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• 1. [Article] A gold dream in the Blue Mountains : a study of the Chinese immigrants in the John Day area, Oregon, 1870-1910

  More than one hundred years have passed since the Chinese laborers first landed in this country in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their history remains cloudy. This phenomenon is quite understandable ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A gold dream in the Blue Mountains : a study of the Chinese immigrants in the John Day area, Oregon, 1870-1910 Author: Chen, Chia-lin Year: 1972 More than one hundred years have passed since the Chinese laborers first landed in this country in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their history remains cloudy. This phenomenon is quite understandable if one considers the facts that most of the laborers were illiterate, did not have the ability, and never intended, to speak for themselves. It is true that many scholarly works have been published, but few were written by Chinese historians. As a matter of fact, Chinese scholars are unaware that a small number of their countrymen played a strange, pitiful role in American history. The published works reflect the viewpoint of only American observers. The labor of the Chinese workers was indispensable to the development of the frontier West at a time when resources were abundant and labor hands were few. So much work had to be done building railroads and dams, digging mines, clearing farm lands, canning salmon, etc. And the Chinese were welcomed to every line of manual work. There was a time when nearly every family at Astoria of Oregon and Olympia of Washington hired a Chinese as servant, as some writers claim. When the great number of whites moved in from the east, along with them came the floating laborers and the European immigrants, as well as the labor union. Conditions changed rapidly, the Chinese found themselves not only excluded from all employment, but persecuted everywhere. California was the state which first utilized Chinese labor and first expelled it. This unfavorable circumstance forced the Chinese to flee from California to other states. The purpose of this paper is not to give an account of how the Chinese were maltreated in a country known as a free, equal land opened widely to the whole world, but rather tries to find out how they survived, what were their daily problems, sorrows, and happiness, if any, and what were their inner feelings, their attitudes toward the white hosts. In short, the paper is written in an attempt to reconstruct their life in an alien land. In addition, the paper tries to answer the question why this oriental group appeared so peculiar in their behavior, as some whites commented, that they were both condemned and contemned. One of the crucial problems facing the researcher in the field of early Chinese immigration history is the lack of original materials. This is the common defects in all the published works on this subject. Fortunately for the author, by an unique chance, he was able to study numerous objects left in a Chinese grocery store, the Kam Wah Chung Co. at John Day--a small town once a busy mining area in Eastern Oregon. The pioneer artifacts in this town are disappearing, though the gravels of the old gold placers are still visible along the hillsides and canyons. But the queer old building of the Chinese store is still standing stubbornly as it did one hundred years ago, on a road called Canton Street So many objects were left in the building that the city of John Day is endeavoring to open it as a museum. From a historical point of view, many of these objects are very valuable. Among them are a great number of letters. Some were sent to the laborers from their families, in care of that building. Others were from the laborers to their homes, and for some unknown reason had not been sent to China. They are unique and of special importance to this paper. Perhaps nowhere else in the United States, or in War-torn China, can one find such a number of first hand records about the early Chinese in this country. Although few significant events, romantic affairs, or anything exciting can be expected of them, still, one can reconstruct a plain sketch of their life from these materials. The paper, though it only presents a small picture of the Chinese group in Eastern Oregon, is aimed to serve, hopefully, as a footnote leading to an understanding of how the early Chinese immigrants once lived in the Pacific Northwest. Title: A gold dream in the Blue Mountains : a study of the Chinese immigrants in the John Day area, Oregon, 1870-1910 Author: Chen, Chia-lin Year: 1972 More than one hundred years have passed since the Chinese laborers first landed in this country in the mid-nineteenth century. Yet their history remains cloudy. This phenomenon is quite understandable if one considers the facts that most of the laborers were illiterate, did not have the ability, and never intended, to speak for themselves. It is true that many scholarly works have been published, but few were written by Chinese historians. As a matter of fact, Chinese scholars are unaware that a small number of their countrymen played a strange, pitiful role in American history. The published works reflect the viewpoint of only American observers. The labor of the Chinese workers was indispensable to the development of the frontier West at a time when resources were abundant and labor hands were few. So much work had to be done building railroads and dams, digging mines, clearing farm lands, canning salmon, etc. And the Chinese were welcomed to every line of manual work. There was a time when nearly every family at Astoria of Oregon and Olympia of Washington hired a Chinese as servant, as some writers claim. When the great number of whites moved in from the east, along with them came the floating laborers and the European immigrants, as well as the labor union. Conditions changed rapidly, the Chinese found themselves not only excluded from all employment, but persecuted everywhere. California was the state which first utilized Chinese labor and first expelled it. This unfavorable circumstance forced the Chinese to flee from California to other states. The purpose of this paper is not to give an account of how the Chinese were maltreated in a country known as a free, equal land opened widely to the whole world, but rather tries to find out how they survived, what were their daily problems, sorrows, and happiness, if any, and what were their inner feelings, their attitudes toward the white hosts. In short, the paper is written in an attempt to reconstruct their life in an alien land. In addition, the paper tries to answer the question why this oriental group appeared so peculiar in their behavior, as some whites commented, that they were both condemned and contemned. One of the crucial problems facing the researcher in the field of early Chinese immigration history is the lack of original materials. This is the common defects in all the published works on this subject. Fortunately for the author, by an unique chance, he was able to study numerous objects left in a Chinese grocery store, the Kam Wah Chung Co. at John Day--a small town once a busy mining area in Eastern Oregon. The pioneer artifacts in this town are disappearing, though the gravels of the old gold placers are still visible along the hillsides and canyons. But the queer old building of the Chinese store is still standing stubbornly as it did one hundred years ago, on a road called Canton Street So many objects were left in the building that the city of John Day is endeavoring to open it as a museum. From a historical point of view, many of these objects are very valuable. Among them are a great number of letters. Some were sent to the laborers from their families, in care of that building. Others were from the laborers to their homes, and for some unknown reason had not been sent to China. They are unique and of special importance to this paper. Perhaps nowhere else in the United States, or in War-torn China, can one find such a number of first hand records about the early Chinese in this country. Although few significant events, romantic affairs, or anything exciting can be expected of them, still, one can reconstruct a plain sketch of their life from these materials. The paper, though it only presents a small picture of the Chinese group in Eastern Oregon, is aimed to serve, hopefully, as a footnote leading to an understanding of how the early Chinese immigrants once lived in the Pacific Northwest. Close

