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• 131. [Article] Grapevine Leafroll associated Virus – 3 (GLRaV-3) Seasonal Titer Changes and Effects on Pinot Noir Fruit in Oregon

  The Willamette Valley, west of the Cascade mountain range in the state of Oregon, is home to a growing number of vineyards. This rather recent, booming industry of the region has become an important component ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Grapevine Leafroll associated Virus – 3 (GLRaV-3) Seasonal Titer Changes and Effects on Pinot Noir Fruit in Oregon Author: Wright, Sarah K. The Willamette Valley, west of the Cascade mountain range in the state of Oregon, is home to a growing number of vineyards. This rather recent, booming industry of the region has become an important component of the economy of the state’s agriculture since the late 1960’s, contributing more than $1.56 billion in 2010 (USDA NASS). Disease control is an important element of maintaining the quality of grapes for use in wine and keeping the industry healthy. This can be costly and frustrating for growers and viticulturists. Of the many viruses that affect grapes, Grapevine leafroll associated virus-3 (GLRaV-3) is the most common (Tsai et al., 2008)and could become an issue in the Willamette Valley. It has been reported that the titer of GLRaV-3 increases during the growing season and that the most reliable detection is in the late summer and autumn. This is based on work using serological assays such as ELISA. Proposed research project was (1) to quantify the increases of GLRaV-3 RNA weekly during the growing season for two consecutive years and (2) compare differences in sugar level, elasticity, and color index properties between healthy and GLRaV-3 infected fruit during the ripening phase. In the trial involving young leaf tissue, GLRaV-3 titer quantified for 2010 illustrated a 210-, or 1,000-fold total increase over the duration of the growing season (Fig. 3a), and 212-, or 4,000-fold increase for the year 2011 (Fig. 3b). GLRaV-3 titer in young leaf tissues displayed the greatest increase throughout the growing season in all plants relative to initial titer at week one (Fig. 3a,b). This is most likely due to a reduced rate of plant growth as the season progressed in the young leaves, allowing for virus titer increase on a tissue weight basis. . Middle-aged and mature leaves develop a leathery feel because of a more developed cuticle, which offers more protection to the plant from biotic and abiotic elements, but is harder to wash and separate from RNA in the extraction process. As seen in Figure 4e, mature leaf tissue from the 114/Gloire grafted clone displayed little amplification. Leaf protecting cuticles could be the cause of this from inhibition of RNA extraction, or inhibition of enzymatic activity during the RT or PCR steps; however, the same trend was not observed in 2011 (Figure 4f). Title: Grapevine Leafroll associated Virus – 3 (GLRaV-3) Seasonal Titer Changes and Effects on Pinot Noir Fruit in Oregon Author: Wright, Sarah K. The Willamette Valley, west of the Cascade mountain range in the state of Oregon, is home to a growing number of vineyards. This rather recent, booming industry of the region has become an important component of the economy of the state’s agriculture since the late 1960’s, contributing more than $1.56 billion in 2010 (USDA NASS). Disease control is an important element of maintaining the quality of grapes for use in wine and keeping the industry healthy. This can be costly and frustrating for growers and viticulturists. Of the many viruses that affect grapes, Grapevine leafroll associated virus-3 (GLRaV-3) is the most common (Tsai et al., 2008)and could become an issue in the Willamette Valley. It has been reported that the titer of GLRaV-3 increases during the growing season and that the most reliable detection is in the late summer and autumn. This is based on work using serological assays such as ELISA. Proposed research project was (1) to quantify the increases of GLRaV-3 RNA weekly during the growing season for two consecutive years and (2) compare differences in sugar level, elasticity, and color index properties between healthy and GLRaV-3 infected fruit during the ripening phase. In the trial involving young leaf tissue, GLRaV-3 titer quantified for 2010 illustrated a 210-, or 1,000-fold total increase over the duration of the growing season (Fig. 3a), and 212-, or 4,000-fold increase for the year 2011 (Fig. 3b). GLRaV-3 titer in young leaf tissues displayed the greatest increase throughout the growing season in all plants relative to initial titer at week one (Fig. 3a,b). This is most likely due to a reduced rate of plant growth as the season progressed in the young leaves, allowing for virus titer increase on a tissue weight basis. . Middle-aged and mature leaves develop a leathery feel because of a more developed cuticle, which offers more protection to the plant from biotic and abiotic elements, but is harder to wash and separate from RNA in the extraction process. As seen in Figure 4e, mature leaf tissue from the 114/Gloire grafted clone displayed little amplification. Leaf protecting cuticles could be the cause of this from inhibition of RNA extraction, or inhibition of enzymatic activity during the RT or PCR steps; however, the same trend was not observed in 2011 (Figure 4f). Close

• 132. [Article] Essays on environment and the spatial distribution of economic activities

