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• 1. [Article] A gold dream in the Blue Mountains : a study of the Chinese immigrants in the John Day area, Oregon, 1870-1910

  More than one hundred years have passed since the Chinese laborers first landed in this country in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their history remains cloudy. This phenomenon is quite understandable ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A gold dream in the Blue Mountains : a study of the Chinese immigrants in the John Day area, Oregon, 1870-1910 Author: Chen, Chia-lin Year: 1972 More than one hundred years have passed since the Chinese laborers first landed in this country in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their history remains cloudy. This phenomenon is quite understandable if one considers the facts that most of the laborers were illiterate, did not have the ability, and never intended, to speak for themselves. It is true that many scholarly works have been published, but few were written by Chinese historians. As a matter of fact, Chinese scholars are unaware that a small number of their countrymen played a strange, pitiful role in American history. The published works reflect the viewpoint of only American observers. The labor of the Chinese workers was indispensable to the development of the frontier West at a time when resources were abundant and labor hands were few. So much work had to be done building railroads and dams, digging mines, clearing farm lands, canning salmon, etc. And the Chinese were welcomed to every line of manual work. There was a time when nearly every family at Astoria of Oregon and Olympia of Washington hired a Chinese as servant, as some writers claim. When the great number of whites moved in from the east, along with them came the floating laborers and the European immigrants, as well as the labor union. Conditions changed rapidly, the Chinese found themselves not only excluded from all employment, but persecuted everywhere. California was the state which first utilized Chinese labor and first expelled it. This unfavorable circumstance forced the Chinese to flee from California to other states. The purpose of this paper is not to give an account of how the Chinese were maltreated in a country known as a free, equal land opened widely to the whole world, but rather tries to find out how they survived, what were their daily problems, sorrows, and happiness, if any, and what were their inner feelings, their attitudes toward the white hosts. In short, the paper is written in an attempt to reconstruct their life in an alien land. In addition, the paper tries to answer the question why this oriental group appeared so peculiar in their behavior, as some whites commented, that they were both condemned and contemned. One of the crucial problems facing the researcher in the field of early Chinese immigration history is the lack of original materials. This is the common defects in all the published works on this subject. Fortunately for the author, by an unique chance, he was able to study numerous objects left in a Chinese grocery store, the Kam Wah Chung Co. at John Day--a small town once a busy mining area in Eastern Oregon. The pioneer artifacts in this town are disappearing, though the gravels of the old gold placers are still visible along the hillsides and canyons. But the queer old building of the Chinese store is still standing stubbornly as it did one hundred years ago, on a road called Canton Street So many objects were left in the building that the city of John Day is endeavoring to open it as a museum. From a historical point of view, many of these objects are very valuable. Among them are a great number of letters. Some were sent to the laborers from their families, in care of that building. Others were from the laborers to their homes, and for some unknown reason had not been sent to China. They are unique and of special importance to this paper. Perhaps nowhere else in the United States, or in War-torn China, can one find such a number of first hand records about the early Chinese in this country. Although few significant events, romantic affairs, or anything exciting can be expected of them, still, one can reconstruct a plain sketch of their life from these materials. The paper, though it only presents a small picture of the Chinese group in Eastern Oregon, is aimed to serve, hopefully, as a footnote leading to an understanding of how the early Chinese immigrants once lived in the Pacific Northwest. Title: A gold dream in the Blue Mountains : a study of the Chinese immigrants in the John Day area, Oregon, 1870-1910 Author: Chen, Chia-lin Year: 1972 More than one hundred years have passed since the Chinese laborers first landed in this country in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their history remains cloudy. This phenomenon is quite understandable if one considers the facts that most of the laborers were illiterate, did not have the ability, and never intended, to speak for themselves. It is true that many scholarly works have been published, but few were written by Chinese historians. As a matter of fact, Chinese scholars are unaware that a small number of their countrymen played a strange, pitiful role in American history. The published works reflect the viewpoint of only American observers. The labor of the Chinese workers was indispensable to the development of the frontier West at a time when resources were abundant and labor hands were few. So much work had to be done building railroads and dams, digging mines, clearing farm lands, canning salmon, etc. And the Chinese were welcomed to every line of manual work. There was a time when nearly every family at Astoria of Oregon and Olympia of Washington hired a Chinese as servant, as some writers claim. When the great number of whites moved in from the east, along with them came the floating laborers and the European immigrants, as well as the labor union. Conditions changed rapidly, the Chinese found themselves not only excluded from all employment, but persecuted everywhere. California was the state which first utilized Chinese labor and first expelled it. This unfavorable circumstance forced the Chinese to flee from California to other states. The purpose of this paper is not to give an account of how the Chinese were maltreated in a country known as a free, equal land opened widely to the whole world, but rather tries to find out how they survived, what were their daily problems, sorrows, and happiness, if any, and what were their inner feelings, their attitudes toward the white hosts. In short, the paper is written in an attempt to reconstruct their life in an alien land. In addition, the paper tries to answer the question why this oriental group appeared so peculiar in their behavior, as some whites commented, that they were both condemned and contemned. One of the crucial problems facing the researcher in the field of early Chinese immigration history is the lack of original materials. This is the common defects in all the published works on this subject. Fortunately for the author, by an unique chance, he was able to study numerous objects left in a Chinese grocery store, the Kam Wah Chung Co. at John Day--a small town once a busy mining area in Eastern Oregon. The pioneer artifacts in this town are disappearing, though the gravels of the old gold placers are still visible along the hillsides and canyons. But the queer old building of the Chinese store is still standing stubbornly as it did one hundred years ago, on a road called Canton Street So many objects were left in the building that the city of John Day is endeavoring to open it as a museum. From a historical point of view, many of these objects are very valuable. Among them are a great number of letters. Some were sent to the laborers from their families, in care of that building. Others were from the laborers to their homes, and for some unknown reason had not been sent to China. They are unique and of special importance to this paper. Perhaps nowhere else in the United States, or in War-torn China, can one find such a number of first hand records about the early Chinese in this country. Although few significant events, romantic affairs, or anything exciting can be expected of them, still, one can reconstruct a plain sketch of their life from these materials. The paper, though it only presents a small picture of the Chinese group in Eastern Oregon, is aimed to serve, hopefully, as a footnote leading to an understanding of how the early Chinese immigrants once lived in the Pacific Northwest. Close

