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• 1651. [Article] A comparison of seafloor sonar classification methods through the use of error matrices and 3 dimensional GIS visualization : a multibeam sonar investigation of Nehalem Bank, Oregon

  Multibeam sonar data was collected on Nehalem Bank, off of the Oregon Coast with the purpose of increasing the spatial resolution of our knowledge of the area and delineating seafloor habitats. The system ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A comparison of seafloor sonar classification methods through the use of error matrices and 3 dimensional GIS visualization : a multibeam sonar investigation of Nehalem Bank, Oregon Author: Lanier, Andrew S. Multibeam sonar data was collected on Nehalem Bank, off of the Oregon Coast with the purpose of increasing the spatial resolution of our knowledge of the area and delineating seafloor habitats. The system used was the Kongsberg Simrad EM-300 operating at 30 kHz. The data set collected includes both topographic and backscatter information, both of which were processed and gridded at a 5m cell-size resolution. This thesis summarizes the methods used in the characterization of seafloor habitat using the Nehalem Bank data and the analysis tools incorporated within a geographic information system (GIS). This work focuses on investigations into the analysis of benthic habitats through the use of algorithmic calculations at multiple scales to quantitatively delineate distinct seafloor regions. A recently developed spatial analysis technique, the bathymetric position index (BPI), was tested and used as part of the Benthic Terrain Modeler Tool to classify the Nehalem Bank data. Those results were compared both qualitatively and quantitatively to a newly developed method (developed for this project) entitled the surface interpretation method (SIM). Both methods of classification use multiple scales of BPI in conjunction with the topographic digital elevation model (DEM) to quantitatively delineate seafloor habitats. While accuracy assessments of remotely sensed imagery on land are usually carried out using groundtruthing information collected specifically for that purpose, sonar imagery is often assessed using any information available. The groundtruth data available for Nehalem Bank is sparsely located throughout the region and includes: submersible dives, sample data, and seismic and sidescan imagery. In order to evaluate the fit of the classification attempts to the DEM quantitatively, a set of reference points was created and interpreted using the three dimensional (3D) visualization capabilities of a GIS. The results were analyzed using error matrix statistical measures that provided a quantitative assessment of the classification results, the feedback from which guided a refinement of the classification methods. This was done in attempt to optimize “real-world” evaluation of a classification methods results, without an idealized level of seafloor groundtruth data. The backscatter component of the data was processed to reduce the influence of grazing angle on the intensity of surface returns, a common source of noise that dominates many datasets. The processed image shows a reduced variability of the grey level of the imagery in both along and across track directions. Submersible dive groundtruth data were then co-located with the backscatter imagery using habitat interpretations of the dives displayed upon the DEM. The backscatter data was then classified in the regions of the dives using textural analysis with grey level co-occurrence matrix derived indices of homogeneity and entropy. The resulting substrate class divisions satisfactorily parsed the landscape into habitat regions, with the exceptions of the nadir and shadow regions. However, higher frequency deep-towed sidescan imagery in the same region shows that the delineation of substrate regions appears to be incorrect with the EM300 imagery likely imaging subsurface seafloor characteristics. Title: A comparison of seafloor sonar classification methods through the use of error matrices and 3 dimensional GIS visualization : a multibeam sonar investigation of Nehalem Bank, Oregon Author: Lanier, Andrew S. Multibeam sonar data was collected on Nehalem Bank, off of the Oregon Coast with the purpose of increasing the spatial resolution of our knowledge of the area and delineating seafloor habitats. The system used was the Kongsberg Simrad EM-300 operating at 30 kHz. The data set collected includes both topographic and backscatter information, both of which were processed and gridded at a 5m cell-size resolution. This thesis summarizes the methods used in the characterization of seafloor habitat using the Nehalem Bank data and the analysis tools incorporated within a geographic information system (GIS). This work focuses on investigations into the analysis of benthic habitats through the use of algorithmic calculations at multiple scales to quantitatively delineate distinct seafloor regions. A recently developed spatial analysis technique, the bathymetric position index (BPI), was tested and used as part of the Benthic Terrain Modeler Tool to classify the Nehalem Bank data. Those results were compared both qualitatively and quantitatively to a newly developed method (developed for this project) entitled the surface interpretation method (SIM). Both methods of classification use multiple scales of BPI in conjunction with the topographic digital elevation model (DEM) to quantitatively delineate seafloor habitats. While accuracy assessments of remotely sensed imagery on land are usually carried out using groundtruthing information collected specifically for that purpose, sonar imagery is often assessed using any information available. The groundtruth data available for Nehalem Bank is sparsely located throughout the region and includes: submersible dives, sample data, and seismic and sidescan imagery. In order to evaluate the fit of the classification attempts to the DEM quantitatively, a set of reference points was created and interpreted using the three dimensional (3D) visualization capabilities of a GIS. The results were analyzed using error matrix statistical measures that provided a quantitative assessment of the classification results, the feedback from which guided a refinement of the classification methods. This was done in attempt to optimize “real-world” evaluation of a classification methods results, without an idealized level of seafloor groundtruth data. The backscatter component of the data was processed to reduce the influence of grazing angle on the intensity of surface returns, a common source of noise that dominates many datasets. The processed image shows a reduced variability of the grey level of the imagery in both along and across track directions. Submersible dive groundtruth data were then co-located with the backscatter imagery using habitat interpretations of the dives displayed upon the DEM. The backscatter data was then classified in the regions of the dives using textural analysis with grey level co-occurrence matrix derived indices of homogeneity and entropy. The resulting substrate class divisions satisfactorily parsed the landscape into habitat regions, with the exceptions of the nadir and shadow regions. However, higher frequency deep-towed sidescan imagery in the same region shows that the delineation of substrate regions appears to be incorrect with the EM300 imagery likely imaging subsurface seafloor characteristics. Close

