite conclusions can be drawn from the sodium and potassium balances. Evidently, sodium residue levels were not large enough to cause any problems as there were no observable side effects and potassium excretion was not increased. A series of feeding trials demonstrated that ryegrass straw can successfully comprise from 45 to 86% of a ration for growing heifers. Feeding value of the straw was improved to support gains from 0.38 kg to 0.80 kg per day by the use of a variety of feed ingredients that corrected the straw's deficiencies. Performance data suggested that the maximum level of urea that can be used in such high roughage rations is about 1.5%. Above this level gains and feed efficiency were depressed. Digestion trial data showed that DDM for untreated, supplemented straw was from 47.5 to 50. 4%. From 61.5 to 67.5% of the CP and 39.9 to 43.2% of the CWC was digestible. The CP was least digestible in the ration containing alfalfa. Nitrogen retention ranged from 6.1 to 7.1 g per day. The superior ration in this respect was ration 5, which contained whey. Title: In vitro and in vivo evaluations of chemically treated ryegrass straw Author: Anderson, Daniel Craig Seven in vitro trials were conducted to compare the effects of soaking annual ryegrass straw in solutions of sodium hydroxide (Na₄OH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH), or sodium formate (NaCHO₂) at varying levels. Dry matter digestibility (DDM) was the criterion used to measure treatment response. A 3 x 3 Latin square designed lamb digestion trial, replicated three times, followed these screening trials. Its purpose was to study the effects that NaOH-treated straw had on animal health, feed and water intake, urine excretion and pH, apparent digestibility, nitrogen and energy utilization and sodium and potassium balances. Three feeding trials were also carried out to measure the performance of heifer calves fed untreated, but supplemented ryegrass straw based rations. A 3 x 3 Latin square designed sheep digestion trail supplied additional data on apparent digestibility and nitrogen and energy utilization for three of these rations. Spraying a two percent NaOH solution on straw did not significantly improve DDM while soaking at the same level produced a significant (P<.01) increase. There was no significant difference among particle sizes or treatment times for straw soaked in two percent NaOH. Two, four, six or eight percent levels of either NaOH₂ or KOH solutions significantly (P<.01) enhanced DDM. No significant improvement was noted above the eight percent level. NaCHO₂ significantly (P<.01) increased DDM above native straw, but higher treatment levels were necessary to achieve an equal magnitude of improvement than for NaOH. NH₄OH treatment produced variable results which could not be consistently repeated, but the crude protein (CP) content of treated straw was consistently increased. This was in contrast to NaOH soaking, which significantly (P< .01) degraded CP, acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) with each increase in level. All treatment combinations also produced significant (P< .01) cell wall constituents (CWC) declines below native straw. Straw treated on a solution basis was significantly (P< .01) higher in DDM than that treated on a dry matter basis. However, treated straw DDM was significantly (P< .01) greater in either case than that recorded for untreated straw. Draining off of the NaOH effluent prior to drying significantly (P< .01) reduced DDM. There was a trend for water soaking to depress DDM, but significance was not reached until samples were drained prior to drying. No detrimental effects were noted when lambs consumed unwashed NaOH-soaked straw. Daily dry matter (DM) intake per kg of body weight was significantly (P< .05) reduced for treated straw when compared to untreated. Increased water consumption and urninary excretion (P< .01) were evident when straw soaked in a one percent NaOH solution (ration three) was fed. Urine pH for sheep consuming straw treated on an eight percent dry matter basis (ration two) was significantly (P< .05) reduced below that recorded for urine from sheep fed the other two rations. However, none of the pH's were outside the normal range for ruminants. Treatment two significantly (P< .05) reduced apparent digestibilities for straw, DM, organic matter (OM), energy, CP, ash and cell contents below that for the other two treatments. Treatment three significantly (P< . 05) increased straw, ash, ADF, hemicellulose and CWC apparent digestibilities when compared to untreated straw (ration one). The digestibility of CP was significantly (P< .01) greater in the untreated straw ration. All sheep were in a positive nitrogen balance for the duration of the trials. There was no significant difference in nitrogen balance for lambs fed rations one and three. However, nitrogen retention for lambs receiving ration two was significantly (P< .05) depressed below the quantity retained by lambs on the other two rations. Ration three was clearly superior in terms of either percent nitrogen intake or percent of digested nitrogen. Untreated straw supported a statistically (P<.05) higher level of digestible energy per g DM intake than did either of the treated straw rations. Utilization of the gross energy of ration two was significantly (P< .05) less than that from the other two rations. Ration three supported lower average daily gains than the other two rations (P< .01). No definite conclusions can be drawn from the sodium and potassium balances. Evidently, sodium residue levels were not large enough to cause any problems as there were no observable side effects and potassium excretion was not increased. A series of feeding trials demonstrated that ryegrass straw can successfully comprise from 45 to 86% of a ration for growing heifers. Feeding value of the straw was improved to support gains from 0.38 kg to 0.80 kg per day by the use of a variety of feed ingredients that corrected the straw's deficiencies. Performance data suggested that the maximum level of urea that can be used in such high roughage rations is about 1.5%. Above this level gains and feed efficiency were depressed. Digestion trial data showed that DDM for untreated, supplemented straw was from 47.5 to 50. 4%. From 61.5 to 67.5% of the CP and 39.9 to 43.2% of the CWC was digestible. The CP was least digestible in the ration containing alfalfa. Nitrogen retention ranged from 6.1 to 7.1 g per day. The superior ration in this respect was ration 5, which contained whey. Close

• 1732. [Article] Young adults' beliefs about and use of herbal supplements in relation to their dietary attitudes and behaviors

  Today in the United States, herbal supplements are growing increasingly popular, however, little is known about the safety and efficacy of these products. This study contributes to the growing body of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Young adults' beliefs about and use of herbal supplements in relation to their dietary attitudes and behaviors Author: Koorndyk, Tamberly Today in the United States, herbal supplements are growing increasingly popular, however, little is known about the safety and efficacy of these products. This study contributes to the growing body of information about the prevalence of herbal supplement use among young adults (18 to 24 years) and the beliefs young adults hold about herbal supplements in relation to their dietary attitudes and behaviors. A self-administered, four-part questionnaire was mailed to a geographically representative sample of 298 young adults (18 to 24 years) residing in Oregon; 205 questionnaires were usable (69% response rate). There was an equal ratio of male and female respondents, half students and half non-students, the majority being Caucasian (93%), with a mean age of 21.5 years. Nearly 60% of the sample reported using herbal supplements (n=122). Thirty-seven percent were sometime users (less than weekly) and 22% were regular users (at least weekly). More female respondents reported using herbal supplements (69%) than did male respondents (49%). Respondents who were White or Asian/Pacific Islander were the only ethnic groups that reported using herbal supplements regularly. Users were more educated than non-users, however use was very similar among students and non-students. Herbal supplement use also was very similar between respondents having different residencies. Familiarity with different herbs was positively related to level of herbal supplement use. Regular users were familiar with the greatest number of herbs, followed by sometime users. Herbal supplement users tended to have more healthful lifestyle characteristics than non-users. Frequency of fast food patronage was negatively related to level of herbal supplement use. The median number of times a fast food restaurant was patronized was lower among regular users of herbal supplements than among those who did not use supplements or used them less often. The median number of times breakfast was eaten also seemed to be slightly higher among regular users than other groups. Other healthful lifestyle characteristics, such as BMI and drinking in moderation, did not tend to be more healthful among herbal supplement users. The results were mixed on smoking behavior. Regular users of herbal supplements were no more or less likely than non-users to smoke, but non-users were less likely than sometime users to smoke. Regular users of herbal supplements tended to think herbal supplements are useful for certain health parameters more often than sometime users and non-users. Most regular users of herbal supplements agreed herbs are useful for maintaining good health (89%) and preventing/treating common illnesses like colds (85%). Almost two-thirds also thought herbs are useful for preventing serious chronic illnesses (61%) and insuring a well-balanced diet (65%). Attitudes toward the effectiveness, convenience, and expense of taking herbal supplements in comparison to eating a balanced diet as ways of staying healthy were related to herbal supplement use. Herbal supplement users did not appear to have positive attitudes towards herbs when comparing herbs to a well-balanced diet. Only 11% of users thought that herbs are more effective than diet as ways to stay healthy, and users were more likely than non-users to think herbs are more expensive ways to stay healthy. However, both levels of users were more likely to think herbal supplements are more convenient than diet. Attitudes about the effectiveness, safety, expense, naturalness, potency, and personal control of taking herbal supplements in comparison to prescription medications was related to level of herbal supplement use. In general the trend was for users to be more likely to have positive attitudes toward herbs and less likely to give a "don't know" answer. Eating the recommended number of food guide pyramid servings of fruits and vegetables as well as eating a greater number of nutrient rich vegetables was not related to herbal supplement use. However, a somewhat higher percentage of herbal supplement users tended to meet the fruit and vegetable recommendations than nonusers of herbal supplements. Stage of change in relation to vegetable intake was related to herbal supplement use. As respondents' herbal supplement use increased, so did the likelihood of classifying themselves into one of the action stages of change for vegetable consumption. Stage of change for fruit consumption was not related to herbal supplement use. Choice to stop using herbs if they were pronounced unsafe by a governmental agency was not related to level of herbal supplement use. However, 17% of sometime users and 16% of regular users reported that they would continue to use herbs even after they were pronounced unsafe by a governmental agency. The results of this study clearly show that there is a high prevalence of herbal supplement use among young adults in Oregon, and those who are using herbal supplements seem to have a strong belief in the herbs they are taking. With the limited knowledge on herbs' safety and efficacy, young adults need to be educated about the herbs they are using. Hopefully, the information from this study can help health professionals identify which young adults might be using herbal supplements in order to educate them on making smart choices about herbs, and smart choices about their overall health. To inform young adults about the herbs they are using, additional research on herbal supplements' potential benefits and harmful side effects is needed. Title: Young adults' beliefs about and use of herbal supplements in relation to their dietary attitudes and behaviors Author: Koorndyk, Tamberly Today in the United States, herbal supplements are growing increasingly popular, however, little is known about the safety and efficacy of these products. This study contributes to the growing body of information about the prevalence of herbal supplement use among young adults (18 to 24 years) and the beliefs young adults hold about herbal supplements in relation to their dietary attitudes and behaviors. A self-administered, four-part questionnaire was mailed to a geographically representative sample of 298 young adults (18 to 24 years) residing in Oregon; 205 questionnaires were usable (69% response rate). There was an equal ratio of male and female respondents, half students and half non-students, the majority being Caucasian (93%), with a mean age of 21.5 years. Nearly 60% of the sample reported using herbal supplements (n=122). Thirty-seven percent were sometime users (less than weekly) and 22% were regular users (at least weekly). More female respondents reported using herbal supplements (69%) than did male respondents (49%). Respondents who were White or Asian/Pacific Islander were the only ethnic groups that reported using herbal supplements regularly. Users were more educated than non-users, however use was very similar among students and non-students. Herbal supplement use also was very similar between respondents having different residencies. Familiarity with different herbs was positively related to level of herbal supplement use. Regular users were familiar with the greatest number of herbs, followed by sometime users. Herbal supplement users tended to have more healthful lifestyle characteristics than non-users. Frequency of fast food patronage was negatively related to level of herbal supplement use. The median number of times a fast food restaurant was patronized was lower among regular users of herbal supplements than among those who did not use supplements or used them less often. The median number of times breakfast was eaten also seemed to be slightly higher among regular users than other groups. Other healthful lifestyle characteristics, such as BMI and drinking in moderation, did not tend to be more healthful among herbal supplement users. The results were mixed on smoking behavior. Regular users of herbal supplements were no more or less likely than non-users to smoke, but non-users were less likely than sometime users to smoke. Regular users of herbal supplements tended to think herbal supplements are useful for certain health parameters more often than sometime users and non-users. Most regular users of herbal supplements agreed herbs are useful for maintaining good health (89%) and preventing/treating common illnesses like colds (85%). Almost two-thirds also thought herbs are useful for preventing serious chronic illnesses (61%) and insuring a well-balanced diet (65%). Attitudes toward the effectiveness, convenience, and expense of taking herbal supplements in comparison to eating a balanced diet as ways of staying healthy were related to herbal supplement use. Herbal supplement users did not appear to have positive attitudes towards herbs when comparing herbs to a well-balanced diet. Only 11% of users thought that herbs are more effective than diet as ways to stay healthy, and users were more likely than non-users to think herbs are more expensive ways to stay healthy. However, both levels of users were more likely to think herbal supplements are more convenient than diet. Attitudes about the effectiveness, safety, expense, naturalness, potency, and personal control of taking herbal supplements in comparison to prescription medications was related to level of herbal supplement use. In general the trend was for users to be more likely to have positive attitudes toward herbs and less likely to give a "don't know" answer. Eating the recommended number of food guide pyramid servings of fruits and vegetables as well as eating a greater number of nutrient rich vegetables was not related to herbal supplement use. However, a somewhat higher percentage of herbal supplement users tended to meet the fruit and vegetable recommendations than nonusers of herbal supplements. Stage of change in relation to vegetable intake was related to herbal supplement use. As respondents' herbal supplement use increased, so did the likelihood of classifying themselves into one of the action stages of change for vegetable consumption. Stage of change for fruit consumption was not related to herbal supplement use. Choice to stop using herbs if they were pronounced unsafe by a governmental agency was not related to level of herbal supplement use. However, 17% of sometime users and 16% of regular users reported that they would continue to use herbs even after they were pronounced unsafe by a governmental agency. The results of this study clearly show that there is a high prevalence of herbal supplement use among young adults in Oregon, and those who are using herbal supplements seem to have a strong belief in the herbs they are taking. With the limited knowledge on herbs' safety and efficacy, young adults need to be educated about the herbs they are using. Hopefully, the information from this study can help health professionals identify which young adults might be using herbal supplements in order to educate them on making smart choices about herbs, and smart choices about their overall health. To inform young adults about the herbs they are using, additional research on herbal supplements' potential benefits and harmful side effects is needed. Close