• 2. [Article] Tracking Fish and Human Response to Abrupt Environmental Change at Tse-whit-zen: A Large Native American Village on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State

  Evidence of large earthquakes occurring along the Pacific Northwest coast is reflected in coastal stratigraphy from Oregon to British Columbia, where there also exists an extensive archaeological record ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Tracking Fish and Human Response to Abrupt Environmental Change at Tse-whit-zen: A Large Native American Village on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State Author: Mohlenhoff, Kathryn Anne Year: 2013 Evidence of large earthquakes occurring along the Pacific Northwest coast is reflected in coastal stratigraphy from Oregon to British Columbia, where there also exists an extensive archaeological record of Native American occupation. Tse-whit-zen, a large Native American village dating between 1824 and 54 cal B.P. located on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State, was excavated with exceptionally fine stratigraphic control allowing for precise comparison of natural and cultural records. Here I report on the >10,000 fish remains from one 2x2 m excavation block; this assemblage spans one earthquake event, allowing study of changes in relative taxonomic abundance through time that may coincide with earthquakes or other environmental changes. Results indicate use of a wide range of marine fish taxa including various sculpins (Cottidae), flatfish (Pleuronectiformes), herring (Clupea pallasii) and salmon (Oncorhynchusspp.). This illustrates a highly diverse diet throughout occupation, though relative abundances of more offshore taxa decrease through time in favor of some nearshore taxa, possibly indicating the presence of a coseismic event. This thesis serves as part of a pilot study for a collaborative project that is underway. This larger project addresses human response to both gradual and abrupt environmental change through the analysis of all classes of Tse-whit-zen faunal remains, which provide a link to impacts on animal populations and in turn human subsistence. Title: Tracking Fish and Human Response to Abrupt Environmental Change at Tse-whit-zen: A Large Native American Village on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State Author: Mohlenhoff, Kathryn Anne Year: 2013 Evidence of large earthquakes occurring along the Pacific Northwest coast is reflected in coastal stratigraphy from Oregon to British Columbia, where there also exists an extensive archaeological record of Native American occupation. Tse-whit-zen, a large Native American village dating between 1824 and 54 cal B.P. located on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State, was excavated with exceptionally fine stratigraphic control allowing for precise comparison of natural and cultural records. Here I report on the >10,000 fish remains from one 2x2 m excavation block; this assemblage spans one earthquake event, allowing study of changes in relative taxonomic abundance through time that may coincide with earthquakes or other environmental changes. Results indicate use of a wide range of marine fish taxa including various sculpins (Cottidae), flatfish (Pleuronectiformes), herring (Clupea pallasii) and salmon (Oncorhynchusspp.). This illustrates a highly diverse diet throughout occupation, though relative abundances of more offshore taxa decrease through time in favor of some nearshore taxa, possibly indicating the presence of a coseismic event. This thesis serves as part of a pilot study for a collaborative project that is underway. This larger project addresses human response to both gradual and abrupt environmental change through the analysis of all classes of Tse-whit-zen faunal remains, which provide a link to impacts on animal populations and in turn human subsistence. Close

• 3. [Article] Examining News Coverage and Framing in the Context of Environmental Reporting: Using the Sea Lion and Salmon Controversy at the Bonneville Dam as a Case Study