• 1652. [Article] Quantifying Aboveground Biomass for Common Shrubs in Northeastern California

  Quantifying biomass is important for sustainable forest management. The purpose of this study is to obtain allometric relationships for seven species of shrubs common in northeastern California so that ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Quantifying Aboveground Biomass for Common Shrubs in Northeastern California Author: Huff, Steven (Steven E.) Quantifying biomass is important for sustainable forest management. The purpose of this study is to obtain allometric relationships for seven species of shrubs common in northeastern California so that estimates of carbon and fuel loading may be better realized. Although some shrub biomass equations exist, such equations are limited in sample size and geographic scope. In this study, predictive equations were developed for shrub species using available metrics that relate crown area, basal area, plant height, and stem diameter to the dried weight of total, leaf, 1-hour, 10-hour, 100-hour, and 1,000-hour biomass components. Nonlinear least squares regression was used to obtain parameter estimates via an allometric (power) model. Seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) was used to formulate biomass equations for each shrub species. The resulting system of equations offer a reference for land managers and researchers interested in biomass assessment. Multinomial log-linear regression (MLR) was used to obtain predicted proportions of each shrub species biomass component and was consistent in producing low values of RMSE%. Nonlinear mixed effects models (NMEM) were used to estimate biomass component by species in Chapter 3. The use of NMEM in this setting was beneficial in explaining within subject biomass and allometry in the seven shrub species. The equations resulting from this research are applicable to areas within northeastern California where similar climate, vegetation associations, and soils may be found in relation to the study area for which this research occurred. Title: Quantifying Aboveground Biomass for Common Shrubs in Northeastern California Author: Huff, Steven (Steven E.) Quantifying biomass is important for sustainable forest management. The purpose of this study is to obtain allometric relationships for seven species of shrubs common in northeastern California so that estimates of carbon and fuel loading may be better realized. Although some shrub biomass equations exist, such equations are limited in sample size and geographic scope. In this study, predictive equations were developed for shrub species using available metrics that relate crown area, basal area, plant height, and stem diameter to the dried weight of total, leaf, 1-hour, 10-hour, 100-hour, and 1,000-hour biomass components. Nonlinear least squares regression was used to obtain parameter estimates via an allometric (power) model. Seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) was used to formulate biomass equations for each shrub species. The resulting system of equations offer a reference for land managers and researchers interested in biomass assessment. Multinomial log-linear regression (MLR) was used to obtain predicted proportions of each shrub species biomass component and was consistent in producing low values of RMSE%. Nonlinear mixed effects models (NMEM) were used to estimate biomass component by species in Chapter 3. The use of NMEM in this setting was beneficial in explaining within subject biomass and allometry in the seven shrub species. The equations resulting from this research are applicable to areas within northeastern California where similar climate, vegetation associations, and soils may be found in relation to the study area for which this research occurred. Close

• 1653. [Article] Multi-spatial scale representation of landscape transitions using landsat thematic mapper data and scale-space filters