  Environmental quality and the spatial distribution of economic activities affect each other in many ways. The primary purpose of this dissertation is to contribute to understanding the complex interrelationship ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Essays on environment and the spatial distribution of economic activities Author: Wang, Chunhua Environmental quality and the spatial distribution of economic activities affect each other in many ways. The primary purpose of this dissertation is to contribute to understanding the complex interrelationship and its policy implications. This dissertation consists of three essays. The first essay examines the roles that locational amenities and increasing returns to scale play in the formation of urban development patterns and regional economic growth. The spatial distribution of amenities is shown to be a major determinant; and the effects of amenities are reinforced by external scale economies and localized information spillovers, both of which promote agglomeration and human capital accumulation. Workers in amenity locations are more productive because of increasing returns, which encourage investment on human capital development. The decentralized equilibrium is not optimal because of the externalities associated with human capital investments. The efficiency can be improved by public policies encouraging human capital investments. Such policies also increase the number and size of cities and the pace of urbanization and economic growth. The second essay examines the effects of natural disasters on population growth across U.S. counties during the period of 1960-2000. Results suggest that except earthquakes and most serious hurricanes, the risks of natural disasters have no statistically significant effects on population growth. We also estimate the effects of natural disasters on county socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, including human capital, age and ethnic composition of population, industrial composition, and income inequality, which correlate with county population growth. The insignificance of those effects indicates that natural disasters have no indirect effects on population growth, either. The third essay considers the roles of mandatory building codes for regulating land development in a natural disaster-prone area as self-insurance and self-protection. To find the optimal building codes, a simple urban economics model is constructed for the analysis. A number of comparative statics results are presented to describe how optimal building codes are affected by the endowed probability of the disaster, the expected loss, productivity levels of self-insurance and self-protection, and socioeconomic characteristics of the area such as wage, population, and the share of land area in the risky region. Title: Essays on environment and the spatial distribution of economic activities Author: Wang, Chunhua Environmental quality and the spatial distribution of economic activities affect each other in many ways. The primary purpose of this dissertation is to contribute to understanding the complex interrelationship and its policy implications. This dissertation consists of three essays. The first essay examines the roles that locational amenities and increasing returns to scale play in the formation of urban development patterns and regional economic growth. The spatial distribution of amenities is shown to be a major determinant; and the effects of amenities are reinforced by external scale economies and localized information spillovers, both of which promote agglomeration and human capital accumulation. Workers in amenity locations are more productive because of increasing returns, which encourage investment on human capital development. The decentralized equilibrium is not optimal because of the externalities associated with human capital investments. The efficiency can be improved by public policies encouraging human capital investments. Such policies also increase the number and size of cities and the pace of urbanization and economic growth. The second essay examines the effects of natural disasters on population growth across U.S. counties during the period of 1960-2000. Results suggest that except earthquakes and most serious hurricanes, the risks of natural disasters have no statistically significant effects on population growth. We also estimate the effects of natural disasters on county socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, including human capital, age and ethnic composition of population, industrial composition, and income inequality, which correlate with county population growth. The insignificance of those effects indicates that natural disasters have no indirect effects on population growth, either. The third essay considers the roles of mandatory building codes for regulating land development in a natural disaster-prone area as self-insurance and self-protection. To find the optimal building codes, a simple urban economics model is constructed for the analysis. A number of comparative statics results are presented to describe how optimal building codes are affected by the endowed probability of the disaster, the expected loss, productivity levels of self-insurance and self-protection, and socioeconomic characteristics of the area such as wage, population, and the share of land area in the risky region. Close

• 133. [Article] Social welfare-optimal policy rules : application to the Zimbabwe corn industry

  Government intervention in food grain markets is a common feature of most LDCs. Inasmuch as liberalizing markets is difficult for some of these governments, researchers have offered suggestions to reduce ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Social welfare-optimal policy rules : application to the Zimbabwe corn industry Author: Sukume, Chrispen Government intervention in food grain markets is a common feature of most LDCs. Inasmuch as liberalizing markets is difficult for some of these governments, researchers have offered suggestions to reduce detrimental affects of intervention. The general advice for pricing policy has been for governments to set prices at c.i.f. or f.o.b. border prices. In countries where c.i.f. and f.o.b. prices are very different and the countries are marginally self-sufficient, this advice is inadequate. Analysis on which this general advice is based fail to take this and government motivations explicitly into account. This thesis develops a more flexible model that rationalizes controlled price and stock policy making and takes into account the case of marginally self-sufficient economies. In the framework used, government is assumed to set policy levels as a result of optimizing the expected weighted sum of social incomes to consumers, producers, and taxpayers. Resulting from this optimizing are revealed preferences. Assuming Zimbabwe was optimizing such an objective function from 1954 to 1986, these revealed preference functions were estimated using policy levels and exogenous factors affecting policy for this period. Estimation of the model on Zimbabwe showed that the government set price and stock policies with the expectation of future exports. Results also show that Zimbabwe has, on average, fully adjusted its producer prices to world prices during the 1954 to 1986 period. Wholesale prices have only partially adjusted to world prices. The government in addition was influenced by supply and demand conditions. Estimates also show that government held stocks in order to speculate on world prices and that stocks were influenced by previous years' net domestic supply. The model estimated also allowed for recovery of implicit weights the government has accorded the different economic groups in policy making. Results show that the Zimbabwe government has weighted consumer, producer, and public sector interests roughly in proportions 0.30, 0.35, and 0.35. Since these differ little, results seem to indicate on the average the government has been setting prices to maximize long-run efficiency. Tests showed the model was not very sensitive to small changes in demand and supply slopes. A number of simulations were conducted to determine effects of exogenous factors and alternative weighting schemes on income distribution and social income stability. Weighting all groups equally resulted in Z$3.13 million more social income than had the optimal solution. However, it reduced stability of incomes in the face of varying exogenous shocks such as in world prices, prices of substitutes, and wage-income. It also reduced total production and exports. Reduction in production was not enough to convert the country from a net exporter to net importer. Thus, intervention has helped growth in the corn industry and stabilized incomes. Also tested were the scenarios in which economic groups are weighted on the basis of populations and the scenario in which government exercises full monopoly power. The former resulted in less total income and more instability in social income and export earnings. The later resulted in maximal revenue to the government agency but reduced production far enough that corn self-sufficiency gave way to net imports. Title: Social welfare-optimal policy rules : application to the Zimbabwe corn industry Author: Sukume, Chrispen Government intervention in food grain markets is a common feature of most LDCs. Inasmuch as liberalizing markets is difficult for some of these governments, researchers have offered suggestions to reduce detrimental affects of intervention. The general advice for pricing policy has been for governments to set prices at c.i.f. or f.o.b. border prices. In countries where c.i.f. and f.o.b. prices are very different and the countries are marginally self-sufficient, this advice is inadequate. Analysis on which this general advice is based fail to take this and government motivations explicitly into account. This thesis develops a more flexible model that rationalizes controlled price and stock policy making and takes into account the case of marginally self-sufficient economies. In the framework used, government is assumed to set policy levels as a result of optimizing the expected weighted sum of social incomes to consumers, producers, and taxpayers. Resulting from this optimizing are revealed preferences. Assuming Zimbabwe was optimizing such an objective function from 1954 to 1986, these revealed preference functions were estimated using policy levels and exogenous factors affecting policy for this period. Estimation of the model on Zimbabwe showed that the government set price and stock policies with the expectation of future exports. Results also show that Zimbabwe has, on average, fully adjusted its producer prices to world prices during the 1954 to 1986 period. Wholesale prices have only partially adjusted to world prices. The government in addition was influenced by supply and demand conditions. Estimates also show that government held stocks in order to speculate on world prices and that stocks were influenced by previous years' net domestic supply. The model estimated also allowed for recovery of implicit weights the government has accorded the different economic groups in policy making. Results show that the Zimbabwe government has weighted consumer, producer, and public sector interests roughly in proportions 0.30, 0.35, and 0.35. Since these differ little, results seem to indicate on the average the government has been setting prices to maximize long-run efficiency. Tests showed the model was not very sensitive to small changes in demand and supply slopes. A number of simulations were conducted to determine effects of exogenous factors and alternative weighting schemes on income distribution and social income stability. Weighting all groups equally resulted in Z$3.13 million more social income than had the optimal solution. However, it reduced stability of incomes in the face of varying exogenous shocks such as in world prices, prices of substitutes, and wage-income. It also reduced total production and exports. Reduction in production was not enough to convert the country from a net exporter to net importer. Thus, intervention has helped growth in the corn industry and stabilized incomes. Also tested were the scenarios in which economic groups are weighted on the basis of populations and the scenario in which government exercises full monopoly power. The former resulted in less total income and more instability in social income and export earnings. The later resulted in maximal revenue to the government agency but reduced production far enough that corn self-sufficiency gave way to net imports. Close