  This thesis examines how the construction of news stories reveals relationships among groups of stakeholders and how their views unfold within environmental conflict coverage. This study uses a content ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Examining News Coverage and Framing in the Context of Environmental Reporting: Using the Sea Lion and Salmon Controversy at the Bonneville Dam as a Case Study Author: McBride, Tess Year: 2011 This thesis examines how the construction of news stories reveals relationships among groups of stakeholders and how their views unfold within environmental conflict coverage. This study uses a content analysis of 161 newspaper articles concerning the sea lion and salmon controversy at the Bonneville Dam, focusing on source use and blame and solution frames in environmental conflict coverage. This analysis of articles published between January 2003 and June 2010 in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, California, and Montana contributes to research concerning journalistic norms (i.e., balance and objectivity) and news production routines, specifically within the field of environmental reporting. The findings indicate governmental sources were most frequently quoted and presented the most successful solution frames; while advocacy/non-profit sources were quoted less frequently (in addition to tribal sources) and presented the most blame and failed solution frames. Additionally, this research reflects on the role of news filters, including journalistic norms and legal issues, and explores the relationship between blame frames and failed solution frames, which is perhaps a reflection of the role of spokespeople and media jargon. Title: Examining News Coverage and Framing in the Context of Environmental Reporting: Using the Sea Lion and Salmon Controversy at the Bonneville Dam as a Case Study Author: McBride, Tess Year: 2011 This thesis examines how the construction of news stories reveals relationships among groups of stakeholders and how their views unfold within environmental conflict coverage. This study uses a content analysis of 161 newspaper articles concerning the sea lion and salmon controversy at the Bonneville Dam, focusing on source use and blame and solution frames in environmental conflict coverage. This analysis of articles published between January 2003 and June 2010 in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, California, and Montana contributes to research concerning journalistic norms (i.e., balance and objectivity) and news production routines, specifically within the field of environmental reporting. The findings indicate governmental sources were most frequently quoted and presented the most successful solution frames; while advocacy/non-profit sources were quoted less frequently (in addition to tribal sources) and presented the most blame and failed solution frames. Additionally, this research reflects on the role of news filters, including journalistic norms and legal issues, and explores the relationship between blame frames and failed solution frames, which is perhaps a reflection of the role of spokespeople and media jargon. Close

• 4. [Article] Using Archaeological Fish Remains to Determine the Native Status of Anadromous Salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin (Oregon, USA) Through mtDNA and Geochemical Analysis