  This thesis considered current approaches to describing landscape pattern, identified scale issues associated with defining objects, and explored techniques to reliably group elements based on land cover ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Multi-spatial scale representation of landscape transitions using landsat thematic mapper data and scale-space filters Author: Lindeman, Dale R. This thesis considered current approaches to describing landscape pattern, identified scale issues associated with defining objects, and explored techniques to reliably group elements based on land cover as represented by satellite imagery. It was recognized that there is an important need to develop tools that can be applied using remotely sensed data to objectively identify landscape features at multiple spatial scales. The thesis focused on the potential for the use of specific digital image processing techniques to objectively generate multi-scale landscape heterogeneity models from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery. An approach using Difference-of-Gaussian (DoG) scale-space filters was used to process TM satellite data, transformed into the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), to define discrete landscape units across a range of scales. A series of Difference-of-Gaussian filters, with standard deviation (a) pairs of 0.9 and 1.1, 0.8 and 1.2, and 0.7 and 1.3, was applied to TM data. Results were compared against published ecoregion classifications and aerial orthophotography. These comparisons showed that the applied filters failed to accurately define landscape elements at a range of spatial scales. Filter size was found to be highly sensitive to the resolution of the image and object boundaries were maldelineated when complex boundary combinations were encountered. A modified approach using Gaussian/Difference-of-Gaussian or GaussianlLaplacian filter combinations and an alternate approach of watershed segmentation were recommended as potential techniques to test in further study. Future study should also include statistical approaches to aggregate zones and relate delineated zones to an actual, on-the-ground physiognomic classification scheme. Title: Multi-spatial scale representation of landscape transitions using landsat thematic mapper data and scale-space filters Author: Lindeman, Dale R. This thesis considered current approaches to describing landscape pattern, identified scale issues associated with defining objects, and explored techniques to reliably group elements based on land cover as represented by satellite imagery. It was recognized that there is an important need to develop tools that can be applied using remotely sensed data to objectively identify landscape features at multiple spatial scales. The thesis focused on the potential for the use of specific digital image processing techniques to objectively generate multi-scale landscape heterogeneity models from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery. An approach using Difference-of-Gaussian (DoG) scale-space filters was used to process TM satellite data, transformed into the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), to define discrete landscape units across a range of scales. A series of Difference-of-Gaussian filters, with standard deviation (a) pairs of 0.9 and 1.1, 0.8 and 1.2, and 0.7 and 1.3, was applied to TM data. Results were compared against published ecoregion classifications and aerial orthophotography. These comparisons showed that the applied filters failed to accurately define landscape elements at a range of spatial scales. Filter size was found to be highly sensitive to the resolution of the image and object boundaries were maldelineated when complex boundary combinations were encountered. A modified approach using Gaussian/Difference-of-Gaussian or GaussianlLaplacian filter combinations and an alternate approach of watershed segmentation were recommended as potential techniques to test in further study. Future study should also include statistical approaches to aggregate zones and relate delineated zones to an actual, on-the-ground physiognomic classification scheme. Close

• 1654. [Article] Integrating short-term spatially feasible harvest plans with long- term harvest schedules using Monte-Carlo integer programming and linear programming