• 134. [Article] Dynamic investment and pricing decisions for municipal sewerage

  The capacity expansion investment decisions on the provision of municipal sewerage are the central aspects of this analysis. The purpose is to present a methodology, utilizing a dynamic demand and supply ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Dynamic investment and pricing decisions for municipal sewerage Author: Hanson, Kenneth Allen The capacity expansion investment decisions on the provision of municipal sewerage are the central aspects of this analysis. The purpose is to present a methodology, utilizing a dynamic demand and supply model of sewerage, for recommending a set of values for the investment and pricing decision variables. The outcome of the investment decisions is an economically efficient time sequence of capacity expansions. The pricing decisions involves a departure from an economically efficient set of user charges, i.e. from marginal cost pricing. The model consists of a cost function, i.e. amount of capacity and variable operating factors used per period times price; a set of production process equations transforming influent to effluent water quality standards; and a set of factors affecting influent, cost, and production. The factors taken into consideration are: Economies of size in capacity expansion costs, technological change, inflation, deterioration of capacity and economic life of capacity, discounting to present value, time horizon of model, changes in effluent water quality standards, and changes in the flow of influent due to an increase in users, price elasticity of the flow of influent and changes in water consumptive habits, formation of substitutes through technological change, as well as rainstorm drainage and infiltration. It is the investment decisions on timing of capacity expansions and mix of capacity types in each expansion which are of concern. These investment decisions must be considered simultaneously with those on economic amortization of capacity expansion costs and economic life of capacity, as well as use of, variable operating factors in the production process. Furthermore consideration for pricing in terms of user charges is given. By simultaneously solving a set of necessary marginal conditions associated with the investment decision variables and use of variable operating factors, the timing of capacity expansions and mix of capacity types in each expansion may be derived. With the existence of several capacity types, several variable operating factors, numerous feasible times for a capacity expansion, and a set of complex equations representing the production process; the use of a simulation analysis is imperative. Formulation of a simulation model should be on the basis of the equations developed in this analysis. Though the values of the decision variables resulting from a Simulation analysis may not be optimal, i.e. minimize present value cost subject to a production output constraint, the present value cost for a set of feasible time sequence of capacity expansions may be compared under various influent, cost, and production conditions. Title: Dynamic investment and pricing decisions for municipal sewerage Author: Hanson, Kenneth Allen The capacity expansion investment decisions on the provision of municipal sewerage are the central aspects of this analysis. The purpose is to present a methodology, utilizing a dynamic demand and supply model of sewerage, for recommending a set of values for the investment and pricing decision variables. The outcome of the investment decisions is an economically efficient time sequence of capacity expansions. The pricing decisions involves a departure from an economically efficient set of user charges, i.e. from marginal cost pricing. The model consists of a cost function, i.e. amount of capacity and variable operating factors used per period times price; a set of production process equations transforming influent to effluent water quality standards; and a set of factors affecting influent, cost, and production. The factors taken into consideration are: Economies of size in capacity expansion costs, technological change, inflation, deterioration of capacity and economic life of capacity, discounting to present value, time horizon of model, changes in effluent water quality standards, and changes in the flow of influent due to an increase in users, price elasticity of the flow of influent and changes in water consumptive habits, formation of substitutes through technological change, as well as rainstorm drainage and infiltration. It is the investment decisions on timing of capacity expansions and mix of capacity types in each expansion which are of concern. These investment decisions must be considered simultaneously with those on economic amortization of capacity expansion costs and economic life of capacity, as well as use of, variable operating factors in the production process. Furthermore consideration for pricing in terms of user charges is given. By simultaneously solving a set of necessary marginal conditions associated with the investment decision variables and use of variable operating factors, the timing of capacity expansions and mix of capacity types in each expansion may be derived. With the existence of several capacity types, several variable operating factors, numerous feasible times for a capacity expansion, and a set of complex equations representing the production process; the use of a simulation analysis is imperative. Formulation of a simulation model should be on the basis of the equations developed in this analysis. Though the values of the decision variables resulting from a Simulation analysis may not be optimal, i.e. minimize present value cost subject to a production output constraint, the present value cost for a set of feasible time sequence of capacity expansions may be compared under various influent, cost, and production conditions. Close