• 2. [Article] Indians and Criminal Justice in Early Oregon, 1842-1859

  Indian-white relations in early Oregon are often viewed in terms of warfare and treatymaking, but these are only the most obvious aspects of a larger struggle to resolve cultural conflicts, settle land ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Indians and Criminal Justice in Early Oregon, 1842-1859 Author: Ferrell, John Samuel Year: 1973 Indian-white relations in early Oregon are often viewed in terms of warfare and treatymaking, but these are only the most obvious aspects of a larger struggle to resolve cultural conflicts, settle land disputes, and establish order in a new territory. Additional understanding of both white attitudes toward Indians and of Indian exasperation with the settlers may be gained from a study of how criminal justice applied to the red man during the turbulent pre-reservation era. Prior to the coming of America settlers, Oregon Indians knew the justice of the Hudson's Bay Company. In dealing with personas accused of harming HBC personnel or property, Dr. John McLoughlin acted with firmness and persistence while taking cognizance of the Indian's own ideas of just treatment, The American leaders of later years sometimes imitated McLoughlin's firmness but failed to recognize the importance of Indian tradition. Dr. Elijah White, after bring appointed the first U.S. Indian agent for Oregon in 1842, presented the natives with a law code which largely ignored their own traditions and confused them by making major offenses of what had formerly been viewed as minor infractions. Dr. White assured his charges that the new law code came from God and was recognized by all civilized nations. A similar smugness was apparent in later leaders who were convinced that the court proceedings against Indian troublemakers could not help but make a deep and beneficial impression on the defendants' fellow tribesman. Such assurance sometimes blinded the whites to inequities in their application of justice to Indian-white disputes and this blindness contributed to friction between the races. Criminal justice for Indians was a more complex matter during Oregon's territorial period than it had been during the HBC era. To the Indians, the British had been trading partners, but the Americans were dispossessors. A sizable influx of settlers preceded the signing of the Indian treaties, and the presence of two divergent cultures on the same disputed ground made necessary some means of dealing with the disagreements which inevitably arose. But civil officials, army officers, judges, and Indian agents were still working out their respective spheres of influence while new settlers might be many miles away from any hands. The belief expressed by leading figures in the army and the Indian Bureau that whites were to blame for outbreaks of violence did not encourage irate settlers or miners to rely on these agencies to settle disputes with Indians, and citizens' courts, minors' committees, or indiscriminate reprisals were often only forms of "justice" employed. Indians noted the infrequencies of prosecution for whites who committed crimes against them and complained that the whites had one set of laws for themselves and another for the red man, Adverse public opinion worked against the efforts of Indian superintendent Joel Palmer to correct this grievance, and lawyers sometimes questioned whether Indian were, in fact, "persons" or whether their mistreatment could constitute a crime. Even Dick Johnson, a successful Indian farmer who abandoned his native culture and won the support of Palmer and of Jesse Applegate in his efforts to model his life on white men's ideals, had so little legal identity that his suspected murderers were not tried and one of them was allowed to take his farm. Segregation of land and of peoples was the distraction in which both the law and public opinion pointed in Oregon Territory. Consciously and unconsciously, whites encouraged Indians to accept a reservation solution to the problems generated by land-hunger and culture clash, and among these problems legal discrimination and vigilante justice figured prominently. Hatred of the Indians among many of the settlers contributed substantially to distortion and non-application of criminal justice, but even with favorable public opinion, as in the case of