• 1733. [Article] Constraints to urban park visitation: Conceptual connections and spatial attributes for traditionally well-served and underserved residents

  Connecting with nature is associated with social, physical, and emotional benefits such as stress relief, improved physical health, and lower crime. Parks and other natural areas offer spaces in which ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Constraints to urban park visitation: Conceptual connections and spatial attributes for traditionally well-served and underserved residents Author: Rushing, Jaclyn R. Connecting with nature is associated with social, physical, and emotional benefits such as stress relief, improved physical health, and lower crime. Parks and other natural areas offer spaces in which to connect with nature and reap these and other benefits (e.g., family bonding, social events, learning). Despite increasing populations of racial and ethnic minorities in the United States of America, these groups are underrepresented in many outdoor recreation activities and in visitation to many parks and other protected areas. This underrepresentation and other attributes of park visitation can be partially explained through the theoretical lens of constraints to recreation. Constraints are factors that limit participation, affect leisure preferences, and / or reduce enjoyment and satisfaction with recreation experiences. Examples of constraints include inability to afford park fees, fear of crime in parks, and lack of available leisure time. This thesis contains two standalone articles focusing on resident constraints to visiting urban parks and other natural areas in the Portland, Oregon (USA) metropolitan region. These articles examine: (a) the most common constraints to visiting these parks and natural areas, and whether these constraints vary between traditionally well-served (i.e., white majority residents) and underserved (i.e., ethnic and racial minorities) populations; (b) relationships among constraints, park visitation, and place attachment for both of these groups of residents; and (c) how constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities) are distributed spatially across this metropolitan region. Data were obtained from mail and online questionnaires completed by two samples of residents in Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties: (a) a proportionate random sample of residents mostly targeting the following groups: African Americans / Blacks, American Indians, Asians, Hispanics / Latinos, Middle Eastern peoples, and Slavic / Eastern European peoples (i.e., probability sample); and (b) a convenience sample of Opt-In panel members (i.e., nonprobability sample). Questionnaires were completed by a total of 3,328 residents across these samples, and the data were weighted by the most recent Census based on county, age, sex (male, female), and education to be representative of adult residents in this region. Race and other demographics were consistent with the Census after weighting. Results of the first article showed that the primary constraints to visiting parks and natural areas in this urban region were being too busy to visit, limited knowledge about Metro parks, and lack of access to these places (Metro parks are managed by Metro, which is the main regional government for Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties). There were no differences in these constraints and most other constraints between traditionally underserved and well-served populations. Traditionally underserved residents, however, were significantly more constrained than the well-served residents were by race and cultural issues at parks, as well as lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. Traditionally well-served residents visited all parks and natural areas in the region significantly more often than did the underserved residents, but there were no differences in visitation to Metro parks or their favorite park. There were also no differences between the two groups in their attachment to their favorite park. Constraints and visitation explained 15% of the variance in attachment for well-served residents and 38% for underserved residents, and constraints explained 4% of the variance in visitation for well-served residents and 26% for underserved residents. The strongest negative predictor of attachment for well-served residents was Metro parks are not the best places, followed by limited access to these places and disinterest in visiting parks and natural areas. The strongest positive predictor for well-served resident attachment was frequency of visitation, followed by race and cultural issues at Metro parks, and lack of facilities and services in these areas. For underserved residents, the strongest negative predictor of attachment was costs followed by Metro parks are not the best places and limited knowledge about these places. Positive predictors of attachment for these residents included frequency of visitation and lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. The only predictor of visitation to their favorite park for well-served residents was fear of visiting other areas (positive relationship), whereas visitation for underserved residents was negatively associated with limited access to Metro parks and positively associated with costs of visiting other areas. The second article used a Geographic Information System (GIS) and hot spot analysis of the survey data to determine any spatial patterns in constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities). Results revealed two major trends: (a) in the northeast area of the region, there is a clustering of minority residents overlapping with the most constrained hot spots and these residents were most affected by constraints associated with health and lack of recreation partners; and (b) residents in the southwest area of the region were most affected by constraints associated with limited knowledge and access to parks. Specific implications of these results for both management and research are discussed in this thesis. In general, however, these results may inform local agency objectives associated with reaching and engaging various populations, including ethnic and racial minorities. These findings also contribute to the literature by exploring relationships among constraints, park visitation, and attachment between traditionally well-served and underserved populations, and also by applying a GIS analysis of survey data to understand spatial aspects of constraints for each of these populations. Title: Constraints to urban park visitation: Conceptual connections and spatial attributes for traditionally well-served and underserved residents Author: Rushing, Jaclyn R. Connecting with nature is associated with social, physical, and emotional benefits such as stress relief, improved physical health, and lower crime. Parks and other natural areas offer spaces in which to connect with nature and reap these and other benefits (e.g., family bonding, social events, learning). Despite increasing populations of racial and ethnic minorities in the United States of America, these groups are underrepresented in many outdoor recreation activities and in visitation to many parks and other protected areas. This underrepresentation and other attributes of park visitation can be partially explained through the theoretical lens of constraints to recreation. Constraints are factors that limit participation, affect leisure preferences, and / or reduce enjoyment and satisfaction with recreation experiences. Examples of constraints include inability to afford park fees, fear of crime in parks, and lack of available leisure time. This thesis contains two standalone articles focusing on resident constraints to visiting urban parks and other natural areas in the Portland, Oregon (USA) metropolitan region. These articles examine: (a) the most common constraints to visiting these parks and natural areas, and whether these constraints vary between traditionally well-served (i.e., white majority residents) and underserved (i.e., ethnic and racial minorities) populations; (b) relationships among constraints, park visitation, and place attachment for both of these groups of residents; and (c) how constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities) are distributed spatially across this metropolitan region. Data were obtained from mail and online questionnaires completed by two samples of residents in Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties: (a) a proportionate random sample of residents mostly targeting the following groups: African Americans / Blacks, American Indians, Asians, Hispanics / Latinos, Middle Eastern peoples, and Slavic / Eastern European peoples (i.e., probability sample); and (b) a convenience sample of Opt-In panel members (i.e., nonprobability sample). Questionnaires were completed by a total of 3,328 residents across these samples, and the data were weighted by the most recent Census based on county, age, sex (male, female), and education to be representative of adult residents in this region. Race and other demographics were consistent with the Census after weighting. Results of the first article showed that the primary constraints to visiting parks and natural areas in this urban region were being too busy to visit, limited knowledge about Metro parks, and lack of access to these places (Metro parks are managed by Metro, which is the main regional government for Clackamas, Multnomah, and Washington counties). There were no differences in these constraints and most other constraints between traditionally underserved and well-served populations. Traditionally underserved residents, however, were significantly more constrained than the well-served residents were by race and cultural issues at parks, as well as lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. Traditionally well-served residents visited all parks and natural areas in the region significantly more often than did the underserved residents, but there were no differences in visitation to Metro parks or their favorite park. There were also no differences between the two groups in their attachment to their favorite park. Constraints and visitation explained 15% of the variance in attachment for well-served residents and 38% for underserved residents, and constraints explained 4% of the variance in visitation for well-served residents and 26% for underserved residents. The strongest negative predictor of attachment for well-served residents was Metro parks are not the best places, followed by limited access to these places and disinterest in visiting parks and natural areas. The strongest positive predictor for well-served resident attachment was frequency of visitation, followed by race and cultural issues at Metro parks, and lack of facilities and services in these areas. For underserved residents, the strongest negative predictor of attachment was costs followed by Metro parks are not the best places and limited knowledge about these places. Positive predictors of attachment for these residents included frequency of visitation and lack of facilities and services at Metro parks. The only predictor of visitation to their favorite park for well-served residents was fear of visiting other areas (positive relationship), whereas visitation for underserved residents was negatively associated with limited access to Metro parks and positively associated with costs of visiting other areas. The second article used a Geographic Information System (GIS) and hot spot analysis of the survey data to determine any spatial patterns in constraints groups, different types of constraints, and resident characteristics (e.g., minorities). Results revealed two major trends: (a) in the northeast area of the region, there is a clustering of minority residents overlapping with the most constrained hot spots and these residents were most affected by constraints associated with health and lack of recreation partners; and (b) residents in the southwest area of the region were most affected by constraints associated with limited knowledge and access to parks. Specific implications of these results for both management and research are discussed in this thesis. In general, however, these results may inform local agency objectives associated with reaching and engaging various populations, including ethnic and racial minorities. These findings also contribute to the literature by exploring relationships among constraints, park visitation, and attachment between traditionally well-served and underserved populations, and also by applying a GIS analysis of survey data to understand spatial aspects of constraints for each of these populations. Close

• 1734. [Article] Interactive Genetic Algorithms for watershed planning : an investigation of usability and human-centered design