• 135. [Article] The Columbia Basin project, Washington : concept and reality, lessons for public policy

  A million acre tract of land within the "Big Bend" of the Columbia River in south-central Washington became the locale for an important public area planning experiment and geotechnic enterprise in the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Columbia Basin project, Washington : concept and reality, lessons for public policy Author: Weinkauf, Ronald A. (Ronald Albert), 1936-2007 A million acre tract of land within the "Big Bend" of the Columbia River in south-central Washington became the locale for an important public area planning experiment and geotechnic enterprise in the late 1930's and early 1940's. The Columbia Basin Project (CBP) of the Bureau of Reclamation was conceived to irrigate and populate the area. In 1939, Harlan H. Barrows, a geographer and consultant to the Bureau, devised an integrated regional pre-development study program, the Columbia Basin Joint Investigations (CBJI), which attempted to assess the physical, economic, and social impacts of the CBP on the Columbia Basin. Study teams were named and a major investigational effort (300 persons representing 40 agencies, Federal, state, local, and private) was carried out from 1939 to 1942. World War II, however, slowed the CBJI, delayed the Project's settlement for about a decade, and unleashed forces that brought sweeping changes in American agriculture. Irrigation began via the main canal system in 1952. This notable planning effort, given the normal difficulties with the involvement of so many agencies and people and the advent of World War II, produced many beneficial results. The very poor follow-up program, however, has nullified many of those benefits and has lead to several negative, even deplorable, aspects of actual Project development. The standards of geotechnics ("making the earth more habita.ble") were utilized to appraise the physical, economic, and social habitabilities of the Project area. The physical habitability of the Project area is under duress. Massive drainage problems developed early and are important because remedial costs greatly exceed estimates and because the three irrigation districts in agreeing to a higher construction obligation were able to gain the right to unrestricted leasing and renting of Project lands. This has led to serious subsidy problems. The number of settlement opportunities, a measure of economic habitability, provided at mid-point in acreage development (500, 000 acres) is 800 or one-tenth of the number planned. Types of farming and farm sizes are significantly different than planned for the Project. Several facets of social habitability were significantly improved, among them recreation, transportation, and public facilities. The Project is a dismal failure in the Bureau's attempt to provide the base for population expansion. Rural and urban growth reached about onefourth the number planned for the area. All Project towns, except Othello, lost population in the decade 1960 to 1970. The attempt by the Bureau of Reclamation to integrate the Columbia Basin Project into the land, economy, and community of the Columbia Basin presents a fascinating case for continuing study and evaluation. Title: The Columbia Basin project, Washington : concept and reality, lessons for public policy Author: Weinkauf, Ronald A. (Ronald Albert), 1936-2007 A million acre tract of land within the "Big Bend" of the Columbia River in south-central Washington became the locale for an important public area planning experiment and geotechnic enterprise in the late 1930's and early 1940's. The Columbia Basin Project (CBP) of the Bureau of Reclamation was conceived to irrigate and populate the area. In 1939, Harlan H. Barrows, a geographer and consultant to the Bureau, devised an integrated regional pre-development study program, the Columbia Basin Joint Investigations (CBJI), which attempted to assess the physical, economic, and social impacts of the CBP on the Columbia Basin. Study teams were named and a major investigational effort (300 persons representing 40 agencies, Federal, state, local, and private) was carried out from 1939 to 1942. World War II, however, slowed the CBJI, delayed the Project's settlement for about a decade, and unleashed forces that brought sweeping changes in American agriculture. Irrigation began via the main canal system in 1952. This notable planning effort, given the normal difficulties with the involvement of so many agencies and people and the advent of World War II, produced many beneficial results. The very poor follow-up program, however, has nullified many of those benefits and has lead to several negative, even deplorable, aspects of actual Project development. The standards of geotechnics ("making the earth more habita.ble") were utilized to appraise the physical, economic, and social habitabilities of the Project area. The physical habitability of the Project area is under duress. Massive drainage problems developed early and are important because remedial costs greatly exceed estimates and because the three irrigation districts in agreeing to a higher construction obligation were able to gain the right to unrestricted leasing and renting of Project lands. This has led to serious subsidy problems. The number of settlement opportunities, a measure of economic habitability, provided at mid-point in acreage development (500, 000 acres) is 800 or one-tenth of the number planned. Types of farming and farm sizes are significantly different than planned for the Project. Several facets of social habitability were significantly improved, among them recreation, transportation, and public facilities. The Project is a dismal failure in the Bureau's attempt to provide the base for population expansion. Rural and urban growth reached about onefourth the number planned for the area. All Project towns, except Othello, lost population in the decade 1960 to 1970. The attempt by the Bureau of Reclamation to integrate the Columbia Basin Project into the land, economy, and community of the Columbia Basin presents a fascinating case for continuing study and evaluation. Close

• 136. [Article] A heuristic causal model of factors affecting age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during retirement