  Within the Upper Klamath Basin, Oregon, the native status of anadromous salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) has been a long standing question. Ongoing efforts to establish if these fish were native to the region ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Using Archaeological Fish Remains to Determine the Native Status of Anadromous Salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin (Oregon, USA) Through mtDNA and Geochemical Analysis Author: Stevenson, Alexander E. Year: 2011 Within the Upper Klamath Basin, Oregon, the native status of anadromous salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) has been a long standing question. Ongoing efforts to establish if these fish were native to the region prior to the construction of the Copco I Dam on the Klamath River (c.1917) have relied on sparse, contradictory and sometimes unreliable historic documentation and informant testimony. Current restoration projects with very high financial and social costs necessitate accurate and reliable data on salmonid species which once called the region home. Often, archaeolofaunal remains present a novel way to determine species present in an area prior to major habitat losses. This project analyzed fish remains from five previously excavated archaeological sites within the Upper Klamath Basin to determine which salmonid species were present prior to dam construction. A total of 5,859 fish remains were identified to at least taxonomic order using morphological distinctions. Site collections were dominated by those of catostomids (suckers) and cyprinids (minnows). Archaeological deposits at these sites dated as far back as approximately 7,500 BP but were primarily from the last 2,000 years. Only eighty-one salmonid remains were observed within the sites included in this project. The low frequency of salmonid remains in these sites may be the result of cultural and/or natural processes such as density mediated attrition and archaeological sampling. Of these 81 specimens, 38 were subjected to mtDNA analysis for species identification. Seven specimens did not yield DNA sufficient for species identification, six specimens were identified as O. tshawytscha (Chinook) and the remaining 25 specimens were identified as O. mykiss (steelhead or redband trout). Geochemical analysis was used to determine the life history of the fish represented by the remains within these collections. Strontium Calcium (Sr:Ca) ratios were measured on twenty-eight specimens. Three specimens were determined to be from freshwater resident fish and 25 were determined to be from anadromous fish. The specimens which were genetically identified as O. tshawytscha were all determined to be anadromous. Of the 18 specimens which were identified as O. mykiss and were subjected to geochemical analysis two were from freshwater resident fish and sixteen were from anadromous fish. Four samples were not characterized genetically but were subjected to geochemical analysis; three of these were determined to be from anadromous fish and one from a freshwater resident fish. Thus, the remains of anadromous O. mykiss and O. tshawytscha were identified in archaeological deposits predating construction of the Copco I dam in the Upper Klamath Basin While the genetic and geochemical analyses confirm the presence of skeletal remains from anadromous salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin archaeological sites prior to dam construction these remains may, represent fish caught elsewhere and traded in. Two hypotheses address the introduction of these fish remains into pre-dam archaeological deposits, either they were traded/transported in from elsewhere (Trade/Transport Hypothesis) or they were caught locally (Local Catch Hypothesis). Expectations linked to each of these hypotheses were generated using ethnographic information from across the Pacific Northwest, including modern testimony from the Klamath Basin. Fish heads were often removed soon after capture in order to reduce spoilage of the rest of the fish. Thus, assemblages with many head parts are probably the result of local catch while those without head parts are probably the result of trade and/or transport. Two approaches were used to estimate the extent to which fish heads were deposited in sites. Basic proportions of cranial to post cranial remains from two sites provided a varied picture and did not readily support either the Local Catch or Trade/Transport hypotheses. Evaluation using scaled proportions based on frequency of skeletal elements within the body (Minimum Animal Units) show that four of the five assemblages were dominated by cranial remains and therefore suggest these fish were locally caught. Small samples sizes make it difficult to rigorously evaluate the hypotheses, though the dominance of cranial remains suggests salmonids were taken locally. Together these data indicate that anadromous O. tshawytscha and O. mykiss were taken from waters within the Upper Klamath Basin prior to the construction of Copco I. This study has provided accurate and reliable data, using a novel approach, on which restoration efforts in the region can rely for proper species reintroduction and habitat restoration efforts. Title: Using Archaeological Fish Remains to Determine the Native Status of Anadromous Salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin (Oregon, USA) Through mtDNA and Geochemical Analysis Author: Stevenson, Alexander E. Year: 2011 Within the Upper Klamath Basin, Oregon, the native status of anadromous salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) has been a long standing question. Ongoing efforts to establish if these fish were native to the region prior to the construction of the Copco I Dam on the Klamath River (c.1917) have relied on sparse, contradictory and sometimes unreliable historic documentation and informant testimony. Current restoration projects with very high financial and social costs necessitate accurate and reliable data on salmonid species which once called the region home. Often, archaeolofaunal remains present a novel way to determine species present in an area prior to major habitat losses. This project analyzed fish remains from five previously excavated archaeological sites within the Upper Klamath Basin to determine which salmonid species were present prior to dam construction. A total of 5,859 fish remains were identified to at least taxonomic order using morphological distinctions. Site collections were dominated by those of catostomids (suckers) and cyprinids (minnows). Archaeological deposits at these sites dated as far back as approximately 7,500 BP but were primarily from the last 2,000 years. Only eighty-one salmonid remains were observed within the sites included in this project. The low frequency of salmonid remains in these sites may be the result of cultural and/or natural processes such as density mediated attrition and archaeological sampling. Of these 81 specimens, 38 were subjected to mtDNA analysis for species identification. Seven specimens did not yield DNA sufficient for species identification, six specimens were identified as O. tshawytscha (Chinook) and the remaining 25 specimens were identified as O. mykiss (steelhead or redband trout). Geochemical analysis was used to determine the life history of the fish represented by the remains within these collections. Strontium Calcium (Sr:Ca) ratios were measured on twenty-eight specimens. Three specimens were determined to be from freshwater resident fish and 25 were determined to be from anadromous fish. The specimens which were genetically identified as O. tshawytscha were all determined to be anadromous. Of the 18 specimens which were identified as O. mykiss and were subjected to geochemical analysis two were from freshwater resident fish and sixteen were from anadromous fish. Four samples were not characterized genetically but were subjected to geochemical analysis; three of these were determined to be from anadromous fish and one from a freshwater resident fish. Thus, the remains of anadromous O. mykiss and O. tshawytscha were identified in archaeological deposits predating construction of the Copco I dam in the Upper Klamath Basin While the genetic and geochemical analyses confirm the presence of skeletal remains from anadromous salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin archaeological sites prior to dam construction these remains may, represent fish caught elsewhere and traded in. Two hypotheses address the introduction of these fish remains into pre-dam archaeological deposits, either they were traded/transported in from elsewhere (Trade/Transport Hypothesis) or they were caught locally (Local Catch Hypothesis). Expectations linked to each of these hypotheses were generated using ethnographic information from across the Pacific Northwest, including modern testimony from the Klamath Basin. Fish heads were often removed soon after capture in order to reduce spoilage of the rest of the fish. Thus, assemblages with many head parts are probably the result of local catch while those without head parts are probably the result of trade and/or transport. Two approaches were used to estimate the extent to which fish heads were deposited in sites. Basic proportions of cranial to post cranial remains from two sites provided a varied picture and did not readily support either the Local Catch or Trade/Transport hypotheses. Evaluation using scaled proportions based on frequency of skeletal elements within the body (Minimum Animal Units) show that four of the five assemblages were dominated by cranial remains and therefore suggest these fish were locally caught. Small samples sizes make it difficult to rigorously evaluate the hypotheses, though the dominance of cranial remains suggests salmonids were taken locally. Together these data indicate that anadromous O. tshawytscha and O. mykiss were taken from waters within the Upper Klamath Basin prior to the construction of Copco I. This study has provided accurate and reliable data, using a novel approach, on which restoration efforts in the region can rely for proper species reintroduction and habitat restoration efforts. Close

• 5. [Article] Sustainability from the Perspectives of Indigenous Leaders in the Bioregion Defined by the Pacific Salmon Runs of North America