  Procedures are developed for integrating short-term, area-based plans with long-term, strata-based harvest schedules. These procedures were tested on a 4000 hectare tract of forest land in British Columbia. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Integrating short-term spatially feasible harvest plans with long- term harvest schedules using Monte-Carlo integer programming and linear programming Author: Nelson, John Douglas Procedures are developed for integrating short-term, area-based plans with long-term, strata-based harvest schedules. These procedures were tested on a 4000 hectare tract of forest land in British Columbia. It is shown that a combination of these two approaches to forest planning provides a spatially feasible short-term solution that is also feasible in terms of strategic harvest goals over the long-term. Three basic steps are used to combine the area and strata-based plans. First, a 15-decade strata-based plan is solved with linear programming (LP) to establish strategic harvest goals. This LP determines the nondeclining yield of volume and the minimum net revenue that can be produced each decade, and it also determines how much of the forest must be partitioned into harvest units to supply a 3-decade area-based plan. Second, using the strategic harvest goals as guidelines, 3-decade area-based plans are generated using a random search technique called Monte-Carlo integer programming (MCIP). The area-based plans are selected from 45 harvest units which are accessed by 51 major road projects. Both the harvest units and the road projects are specified as strict binary variables. Adjacency constraints prohibit any two adjoining units from being cut in the same decade. Third, the area-based plans become the first 3- decade solution for 15-decade integrated plans that are solved using LP. This is accomplished by using coordinated allocation choices within the FORPLAN model. It was found that MCIP is an effective technique for generating feasible solutions to large integer problems encountered in area-based planning. No guarantee of optimality can be assured, however, the technique is a major improvement over manual methods, and it is a practical alternative to mixed integer programming where the cost of finding the true optimum is prohibitive. It was also found that the discount rate is not a factor in determining the optimal basis for an LP that maximizes present net worth and includes a nondeclining net revenue constraint. Title: Integrating short-term spatially feasible harvest plans with long- term harvest schedules using Monte-Carlo integer programming and linear programming Author: Nelson, John Douglas Procedures are developed for integrating short-term, area-based plans with long-term, strata-based harvest schedules. These procedures were tested on a 4000 hectare tract of forest land in British Columbia. It is shown that a combination of these two approaches to forest planning provides a spatially feasible short-term solution that is also feasible in terms of strategic harvest goals over the long-term. Three basic steps are used to combine the area and strata-based plans. First, a 15-decade strata-based plan is solved with linear programming (LP) to establish strategic harvest goals. This LP determines the nondeclining yield of volume and the minimum net revenue that can be produced each decade, and it also determines how much of the forest must be partitioned into harvest units to supply a 3-decade area-based plan. Second, using the strategic harvest goals as guidelines, 3-decade area-based plans are generated using a random search technique called Monte-Carlo integer programming (MCIP). The area-based plans are selected from 45 harvest units which are accessed by 51 major road projects. Both the harvest units and the road projects are specified as strict binary variables. Adjacency constraints prohibit any two adjoining units from being cut in the same decade. Third, the area-based plans become the first 3- decade solution for 15-decade integrated plans that are solved using LP. This is accomplished by using coordinated allocation choices within the FORPLAN model. It was found that MCIP is an effective technique for generating feasible solutions to large integer problems encountered in area-based planning. No guarantee of optimality can be assured, however, the technique is a major improvement over manual methods, and it is a practical alternative to mixed integer programming where the cost of finding the true optimum is prohibitive. It was also found that the discount rate is not a factor in determining the optimal basis for an LP that maximizes present net worth and includes a nondeclining net revenue constraint. Close

• 1655. [Article] Examination of uncertainty in per unit area estimates of aboveground biomass using terrestrial LiDAR and ground data

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work and it is therefore in the public domain in the United States. This is the publisher’s ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Examination of uncertainty in per unit area estimates of aboveground biomass using terrestrial LiDAR and ground data Author: Temesgen, Hailemariam, Shettles, Michael, Hilker, Thomas To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work and it is therefore in the public domain in the United States. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article is published by NRC Research Press and can be found at: http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/journal/cjfr Title: Examination of uncertainty in per unit area estimates of aboveground biomass using terrestrial LiDAR and ground data Author: Temesgen, Hailemariam, Shettles, Michael, Hilker, Thomas To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work and it is therefore in the public domain in the United States. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article is published by NRC Research Press and can be found at: http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/journal/cjfr Close

• 1656. [Article] Carbon balance on federal forest lands of Western Oregon and Washington: The impact of the Northwest Forest Plan

  This is the author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Carbon balance on federal forest lands of Western Oregon and Washington: The impact of the Northwest Forest Plan Author: Schnekenburger, Frank, Harmon, Mark E., Krankina, Olga N., Sierra, Carlos A. This is the author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-and-management/. Title: Carbon balance on federal forest lands of Western Oregon and Washington: The impact of the Northwest Forest Plan Author: Schnekenburger, Frank, Harmon, Mark E., Krankina, Olga N., Sierra, Carlos A. This is the author's peer-reviewed final manuscript, as accepted by the publisher. The published article is copyrighted by Elsevier and can be found at: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-and-management/. Close

• 1657. [Article] Predicting nitrate concentrations in leachate resulting from land application of wastewater onto various crop systems including poplars