  The purpose of this research was to determine a causal model of factors affecting age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during retirement. Data were anaLzed for 1299 preretirers in four ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A heuristic causal model of factors affecting age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during retirement Author: Malroutu, Yamini Lakshmi The purpose of this research was to determine a causal model of factors affecting age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during retirement. Data were anaLzed for 1299 preretirers in four states: Idaho, Michigan, Oregon, and Utah, collected in a mail survey in 1990 by the Western Regional Agricultural Experiment Station Committee (W-176). Preference for age integrated/age segregated neighborhoods during the first ten years of retirement was directly influenced by tenure preference (p=.00, B=.210). Those who preferred homeownership during retirement chose age integrated neighborhoods during their first ten years of retirement. Preference for age integrated/age segregated neighborhoods after ten years of retirement was significantly influenced by family income (P=.03, B=.096), suitability of home size (p=.02, B=.094), and tenure preference (p=.00, B=.155). Those who were economically well off indicated a predisposition for age integrated neighborhoods as did those who preferred homeownership and those who felt they had the right size homes for retirement. Indirect effects were also observed among the exogenous and intervening variables and age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during the first ten years and after ten years of retirement. Older preretirees preferred to retire in the community (p=.00, B= .125) and this preference for the present community influenced the choice of preferred homeownership during retirement (p=.00, B=.205). Those who favored homeownership indicated a preference for age integrated neighborhoods both during the first ten years (p=.00, B=.210) and after ten years of retirement (p=.00, B=.155). These interrelationships lead to the assumption that older respondents prefer to age in place as they showed a preference to retire in the present community and for homeownership. The findings of this research will be beneficial and of interest to retirees who are trying to create a suitable and affordable environment for themselves and communities will be enriched by their participation in economic and service functions. Community developers who are striving to boost their local economies can attract retirees by providing to the needs of the elderly consumers. Title: A heuristic causal model of factors affecting age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during retirement Author: Malroutu, Yamini Lakshmi The purpose of this research was to determine a causal model of factors affecting age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during retirement. Data were anaLzed for 1299 preretirers in four states: Idaho, Michigan, Oregon, and Utah, collected in a mail survey in 1990 by the Western Regional Agricultural Experiment Station Committee (W-176). Preference for age integrated/age segregated neighborhoods during the first ten years of retirement was directly influenced by tenure preference (p=.00, B=.210). Those who preferred homeownership during retirement chose age integrated neighborhoods during their first ten years of retirement. Preference for age integrated/age segregated neighborhoods after ten years of retirement was significantly influenced by family income (P=.03, B=.096), suitability of home size (p=.02, B=.094), and tenure preference (p=.00, B=.155). Those who were economically well off indicated a predisposition for age integrated neighborhoods as did those who preferred homeownership and those who felt they had the right size homes for retirement. Indirect effects were also observed among the exogenous and intervening variables and age integrated/age segregated neighborhood preference during the first ten years and after ten years of retirement. Older preretirees preferred to retire in the community (p=.00, B= .125) and this preference for the present community influenced the choice of preferred homeownership during retirement (p=.00, B=.205). Those who favored homeownership indicated a preference for age integrated neighborhoods both during the first ten years (p=.00, B=.210) and after ten years of retirement (p=.00, B=.155). These interrelationships lead to the assumption that older respondents prefer to age in place as they showed a preference to retire in the present community and for homeownership. The findings of this research will be beneficial and of interest to retirees who are trying to create a suitable and affordable environment for themselves and communities will be enriched by their participation in economic and service functions. Community developers who are striving to boost their local economies can attract retirees by providing to the needs of the elderly consumers. Close