  Extensive research suggests that the collective behavior of humanity is on an unsustainable path. As the evidence mounts and more people awaken to this reality, increased attention is being dedicated to ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Sustainability from the Perspectives of Indigenous Leaders in the Bioregion Defined by the Pacific Salmon Runs of North America Author: Hall, David Edward Year: 2008 Extensive research suggests that the collective behavior of humanity is on an unsustainable path. As the evidence mounts and more people awaken to this reality, increased attention is being dedicated to the pursuit of answers for a just and sustainable future. This dissertation grew from the premise that effectively moving towards sustainability requires change at all levels of the dominant Western culture, including deeply held worldviews. The worldviews of many indigenous cultures offer alternative values and beliefs that can contribute to addressing the root causes of problems related to sustainability. In the bioregion defined by the Pacific Salmon runs of North America there is a rich heritage and modern day presence of diverse indigenous cultures. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 indigenous leaders from within this bioregion to explore their mental models of sustainability. These interviews followed a general structure that covered: (a) the personal background and community affiliation of each interviewee; (b) the meaning of the concept of sustainability from their perspective; (c) visions of a sustainable future for their communities; and, (d) how to achieve such a future. A content analysis of the interviews was conducted and summarized into a narrative organized to correspond with the general interview structure. A process oftestimonial validity established that most participants found the narrative to be an accurate representation of their perspectives. Participant feedback led to several phrasing changes and other identified issues are discussed, including one participant's critique of the narrative's use of a first-person plural voice. Major themes from the interviews include the role of the human being as caretaker actively participating in the web of life, the importance of simultaneously restoring culture and ecology due to their interdependence, the need to educate and build awareness, and the importance of cooperation. Understanding who we are as a living species, including our profound connection with nature, along with a holistic and intergenerational perspective are suggested as prerequisite for balancing and aligning human modes of being with the larger patterns of life. The closing discussion addresses the importance of social action and going beyond a conceptual understanding to an embodiment of sustainability. Title: Sustainability from the Perspectives of Indigenous Leaders in the Bioregion Defined by the Pacific Salmon Runs of North America Author: Hall, David Edward Year: 2008 Extensive research suggests that the collective behavior of humanity is on an unsustainable path. As the evidence mounts and more people awaken to this reality, increased attention is being dedicated to the pursuit of answers for a just and sustainable future. This dissertation grew from the premise that effectively moving towards sustainability requires change at all levels of the dominant Western culture, including deeply held worldviews. The worldviews of many indigenous cultures offer alternative values and beliefs that can contribute to addressing the root causes of problems related to sustainability. In the bioregion defined by the Pacific Salmon runs of North America there is a rich heritage and modern day presence of diverse indigenous cultures. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 indigenous leaders from within this bioregion to explore their mental models of sustainability. These interviews followed a general structure that covered: (a) the personal background and community affiliation of each interviewee; (b) the meaning of the concept of sustainability from their perspective; (c) visions of a sustainable future for their communities; and, (d) how to achieve such a future. A content analysis of the interviews was conducted and summarized into a narrative organized to correspond with the general interview structure. A process oftestimonial validity established that most participants found the narrative to be an accurate representation of their perspectives. Participant feedback led to several phrasing changes and other identified issues are discussed, including one participant's critique of the narrative's use of a first-person plural voice. Major themes from the interviews include the role of the human being as caretaker actively participating in the web of life, the importance of simultaneously restoring culture and ecology due to their interdependence, the need to educate and build awareness, and the importance of cooperation. Understanding who we are as a living species, including our profound connection with nature, along with a holistic and intergenerational perspective are suggested as prerequisite for balancing and aligning human modes of being with the larger patterns of life. The closing discussion addresses the importance of social action and going beyond a conceptual understanding to an embodiment of sustainability. Close