Dick Johnson, the law itself was insufficient for an Indian who did not remove himself from white society and accept the treaty protections of the reservation. Title: Indians and Criminal Justice in Early Oregon, 1842-1859 Author: Ferrell, John Samuel Year: 1973 Indian-white relations in early Oregon are often viewed in terms of warfare and treatymaking, but these are only the most obvious aspects of a larger struggle to resolve cultural conflicts, settle land disputes, and establish order in a new territory. Additional understanding of both white attitudes toward Indians and of Indian exasperation with the settlers may be gained from a study of how criminal justice applied to the red man during the turbulent pre-reservation era. Prior to the coming of America settlers, Oregon Indians knew the justice of the Hudson's Bay Company. In dealing with personas accused of harming HBC personnel or property, Dr. John McLoughlin acted with firmness and persistence while taking cognizance of the Indian's own ideas of just treatment, The American leaders of later years sometimes imitated McLoughlin's firmness but failed to recognize the importance of Indian tradition. Dr. Elijah White, after bring appointed the first U.S. Indian agent for Oregon in 1842, presented the natives with a law code which largely ignored their own traditions and confused them by making major offenses of what had formerly been viewed as minor infractions. Dr. White assured his charges that the new law code came from God and was recognized by all civilized nations. A similar smugness was apparent in later leaders who were convinced that the court proceedings against Indian troublemakers could not help but make a deep and beneficial impression on the defendants' fellow tribesman. Such assurance sometimes blinded the whites to inequities in their application of justice to Indian-white disputes and this blindness contributed to friction between the races. Criminal justice for Indians was a more complex matter during Oregon's territorial period than it had been during the HBC era. To the Indians, the British had been trading partners, but the Americans were dispossessors. A sizable influx of settlers preceded the signing of the Indian treaties, and the presence of two divergent cultures on the same disputed ground made necessary some means of dealing with the disagreements which inevitably arose. But civil officials, army officers, judges, and Indian agents were still working out their respective spheres of influence while new settlers might be many miles away from any hands. The belief expressed by leading figures in the army and the Indian Bureau that whites were to blame for outbreaks of violence did not encourage irate settlers or miners to rely on these agencies to settle disputes with Indians, and citizens' courts, minors' committees, or indiscriminate reprisals were often only forms of "justice" employed. Indians noted the infrequencies of prosecution for whites who committed crimes against them and complained that the whites had one set of laws for themselves and another for the red man, Adverse public opinion worked against the efforts of Indian superintendent Joel Palmer to correct this grievance, and lawyers sometimes questioned whether Indian were, in fact, "persons" or whether their mistreatment could constitute a crime. Even Dick Johnson, a successful Indian farmer who abandoned his native culture and won the support of Palmer and of Jesse Applegate in his efforts to model his life on white men's ideals, had so little legal identity that his suspected murderers were not tried and one of them was allowed to take his farm. Segregation of land and of peoples was the distraction in which both the law and public opinion pointed in Oregon Territory. Consciously and unconsciously, whites encouraged Indians to accept a reservation solution to the problems generated by land-hunger and culture clash, and among these problems legal discrimination and vigilante justice figured prominently. Hatred of the Indians among many of the settlers contributed substantially to distortion and non-application of criminal justice, but even with favorable public opinion, as in the case of Dick Johnson, the law itself was insufficient for an Indian who did not remove himself from white society and accept the treaty protections of the reservation. Close