• 137. [Article] Three essays on food security, food assistance, and migration

  This dissertation's three essays explore the determinants of food insecurity for rural farm households, the influence of rainfall variability and long-run changes in rainfall levels on the migration decisions ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Three essays on food security, food assistance, and migration Author: Lewin, Paul A. This dissertation's three essays explore the determinants of food insecurity for rural farm households, the influence of rainfall variability and long-run changes in rainfall levels on the migration decisions of working-age household heads, and the distributional impacts in core and periphery regions of food assistance to households in the hinterland. The first essay examines how socio-economic characteristics of households, local conditions, and public programs are associated with the probability that a farm household in rural Malawi is food insecure. The statistical analysis uses nationally representative data for 7,965 randomly-selected households interviewed during 2004/05 for the second Malawi Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2). Regressions are estimated separately for households in the north, center, and south of Malawi to account for spatial heterogeneity. Results of a Probit regression model reveal that households are less likely to be food insecure if they have more cultivated land per capita, receive agricultural field assistance, reside in a community with an irrigation scheme, and are headed by an individual with a high school degree. Factors that positively correlate with a household's food insecurity are number of household members and distance to markets. The second essay uses nationally representative data from Malawi's 2004/05 Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2) to examine whether rainfall conditions influence a rural worker’s decision to make a long-term move to an urban or another rural area. Results of a Full Information Maximum Likelihood regression model reveal that (1) rainfall shocks constrain migration, most likely by making it difficult for prospective migrants to cover costs of migration, (2) migrants choose to move to communities where rainfall variability is lower, and (3) rainfall shocks have larger negative effects on the earnings of recent migrants than on long-time residents’ earnings. The third essay examines how benefits from food assistance programs to needy households spillover between areas and among household income groups in the United States. We study the effect of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in the Portland Oregon metro Core and its Periphery trade area, using a Multiregional Input- Output (MRIO) model based on a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The analysis captures direct, indirect and induced effects of SNAP on each region and spillover effects on the other region. SNAP benefits to the lower income household classes in each region are traced to their effects on the local economy in each region, and to the effects on household income by income class. The analysis finds that (1) the economic impact on the Portland Core from a given level of SNAP benefits to households in the Periphery is greater than the economic impact in the Periphery from the same level of SNAP benefits to households in the Core; (2) high-income households benefit more than low-income households from the indirect and induced economic impact of SNAP. Title: Three essays on food security, food assistance, and migration Author: Lewin, Paul A. This dissertation's three essays explore the determinants of food insecurity for rural farm households, the influence of rainfall variability and long-run changes in rainfall levels on the migration decisions of working-age household heads, and the distributional impacts in core and periphery regions of food assistance to households in the hinterland. The first essay examines how socio-economic characteristics of households, local conditions, and public programs are associated with the probability that a farm household in rural Malawi is food insecure. The statistical analysis uses nationally representative data for 7,965 randomly-selected households interviewed during 2004/05 for the second Malawi Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2). Regressions are estimated separately for households in the north, center, and south of Malawi to account for spatial heterogeneity. Results of a Probit regression model reveal that households are less likely to be food insecure if they have more cultivated land per capita, receive agricultural field assistance, reside in a community with an irrigation scheme, and are headed by an individual with a high school degree. Factors that positively correlate with a household's food insecurity are number of household members and distance to markets. The second essay uses nationally representative data from Malawi's 2004/05 Integrated Household Survey (IHS-2) to examine whether rainfall conditions influence a rural worker’s decision to make a long-term move to an urban or another rural area. Results of a Full Information Maximum Likelihood regression model reveal that (1) rainfall shocks constrain migration, most likely by making it difficult for prospective migrants to cover costs of migration, (2) migrants choose to move to communities where rainfall variability is lower, and (3) rainfall shocks have larger negative effects on the earnings of recent migrants than on long-time residents’ earnings. The third essay examines how benefits from food assistance programs to needy households spillover between areas and among household income groups in the United States. We study the effect of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in the Portland Oregon metro Core and its Periphery trade area, using a Multiregional Input- Output (MRIO) model based on a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The analysis captures direct, indirect and induced effects of SNAP on each region and spillover effects on the other region. SNAP benefits to the lower income household classes in each region are traced to their effects on the local economy in each region, and to the effects on household income by income class. The analysis finds that (1) the economic impact on the Portland Core from a given level of SNAP benefits to households in the Periphery is greater than the economic impact in the Periphery from the same level of SNAP benefits to households in the Core; (2) high-income households benefit more than low-income households from the indirect and induced economic impact of SNAP. Close

• 138. [Article] Liability rules, transactions costs and optimum externality

  Economic theorists have proposed that the problems created by a Pareto-relevant externality may be solved by market transactions between the involved parties. These market transactions would allow realization ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Liability rules, transactions costs and optimum externality Author: Randall, Alan, 1944- Economic theorists have proposed that the problems created by a Pareto-relevant externality may be solved by market transactions between the involved parties. These market transactions would allow realization of the potential gains from trade which characterize a Pareto-relevant externality. After all potential gains from trade had been realized, a Pareto-efficient solution would, have been achieved. From the literature which has developed in the field, it is possible to distill two propositions which are here called the Weak and the Strong Coasian Hypotheses on Optimum Externality. These Hypotheses require certain assumptions: perfect competition in the markets for all factors and commodities; perfect information in a context of static certainty; secure and well defined property rights for all factors and commodities; and a well defined set of liability rules to serve as a starting point, or status quo point, for negotiations. The Weak Hypothesis states that "(m)arket transactions between individuals or firms involved in an externality situation will result in achievement of a Pareto-efficient solution, regardless of the initial liability rule." The Strong Hypothesis includes the Weak Hypothesis and adds that "(e)xactly the same equilibrium output of externality will be produced, regardless of the status quo liability rule." These Hypotheses are deductively tested, with the aid of simple mathematical models, for several different types of externality situations involving: producers only, consumers only and both producers and consumers; transactions costs equal to zero, and transactions costs greater than zero. For this deductive testing, the static perfect competition framework used in the original papers is retained. It is found that the Strong Hypothesis must be rejected for all cases except that where no consumers are involved, in the externality situation and variable transactions costs are zero. It is argued that situations meeting these criteria are most uncommon in practice, and so the Strong Hypothesis must be rejected for most practical situations. The Weak Hypothesis is not rejected, provided that all of the assumptions (including the crucial assumption of perfect competition in all relevant markets) are met. In situations where the Strong Hypothesis is rejected but the Weak Hypothesis is not, the equilibrium output of externality is different, under each different status quo liability rule. In this case, the selection of a status quo point can greatly affect the equilibrium output of externality, the distribution of income among involved parties and, if the status quo rule has wide application throughout the economy, the values of many other variables such as relative and absolute prices, aggregate consumption, production and investment and real income. Attention is drawn to the role of transactions costs in determining whether a solution can be obtained through market transactions between the involved parties. As the amount of variable transactions costs increases, the disparity between the solutions achieved under different status quo rules increases. Transactions costs are also likely to be greater than zero when some extra-market institutional framework is used to handle externality situations. It is argued that the size.and shape of the transactions cost curve under different institutions is an important variable to consider in institutional choice. Some directions for empirical research into the transactions cost curves are suggested. Title: Liability rules, transactions costs and optimum externality Author: Randall, Alan, 1944- Economic theorists have proposed that the problems created by a Pareto-relevant externality may be solved by market transactions between the involved parties. These market transactions would allow realization of the potential gains from trade which characterize a Pareto-relevant externality. After all potential gains from trade had been realized, a Pareto-efficient solution would, have been achieved. From the literature which has developed in the field, it is possible to distill two propositions which are here called the Weak and the Strong Coasian Hypotheses on Optimum Externality. These Hypotheses require certain assumptions: perfect competition in the markets for all factors and commodities; perfect information in a context of static certainty; secure and well defined property rights for all factors and commodities; and a well defined set of liability rules to serve as a starting point, or status quo point, for negotiations. The Weak Hypothesis states that "(m)arket transactions between individuals or firms involved in an externality situation will result in achievement of a Pareto-efficient solution, regardless of the initial liability rule." The Strong Hypothesis includes the Weak Hypothesis and adds that "(e)xactly the same equilibrium output of externality will be produced, regardless of the status quo liability rule." These Hypotheses are deductively tested, with the aid of simple mathematical models, for several different types of externality situations involving: producers only, consumers only and both producers and consumers; transactions costs equal to zero, and transactions costs greater than zero. For this deductive testing, the static perfect competition framework used in the original papers is retained. It is found that the Strong Hypothesis must be rejected for all cases except that where no consumers are involved, in the externality situation and variable transactions costs are zero. It is argued that situations meeting these criteria are most uncommon in practice, and so the Strong Hypothesis must be rejected for most practical situations. The Weak Hypothesis is not rejected, provided that all of the assumptions (including the crucial assumption of perfect competition in all relevant markets) are met. In situations where the Strong Hypothesis is rejected but the Weak Hypothesis is not, the equilibrium output of externality is different, under each different status quo liability rule. In this case, the selection of a status quo point can greatly affect the equilibrium output of externality, the distribution of income among involved parties and, if the status quo rule has wide application throughout the economy, the values of many other variables such as relative and absolute prices, aggregate consumption, production and investment and real income. Attention is drawn to the role of transactions costs in determining whether a solution can be obtained through market transactions between the involved parties. As the amount of variable transactions costs increases, the disparity between the solutions achieved under different status quo rules increases. Transactions costs are also likely to be greater than zero when some extra-market institutional framework is used to handle externality situations. It is argued that the size.and shape of the transactions cost curve under different institutions is an important variable to consider in institutional choice. Some directions for empirical research into the transactions cost curves are suggested. Close