  Degradation of watersheds is a major concern in areas where adverse climate effects and unsustainable use of the natural resources have caused extensive stresses to watershed systems (e.g., increased floods, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Interactive Genetic Algorithms for watershed planning : an investigation of usability and human-centered design Author: Piemonti, Adriana Debora Degradation of watersheds is a major concern in areas where adverse climate effects and unsustainable use of the natural resources have caused extensive stresses to watershed systems (e.g., increased floods, increased droughts, worsened in-stream water quality) through the years. While considerable efforts are being made to generate technical solutions that focus on plans of spatially-distributed conservation practices (e.g., Wetlands, Filter Strips, Grassed Waterways, Crop Management practices, etc.) for restoration of existing conditions in the watersheds, adoption and implementation of these solutions require a better understanding of constraints faced by affected stakeholders and decision makers. Participatory modeling and design approaches have, as a result, become popular in the recent past to support a community's engagement during the modeling process and during development of potential scenarios of plans (or, design alternatives). And now, with new and ongoing developments in Web 2.0 technologies, there is an even greater need for research that examines how large number of stakeholders can be engaged in the development of design alternatives via the internet-based, decision support environments. The overarching goal of this research is to investigate how stakeholder participation ("humans") and Interactive Genetic Algorithms ("computer") can be coupled in a web-based watershed decision support system (DSS) called WRESTORE (Watershed REstoration using Spatio Temporal Optimization of REsources- http://wrestore.iupui.edu/), in order to generate user-preferred design alternatives of distributed conservation practices on a watershed landscape. An important component of this goal is to also improve the understanding of how human behavior on the graphical user interface (GUI) of the DSS can be observed and evaluated in real-time, and then learned from to further improve the performance of the underlying search algorithm. Four specific objectives were addressed in this work to accomplish the overall goal: • Objective 1: Observe interactions of multiple users with the GUI of a web-based watershed DSS (WRESTORE, http://wrestore.iupui.edu/) during interactive search experiments, and then use Usability metrics (response times, clicking events and confidence levels) to evaluate the differences and similarities in user behaviors and interactions. • Objective 2: Examine relationships between the type of users (e.g., stakeholders versus surrogates), the Usability metrics, and patterns in the watershed-scale plans of conservation practices generated by the multi-objective Interactive Genetic Algorithm embedded in WRESTORE. • Objective 3: Examine relationships between the type of users, the Usability metrics, and patterns in the user-preferred, sub-basin-scale plans of conservation practices generated by the multi-objective Interactive Genetic Algorithm embedded in WRESTORE. • Objective 4: Develop and test novel human-guided search operators that adaptively learn for patterns in user-preferred alternatives generated by the multi-objective Interactive Genetic Algorithm, and, as a result, improve the convergence rate of the search algorithm for generating design alternatives that conserve these learned patterns. Results show that there is a clear difference on how different types of users interact with the Interactive Optimization system. The observed relationship between confidence levels, time spent on a task, and number of mouse clicking events, indicated that participants who were able to use the WRESTORE GUI to gather more information and had a higher rate of time per number of clicks, tended to increase their levels of self-confidence in their own feedback. Also, when engaging with watershed stakeholders versus non-stakeholders (or, surrogates), 67% of the stakeholder participants steadily increased their average self-confidence levels as they continued to interact with the tool, in contrast to only 29% of surrogate participants who also showed an increase in their self-confidence levels through time. Such usability and confidence level evaluations provide assessments on which participant was potentially generating reliable feedback data for the search algorithm to use. An analysis of design alternatives generated by the individuals in both stakeholder and non-stakeholder groups showed that a majority (67%) of the stakeholder participants found a higher percentage (on and average 52%) of preferred design alternatives via the interactive search process. Also, users who were focused on assessing the suitability of design alternatives for the entire watershed trended to demonstrate a bias for one of the watershed-scale objective functions. In contrast, users, who were focused on assessing the suitability of design alternatives at only a few local sub-basins in the watershed, did not demonstrate any clear bias for any one of the watershed-scale objective functions. Additionally, patterns were observed in the design of decision alternatives generated by the human-centered search process, which further divulged potential user preferences related to the decision space for example, whether a specific participant preferred a certain practice over another, or a certain location over another for a specific practice. Finally, to improve the convergence rates of the Interactive Genetic Algorithm in WRESTORE, we investigated whether observed patterns in decisions (especially, when users were focused on local sub-regions of the watershed) can be used to improve the search for user-desire designs. A novel Interactive Genetic Algorithm with adaptive, human-guided, selection, crossover and mutation operators was proposed. The new algorithm was tested with six types of simulated participants (three deterministic and three probabilistic users) developed from the feedback data of three real participants. Results of search experiments with the novel adaptive IGA operators indicated a faster convergence than the default IGA, for two out of three deterministic simulated users. However, none of the probabilistic user showed a convergence different than the default values. This indicates that while current results indicate promise, there is need for additional research on adaptive, human-guided IGA operators, especially when noisy/stochastic users participate in the search. Additionally, adaptation of search operators have the potential to improve convergence rates when participatory design is done via Interactive Genetic Algorithms. Title: Interactive Genetic Algorithms for watershed planning : an investigation of usability and human-centered design Author: Piemonti, Adriana Debora Degradation of watersheds is a major concern in areas where adverse climate effects and unsustainable use of the natural resources have caused extensive stresses to watershed systems (e.g., increased floods, increased droughts, worsened in-stream water quality) through the years. While considerable efforts are being made to generate technical solutions that focus on plans of spatially-distributed conservation practices (e.g., Wetlands, Filter Strips, Grassed Waterways, Crop Management practices, etc.) for restoration of existing conditions in the watersheds, adoption and implementation of these solutions require a better understanding of constraints faced by affected stakeholders and decision makers. Participatory modeling and design approaches have, as a result, become popular in the recent past to support a community's engagement during the modeling process and during development of potential scenarios of plans (or, design alternatives). And now, with new and ongoing developments in Web 2.0 technologies, there is an even greater need for research that examines how large number of stakeholders can be engaged in the development of design alternatives via the internet-based, decision support environments. The overarching goal of this research is to investigate how stakeholder participation ("humans") and Interactive Genetic Algorithms ("computer") can be coupled in a web-based watershed decision support system (DSS) called WRESTORE (Watershed REstoration using Spatio Temporal Optimization of REsources- http://wrestore.iupui.edu/), in order to generate user-preferred design alternatives of distributed conservation practices on a watershed landscape. An important component of this goal is to also improve the understanding of how human behavior on the graphical user interface (GUI) of the DSS can be observed and evaluated in real-time, and then learned from to further improve the performance of the underlying search algorithm. Four specific objectives were addressed in this work to accomplish the overall goal: • Objective 1: Observe interactions of multiple users with the GUI of a web-based watershed DSS (WRESTORE, http://wrestore.iupui.edu/) during interactive search experiments, and then use Usability metrics (response times, clicking events and confidence levels) to evaluate the differences and similarities in user behaviors and interactions. • Objective 2: Examine relationships between the type of users (e.g., stakeholders versus surrogates), the Usability metrics, and patterns in the watershed-scale plans of conservation practices generated by the multi-objective Interactive Genetic Algorithm embedded in WRESTORE. • Objective 3: Examine relationships between the type of users, the Usability metrics, and patterns in the user-preferred, sub-basin-scale plans of conservation practices generated by the multi-objective Interactive Genetic Algorithm embedded in WRESTORE. • Objective 4: Develop and test novel human-guided search operators that adaptively learn for patterns in user-preferred alternatives generated by the multi-objective Interactive Genetic Algorithm, and, as a result, improve the convergence rate of the search algorithm for generating design alternatives that conserve these learned patterns. Results show that there is a clear difference on how different types of users interact with the Interactive Optimization system. The observed relationship between confidence levels, time spent on a task, and number of mouse clicking events, indicated that participants who were able to use the WRESTORE GUI to gather more information and had a higher rate of time per number of clicks, tended to increase their levels of self-confidence in their own feedback. Also, when engaging with watershed stakeholders versus non-stakeholders (or, surrogates), 67% of the stakeholder participants steadily increased their average self-confidence levels as they continued to interact with the tool, in contrast to only 29% of surrogate participants who also showed an increase in their self-confidence levels through time. Such usability and confidence level evaluations provide assessments on which participant was potentially generating reliable feedback data for the search algorithm to use. An analysis of design alternatives generated by the individuals in both stakeholder and non-stakeholder groups showed that a majority (67%) of the stakeholder participants found a higher percentage (on and average 52%) of preferred design alternatives via the interactive search process. Also, users who were focused on assessing the suitability of design alternatives for the entire watershed trended to demonstrate a bias for one of the watershed-scale objective functions. In contrast, users, who were focused on assessing the suitability of design alternatives at only a few local sub-basins in the watershed, did not demonstrate any clear bias for any one of the watershed-scale objective functions. Additionally, patterns were observed in the design of decision alternatives generated by the human-centered search process, which further divulged potential user preferences related to the decision space for example, whether a specific participant preferred a certain practice over another, or a certain location over another for a specific practice. Finally, to improve the convergence rates of the Interactive Genetic Algorithm in WRESTORE, we investigated whether observed patterns in decisions (especially, when users were focused on local sub-regions of the watershed) can be used to improve the search for user-desire designs. A novel Interactive Genetic Algorithm with adaptive, human-guided, selection, crossover and mutation operators was proposed. The new algorithm was tested with six types of simulated participants (three deterministic and three probabilistic users) developed from the feedback data of three real participants. Results of search experiments with the novel adaptive IGA operators indicated a faster convergence than the default IGA, for two out of three deterministic simulated users. However, none of the probabilistic user showed a convergence different than the default values. This indicates that while current results indicate promise, there is need for additional research on adaptive, human-guided IGA operators, especially when noisy/stochastic users participate in the search. Additionally, adaptation of search operators have the potential to improve convergence rates when participatory design is done via Interactive Genetic Algorithms. Close

• 1735. [Article] Survival Rates and Cause-Specific Mortality of Mule Deer in South-Central Oregon