  Land application of industrial wastewater with high levels of nitrogen requires adequate management practices to prevent groundwater pollution by nitrates. In this study a predictive computerized model ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Predicting nitrate concentrations in leachate resulting from land application of wastewater onto various crop systems including poplars Author: Motte, Marie Quitterie Land application of industrial wastewater with high levels of nitrogen requires adequate management practices to prevent groundwater pollution by nitrates. In this study a predictive computerized model was developed for nitrate leachate concentrations resulting from land application of wastewater onto crop systems including poplars. The study included a literature review, development of a computer program that could serve this purpose, and a field investigation to test the validity of the computed predictions. The literature review focused on poplar water and nitrogen uptakes, and suggested that mature poplars could uptake up to 400 lb of nitrogen /acre/year and 2 3 million gallons of water per acre per year. The computer model, based on 10-day water and nutrient balances, takes into account a number of parameters such as wastewater quality, evapotranspiration and precipitation data, irrigation volumes, soil water holding capacities, fertilization, crop nutrient uptakes and crop coefficients. This study involves a number of assumptions selected to give conservative (i.e., worst case approach) model predictions. Attempts to validate the model were conducted through soil and groundwater sampling along with precipitation data collection in four distinct fields in Brooks, Oregon, from October 1996 to April 1997. The variations in nitrogen soil profiles from October to April helped determine the amount of nitrogen leaving the soil, and groundwater samples from 5 feet deep wells gave nitrate concentrations in groundwater below the root zone. A sensitivity analysis of the program demonstrated how important nitrogen and water uptakes values were to the model predictions. An increase of 1% in nitrogen uptake or of 0.4% in crop coefficients generated 1% decrease in nitrogen concentration of the leachate. These results are important to consider when adopting highly uncertain literature values for crop uptakes -especially with poplars. The field validation of the model showed promising results in terms of estimating average yearly leachate concentrations in nitrogen resulting from land application of wastewater, but also suggested that more groundwater wells were needed to obtain a statistically significant validation of the model. These preliminary field results indicate that the model can provide an indication of groundwater nitrogen concentration trends but needs to further verified to be used confidently as a predictive tool. Title: Predicting nitrate concentrations in leachate resulting from land application of wastewater onto various crop systems including poplars Author: Motte, Marie Quitterie Land application of industrial wastewater with high levels of nitrogen requires adequate management practices to prevent groundwater pollution by nitrates. In this study a predictive computerized model was developed for nitrate leachate concentrations resulting from land application of wastewater onto crop systems including poplars. The study included a literature review, development of a computer program that could serve this purpose, and a field investigation to test the validity of the computed predictions. The literature review focused on poplar water and nitrogen uptakes, and suggested that mature poplars could uptake up to 400 lb of nitrogen /acre/year and 2 3 million gallons of water per acre per year. The computer model, based on 10-day water and nutrient balances, takes into account a number of parameters such as wastewater quality, evapotranspiration and precipitation data, irrigation volumes, soil water holding capacities, fertilization, crop nutrient uptakes and crop coefficients. This study involves a number of assumptions selected to give conservative (i.e., worst case approach) model predictions. Attempts to validate the model were conducted through soil and groundwater sampling along with precipitation data collection in four distinct fields in Brooks, Oregon, from October 1996 to April 1997. The variations in nitrogen soil profiles from October to April helped determine the amount of nitrogen leaving the soil, and groundwater samples from 5 feet deep wells gave nitrate concentrations in groundwater below the root zone. A sensitivity analysis of the program demonstrated how important nitrogen and water uptakes values were to the model predictions. An increase of 1% in nitrogen uptake or of 0.4% in crop coefficients generated 1% decrease in nitrogen concentration of the leachate. These results are important to consider when adopting highly uncertain literature values for crop uptakes -especially with poplars. The field validation of the model showed promising results in terms of estimating average yearly leachate concentrations in nitrogen resulting from land application of wastewater, but also suggested that more groundwater wells were needed to obtain a statistically significant validation of the model. These preliminary field results indicate that the model can provide an indication of groundwater nitrogen concentration trends but needs to further verified to be used confidently as a predictive tool. Close