• 139. [Article] An econometric structure for cost functions with application to municipal water

  In an effort to determine empirical cost functions for municipal water supplies in the United States, the writer found it necessary to specify an acceptable mathematical form to represent the cost equation. A ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An econometric structure for cost functions with application to municipal water Author: Dyke, Paul Thomas In an effort to determine empirical cost functions for municipal water supplies in the United States, the writer found it necessary to specify an acceptable mathematical form to represent the cost equation. A preliminary search yielded no theoretically consistent expression adaptable to the problem. The primary concern in the studstimay thus became one of identifying theoretically sound statistical etion procedures for interrelated long- and short-run cost functions. Criteria were established to recognize a mathematical form qualified to function as a generalized cost equation. The prescribed path wound its way through a traditional overview of economic production functions, cost theory literature, and curve estimation procedures; then it moved into a comprehensive review of empirical cost studies. This empirical section first identified studies of short-run cost relationships and gave examples of declining, constant, and increasing marginal costs. Theoretical literature, addressing possible reasons for these diverse shapes, was then cited. The same format was maintained for long-run studies reporting diverse shapes. Theoretical explanations followed. The last part of the literature review inspected the explicit model structure of those studies combining long- and short-run cost curves. When no econometric model was found in the literature which satisfied the pre-specified criteria for a generalized cost equation, the study assumed the task of developing such a framework. The resulting econometric structure exhibited the following properties: (1) The adopted equation generates both long- and short-run cost curves. (2) Two cost groups are retained in both the long- and short-run—costs which vary proportionately with output (i.e., operating costs), and costs which are independent of output (i.e., plant costs). (3) Plant capacity is strictly defined, and all short-run production of a plant is constrained to a quantity not to exceed that capacity. (4) Operating cost is a function of production and plant utilization while plant cost is a function of plant capacity. Once the general econometric structure was developed it was then adapted to an empirical study of the cost for supplying water to municipalities. A survey of operating data for water utilities, collected by the American Water Works Association for the year 1965, was used as the principal data source for the application. Other independent variables, considered potentially important in determining cost, were evaluated and added to or omitted from the model. These characteristics included alternative treatments, types of customers, sources of water, city density, etc.. The resulting regression equations indicated the following industry structure: (1) Although the major portion of the industry is facing economies-to- scale, the long-run cost curve turns distinctly upward for large water suppliers. (2) Over 95 per cent of the plants face downward sloping short-run average cost curves. (3) With the available data no statistical evidence could be found to indicate a plant's operating cost is affected by the level of plant utilization. The municipal water example was used to demonstrate the versatility of the generalized cost function in accommodating cost studies and hypothesis testing. The author therefore asserts that the econometric structure developed in this study is qualified to fulfill the pre-selected requirements of a theoretically sound statistical estimation procedure for interrelating long- and short-run cost functions. Title: An econometric structure for cost functions with application to municipal water Author: Dyke, Paul Thomas In an effort to determine empirical cost functions for municipal water supplies in the United States, the writer found it necessary to specify an acceptable mathematical form to represent the cost equation. A preliminary search yielded no theoretically consistent expression adaptable to the problem. The primary concern in the studstimay thus became one of identifying theoretically sound statistical etion procedures for interrelated long- and short-run cost functions. Criteria were established to recognize a mathematical form qualified to function as a generalized cost equation. The prescribed path wound its way through a traditional overview of economic production functions, cost theory literature, and curve estimation procedures; then it moved into a comprehensive review of empirical cost studies. This empirical section first identified studies of short-run cost relationships and gave examples of declining, constant, and increasing marginal costs. Theoretical literature, addressing possible reasons for these diverse shapes, was then cited. The same format was maintained for long-run studies reporting diverse shapes. Theoretical explanations followed. The last part of the literature review inspected the explicit model structure of those studies combining long- and short-run cost curves. When no econometric model was found in the literature which satisfied the pre-specified criteria for a generalized cost equation, the study assumed the task of developing such a framework. The resulting econometric structure exhibited the following properties: (1) The adopted equation generates both long- and short-run cost curves. (2) Two cost groups are retained in both the long- and short-run—costs which vary proportionately with output (i.e., operating costs), and costs which are independent of output (i.e., plant costs). (3) Plant capacity is strictly defined, and all short-run production of a plant is constrained to a quantity not to exceed that capacity. (4) Operating cost is a function of production and plant utilization while plant cost is a function of plant capacity. Once the general econometric structure was developed it was then adapted to an empirical study of the cost for supplying water to municipalities. A survey of operating data for water utilities, collected by the American Water Works Association for the year 1965, was used as the principal data source for the application. Other independent variables, considered potentially important in determining cost, were evaluated and added to or omitted from the model. These characteristics included alternative treatments, types of customers, sources of water, city density, etc.. The resulting regression equations indicated the following industry structure: (1) Although the major portion of the industry is facing economies-to- scale, the long-run cost curve turns distinctly upward for large water suppliers. (2) Over 95 per cent of the plants face downward sloping short-run average cost curves. (3) With the available data no statistical evidence could be found to indicate a plant's operating cost is affected by the level of plant utilization. The municipal water example was used to demonstrate the versatility of the generalized cost function in accommodating cost studies and hypothesis testing. The author therefore asserts that the econometric structure developed in this study is qualified to fulfill the pre-selected requirements of a theoretically sound statistical estimation procedure for interrelating long- and short-run cost functions. Close