• 3. [Article] Rural Water

  In Rural Water, Amos Durand struggles to bring in the year's corn crop amid constant rain, marital strife, and his son's peculiar role in a murder investigation.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Rural Water Author: Mollet, Daniel Ray Year: 2013 In Rural Water, Amos Durand struggles to bring in the year's corn crop amid constant rain, marital strife, and his son's peculiar role in a murder investigation. Title: Rural Water Author: Mollet, Daniel Ray Year: 2013 In Rural Water, Amos Durand struggles to bring in the year's corn crop amid constant rain, marital strife, and his son's peculiar role in a murder investigation. Close

• 4. [Article] An Evaluation of the Nontarget Effects of Transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Maize on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Soil Ecosystem

  My dissertation research examined the effect of the cultivation of insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize on the soil environment with a goal of understanding how to obtain a balance between ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An Evaluation of the Nontarget Effects of Transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Maize on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Soil Ecosystem Author: Cheeke, Tanya Elizabeth Amy Year: 2013 My dissertation research examined the effect of the cultivation of insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize on the soil environment with a goal of understanding how to obtain a balance between technological advancement and maintenance of a healthy soil ecosystem. Although Bt plants may help to reduce pesticide use, conferring benefits to farm workers and the environment, there are still unresolved questions about how the cultivation of Bt plants affects soil organisms. For this dissertation project, I used 14 different genotypes of Bt maize and non-Bt maize (Zea mays) to investigate the effects of transgenic Bt plants on the colonization ability, abundance, and diversity of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in the soil ecosystem over time. My greenhouse studies demonstrated that Bt maize plants exhibited reduced AMF colonization across multiple Bt genotypes and that effects were most pronounced when fertilizer levels were limited and spore density was high. In addition, I found that although differences in AMF colonization between Bt and non-Bt maize were difficult to detect in the field, spore density was reduced in Bt field plots after just one growing season. When I tested the effect of plot history on AMF and plant growth, I found that Bt and non-Bt maize plants had higher leaf chlorophyll content when grown in plots previously cultivated with the same maize line as the previous year, indicative of a positive feedback effect. I also examined potential mechanisms contributing to the reduced AMF colonization observed in Bt maize in greenhouse studies and determined that follow-up experiments should continue to investigate differences in root apoplastic invertase activity and root permeability in Bt and non-Bt maize. Future investigations would also benefit from examining potential differences in root exudate profiles and volatile organic compounds between Bt and non-Bt cultivars. Taken together, my dissertation results suggest that, while difficult to detect in the field, reductions in AMF colonization in Bt maize roots may be ecologically significant as they could lead to a decrease in the abundance of AMF propagules in the soil over time, potentially impacting soil structure and function in areas where Bt crop cultivation is high. Title: An Evaluation of the Nontarget Effects of Transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Maize on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Soil Ecosystem Author: Cheeke, Tanya Elizabeth Amy Year: 2013 My dissertation research examined the effect of the cultivation of insect-resistant Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize on the soil environment with a goal of understanding how to obtain a balance between technological advancement and maintenance of a healthy soil ecosystem. Although Bt plants may help to reduce pesticide use, conferring benefits to farm workers and the environment, there are still unresolved questions about how the cultivation of Bt plants affects soil organisms. For this dissertation project, I used 14 different genotypes of Bt maize and non-Bt maize (Zea mays) to investigate the effects of transgenic Bt plants on the colonization ability, abundance, and diversity of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in the soil ecosystem over time. My greenhouse studies demonstrated that Bt maize plants exhibited reduced AMF colonization across multiple Bt genotypes and that effects were most pronounced when fertilizer levels were limited and spore density was high. In addition, I found that although differences in AMF colonization between Bt and non-Bt maize were difficult to detect in the field, spore density was reduced in Bt field plots after just one growing season. When I tested the effect of plot history on AMF and plant growth, I found that Bt and non-Bt maize plants had higher leaf chlorophyll content when grown in plots previously cultivated with the same maize line as the previous year, indicative of a positive feedback effect. I also examined potential mechanisms contributing to the reduced AMF colonization observed in Bt maize in greenhouse studies and determined that follow-up experiments should continue to investigate differences in root apoplastic invertase activity and root permeability in Bt and non-Bt maize. Future investigations would also benefit from examining potential differences in root exudate profiles and volatile organic compounds between Bt and non-Bt cultivars. Taken together, my dissertation results suggest that, while difficult to detect in the field, reductions in AMF colonization in Bt maize roots may be ecologically significant as they could lead to a decrease in the abundance of AMF propagules in the soil over time, potentially impacting soil structure and function in areas where Bt crop cultivation is high. Close