• 1658. [Article] Effects of U.S. commodity programs on farm growth

  The U.S. farm sector has undergone dramatic structural change during the past fifty years, a chief result being that the number of large farms has increased relative to the number of small farms. Numerous ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Effects of U.S. commodity programs on farm growth Author: Sukume, Chrispen The U.S. farm sector has undergone dramatic structural change during the past fifty years, a chief result being that the number of large farms has increased relative to the number of small farms. Numerous agricultural policies have been instituted, with the partial objective of preserving the family farm. At the same time, a number of studies have attempted to ascertain the contribution of various forces, including farm programs, toward the observed changes in average farm size. These studies have tended to concentrate on aggregate effects, ignoring farm-level and dynamic effects of program and nonprogram factors on farm growth. The present study overcomes such limitations by utilizing a farm-level dynamic growth model which links consumption, production, and investment decisions. Steady-state comparative static and local comparative dynamic analysis of the dynamic model solutions indicate qualitative effects of program and nonprogram factors on farm growth. Simulation of quantitative effects are conducted on econometric estimates of the dynamic model solutions, using Kansas wheat farm data. Empirical results show that set-aside-percentage-type instruments (required and voluntary set-aside percentages) induce longrun net equity increases in small farms and longrun net equity decreases in large farms. In both size classes, set-aside instruments increase longrun land holdings, the increases being greater in larger than in smaller farms. After considering effects on rented land, the effect of set-aside-type instruments on overall scale of operation is negligible. Payment-rate-type instruments (per-acre deficiency, voluntary and paid diversion payment rates) increase longrun net equity and consumption in both small and large farms. They lead to longrun land ownership increases in small farms and decreases in large farms. However, they lead also to increases in rented land, the increase being greater in larger than in smaller farms. Net effect on scale of operation is nonsignificant. Finally, nonprogram factors affect growth also. Technical change increases net equity and landholding in large farms more than in small farms. In both large and small farms, increases in prices of land's substitutes, lead to net equity increases, whereas increases in prices of complements reduce net equity. In the longrun, output price increases encourage consumption and reduce net equity. Title: Effects of U.S. commodity programs on farm growth Author: Sukume, Chrispen The U.S. farm sector has undergone dramatic structural change during the past fifty years, a chief result being that the number of large farms has increased relative to the number of small farms. Numerous agricultural policies have been instituted, with the partial objective of preserving the family farm. At the same time, a number of studies have attempted to ascertain the contribution of various forces, including farm programs, toward the observed changes in average farm size. These studies have tended to concentrate on aggregate effects, ignoring farm-level and dynamic effects of program and nonprogram factors on farm growth. The present study overcomes such limitations by utilizing a farm-level dynamic growth model which links consumption, production, and investment decisions. Steady-state comparative static and local comparative dynamic analysis of the dynamic model solutions indicate qualitative effects of program and nonprogram factors on farm growth. Simulation of quantitative effects are conducted on econometric estimates of the dynamic model solutions, using Kansas wheat farm data. Empirical results show that set-aside-percentage-type instruments (required and voluntary set-aside percentages) induce longrun net equity increases in small farms and longrun net equity decreases in large farms. In both size classes, set-aside instruments increase longrun land holdings, the increases being greater in larger than in smaller farms. After considering effects on rented land, the effect of set-aside-type instruments on overall scale of operation is negligible. Payment-rate-type instruments (per-acre deficiency, voluntary and paid diversion payment rates) increase longrun net equity and consumption in both small and large farms. They lead to longrun land ownership increases in small farms and decreases in large farms. However, they lead also to increases in rented land, the increase being greater in larger than in smaller farms. Net effect on scale of operation is nonsignificant. Finally, nonprogram factors affect growth also. Technical change increases net equity and landholding in large farms more than in small farms. In both large and small farms, increases in prices of land's substitutes, lead to net equity increases, whereas increases in prices of complements reduce net equity. In the longrun, output price increases encourage consumption and reduce net equity. Close

• 1659. [Article] Greater Sage-Grouse Umbrella CCAA for Wyoming Ranch Management: a Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances for Greater Sage-Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus

  Prior to settlement in the 19th century, greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; hereafter referred to as ‘sage-grouse’) inhabited 13 western States and three Canadian provinces, and their potential ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Greater Sage-Grouse Umbrella CCAA for Wyoming Ranch Management: a Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances for Greater Sage-Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus Author: Wyoming Association of Conservation Districts, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Wyoming Bureau of Land Management, Wyoming Department of Agriculture, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Forest Service, Wyoming Governor’s Office Prior to settlement in the 19th century, greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; hereafter referred to as ‘sage-grouse’) inhabited 13 western States and three Canadian provinces, and their potential habitat covered over 1,200,483 square kilometers (km) (463,509 square miles (mi)). Sage-grouse have declined across their range due to a variety of causes and now occur in 11 States and two Canadian provinces. Many factors played a role in reducing sage-grouse from a once abundant, broadly distributed species, but the primary threat is loss of habitat due to increased surface disturbance and general fragmentation of the landscape. These concerns were identified in the 2005 Endangered Species Act (ESA) listing finding and remain so, but with more intensity and on a larger scale today. In the 2010 listing finding, additional concerns were identified as threats, including an increase in the use of sagebrush habitat for renewable energy such as wind power, and the spread of West Nile Virus (WNv). In anticipation of a final listing decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the Wyoming Governor’s Office (WGO) requested assistance from the FWS in developing a sage-grouse strategy for ranch management activities that could offer private landowners assurances their livestock operations could continue in the event the species was listed under the ESA. The WGO and FWS in conjunction with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the U.S Forest Service (USFS), the Wyoming Department of Agriculture (WDA), Wyoming Game and Fish Department (WGFD), and the Wyoming Association of Conservation Districts have developed this umbrella Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances (CCAA). A CCAA is a voluntary agreement whereby private landowners agree to manage their lands to remove or reduce threats to species at risk of being listed under the ESA. In return for managing their lands to the benefit of species at risk, these landowners receive assurances against additional regulatory requirements should that species ever be listed under the ESA. Under a CCAA, the FWS will issue enrolled landowners Enhancement of Survival (EOS) permits pursuant to section 10(a)(1)(A) of the ESA for a period of 20 years. Since the agreement is voluntary, the landowner can end it at any point, although in doing so they would give up any assurances, and the EOS permit would terminate. FWS will issue EOS permits to participating landowners contingent on development of a site-specific individual sage-grouse conservation plan consistent with this umbrella CCAA. This umbrella CCAA includes:  A general description of responsibilities of all involved participating agencies and landowners, and the area covered under the umbrella CCAA;  Background, status and general threats to sage-grouse, and conservation measures needed to remove or reduce those identified threats;  Expected benefits of prescribed actions in relation to the five threat factors the FWS is required to evaluate when considering a species for listing; and  Level of take likely to occur from activities on enrolled lands, assurances, monitoring, and annual reporting. Title: Greater Sage-Grouse Umbrella CCAA for Wyoming Ranch Management: a Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances for Greater Sage-Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus Author: Wyoming Association of Conservation Districts, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Wyoming Bureau of Land Management, Wyoming Department of Agriculture, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Forest Service, Wyoming Governor’s Office Prior to settlement in the 19th century, greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; hereafter referred to as ‘sage-grouse’) inhabited 13 western States and three Canadian provinces, and their potential habitat covered over 1,200,483 square kilometers (km) (463,509 square miles (mi)). Sage-grouse have declined across their range due to a variety of causes and now occur in 11 States and two Canadian provinces. Many factors played a role in reducing sage-grouse from a once abundant, broadly distributed species, but the primary threat is loss of habitat due to increased surface disturbance and general fragmentation of the landscape. These concerns were identified in the 2005 Endangered Species Act (ESA) listing finding and remain so, but with more intensity and on a larger scale today. In the 2010 listing finding, additional concerns were identified as threats, including an increase in the use of sagebrush habitat for renewable energy such as wind power, and the spread of West Nile Virus (WNv). In anticipation of a final listing decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the Wyoming Governor’s Office (WGO) requested assistance from the FWS in developing a sage-grouse strategy for ranch management activities that could offer private landowners assurances their livestock operations could continue in the event the species was listed under the ESA. The WGO and FWS in conjunction with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the U.S Forest Service (USFS), the Wyoming Department of Agriculture (WDA), Wyoming Game and Fish Department (WGFD), and the Wyoming Association of Conservation Districts have developed this umbrella Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances (CCAA). A CCAA is a voluntary agreement whereby private landowners agree to manage their lands to remove or reduce threats to species at risk of being listed under the ESA. In return for managing their lands to the benefit of species at risk, these landowners receive assurances against additional regulatory requirements should that species ever be listed under the ESA. Under a CCAA, the FWS will issue enrolled landowners Enhancement of Survival (EOS) permits pursuant to section 10(a)(1)(A) of the ESA for a period of 20 years. Since the agreement is voluntary, the landowner can end it at any point, although in doing so they would give up any assurances, and the EOS permit would terminate. FWS will issue EOS permits to participating landowners contingent on development of a site-specific individual sage-grouse conservation plan consistent with this umbrella CCAA. This umbrella CCAA includes:  A general description of responsibilities of all involved participating agencies and landowners, and the area covered under the umbrella CCAA;  Background, status and general threats to sage-grouse, and conservation measures needed to remove or reduce those identified threats;  Expected benefits of prescribed actions in relation to the five threat factors the FWS is required to evaluate when considering a species for listing; and  Level of take likely to occur from activities on enrolled lands, assurances, monitoring, and annual reporting. Close