• 140. [Article] Essays on technology, trade, and welfare

  Technology is a key determinant of comparative advantage among nations. As information technology improves and the nations of the world become economically integrated, concern arises over the dissipation ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Essays on technology, trade, and welfare Author: Ruan, Jun Technology is a key determinant of comparative advantage among nations. As information technology improves and the nations of the world become economically integrated, concern arises over the dissipation of high-income economies’ technological advantage. The three essays in this dissertation explore the trade and technology relationship, which is essential to economic growth in both high- and low-income nations. The first essay employs a monopolistic competition framework to investigate the effects – on each country’s relative wages, share of global markets, and welfare – of the productivity convergence between a technological leader and follower. Results indicate technological convergence improves the follower’s competitiveness at the expense of the leader’s. Nevertheless, the leader’s welfare improves unambiguously on account of the increase in its terms of trade, while the follower’s welfare changes in a direction depending on the relative strength of convergence’s income and terms-of-trade effects. We use data from 17 food industries in 30 countries, 1993-2001, to test these analytical predictions. Convergence has lifted followers’ income and global value-added share. Followers’ welfare has risen since convergence’s income improvement has outweighed its terms-of-trade deterioration. Simultaneously, leaders’ welfare has improved in response to their improved terms of trade. The second essay employs data from 35 countries in 128 ISIC 4-digit manufacturing industries, 1993 - 2001, to test the empirical validity of these same hypotheses for the international manufacturing sector. We find that, just as in the food sector, convergence improves followers’ welfare through its positive income effects. However, we do not find empirical evidence of convergence’s terms-of-trade effects. The third essay examines trade liberalization’s effects on the geographical distribution of productivity, and consequent cross-country resource and market-share allocations, of five processed food industries. We find that the mean and other quantiles of the global productivity distribution shift to the right as international trade liberalizes. The latter result implies that resources are reallocated toward countries with faster productivity growth. The three essays jointly highlight the important influence of global integration and technological convergence on nations’ economic growth and well-being. However, policies promoting integration and convergence should pay attention to the consequent intra-country redistribution of income between producers and consumers. Title: Essays on technology, trade, and welfare Author: Ruan, Jun Technology is a key determinant of comparative advantage among nations. As information technology improves and the nations of the world become economically integrated, concern arises over the dissipation of high-income economies’ technological advantage. The three essays in this dissertation explore the trade and technology relationship, which is essential to economic growth in both high- and low-income nations. The first essay employs a monopolistic competition framework to investigate the effects – on each country’s relative wages, share of global markets, and welfare – of the productivity convergence between a technological leader and follower. Results indicate technological convergence improves the follower’s competitiveness at the expense of the leader’s. Nevertheless, the leader’s welfare improves unambiguously on account of the increase in its terms of trade, while the follower’s welfare changes in a direction depending on the relative strength of convergence’s income and terms-of-trade effects. We use data from 17 food industries in 30 countries, 1993-2001, to test these analytical predictions. Convergence has lifted followers’ income and global value-added share. Followers’ welfare has risen since convergence’s income improvement has outweighed its terms-of-trade deterioration. Simultaneously, leaders’ welfare has improved in response to their improved terms of trade. The second essay employs data from 35 countries in 128 ISIC 4-digit manufacturing industries, 1993 - 2001, to test the empirical validity of these same hypotheses for the international manufacturing sector. We find that, just as in the food sector, convergence improves followers’ welfare through its positive income effects. However, we do not find empirical evidence of convergence’s terms-of-trade effects. The third essay examines trade liberalization’s effects on the geographical distribution of productivity, and consequent cross-country resource and market-share allocations, of five processed food industries. We find that the mean and other quantiles of the global productivity distribution shift to the right as international trade liberalizes. The latter result implies that resources are reallocated toward countries with faster productivity growth. The three essays jointly highlight the important influence of global integration and technological convergence on nations’ economic growth and well-being. However, policies promoting integration and convergence should pay attention to the consequent intra-country redistribution of income between producers and consumers. Close