• 6. [Article] Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River

  Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River Author: Rosenberg, J. Shoshana Year: 2015 Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue on the Northwest Coast. Faunal remains are one potential but as yet underutilized path for examining this relationship. My thesis work takes on this approach through the analysis of fish remains from the Cathlapotle archaeological site (45CL1). Cathlapotle is a large Chinookan village site located on the Lower Columbia River that was extensively excavated in the 1990s. Previous work has established prestige distinctions between houses and house compartments, making it possible to examine the relationship between prestige and the spatial distribution of fish remains. In this study, I examine whether having high prestige afforded its bearers greater access to preferred fish, utilizing comparisons of fish remains at two different levels of social organization, between and within households, to determine which social mechanisms could account for potential differences in access to fish resources. Differential access to these resources within the village could have occurred through household-level ownership of harvesting sites or control over the post-harvesting distribution of food by certain individuals. Previous work in this region on the relationship between faunal remains and prestige has relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources to determine the relative value of taxa. These sources do not provide adequate data to make detailed comparisons between all of the taxa encountered at archaeological sites, so in this study I utilize optimal foraging theory as an alternative means of determining which fish taxa were preferred. Optimal foraging theory provides a universal, quantitative analytical rule for ranking fish that I was able to apply to all of the taxa encountered at Cathlapotle. Given these rankings, which are based primarily on size, I examine the degree to which relative prestige designations of two households (Houses 1 and 4) and compartments within one of those households (House 1) are reflected in the spatial distribution of fish remains. I also offer a new method for quantifying sturgeon that utilizes specimen weight to account for differential fragmentation rates while still allowing for sturgeon abundance to be compared to the abundances of other taxa that have been quantified by number of identified specimens (NISP). Based on remains recovered from 1/4" mesh screens, comparisons between compartments within House 1 indicate that the chief and possibly other elite members of House 1 likely had some control over the distribution of fish resources within their household, taking more of the preferred sturgeon and salmon, particularly more chinook salmon, for themselves. Comparisons between households provide little evidence to support household-based ownership of fishing sites. A greater abundance of chinook salmon in the higher prestige House 1 may indicate ownership of fishing platforms at major chinook fisheries such as Willamette Falls or Cascades Rapids, but other explanations for this difference between households are possible. Analyses of a limited number of bulk samples, which were included in the study in order to examine utilization of very small fishes, provided insufficient data to allow for meaningful intrasite comparisons. These data indicate that the inhabitants of Cathlapotle were exploiting a broad fish subsistence base that included large numbers of eulachon and stickleback in addition to the larger fishes. This study provides a promising approach for examining prestige on the Northwest Coast and expanding our understanding of the dynamics between social inequality and resource access and control. Title: Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River Author: Rosenberg, J. Shoshana Year: 2015 Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue on the Northwest Coast. Faunal remains are one potential but as yet underutilized path for examining this relationship. My thesis work takes on this approach through the analysis of fish remains from the Cathlapotle archaeological site (45CL1). Cathlapotle is a large Chinookan village site located on the Lower Columbia River that was extensively excavated in the 1990s. Previous work has established prestige distinctions between houses and house compartments, making it possible to examine the relationship between prestige and the spatial distribution of fish remains. In this study, I examine whether having high prestige afforded its bearers greater access to preferred fish, utilizing comparisons of fish remains at two different levels of social organization, between and within households, to determine which social mechanisms could account for potential differences in access to fish resources. Differential access to these resources within the village could have occurred through household-level ownership of harvesting sites or control over the post-harvesting distribution of food by certain individuals. Previous work in this region on the relationship between faunal remains and prestige has relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources to determine the relative value of taxa. These sources do not provide adequate data to make detailed comparisons between all of the taxa encountered at archaeological sites, so in this study I utilize optimal foraging theory as an alternative means of determining which fish taxa were preferred. Optimal foraging theory provides a universal, quantitative analytical rule for ranking fish that I was able to apply to all of the taxa encountered at Cathlapotle. Given these rankings, which are based primarily on size, I examine the degree to which relative prestige designations of two households (Houses 1 and 4) and compartments within one of those households (House 1) are reflected in the spatial distribution of fish remains. I also offer a new method for quantifying sturgeon that utilizes specimen weight to account for differential fragmentation rates while still allowing for sturgeon abundance to be compared to the abundances of other taxa that have been quantified by number of identified specimens (NISP). Based on remains recovered from 1/4" mesh screens, comparisons between compartments within House 1 indicate that the chief and possibly other elite members of House 1 likely had some control over the distribution of fish resources within their household, taking more of the preferred sturgeon and salmon, particularly more chinook salmon, for themselves. Comparisons between households provide little evidence to support household-based ownership of fishing sites. A greater abundance of chinook salmon in the higher prestige House 1 may indicate ownership of fishing platforms at major chinook fisheries such as Willamette Falls or Cascades Rapids, but other explanations for this difference between households are possible. Analyses of a limited number of bulk samples, which were included in the study in order to examine utilization of very small fishes, provided insufficient data to allow for meaningful intrasite comparisons. These data indicate that the inhabitants of Cathlapotle were exploiting a broad fish subsistence base that included large numbers of eulachon and stickleback in addition to the larger fishes. This study provides a promising approach for examining prestige on the Northwest Coast and expanding our understanding of the dynamics between social inequality and resource access and control. Close

• 7. [Article] Impacts of Columbia River Discharge on Salmonid Habitat: 1. A Nonstationary Fluvial Tide Model

  This is the first part of a two-part investigation that applies nonstationary time series analysis methods and the St. Venant equations to the problem of understanding juvenile salmonid access to favorable ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Impacts of Columbia River Discharge on Salmonid Habitat: 1. A Nonstationary Fluvial Tide Model Author: Jay, David A., Kukulka, Tobias Year: 2003 This is the first part of a two-part investigation that applies nonstationary time series analysis methods and the St. Venant equations to the problem of understanding juvenile salmonid access to favorable shallow-water habitat in a tidal river. Habitat access is a function of river stage, tidal range, and the distribution of bed elevation. Part 1 models nonstationary tidal properties: species amplitudes and phases and tidal range. Part 2 models low-frequency river stage in the Lower Columbia River and reconstructs historical water levels, using the tidal model from part 1. To incorporate the nonstationary frictional effects of variable river discharge into the tidal model, we decompose the tidal wave into tidal species and calculate daily tidal range. Our one-dimensional tidal model is based on analytic wave solutions to the linearized St. Venant equation and uses six coefficients per tidal species to represent the upstream evolution of the frictionally damped tidal wave. The form of the coefficients is derived from the St. Venant equations, but their values are determined objectively from the data. About 50 station-years of surface elevation data collected (1981-2000) below Bonneville Dam (235 km from the ocean) were processed with a wavelet filter bank to retrieve time series of tidal species properties. A min-max filter was used to estimate daily tidal range. Tidal range, diurnal, and semidiurnal amplitudes were predicted with mean root mean square errorsmm, which is significantly more accurate than predictions obtained from harmonic analysis. Thus despite the compact form of our solution, we model nonstationary fluvial tidal properties with a high level of accuracy. Title: Impacts of Columbia River Discharge on Salmonid Habitat: 1. A Nonstationary Fluvial Tide Model Author: Jay, David A., Kukulka, Tobias Year: 2003 This is the first part of a two-part investigation that applies nonstationary time series analysis methods and the St. Venant equations to the problem of understanding juvenile salmonid access to favorable shallow-water habitat in a tidal river. Habitat access is a function of river stage, tidal range, and the distribution of bed elevation. Part 1 models nonstationary tidal properties: species amplitudes and phases and tidal range. Part 2 models low-frequency river stage in the Lower Columbia River and reconstructs historical water levels, using the tidal model from part 1. To incorporate the nonstationary frictional effects of variable river discharge into the tidal model, we decompose the tidal wave into tidal species and calculate daily tidal range. Our one-dimensional tidal model is based on analytic wave solutions to the linearized St. Venant equation and uses six coefficients per tidal species to represent the upstream evolution of the frictionally damped tidal wave. The form of the coefficients is derived from the St. Venant equations, but their values are determined objectively from the data. About 50 station-years of surface elevation data collected (1981-2000) below Bonneville Dam (235 km from the ocean) were processed with a wavelet filter bank to retrieve time series of tidal species properties. A min-max filter was used to estimate daily tidal range. Tidal range, diurnal, and semidiurnal amplitudes were predicted with mean root mean square errorsmm, which is significantly more accurate than predictions obtained from harmonic analysis. Thus despite the compact form of our solution, we model nonstationary fluvial tidal properties with a high level of accuracy. Close