• 1660. [Article] Kinship, environment and the Forest Service : homesteading in Oregon's Coast Range

  The settlement history of a remote area in the Coast Range of Oregon, from the 1870s to the 1930s, is examined through factors that may have influenced the success or failure, and length of residence of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Kinship, environment and the Forest Service : homesteading in Oregon's Coast Range Author: Prior, Jan M. The settlement history of a remote area in the Coast Range of Oregon, from the 1870s to the 1930s, is examined through factors that may have influenced the success or failure, and length of residence of the homesteaders and later residents. Despite the rugged and isolated location, a small community of scattered settlers managed to build comfortable homes, cultivate gardens, orchards and grain fields, and raise goats and other livestock. Yet, while a few were able to make a marginal living in this mountainous area, many more were unsuccessful. The successful homesteaders often had to fmd outside employment and they relied on game, fish and some wild plants for diet staples. Most of the homesteads changed hands frequently and eventually, in the 1930s, all but a very few sold their land back to the government. Environmental changes, including at least one pre-settlement forest fire, kinship ties, and changing federal homestead laws clearly influenced settlement of the study area. These influences are revealed through an extensive investigation of historic, archival and genealogical records, and interviews with former residents. Within the Siuslaw National Forest, the changing homestead laws, the Forest Homestead Act of 1906 in particular, greatly affected the ability to acquire a homestead and limited the homestead acreage available. Personal and settlement data on all 89 homestead claimants, whether successful or not, and 35 timber patentees, in Township 12 South, Range 9 West, Willamette Meridian, is gathered into a database and analyzed. The settlement history of a related group of settlers is explored in detail to reveal how kinship ties and other factors influenced the family's migration to and from the study area. Finally, a more in-depth investigation of two of the homesteads provides insight into how these people lived, the architecture of the buildings and their physical arrangement on the landscape, what kinship ties they had and how those ties may have influenced their settlement success. The written and oral records proved to be valuable sources of unique information, but they also had limitations. Archaeological and other physical data, which was only minimally investigated, may provide additional information on the homesteads. The significance of these historic homesteads can only be determined after more similar homestead studies are completed. Only then can a contextual analysis of these homesteads within a broader group be accomplished. Title: Kinship, environment and the Forest Service : homesteading in Oregon's Coast Range Author: Prior, Jan M. The settlement history of a remote area in the Coast Range of Oregon, from the 1870s to the 1930s, is examined through factors that may have influenced the success or failure, and length of residence of the homesteaders and later residents. Despite the rugged and isolated location, a small community of scattered settlers managed to build comfortable homes, cultivate gardens, orchards and grain fields, and raise goats and other livestock. Yet, while a few were able to make a marginal living in this mountainous area, many more were unsuccessful. The successful homesteaders often had to fmd outside employment and they relied on game, fish and some wild plants for diet staples. Most of the homesteads changed hands frequently and eventually, in the 1930s, all but a very few sold their land back to the government. Environmental changes, including at least one pre-settlement forest fire, kinship ties, and changing federal homestead laws clearly influenced settlement of the study area. These influences are revealed through an extensive investigation of historic, archival and genealogical records, and interviews with former residents. Within the Siuslaw National Forest, the changing homestead laws, the Forest Homestead Act of 1906 in particular, greatly affected the ability to acquire a homestead and limited the homestead acreage available. Personal and settlement data on all 89 homestead claimants, whether successful or not, and 35 timber patentees, in Township 12 South, Range 9 West, Willamette Meridian, is gathered into a database and analyzed. The settlement history of a related group of settlers is explored in detail to reveal how kinship ties and other factors influenced the family's migration to and from the study area. Finally, a more in-depth investigation of two of the homesteads provides insight into how these people lived, the architecture of the buildings and their physical arrangement on the landscape, what kinship ties they had and how those ties may have influenced their settlement success. The written and oral records proved to be valuable sources of unique information, but they also had limitations. Archaeological and other physical data, which was only minimally investigated, may provide additional information on the homesteads. The significance of these historic homesteads can only be determined after more similar homestead studies are completed. Only then can a contextual analysis of these homesteads within a broader group be accomplished. Close