  It is critical for wildlife managers to understand the population dynamics of a harvested species, particularly for ungulates, which are a valuable wildlife resource. Due to concerns that mule deer (Odocoileus ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Survival Rates and Cause-Specific Mortality of Mule Deer in South-Central Oregon Author: Mulligan, Elizabeth M. It is critical for wildlife managers to understand the population dynamics of a harvested species, particularly for ungulates, which are a valuable wildlife resource. Due to concerns that mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations in Oregon were declining, more comprehensive data on population vital rates and the factors potentially affecting them were needed by resource managers. To meet this research need, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife implemented a seven year study to investigate habitat use and survival of mule deer in eastern Oregon. From 2005-2012, the agency radiocollared 621 mule deer in south-central Oregon in order to gain more comprehensive information about seasonal movement, seasonal and annual survival, and changes in habitat use for the population. I used the radio-telemetry data from this larger study to investigate mule deer survival rates and cause-specific mortality and the effects of deer seasonal distributions, movement behavior, and environmental factors such as annual and climatic variation. I used known-fate data for 408 adult female radio-collared mule deer to estimate monthly survival rates and to investigate a variety of factors that might affect these rates including seasonal distribution, temporal effects (seasonal, annual, and trends across season and year), movement behavior, and climatic covariates on differing scales. Variation in survival rates for this population of female mule deer in eastern Oregon was best explained by an additive effect of migration behavior, fall migration period, and precipitation levels on individual winter ranges. Survival was significantly higher for migratory deer than residents. Both groups had lower survival during the fall migration period (Oct-Nov) and a positive linear relationship between survival and winter precipitation in individual winter ranges. Annual survival estimates for migrants ranged from 0.81-0.82, which is similar to other findings, but survival rates for residents (0.76- 0.77) were low in comparison to survival rates for adult female mule deer in other parts of their range. I used a nonparametric cumulative incidence function estimator (NPCIFE) to generate annual cumulative incidence functions separately for males and females due to differing risks associated with each sex. The four competing sources of mortality I included in this analysis for males were legal harvest, illegal harvest, predation, and starvation, disease, vehicle or fence-collision combined as one category (i.e., other). For females in investigated predation, human-associated mortality (vehicle or fence), illegal harvest, and natural causes (starvation and disease). Annual risk functions were pooled across all years of the study to maximize sample size. For males, the cumulative risk was highest for legal harvest (0.249, 95%CI=0.172-0.326), with predation the next highest cause of mortality for this sex (0.104, 95%CI=0.042-0.611). For females, the cumulative risk was highest for predation, (0.044, 95%CI=0.028-0.065) with anthropogenic causes (0.038, 95%CI=0.021-0.054) and illegal harvest (0.031, 95%CI=0.17-0.054) also important sources of mortality. Higher monthly survival rates of migrants compared to residents (across all months of the biological cycle) suggested that leaving for potentially higher quality summer foraging grounds outweighed the cost of traveling through unfamiliar habitats and energy expenditure from migration. Conversely, it may also imply that the summer ranges for residents had a negative effect on survival due to habitat quality or human disturbance. Both migrants and residents had lower monthly survival during the fall migration period (Oct - Nov). Female mule deer were excluded from the state-managed bow and rifle hunting season during this study, but females may experience the negative effects of human disturbance associated with fall hunting activities. This time of year is also energetically costly for females, being that some may still be nursing, which could have an additive effect to the energy used to migrate or avoid human disturbance. Winter precipitation also had positive effect on survival for both groups, possibly because increased average winter precipitation resulted in increased winter forage quantity and quality. My results suggest that female survival rates observed during my study are on the low end of the range reported for this species and may be contributing to population declines of mule deer in Oregon. Annual estimates of male survival were also low, but it is unclear how that might contribute to overall population declines without more information on annual and seasonal variation in male survival. Surprisingly, I observed high levels of illegal harvest on female deer and evidence that female survival during the fall migration period, which overlaps Oregon’s legal harvest season, was lower than other times of the year. It is unclear why the fall migration period negatively affects both migrants and resident deer similarly, but future research should attempt to determine the specific factors that are negatively impacting mule deer survival during this time period in south-central Oregon. In addition, as human development in the area continues to grow, it is important to consider migration paths and the habitat quality of both summer and winter ranges. My results suggested that conditions may differ between summer ranges in particular, for residents vs. migrants, and understanding these differences may be the key to increasing survival of female mule deer in Oregon. Sharing information from this study with law enforcement and the general public may be the first step towards increasing awareness of, and thereby reducing, the relatively high levels of illegal harvest I documented for the female population. Future research should focus on investigating the differences in habitat quality for residents versus migrants, the factors that decrease survival during fall migration for both groups, and the social and economic factors that contribute to the illegal harvest of female mule deer in eastern Oregon. Title: Survival Rates and Cause-Specific Mortality of Mule Deer in South-Central Oregon Author: Mulligan, Elizabeth M. It is critical for wildlife managers to understand the population dynamics of a harvested species, particularly for ungulates, which are a valuable wildlife resource. Due to concerns that mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations in Oregon were declining, more comprehensive data on population vital rates and the factors potentially affecting them were needed by resource managers. To meet this research need, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife implemented a seven year study to investigate habitat use and survival of mule deer in eastern Oregon. From 2005-2012, the agency radiocollared 621 mule deer in south-central Oregon in order to gain more comprehensive information about seasonal movement, seasonal and annual survival, and changes in habitat use for the population. I used the radio-telemetry data from this larger study to investigate mule deer survival rates and cause-specific mortality and the effects of deer seasonal distributions, movement behavior, and environmental factors such as annual and climatic variation. I used known-fate data for 408 adult female radio-collared mule deer to estimate monthly survival rates and to investigate a variety of factors that might affect these rates including seasonal distribution, temporal effects (seasonal, annual, and trends across season and year), movement behavior, and climatic covariates on differing scales. Variation in survival rates for this population of female mule deer in eastern Oregon was best explained by an additive effect of migration behavior, fall migration period, and precipitation levels on individual winter ranges. Survival was significantly higher for migratory deer than residents. Both groups had lower survival during the fall migration period (Oct-Nov) and a positive linear relationship between survival and winter precipitation in individual winter ranges. Annual survival estimates for migrants ranged from 0.81-0.82, which is similar to other findings, but survival rates for residents (0.76- 0.77) were low in comparison to survival rates for adult female mule deer in other parts of their range. I used a nonparametric cumulative incidence function estimator (NPCIFE) to generate annual cumulative incidence functions separately for males and females due to differing risks associated with each sex. The four competing sources of mortality I included in this analysis for males were legal harvest, illegal harvest, predation, and starvation, disease, vehicle or fence-collision combined as one category (i.e., other). For females in investigated predation, human-associated mortality (vehicle or fence), illegal harvest, and natural causes (starvation and disease). Annual risk functions were pooled across all years of the study to maximize sample size. For males, the cumulative risk was highest for legal harvest (0.249, 95%CI=0.172-0.326), with predation the next highest cause of mortality for this sex (0.104, 95%CI=0.042-0.611). For females, the cumulative risk was highest for predation, (0.044, 95%CI=0.028-0.065) with anthropogenic causes (0.038, 95%CI=0.021-0.054) and illegal harvest (0.031, 95%CI=0.17-0.054) also important sources of mortality. Higher monthly survival rates of migrants compared to residents (across all months of the biological cycle) suggested that leaving for potentially higher quality summer foraging grounds outweighed the cost of traveling through unfamiliar habitats and energy expenditure from migration. Conversely, it may also imply that the summer ranges for residents had a negative effect on survival due to habitat quality or human disturbance. Both migrants and residents had lower monthly survival during the fall migration period (Oct - Nov). Female mule deer were excluded from the state-managed bow and rifle hunting season during this study, but females may experience the negative effects of human disturbance associated with fall hunting activities. This time of year is also energetically costly for females, being that some may still be nursing, which could have an additive effect to the energy used to migrate or avoid human disturbance. Winter precipitation also had positive effect on survival for both groups, possibly because increased average winter precipitation resulted in increased winter forage quantity and quality. My results suggest that female survival rates observed during my study are on the low end of the range reported for this species and may be contributing to population declines of mule deer in Oregon. Annual estimates of male survival were also low, but it is unclear how that might contribute to overall population declines without more information on annual and seasonal variation in male survival. Surprisingly, I observed high levels of illegal harvest on female deer and evidence that female survival during the fall migration period, which overlaps Oregon’s legal harvest season, was lower than other times of the year. It is unclear why the fall migration period negatively affects both migrants and resident deer similarly, but future research should attempt to determine the specific factors that are negatively impacting mule deer survival during this time period in south-central Oregon. In addition, as human development in the area continues to grow, it is important to consider migration paths and the habitat quality of both summer and winter ranges. My results suggested that conditions may differ between summer ranges in particular, for residents vs. migrants, and understanding these differences may be the key to increasing survival of female mule deer in Oregon. Sharing information from this study with law enforcement and the general public may be the first step towards increasing awareness of, and thereby reducing, the relatively high levels of illegal harvest I documented for the female population. Future research should focus on investigating the differences in habitat quality for residents versus migrants, the factors that decrease survival during fall migration for both groups, and the social and economic factors that contribute to the illegal harvest of female mule deer in eastern Oregon. Close

• 1736. [Article] Silvicultural Treatment Impacts on Understory Trees and 20-Year Understory Vegetation Dynamics in Mature Douglas-Fir Forests

  Policy regarding the management of public forests has undergone a drastic shift over the past couple of decades due to the loss old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) of the United States. For ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Silvicultural Treatment Impacts on Understory Trees and 20-Year Understory Vegetation Dynamics in Mature Douglas-Fir Forests Author: Priebe, Jim E. Policy regarding the management of public forests has undergone a drastic shift over the past couple of decades due to the loss old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) of the United States. For much of the 20th century, forest management on public lands emphasized timber production through the use of even-aged management practices. There has been increasing recognition, however, that traditional even-aged management approaches are unable to support species that rely on the complex, heterogeneous structures provided by old-growth forests. In response, public forest managers have redirected their focus to developing more ecologically sustainable forests capable of meeting a broad array of objectives including an increasing emphasis on the development of late-seral and old-growth characteristics. Thinning has been identified as a promising method for promoting late-seral characteristics in managed stands. Recent long-term studies have shown that thinning stands does indeed accelerate the development of at least some late-seral structure characteristics, particularly when varying levels of thinning intensity and non-uniform retention patterns are incorporated into silvicultural prescriptions. Likewise, thinning has also shown some ability to increase the abundance of late-seral associated plant species in the understory. The impacts of thinning on vegetation dynamics are complicated by external factors such as natural disturbance events and the influence of pre-treatment vegetation on post-treatment communities. Within the context of managing for late-seral attributes, thinning is used to imitate natural disturbance processes. However, this does not preclude the occurrence of natural disturbances, which may either disrupt or compound treatment effects. Initial site conditions create another potential complication for the development of late-seral attributes by limiting the potential for change in understory communities. While some studies have shown that thinning improves late-seral plant abundance, others have found that the legacy of pre-treatment vegetation has a stronger impact on post-treatment communities. This study focused on the impacts of ice storm disturbance and pre-treatment vegetation on the understory of mature Douglas-fir forests using the ongoing Mature Forest Study (MFS), a long-term silvicultural experiment evaluating the effects of thinning and understory vegetation management treatments, as a framework. The first study examined the impact of an ice storm (glaze disturbance) on planted understory trees. Specifically, I looked at the effect of understory tree species, tree size, and overstory neighborhood environment on the type (bending, crown loss), source (ice loading, falling debris), and severity of damage experienced by planted understory trees at one of the MFS sites. Tree species, size, and overstory environment all affected the amount of understory glaze damage. Frequency and severity of damage both varied among underplanted tree species. In general, smaller trees were more prone to being bent, while larger trees were more susceptible to crown loss. The Douglas-fir component of the overstory provided enough additional sheltering that the increased risk to understory trees from falling debris was balanced by a corresponding decrease in the odds of damage by ice loading. This was not the case for the hardwood component; increasing risk of damage to understory trees from falling debris with increasing hardwood basal area drove an overall increase in the risk of understory damage as hardwood basal area increased. This study suggests that species, tree size, and overstory environment all need to be considered by managers hoping to reduce glaze damage risk to younger cohorts in multi-aged stands. The second study investigated the impacts of thinning intensity and herbicide application on the long-term (20-year post-treatment) development of understory vegetation communities on both of the MFS sites. Trends were examined with a focus on the ability of herbicide application, in concert with thinning treatments, to reduce the legacy of common pre-treatment species and promote the abundance of late-seral associates. Results indicated that both thinning intensity and herbicide application affected 20-year changes in understory plant community composition. Herbicide application was associated with a decrease in the abundance of common pre-treatment species, suggesting that it did reduce the legacy effect. However, this was not associated with any change in the abundance of late-seral species. While light thinning showed some ability to mitigate decline in late-seral species relative to higher intensity thinnings, there was no evidence of treatment interaction with herbicide application. These results suggest that while managers may be able to reduce the influence of initial site conditions on post-treatment vegetation communities, the use of herbicides offers little control over the successional trajectory of the understory. Light thinning appears to be the most effective means of increasing late-seral species abundance, although the use of herbicides to meet other management objectives is not contraindicated by the results of this study. Overall, these results suggest that the best options available to managers to both reduce glaze disturbance impacts to understory trees and hasten the development of late-seral plant communities are heavy thinning with unmanaged leave patches to provide late-seral refugia, or light thinning with gaps to provide growing space for better tree regeneration. Title: Silvicultural Treatment Impacts on Understory Trees and 20-Year Understory Vegetation Dynamics in Mature Douglas-Fir Forests Author: Priebe, Jim E. Policy regarding the management of public forests has undergone a drastic shift over the past couple of decades due to the loss old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) of the United States. For much of the 20th century, forest management on public lands emphasized timber production through the use of even-aged management practices. There has been increasing recognition, however, that traditional even-aged management approaches are unable to support species that rely on the complex, heterogeneous structures provided by old-growth forests. In response, public forest managers have redirected their focus to developing more ecologically sustainable forests capable of meeting a broad array of objectives including an increasing emphasis on the development of late-seral and old-growth characteristics. Thinning has been identified as a promising method for promoting late-seral characteristics in managed stands. Recent long-term studies have shown that thinning stands does indeed accelerate the development of at least some late-seral structure characteristics, particularly when varying levels of thinning intensity and non-uniform retention patterns are incorporated into silvicultural prescriptions. Likewise, thinning has also shown some ability to increase the abundance of late-seral associated plant species in the understory. The impacts of thinning on vegetation dynamics are complicated by external factors such as natural disturbance events and the influence of pre-treatment vegetation on post-treatment communities. Within the context of managing for late-seral attributes, thinning is used to imitate natural disturbance processes. However, this does not preclude the occurrence of natural disturbances, which may either disrupt or compound treatment effects. Initial site conditions create another potential complication for the development of late-seral attributes by limiting the potential for change in understory communities. While some studies have shown that thinning improves late-seral plant abundance, others have found that the legacy of pre-treatment vegetation has a stronger impact on post-treatment communities. This study focused on the impacts of ice storm disturbance and pre-treatment vegetation on the understory of mature Douglas-fir forests using the ongoing Mature Forest Study (MFS), a long-term silvicultural experiment evaluating the effects of thinning and understory vegetation management treatments, as a framework. The first study examined the impact of an ice storm (glaze disturbance) on planted understory trees. Specifically, I looked at the effect of understory tree species, tree size, and overstory neighborhood environment on the type (bending, crown loss), source (ice loading, falling debris), and severity of damage experienced by planted understory trees at one of the MFS sites. Tree species, size, and overstory environment all affected the amount of understory glaze damage. Frequency and severity of damage both varied among underplanted tree species. In general, smaller trees were more prone to being bent, while larger trees were more susceptible to crown loss. The Douglas-fir component of the overstory provided enough additional sheltering that the increased risk to understory trees from falling debris was balanced by a corresponding decrease in the odds of damage by ice loading. This was not the case for the hardwood component; increasing risk of damage to understory trees from falling debris with increasing hardwood basal area drove an overall increase in the risk of understory damage as hardwood basal area increased. This study suggests that species, tree size, and overstory environment all need to be considered by managers hoping to reduce glaze damage risk to younger cohorts in multi-aged stands. The second study investigated the impacts of thinning intensity and herbicide application on the long-term (20-year post-treatment) development of understory vegetation communities on both of the MFS sites. Trends were examined with a focus on the ability of herbicide application, in concert with thinning treatments, to reduce the legacy of common pre-treatment species and promote the abundance of late-seral associates. Results indicated that both thinning intensity and herbicide application affected 20-year changes in understory plant community composition. Herbicide application was associated with a decrease in the abundance of common pre-treatment species, suggesting that it did reduce the legacy effect. However, this was not associated with any change in the abundance of late-seral species. While light thinning showed some ability to mitigate decline in late-seral species relative to higher intensity thinnings, there was no evidence of treatment interaction with herbicide application. These results suggest that while managers may be able to reduce the influence of initial site conditions on post-treatment vegetation communities, the use of herbicides offers little control over the successional trajectory of the understory. Light thinning appears to be the most effective means of increasing late-seral species abundance, although the use of herbicides to meet other management objectives is not contraindicated by the results of this study. Overall, these results suggest that the best options available to managers to both reduce glaze disturbance impacts to understory trees and hasten the development of late-seral plant communities are heavy thinning with unmanaged leave patches to provide late-seral refugia, or light thinning with gaps to provide growing space for better tree regeneration. Close