• 8. [Article] Impacts of Columbia River Discharge on Salmonid Habitat: 2. Changes in Shallow-Water Habitat

  This is the second part of an investigation that analyzes human alteration of shallow-water habitat (SWH) available to juvenile salmonids in the tidal Lower Columbia River. Part 2 develops a one-dimensional, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Impacts of Columbia River Discharge on Salmonid Habitat: 2. Changes in Shallow-Water Habitat Author: Jay, David A., Kukulka, Tobias Year: 2003 This is the second part of an investigation that analyzes human alteration of shallow-water habitat (SWH) available to juvenile salmonids in the tidal Lower Columbia River. Part 2 develops a one-dimensional, subtidal river stage model that explains ~90% of the stage variance in the tidal river. This model and the tidal model developed in part 1 (Kukulka and Jay, 2003) uncouple the nonlinear interaction of river tides and river stage by referring both to external forcing by river discharge, ocean tides, and atmospheric pressure. Applying the two models, daily high-water levels were predicted for a reach from rkm-50 to rkm-90 during 1974 to 1998, the period of contemporary management. Predicted water levels were related to the bathymetry and topography to determine the changes in shallow-water habitat area (SWHA) caused by flood control dikes and altered flow management. Model results suggest that diking and a >40% reduction of peak flows have reduced SWHA by ~62% during the crucial spring freshet period during which juvenile salmon use of SWHA is maximal. Taken individually, diking and flow cycle alteration reduced spring freshet SWHA by 52% and 29%, respectively. SWHA has been both displaced to lower elevations and modified in its character because tidal range has increased. Our models of these processes are economical for the very long simulations (seasons to centuries) needed to understand historic changes and climate impacts on SWH. Through analysis of the nonlinear processes controlling surface elevation in a tidal river, we have identified some of the mechanisms that link freshwater discharge to SWH and salmonid survival. Title: Impacts of Columbia River Discharge on Salmonid Habitat: 2. Changes in Shallow-Water Habitat Author: Jay, David A., Kukulka, Tobias Year: 2003 This is the second part of an investigation that analyzes human alteration of shallow-water habitat (SWH) available to juvenile salmonids in the tidal Lower Columbia River. Part 2 develops a one-dimensional, subtidal river stage model that explains ~90% of the stage variance in the tidal river. This model and the tidal model developed in part 1 (Kukulka and Jay, 2003) uncouple the nonlinear interaction of river tides and river stage by referring both to external forcing by river discharge, ocean tides, and atmospheric pressure. Applying the two models, daily high-water levels were predicted for a reach from rkm-50 to rkm-90 during 1974 to 1998, the period of contemporary management. Predicted water levels were related to the bathymetry and topography to determine the changes in shallow-water habitat area (SWHA) caused by flood control dikes and altered flow management. Model results suggest that diking and a >40% reduction of peak flows have reduced SWHA by ~62% during the crucial spring freshet period during which juvenile salmon use of SWHA is maximal. Taken individually, diking and flow cycle alteration reduced spring freshet SWHA by 52% and 29%, respectively. SWHA has been both displaced to lower elevations and modified in its character because tidal range has increased. Our models of these processes are economical for the very long simulations (seasons to centuries) needed to understand historic changes and climate impacts on SWH. Through analysis of the nonlinear processes controlling surface elevation in a tidal river, we have identified some of the mechanisms that link freshwater discharge to SWH and salmonid survival. Close

• 9. [Article] Where Have All the Native Fish Gone? The Fate of Fish that Lewis and Clark Encountered on the Lower Columbia River