• 1737. [Article] Food habits and diet quality of deer and cattle and herbage production of a sagebrush-grassland range

  Research was conducted on the Keating rangelands in north-eastern Oregon to determine the food habits of deer and cattle and similarity of their diets, and to estimate deer and cattle months of grazing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Food habits and diet quality of deer and cattle and herbage production of a sagebrush-grassland range Author: Hilken, Thomas O. Research was conducted on the Keating rangelands in north-eastern Oregon to determine the food habits of deer and cattle and similarity of their diets, and to estimate deer and cattle months of grazing on both a quantitative and nutritional basis. Data were collected during the winters of 1978-1979, 1979-1980 and during the spring and fall of 1979 and 1980. In the Crystal Palace, Tucker Creek and Spring Creek study areas, field fecal collections were made and the microhistological method was used in the laboratory to determine the food habits of both deer and cattle. Similarity indices were calculated comparing food habits of both deer and cattle. In delineated plant communities, available herbaceous forage was estimated within 0.5m² circular plots employing a double sampling technique, and available browse was estimated employing a multiple linear regression technique. Subsamples of available forage were analyzed for in vitro dry matter digestibility and crude protein. An extensive literature review was conducted to determine nitrogen (N) and metabolizable energy (ME) requirements of both deer and cattle. Cattle and deer months of grazing were calculated for each plant community on a quantitative (i.e., forage biomass) and nutritional (i.e., metabolizable energy and nitrogen) basis employing the resources available following relationships: number supported = resources available/resources required. Management recommendations were made based on data collected in this study. Grass was the most dominant forage consumed by cattle, while deer consumed both grass and browse. Forbs were not an important dietary constituent for either cattle or deer. During the early winter period of 1978-1979, browse and grass averaged 57.4 percent and 1.6 percent of the deer diets, respectively. However, during the late winter period of 1978-1979, browse and grass averaged 40.2 percent and 31.5 percent of the deer diets, respectively. During the 1979-1980 winter, browse and grass averaged 35.4 percent and 51.9 percent of the deer diets, respectively. The predominant grass and browse consumed by deer was Sandberg's bluegrass and big sagebrush, respectively. During the spring period, crested wheatgrass, cheatgrass and Sandberg's bluegrass averaged 21.8, 29.1 and 19.5 percent of cattle diets, respectively. During the fall period,.cheatgrass and Sandberg's bluegrass averaged 30.4 and 24.9 percent of cattle diets, respectively. Diet similarity ranged from 27.1 percent to 52.8 percent while the average spring overlap for both years was 37 percent and the average fall overlap was 50 percent. Most of the dietary overlap occurred on Sandberg's bluegrass. The literature review revealed that on a forage biomass basis a cow-calf pair in spring required 14 kg/day, while a dry pregnant cow in the fall required 10 kg/day. On an energy and nitrogen basis, a nursing cow required 26.6 Meal/day of ME and 206 g of N, while a dry pregnant cow required 10.0 Meal/day of ME and 94.5 g of N. On a forage biomass basis, a wintering adult deer required .9 kg of forage per day while a fawn required .6 kg per day. Considering the length of the winter period, the energy obtained by catabolism of fat, and the energy and nitrogen required in gesta tion, I determined that during the early and late winter periods of 1978-1979 deer required 1.81 and 1.80 Meal/day of ME and during the 1979-1980 winter, they required 1.73 Meal/day of ME. The literature also revealed that a wintering deer required 12.9 g of N per day. Quantitative forage analysis showed that depending upon study area and pasture on a kg/ha basis the predominant grasses available to cattle were crested wheatgrass, Sandberg's bluegrass and cheatgrass. Determination of available browse biomass was made employing a multiple linear regression model for mountain big sagebrush (log y = -6.37 + .9337 log H + 1.49 log W₂), and a simple linear regression model for gray rabbitbrush (log y = -3.70 + 1.81 log W) and basin big sagebrush (log y = -3.84 + .9870 log A). Depending upon study area and plant community, quantitative analysis of the forage showed that big sagebrush and Sandberg's bluegrass were the dominant species available to deer. Early spring grazed pastures could carry more AUMS on a nutritional basis than on a quantitative basis. Pastures sampled in late spring showed that total AUMS on a forage quantity basis exceeded those on a nutritional basis. During the fall on an old-growth (i.e., previous year's growth) and fall growth basis, total AUMS based on N generally exceeded those based on ME or forage quantity, except in the crested wheatgrass-dominated pasture where more AUMS were calculated on a quantity basis than on a nutritional basis. On a fall-growth-only basis, more AUMS were calculated on a nutritional basis than on a quantity basis. Generally, the least number of AUMS could be carried on the medusahead communities while the most AUMS could be carried on the crested wheatgrass seedings. Deer months calculated for the two winters across the three study areas showed more deer months per plant community were calculated on a forage quantity basis than on an ME or N basis. However, an exception to this trend occurred in the grassland com munities where more deer months were calculated on an N basis than on an ME or forage quantity basis. Generally, the most deer months were calculated for the basin big sagebrush communities while the least number of deer months were calculated on the medusahead communities. Title: Food habits and diet quality of deer and cattle and herbage production of a sagebrush-grassland range Author: Hilken, Thomas O. Research was conducted on the Keating rangelands in north-eastern Oregon to determine the food habits of deer and cattle and similarity of their diets, and to estimate deer and cattle months of grazing on both a quantitative and nutritional basis. Data were collected during the winters of 1978-1979, 1979-1980 and during the spring and fall of 1979 and 1980. In the Crystal Palace, Tucker Creek and Spring Creek study areas, field fecal collections were made and the microhistological method was used in the laboratory to determine the food habits of both deer and cattle. Similarity indices were calculated comparing food habits of both deer and cattle. In delineated plant communities, available herbaceous forage was estimated within 0.5m² circular plots employing a double sampling technique, and available browse was estimated employing a multiple linear regression technique. Subsamples of available forage were analyzed for in vitro dry matter digestibility and crude protein. An extensive literature review was conducted to determine nitrogen (N) and metabolizable energy (ME) requirements of both deer and cattle. Cattle and deer months of grazing were calculated for each plant community on a quantitative (i.e., forage biomass) and nutritional (i.e., metabolizable energy and nitrogen) basis employing the resources available following relationships: number supported = resources available/resources required. Management recommendations were made based on data collected in this study. Grass was the most dominant forage consumed by cattle, while deer consumed both grass and browse. Forbs were not an important dietary constituent for either cattle or deer. During the early winter period of 1978-1979, browse and grass averaged 57.4 percent and 1.6 percent of the deer diets, respectively. However, during the late winter period of 1978-1979, browse and grass averaged 40.2 percent and 31.5 percent of the deer diets, respectively. During the 1979-1980 winter, browse and grass averaged 35.4 percent and 51.9 percent of the deer diets, respectively. The predominant grass and browse consumed by deer was Sandberg's bluegrass and big sagebrush, respectively. During the spring period, crested wheatgrass, cheatgrass and Sandberg's bluegrass averaged 21.8, 29.1 and 19.5 percent of cattle diets, respectively. During the fall period,.cheatgrass and Sandberg's bluegrass averaged 30.4 and 24.9 percent of cattle diets, respectively. Diet similarity ranged from 27.1 percent to 52.8 percent while the average spring overlap for both years was 37 percent and the average fall overlap was 50 percent. Most of the dietary overlap occurred on Sandberg's bluegrass. The literature review revealed that on a forage biomass basis a cow-calf pair in spring required 14 kg/day, while a dry pregnant cow in the fall required 10 kg/day. On an energy and nitrogen basis, a nursing cow required 26.6 Meal/day of ME and 206 g of N, while a dry pregnant cow required 10.0 Meal/day of ME and 94.5 g of N. On a forage biomass basis, a wintering adult deer required .9 kg of forage per day while a fawn required .6 kg per day. Considering the length of the winter period, the energy obtained by catabolism of fat, and the energy and nitrogen required in gesta tion, I determined that during the early and late winter periods of 1978-1979 deer required 1.81 and 1.80 Meal/day of ME and during the 1979-1980 winter, they required 1.73 Meal/day of ME. The literature also revealed that a wintering deer required 12.9 g of N per day. Quantitative forage analysis showed that depending upon study area and pasture on a kg/ha basis the predominant grasses available to cattle were crested wheatgrass, Sandberg's bluegrass and cheatgrass. Determination of available browse biomass was made employing a multiple linear regression model for mountain big sagebrush (log y = -6.37 + .9337 log H + 1.49 log W₂), and a simple linear regression model for gray rabbitbrush (log y = -3.70 + 1.81 log W) and basin big sagebrush (log y = -3.84 + .9870 log A). Depending upon study area and plant community, quantitative analysis of the forage showed that big sagebrush and Sandberg's bluegrass were the dominant species available to deer. Early spring grazed pastures could carry more AUMS on a nutritional basis than on a quantitative basis. Pastures sampled in late spring showed that total AUMS on a forage quantity basis exceeded those on a nutritional basis. During the fall on an old-growth (i.e., previous year's growth) and fall growth basis, total AUMS based on N generally exceeded those based on ME or forage quantity, except in the crested wheatgrass-dominated pasture where more AUMS were calculated on a quantity basis than on a nutritional basis. On a fall-growth-only basis, more AUMS were calculated on a nutritional basis than on a quantity basis. Generally, the least number of AUMS could be carried on the medusahead communities while the most AUMS could be carried on the crested wheatgrass seedings. Deer months calculated for the two winters across the three study areas showed more deer months per plant community were calculated on a forage quantity basis than on an ME or N basis. However, an exception to this trend occurred in the grassland com munities where more deer months were calculated on an N basis than on an ME or forage quantity basis. Generally, the most deer months were calculated for the basin big sagebrush communities while the least number of deer months were calculated on the medusahead communities. Close

• 1738. [Article] Investigation of the structural influence on the properties of functional inorganic oxides

  While properties are extremely important from an application point of view, it is crucial to have a detailed understanding of the underlying structural influence. Once a concrete correlation between the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Investigation of the structural influence on the properties of functional inorganic oxides Author: Laurita-Plankis, Geneva While properties are extremely important from an application point of view, it is crucial to have a detailed understanding of the underlying structural influence. Once a concrete correlation between the structure and the observed property is established, rational design of novel materials with optimized properties can be realized. These optimized materials lead to advancements in technology in a variety of applications, including new building materials, faster electronic devices, and more efficient catalysts. This dissertation examines the structural influence on the observed properties in a series of metal oxide materials for electronic and energy applications. A series of pyrochlores Ag[subscript 1-nx]M[superscript n][subscript x]SbO₃ (M = Na⁺, K⁺, Tl⁺, and Cd²⁺) has been studied to evaluate the structural influence on the samples' photocatalytic activity. A complete solid solution between the anion-deficient pyrochlore Ag₂Sb₂O₆ and the ideal pyrochlore Cd₂Sb₂O₇ has been synthesized through the standard solid state ceramic method. Each composition has been characterized by various different techniques, including powder X-ray diffraction, optical spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance and ¹²¹Sb Mössbauer spectroscopy. Computational methods based on density functional theory complement this investigation. Photocatalytic activity has been studied, and transport properties have been measured on pellets densified by spark plasma sintering. The analysis of the data collected from these various techniques enables a comprehensive characterization of the complete solid solution and revealed an anomalous behavior in the Cd-rich end of the solid solution, which has been proposed to arise from a possible radical O⁻ species in small concentrations. Polycrystalline samples of the pyrochlore series Ag[subscript 1-nx]M[superscript n][subscript x]SbO₃ (M = Na⁺, K⁺ and Tl[superscript +/3+]) have been structurally analyzed through total scattering techniques and evaluated for photocatalytic activity. The upper limits of x obtained are 0.08 for Na, 0.16 for K, and 0.17 for Tl. The Ag⁺ cation occupies a site with inversion symmetry on a 3-fold axis. When the smaller Na⁺ cation substitutes for Ag⁺, it is displaced by about 0.6 Å perpendicular to the 3-fold axis to achieve shorter Na-O bond distances. When the larger Tl⁺ cation substitutes for Ag⁺, it is displaced by about 1.14 Å along the 3-fold axis and achieves an environment typical of a lone pair cation. Some of the Tl³⁺ from the precursor remains unreduced, leading to a formula of Ag₀.₇₇Tl⁺₀.₁₃Tl³⁺₀.₀₄SbO₃.₀₄. The position of the K⁺ dopant was effectively modeled assuming that K⁺ occupied the same site as Ag⁺. The expansion of the lattice caused by substitution of the larger K⁺ and Tl⁺ cations results in longer Ag-O bond lengths, which would reduce the overlap of the Ag 4d and O 2p orbitals that compose the valence band maximum. Substitution of the smaller Na⁺ results in a decrease in the Ag-O bond distance, thus increasing the overlap of the Ag 4d and O 2p orbitals. An increase in the photocatalytic activity has been observed for the nominal composition Ag₀.₈Na₀.₂SbO₃ made through solid state synthesis, and this is attributed to both the slight decrease in the band gap and the increase in pore dimensions compared to the parent compound AgSbO₃. The structural transitions in Cd₂Nb₂O[subscript 7-x]S[subscript x] (x = 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 0.7) have been studied to determine the origin of ferroelectricity in pyrochlore oxides. For x = 0, 0.25, and 0.5 peak splitting indicative of a transition to orthorhombic symmetry is observed below the transition temperature. In the x = 0.7 sample, the evolution of new peaks suggest a cubic space group is retained below the phase transition accompanied by a loss of the face-centering symmetry. The observed lowering of symmetry may be responsible for the transition into a ferroelectric phase, and may be driven by a strong displacement of both the Nb and Cd from the high- to low-symmetry structures. The S content may drive the stability if different ferroelectric phases, as no trend was observed with increasing content in the ferroelectric Curie temperatures of the samples. The structure of the hollandites A[subscript x]Ru₄O₈ (A = K⁺, Rb⁺) has been studied through total scattering techniques upon cation exchange with Na⁺ on the A-site to evaluate the effect on the quasi-one dimensional (Q1D) nature of these materials. It is observed that the A-site of the hollandite structure is not fully occupied when A = K⁺, Rb⁺, and full A-site occupancy is achieved after ion exchange with NaNO₃. All samples exhibit Pauli paramagnetism, and this is primarily due to a large low temperature range of metallic conduction. The double chains of edge-shared RuO₆ octahedra and corner shared double chains found in the channel of the hollandite structure promotes two conduction mechanisms: ρ∥ (intra-chain metallic) and ρ⊥ (inter-chain hopping). The coexistence of ρ∥ and ρ⊥ gives rise to metallic conductivity below T[subscript max] (suppressed hopping at lower temperature) and semiconductivity above T[subscript max] (intra-chain mean free path becomes smaller than the inter-chain hopping distance), exhibiting the Q1D conduction at lower temperatures. The inter-chain distance is larger in the Rb-containing samples, and consequently the region dominated by intra-chain metallic conduction increases, along with an increase in T[subscript max]. Title: Investigation of the structural influence on the properties of functional inorganic oxides Author: Laurita-Plankis, Geneva While properties are extremely important from an application point of view, it is crucial to have a detailed understanding of the underlying structural influence. Once a concrete correlation between the structure and the observed property is established, rational design of novel materials with optimized properties can be realized. These optimized materials lead to advancements in technology in a variety of applications, including new building materials, faster electronic devices, and more efficient catalysts. This dissertation examines the structural influence on the observed properties in a series of metal oxide materials for electronic and energy applications. A series of pyrochlores Ag[subscript 1-nx]M[superscript n][subscript x]SbO₃ (M = Na⁺, K⁺, Tl⁺, and Cd²⁺) has been studied to evaluate the structural influence on the samples' photocatalytic activity. A complete solid solution between the anion-deficient pyrochlore Ag₂Sb₂O₆ and the ideal pyrochlore Cd₂Sb₂O₇ has been synthesized through the standard solid state ceramic method. Each composition has been characterized by various different techniques, including powder X-ray diffraction, optical spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance and ¹²¹Sb Mössbauer spectroscopy. Computational methods based on density functional theory complement this investigation. Photocatalytic activity has been studied, and transport properties have been measured on pellets densified by spark plasma sintering. The analysis of the data collected from these various techniques enables a comprehensive characterization of the complete solid solution and revealed an anomalous behavior in the Cd-rich end of the solid solution, which has been proposed to arise from a possible radical O⁻ species in small concentrations. Polycrystalline samples of the pyrochlore series Ag[subscript 1-nx]M[superscript n][subscript x]SbO₃ (M = Na⁺, K⁺ and Tl[superscript +/3+]) have been structurally analyzed through total scattering techniques and evaluated for photocatalytic activity. The upper limits of x obtained are 0.08 for Na, 0.16 for K, and 0.17 for Tl. The Ag⁺ cation occupies a site with inversion symmetry on a 3-fold axis. When the smaller Na⁺ cation substitutes for Ag⁺, it is displaced by about 0.6 Å perpendicular to the 3-fold axis to achieve shorter Na-O bond distances. When the larger Tl⁺ cation substitutes for Ag⁺, it is displaced by about 1.14 Å along the 3-fold axis and achieves an environment typical of a lone pair cation. Some of the Tl³⁺ from the precursor remains unreduced, leading to a formula of Ag₀.₇₇Tl⁺₀.₁₃Tl³⁺₀.₀₄SbO₃.₀₄. The position of the K⁺ dopant was effectively modeled assuming that K⁺ occupied the same site as Ag⁺. The expansion of the lattice caused by substitution of the larger K⁺ and Tl⁺ cations results in longer Ag-O bond lengths, which would reduce the overlap of the Ag 4d and O 2p orbitals that compose the valence band maximum. Substitution of the smaller Na⁺ results in a decrease in the Ag-O bond distance, thus increasing the overlap of the Ag 4d and O 2p orbitals. An increase in the photocatalytic activity has been observed for the nominal composition Ag₀.₈Na₀.₂SbO₃ made through solid state synthesis, and this is attributed to both the slight decrease in the band gap and the increase in pore dimensions compared to the parent compound AgSbO₃. The structural transitions in Cd₂Nb₂O[subscript 7-x]S[subscript x] (x = 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 0.7) have been studied to determine the origin of ferroelectricity in pyrochlore oxides. For x = 0, 0.25, and 0.5 peak splitting indicative of a transition to orthorhombic symmetry is observed below the transition temperature. In the x = 0.7 sample, the evolution of new peaks suggest a cubic space group is retained below the phase transition accompanied by a loss of the face-centering symmetry. The observed lowering of symmetry may be responsible for the transition into a ferroelectric phase, and may be driven by a strong displacement of both the Nb and Cd from the high- to low-symmetry structures. The S content may drive the stability if different ferroelectric phases, as no trend was observed with increasing content in the ferroelectric Curie temperatures of the samples. The structure of the hollandites A[subscript x]Ru₄O₈ (A = K⁺, Rb⁺) has been studied through total scattering techniques upon cation exchange with Na⁺ on the A-site to evaluate the effect on the quasi-one dimensional (Q1D) nature of these materials. It is observed that the A-site of the hollandite structure is not fully occupied when A = K⁺, Rb⁺, and full A-site occupancy is achieved after ion exchange with NaNO₃. All samples exhibit Pauli paramagnetism, and this is primarily due to a large low temperature range of metallic conduction. The double chains of edge-shared RuO₆ octahedra and corner shared double chains found in the channel of the hollandite structure promotes two conduction mechanisms: ρ∥ (intra-chain metallic) and ρ⊥ (inter-chain hopping). The coexistence of ρ∥ and ρ⊥ gives rise to metallic conductivity below T[subscript max] (suppressed hopping at lower temperature) and semiconductivity above T[subscript max] (intra-chain mean free path becomes smaller than the inter-chain hopping distance), exhibiting the Q1D conduction at lower temperatures. The inter-chain distance is larger in the Rb-containing samples, and consequently the region dominated by intra-chain metallic conduction increases, along with an increase in T[subscript max]. Close