  As part of a special issue of the 'Oregon Historical Quarterly,' discusses the native species of fish in the lower Columbia River described by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805-06. They identified ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Where Have All the Native Fish Gone? The Fate of Fish that Lewis and Clark Encountered on the Lower Columbia River Author: Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2004 As part of a special issue of the 'Oregon Historical Quarterly,' discusses the native species of fish in the lower Columbia River described by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805-06. They identified red charr, salmon trout, sturgeon, anchovy, skeet, and other fish that Indians caught and used as trade items with the Corps of Discovery. However, editors of the Lewis and Clark journals have often erred in identifying the fish Lewis and Clark described; the challenge in identifying anadromous fish lies in changing coloration, markings, and examination of habitat. There has been a drastic decline of native fish since 1805 and a growing dominance of exotic species. Title: Where Have All the Native Fish Gone? The Fate of Fish that Lewis and Clark Encountered on the Lower Columbia River Author: Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2004 As part of a special issue of the 'Oregon Historical Quarterly,' discusses the native species of fish in the lower Columbia River described by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805-06. They identified red charr, salmon trout, sturgeon, anchovy, skeet, and other fish that Indians caught and used as trade items with the Corps of Discovery. However, editors of the Lewis and Clark journals have often erred in identifying the fish Lewis and Clark described; the challenge in identifying anadromous fish lies in changing coloration, markings, and examination of habitat. There has been a drastic decline of native fish since 1805 and a growing dominance of exotic species. Close

• 10. [Article] Can Salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) Be Identified to Species Using Vertebral Morphometrics?

  Remains of anadromous Pacific salmon and trout (genus Oncorhynchus) are common in archaeological sites from California to Alaska; however, morphological similarity generally precludes species identification, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Can Salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) Be Identified to Species Using Vertebral Morphometrics? Author: Huber, Harriet R., Jorgensen, Jeffery C., Butler, Virginia L., Baker, Greg, Stevens, Rebecca Year: 2011 Remains of anadromous Pacific salmon and trout (genus Oncorhynchus) are common in archaeological sites from California to Alaska; however, morphological similarity generally precludes species identification, limiting the range of questions that salmonid remains can address in relation to past human use and ongoing efforts in conservation biology. We developed a relatively simple, rapid, and non-destructive way to classify salmon and trout vertebrae from archaeological contexts to species using length, height and the ratio of length to height. Modern reference material was obtained from all seven anadromous Oncorhynchus species native to the west coast of North America. A minimum of ten adult Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), chum (O. keta), coho (O. kisutch), pink (O.gorbuscha), and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) and cutthroat (O. clarki clarki) and steelhead trout (O. mykiss) were skeletonized and vertebra length and height were measured. Morphometric analyses compared species classification success based on Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Classification and Regression Trees (CART), and randomForest, with CART performing the best. Classification analyses used all seven species individually, but because of considerable overlap among several species we also conducted analyses on four species groupings. We assigned Chinook salmon and cutthroat to their own groups based on their dissimilarities from each other and the other species. The remaining species were divided into two group complexes (a) chum, coho, and steelhead; and (b) pink and sockeye. When we grouped species according to similar morphology, CART overall success rates increased, ranging from 92 to 100%. Individual species with the highest successful classification rates using CART were Chinook salmon and cutthroat, from 92 to 100%, respectively. We applied our classification to an assemblage of ancient (1000 to 3000 year old) salmonid vertebrae from the Swiftwater Rockshelters excavations on the upper Wenatchee River in Washington State, U.S.A. Title: Can Salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) Be Identified to Species Using Vertebral Morphometrics? Author: Huber, Harriet R., Jorgensen, Jeffery C., Butler, Virginia L., Baker, Greg, Stevens, Rebecca Year: 2011 Remains of anadromous Pacific salmon and trout (genus Oncorhynchus) are common in archaeological sites from California to Alaska; however, morphological similarity generally precludes species identification, limiting the range of questions that salmonid remains can address in relation to past human use and ongoing efforts in conservation biology. We developed a relatively simple, rapid, and non-destructive way to classify salmon and trout vertebrae from archaeological contexts to species using length, height and the ratio of length to height. Modern reference material was obtained from all seven anadromous Oncorhynchus species native to the west coast of North America. A minimum of ten adult Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), chum (O. keta), coho (O. kisutch), pink (O.gorbuscha), and sockeye salmon (O. nerka) and cutthroat (O. clarki clarki) and steelhead trout (O. mykiss) were skeletonized and vertebra length and height were measured. Morphometric analyses compared species classification success based on Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Classification and Regression Trees (CART), and randomForest, with CART performing the best. Classification analyses used all seven species individually, but because of considerable overlap among several species we also conducted analyses on four species groupings. We assigned Chinook salmon and cutthroat to their own groups based on their dissimilarities from each other and the other species. The remaining species were divided into two group complexes (a) chum, coho, and steelhead; and (b) pink and sockeye. When we grouped species according to similar morphology, CART overall success rates increased, ranging from 92 to 100%. Individual species with the highest successful classification rates using CART were Chinook salmon and cutthroat, from 92 to 100%, respectively. We applied our classification to an assemblage of ancient (1000 to 3000 year old) salmonid vertebrae from the Swiftwater Rockshelters excavations on the upper Wenatchee River in Washington State, U.S.A. Close