• 1739. [Article] The effects of selected feeding programs on the reproductive performance and specific blood plasma chemistries of caged broiler breeder males and dwarf breeder females

  I. THE EFFECT OF FEEDING PROGRAMS ON REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED BLOOD CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED BROILER BREEDER MALES: 1. FEED RESTRICTION LEVELS: The effects of five different feeding levels (136, 125, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effects of selected feeding programs on the reproductive performance and specific blood plasma chemistries of caged broiler breeder males and dwarf breeder females Author: Buckner, Robert E. I. THE EFFECT OF FEEDING PROGRAMS ON REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED BLOOD CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED BROILER BREEDER MALES: 1. FEED RESTRICTION LEVELS: The effects of five different feeding levels (136, 125, 113, 102, and 91 g/male/day of a 13.1% crude protein (CP), 3167 kcal ME/kg feed) on the reproductive traits of adult broiler breeder males in cages were evaluated from 30 to 60 weeks of age. Individual body weights, semen volume, sperm cells per ejaculate, and fertilizing ability were measured at 30, 40, 50, and 60 weeks of age. To assist in measuring the effect of feed restriction on metabolism during these periods, average hematocrits, plasma cholesterol, total protein, and uric acid levels were analyzed. Significant (P<.05) reductions were observed in average body weights, semen volume, sperm cell numbers per ejaculate, testicular weights, and hematocrits with feed restriction at the 91 g compared to the 136 g feeding level. At 40 weeks of age the percentage of males producing semen was significantly reduced for the 102 and 91 g compared to the 136 g feeding level. Average plasma cholesterol levels were significantly increased at the 91 g compared to the 136 g feeding level, but no significant effect (P>.05) was observed in plasma total protein and uric acid levels. Correlation coefficients were negative for plasma cholesterol to body weights, sperm numbers per ejaculate, and testicular weights but positive for body weights to hematocrits and testicular weights. II. THE EFFECT OF FEEDING PROGRAMS ON REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED BLOOD CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED BROILER BREEDER MALES: 2. FREE CHOICE, LOW ENERGY RATIONS OF 9, 7, AND 5 PERCENT CRUDE PROTEIN: Three isocaloric feeds consisting of 9, 7, and 5% CP each containing 2315 kcal ME/kg were fed free choice to individually caged broiler breeder males from 22 to 65 weeks of age. To obtain these protein and energy levels, sand was incorporated into the rations at levels ranging from 26.1 to 33.6% of the feed. The average daily protein intake per male was 18.7, 14.7, and 10.7 g for the 9, 7, and 5% CP, respectively, with an average caloric intake of 480 kcal ME. Individual body weights, semen characteristics, testicular weights, hematocrits, plasma cholesterol, total protein, uric acid and triglyceride levels were evaluated during each 4-week period from 24 to 44 weeks and also at 50 and 65 weeks of age. Average body weights from 24 to 32 weeks of age were significantly lower for the males fed 5% CP then those fed 9% CP rations. Semen volumes and sperm cell numbers per ejaculate were significantly reduced only at 24 weeks of age for males fed 5% CP feeds. At 65 weeks of age there were no significant differences among treatments means for body weight, sperm cells numbers per ejaculate, nor testicular weights. Plasma cholesterol levels of males fed the 5% CP diet were significantly higher at 28 and 32 weeks while levels of plasma total protein were decreased at 28 weeks of age. Plasma uric acid levels were consistently and significantly decreased as protein in take was reduced. The results suggest that within the parameters of this study broiler breeder males can be successfully maintained on low energy (2315 kcal/ kg) feeds of 7% CP from 22 to 40 weeks and then 5% CP from 40 to 65 weeks of age. III. INFLUENCES OF 16 AND 17.5 PERCENT DIETARY PROTEIN AND SUPPLEMENTAL METHIONINE ON THE REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED PLASMA CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED DWARF (dw) BROILER BREEDER FEMALES: A total of 240 individually caged dwarf (dw) broiler breeder females were fed one of six isocaloric treatment diets (2740 kcal/kg) containing 16 or 17.5% CP to which d,l-methionine (MET) was supple mented at 0, .08, or .15% from 22 to 50 weeks of age. The resulting dietary MET levels ranged from .256 to .424% and total sulfur amino acids (TSAA) ranged from .527 to .718% of the rations. Treatment means were compared for body weights, mortality, total egg produc tion, egg weights, and egg fertility and hatchability resulting from artificial insemination with .05 ml broiler breeder semen. Blood plasma was analyzed at 32, 40, and 50 weeks of age for cholesterol, uric acid, total protein, and albumin as possible monitors of dietary protein utilization and of the physiological effects of protein and methionine levels on reproductive traits. There were no significant differences observed among dietary treatment means for body weights, mortality, total egg production, fertility, nor hatchability from 24 to 50 weeks of age. Significant differences were not observed among the treatment means for plasma cholesterol, total protein, and albumin at 32, 40, or 50 weeks of age. Between the two CP levels, plasma uric acid was significantly increased for the females on 17.5% compared to those on 16% CP rations. A consistent although nonsignificant trend of decreased uric acid levels with supplemental methionine was observed only in the females fed 16% CP diets and not in those on 17.5% CP. Under the conditions of this experiment, protein requirements for caged dwarf broiler breeder females from 22 to 50 weeks of age appear to be satisfied with daily dietary intakes of 20.3 g CP, 325 mg MET, and 670 mg TSAA. Title: The effects of selected feeding programs on the reproductive performance and specific blood plasma chemistries of caged broiler breeder males and dwarf breeder females Author: Buckner, Robert E. I. THE EFFECT OF FEEDING PROGRAMS ON REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED BLOOD CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED BROILER BREEDER MALES: 1. FEED RESTRICTION LEVELS: The effects of five different feeding levels (136, 125, 113, 102, and 91 g/male/day of a 13.1% crude protein (CP), 3167 kcal ME/kg feed) on the reproductive traits of adult broiler breeder males in cages were evaluated from 30 to 60 weeks of age. Individual body weights, semen volume, sperm cells per ejaculate, and fertilizing ability were measured at 30, 40, 50, and 60 weeks of age. To assist in measuring the effect of feed restriction on metabolism during these periods, average hematocrits, plasma cholesterol, total protein, and uric acid levels were analyzed. Significant (P<.05) reductions were observed in average body weights, semen volume, sperm cell numbers per ejaculate, testicular weights, and hematocrits with feed restriction at the 91 g compared to the 136 g feeding level. At 40 weeks of age the percentage of males producing semen was significantly reduced for the 102 and 91 g compared to the 136 g feeding level. Average plasma cholesterol levels were significantly increased at the 91 g compared to the 136 g feeding level, but no significant effect (P>.05) was observed in plasma total protein and uric acid levels. Correlation coefficients were negative for plasma cholesterol to body weights, sperm numbers per ejaculate, and testicular weights but positive for body weights to hematocrits and testicular weights. II. THE EFFECT OF FEEDING PROGRAMS ON REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED BLOOD CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED BROILER BREEDER MALES: 2. FREE CHOICE, LOW ENERGY RATIONS OF 9, 7, AND 5 PERCENT CRUDE PROTEIN: Three isocaloric feeds consisting of 9, 7, and 5% CP each containing 2315 kcal ME/kg were fed free choice to individually caged broiler breeder males from 22 to 65 weeks of age. To obtain these protein and energy levels, sand was incorporated into the rations at levels ranging from 26.1 to 33.6% of the feed. The average daily protein intake per male was 18.7, 14.7, and 10.7 g for the 9, 7, and 5% CP, respectively, with an average caloric intake of 480 kcal ME. Individual body weights, semen characteristics, testicular weights, hematocrits, plasma cholesterol, total protein, uric acid and triglyceride levels were evaluated during each 4-week period from 24 to 44 weeks and also at 50 and 65 weeks of age. Average body weights from 24 to 32 weeks of age were significantly lower for the males fed 5% CP then those fed 9% CP rations. Semen volumes and sperm cell numbers per ejaculate were significantly reduced only at 24 weeks of age for males fed 5% CP feeds. At 65 weeks of age there were no significant differences among treatments means for body weight, sperm cells numbers per ejaculate, nor testicular weights. Plasma cholesterol levels of males fed the 5% CP diet were significantly higher at 28 and 32 weeks while levels of plasma total protein were decreased at 28 weeks of age. Plasma uric acid levels were consistently and significantly decreased as protein in take was reduced. The results suggest that within the parameters of this study broiler breeder males can be successfully maintained on low energy (2315 kcal/ kg) feeds of 7% CP from 22 to 40 weeks and then 5% CP from 40 to 65 weeks of age. III. INFLUENCES OF 16 AND 17.5 PERCENT DIETARY PROTEIN AND SUPPLEMENTAL METHIONINE ON THE REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS AND SELECTED PLASMA CHEMISTRIES OF CAGED DWARF (dw) BROILER BREEDER FEMALES: A total of 240 individually caged dwarf (dw) broiler breeder females were fed one of six isocaloric treatment diets (2740 kcal/kg) containing 16 or 17.5% CP to which d,l-methionine (MET) was supple mented at 0, .08, or .15% from 22 to 50 weeks of age. The resulting dietary MET levels ranged from .256 to .424% and total sulfur amino acids (TSAA) ranged from .527 to .718% of the rations. Treatment means were compared for body weights, mortality, total egg produc tion, egg weights, and egg fertility and hatchability resulting from artificial insemination with .05 ml broiler breeder semen. Blood plasma was analyzed at 32, 40, and 50 weeks of age for cholesterol, uric acid, total protein, and albumin as possible monitors of dietary protein utilization and of the physiological effects of protein and methionine levels on reproductive traits. There were no significant differences observed among dietary treatment means for body weights, mortality, total egg production, fertility, nor hatchability from 24 to 50 weeks of age. Significant differences were not observed among the treatment means for plasma cholesterol, total protein, and albumin at 32, 40, or 50 weeks of age. Between the two CP levels, plasma uric acid was significantly increased for the females on 17.5% compared to those on 16% CP rations. A consistent although nonsignificant trend of decreased uric acid levels with supplemental methionine was observed only in the females fed 16% CP diets and not in those on 17.5% CP. Under the conditions of this experiment, protein requirements for caged dwarf broiler breeder females from 22 to 50 weeks of age appear to be satisfied with daily dietary intakes of 20.3 g CP, 325 mg MET, and 670 mg TSAA. Close

• 1740. [Article] Extraction and quantification of vitamins from raw, HTST, UHT, and PATP milk and of diatom-produced chitin and glucosamine

  Analytical chemistry is an essential qualitative and quantitative tool to describe foods and biomaterials and their changes during production, processing and distribution. In this work, rapid analytical ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Extraction and quantification of vitamins from raw, HTST, UHT, and PATP milk and of diatom-produced chitin and glucosamine Author: Chotyakul, Nattaporn Analytical chemistry is an essential qualitative and quantitative tool to describe foods and biomaterials and their changes during production, processing and distribution. In this work, rapid analytical procedures for the extraction and quantification of components in fluid milk and diatom fermentation broth were developed. Analytical methods to measure the concentration of vitamin A, E & C in fluid milk were developed and applied to quantify these vitamins in milk distributed commercially in Spain and their retention in milk subjected to pressure-assisted thermal processing (PATP). Analytical procedures were also developed for the quantification, recovery and purification of chitin in diatom photobioreactor broths and for its conversion into glucosamine by HCl acid hydrolysis. This information was required for a techno-economical and life-cycle analysis of diatom-produced chitin for food and biomedical applications, and of its conversion into glucosamine to be marketed as a nutraceutical. This analytical development work lead to the following five studies. In the first study, total ascorbic acid (AA) in whole/semi-skim/skim raw/pasteurized/UHT milk packaged in opaque bags, transparent plastic, cardboard, and Tetra Brik™ and collected from processing plants and retail outlets was extracted and quantified by HPLC using a C-18 column. AA content ranged 0.21-10 and 3.4-16 mg/l in milk from retail outlets and processing plants, respectively, and was higher in organic milk. For same processor/lot samples, pasteurized milk showed higher AA content than UHT milk but this was not true for retail outlets samples. Among UHT samples, the AA content trend was whole<semi-skim<skim and lower for UHT milk in opaque plastic and Tetra Brik™ containers. In milk stored 14 d at 4ºC in the dark, AA losses ranged 35-83% depending on milk type. AA retention was higher in unopened milk containers. In the second study, an extraction and HPLC quantification method was improved to allow the simultaneous quantitation of retinol, α-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol and β-carotene in commercial whole/semi-skim/skim samples of raw/pasteurized/UHT milk commercialized in transparent plastic/glass bottles and Tetra BrikTM containers. The fat-soluble vitamin content in raw, pasteurized conventional/organic, and UHT milk ranged 0.055-5.540 (retinol), 0.135-1.410 (α-tocopherol), and 0.040-0.850 mg/l (β-carotene). No significant differences (p>0.05) were observed on the losses of retinol, α-tocopherol, and β-carotene content in UHT whole milk after 5 d at 4ºC in the dark. After 14 d at 4ºC in the dark the contents of retinol, α-tocopherol, and β-carotene remained higher in milk with higher fat content and were higher in unopened milk containers. In UHT whole milk samples containing 0.02% NaN₃, retinol (33%) and α­tocopherol (11%) but not β-carotene (2%) decreased significantly (p<0.05). The third study focused on the effect of elevated pressure (200-705 MPa) at moderate temperatures (30-75º) on the AA, vitamin A (retinol, β-carotene), and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) retention in raw-whole and pasteurized-skim milk. This study showed minimum losses of retinol, α-tocopherol and β-carotene after high pressure treatments at moderate temperatures. However, even the least severe treatment (400 MPa/31°C/5 min) resulted in a statistically significant AA loss (p<0.05) in raw whole (20%) and pasteurized skim milk (13%) when compared with untreated controls. AA losses reached a maximum loss of 55 and 68% in raw whole and pasteurized skim milk, respectively, when treated for 5 min at 705 MPa and 72°C. The focus of the fourth study was the determination of the chitin amount present in fermentation broths produced in a diatom photobioreactor. This was achieved by acid hydrolysis conversion of chitin into glucosamine quantified by HPLC. This information was essential for a techno-economical and life-cycle analysis of the chitin production by diatom cells and its subsequent conversion into glucosamine. Diatoms are single-cell algae with intricately structured cell walls made of nanopatterned silica (SiO₂) previously studied for applications in nanotechnology. This study focused on the long chitin fibers extruded by Cyclotella spp. diatoms to be used as is for biomedical and food applications or it can be hydrolyzed into glucosamine to be marketed as a dietary supplement. Kinetics of the glucosamine (GlcN) monomer production by acid hydrolysis of commercial diatom chitin was determined in 4M, 6M, 8M, 10M and 12M HCl at 90°C for up to 3 h. The GlcN produced was quantified by HPLC (Dionex MA-1 column, 30°C, 0.4 ml/min 0.75M NaOH isocratic mobile phase, ED-40 PAD detector). Acid hydrolysis in 8M HCl at 90°C for 2 h of commercial chitin suspended in distilled water showed a high GlcN conversion (98.0% ± 0.04, n=2). Tests using reagent-quality GlcN showed that the chitin monomer was stable under these hydrolysis conditions (>88% retention). However, the 8M HCl hydrolysis of commercial diatom chitin suspended in two different formulations of sterile diatom fermentation broths for 1, 2 and 3 h showed that the chitin conversion to glucosamine was fermentation media dependent. Further tests of chitin produced by diatoms in the photobioreactor confirmed that the acid hydrolysis of chitin is media dependent. To overcome this media-dependence limitation, diatom photobioreactor broth samples corresponding to initial, mid and final fermentation time points were spiked to obtain an average media correction factor. This factor was determined for each photobioreactor run to quantify chitin production using glucosamine yield after 8M HCl hydrolysis at 90°C for 3h. The correction factor allowed reliable and low-variability determinations of the chitin production kinetics in the diatom photobioreactor. The fifth study focused on the development of a chitin separation and purification method from the diatom photobioreactor broth. A mild centrifugation step to remove diatom cells in the pellet was optimized (1500g, 1 min) and yielded a high retention of chitin in the supernatant (96.6±0.18 and 84.6±0.02) when evaluated using two different fermentation broth formulations. Intense centrifugation (11000g, 30 and 60 min) was then used to recover chitin fibers in a second pellet. Analysis of the chitin content in the supernatant of the second centrifugation showed losses of less than 10%. Therefore, the two centrifugation steps allowed a recovery exceeding 80%. The chitin pellet was then purified using 1M HCl at 70°C to solubilize calcium and other salts, 0.5% w/w SDS to remove insoluble proteins, and 95% ethanol to remove chlorophylls and other organic materials yielding chitin with a 70.9±16.6% purity. Title: Extraction and quantification of vitamins from raw, HTST, UHT, and PATP milk and of diatom-produced chitin and glucosamine Author: Chotyakul, Nattaporn Analytical chemistry is an essential qualitative and quantitative tool to describe foods and biomaterials and their changes during production, processing and distribution. In this work, rapid analytical procedures for the extraction and quantification of components in fluid milk and diatom fermentation broth were developed. Analytical methods to measure the concentration of vitamin A, E & C in fluid milk were developed and applied to quantify these vitamins in milk distributed commercially in Spain and their retention in milk subjected to pressure-assisted thermal processing (PATP). Analytical procedures were also developed for the quantification, recovery and purification of chitin in diatom photobioreactor broths and for its conversion into glucosamine by HCl acid hydrolysis. This information was required for a techno-economical and life-cycle analysis of diatom-produced chitin for food and biomedical applications, and of its conversion into glucosamine to be marketed as a nutraceutical. This analytical development work lead to the following five studies. In the first study, total ascorbic acid (AA) in whole/semi-skim/skim raw/pasteurized/UHT milk packaged in opaque bags, transparent plastic, cardboard, and Tetra Brik™ and collected from processing plants and retail outlets was extracted and quantified by HPLC using a C-18 column. AA content ranged 0.21-10 and 3.4-16 mg/l in milk from retail outlets and processing plants, respectively, and was higher in organic milk. For same processor/lot samples, pasteurized milk showed higher AA content than UHT milk but this was not true for retail outlets samples. Among UHT samples, the AA content trend was whole<semi-skim<skim and lower for UHT milk in opaque plastic and Tetra Brik™ containers. In milk stored 14 d at 4ºC in the dark, AA losses ranged 35-83% depending on milk type. AA retention was higher in unopened milk containers. In the second study, an extraction and HPLC quantification method was improved to allow the simultaneous quantitation of retinol, α-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol and β-carotene in commercial whole/semi-skim/skim samples of raw/pasteurized/UHT milk commercialized in transparent plastic/glass bottles and Tetra BrikTM containers. The fat-soluble vitamin content in raw, pasteurized conventional/organic, and UHT milk ranged 0.055-5.540 (retinol), 0.135-1.410 (α-tocopherol), and 0.040-0.850 mg/l (β-carotene). No significant differences (p>0.05) were observed on the losses of retinol, α-tocopherol, and β-carotene content in UHT whole milk after 5 d at 4ºC in the dark. After 14 d at 4ºC in the dark the contents of retinol, α-tocopherol, and β-carotene remained higher in milk with higher fat content and were higher in unopened milk containers. In UHT whole milk samples containing 0.02% NaN₃, retinol (33%) and α­tocopherol (11%) but not β-carotene (2%) decreased significantly (p<0.05). The third study focused on the effect of elevated pressure (200-705 MPa) at moderate temperatures (30-75º) on the AA, vitamin A (retinol, β-carotene), and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) retention in raw-whole and pasteurized-skim milk. This study showed minimum losses of retinol, α-tocopherol and β-carotene after high pressure treatments at moderate temperatures. However, even the least severe treatment (400 MPa/31°C/5 min) resulted in a statistically significant AA loss (p<0.05) in raw whole (20%) and pasteurized skim milk (13%) when compared with untreated controls. AA losses reached a maximum loss of 55 and 68% in raw whole and pasteurized skim milk, respectively, when treated for 5 min at 705 MPa and 72°C. The focus of the fourth study was the determination of the chitin amount present in fermentation broths produced in a diatom photobioreactor. This was achieved by acid hydrolysis conversion of chitin into glucosamine quantified by HPLC. This information was essential for a techno-economical and life-cycle analysis of the chitin production by diatom cells and its subsequent conversion into glucosamine. Diatoms are single-cell algae with intricately structured cell walls made of nanopatterned silica (SiO₂) previously studied for applications in nanotechnology. This study focused on the long chitin fibers extruded by Cyclotella spp. diatoms to be used as is for biomedical and food applications or it can be hydrolyzed into glucosamine to be marketed as a dietary supplement. Kinetics of the glucosamine (GlcN) monomer production by acid hydrolysis of commercial diatom chitin was determined in 4M, 6M, 8M, 10M and 12M HCl at 90°C for up to 3 h. The GlcN produced was quantified by HPLC (Dionex MA-1 column, 30°C, 0.4 ml/min 0.75M NaOH isocratic mobile phase, ED-40 PAD detector). Acid hydrolysis in 8M HCl at 90°C for 2 h of commercial chitin suspended in distilled water showed a high GlcN conversion (98.0% ± 0.04, n=2). Tests using reagent-quality GlcN showed that the chitin monomer was stable under these hydrolysis conditions (>88% retention). However, the 8M HCl hydrolysis of commercial diatom chitin suspended in two different formulations of sterile diatom fermentation broths for 1, 2 and 3 h showed that the chitin conversion to glucosamine was fermentation media dependent. Further tests of chitin produced by diatoms in the photobioreactor confirmed that the acid hydrolysis of chitin is media dependent. To overcome this media-dependence limitation, diatom photobioreactor broth samples corresponding to initial, mid and final fermentation time points were spiked to obtain an average media correction factor. This factor was determined for each photobioreactor run to quantify chitin production using glucosamine yield after 8M HCl hydrolysis at 90°C for 3h. The correction factor allowed reliable and low-variability determinations of the chitin production kinetics in the diatom photobioreactor. The fifth study focused on the development of a chitin separation and purification method from the diatom photobioreactor broth. A mild centrifugation step to remove diatom cells in the pellet was optimized (1500g, 1 min) and yielded a high retention of chitin in the supernatant (96.6±0.18 and 84.6±0.02) when evaluated using two different fermentation broth formulations. Intense centrifugation (11000g, 30 and 60 min) was then used to recover chitin fibers in a second pellet. Analysis of the chitin content in the supernatant of the second centrifugation showed losses of less than 10%. Therefore, the two centrifugation steps allowed a recovery exceeding 80%. The chitin pellet was then purified using 1M HCl at 70°C to solubilize calcium and other salts, 0.5% w/w SDS to remove insoluble proteins, and 95% ethanol to remove chlorophylls and other organic materials yielding chitin with a 70.9±16.6% purity. Close