• 5. [Article] The defense system in Libya during the I-VI centuries A.D.

  This thesis will examine the significance of the defense system that was a result of the Libyan wars against the Romans, Byzantines, and the Vandals. For economic and strategic reasons these nations were ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The defense system in Libya during the I-VI centuries A.D. Author: Geddeda, Ramadan A. Year: 1978 This thesis will examine the significance of the defense system that was a result of the Libyan wars against the Romans, Byzantines, and the Vandals. For economic and strategic reasons these nations were involved in long and bitter wars which lasted over six centuries. The policy of the long distance military expeditions, which was the main instrument of the Romans in subduing the natives in the early Empire, had failed to achieve its goals. Thus, the alternative was to erect a network of roads and forts in strategic spots such as water points, commanding hills, along the caravan routes and on the edges of fertile wadis. In fact, neither the roads, which were very well fortified, nor the massive front forts had solved the frontier problems, thus the Romans had no choice other than to leave the frontiers to be guarded by the natives themselves. To this end several civilian settlements (fortified farms) were established on the fertile wadis. "While a mixture of people coexisted in these fortified farms, the archaeological remains show that the prevailing culture belonged to the Libyan natives. Title: The defense system in Libya during the I-VI centuries A.D. Author: Geddeda, Ramadan A. Year: 1978 This thesis will examine the significance of the defense system that was a result of the Libyan wars against the Romans, Byzantines, and the Vandals. For economic and strategic reasons these nations were involved in long and bitter wars which lasted over six centuries. The policy of the long distance military expeditions, which was the main instrument of the Romans in subduing the natives in the early Empire, had failed to achieve its goals. Thus, the alternative was to erect a network of roads and forts in strategic spots such as water points, commanding hills, along the caravan routes and on the edges of fertile wadis. In fact, neither the roads, which were very well fortified, nor the massive front forts had solved the frontier problems, thus the Romans had no choice other than to leave the frontiers to be guarded by the natives themselves. To this end several civilian settlements (fortified farms) were established on the fertile wadis. "While a mixture of people coexisted in these fortified farms, the archaeological remains show that the prevailing culture belonged to the Libyan natives. Close

• 6. [Article] Determinants of the Spatial Distribution of Peri-Urban to Rural Agriculture in the United States

  Two issues are focal to the subject of the spatial distribution of crops in peri-urban zones. The first deals with developments in the fields of transportation, other technology, urbanization, and other ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Determinants of the Spatial Distribution of Peri-Urban to Rural Agriculture in the United States Author: Abdel-Karim, Ibrahim Amin Year: 1987 Two issues are focal to the subject of the spatial distribution of crops in peri-urban zones. The first deals with developments in the fields of transportation, other technology, urbanization, and other factors which are not only prevalent in developed world economies, but which also are thought to force the cultivation of freshly consumed agricultural commodities away from the immediate vicinity of the market center. The second issue pertains to indirectly consumed crops, which are thought to shun proximity to the market center, where land rents per unit area are characteristically high, even when conditions for productions are ideal. Traditional models have shown a zonal pattern of crop distribution in peri-urban areas. The present study sets forth two hypotheses, one pertaining to the spatial distribution of freshly consumed crops, and the other pertaining to the spatial distribution of indirectly consumed crops. It was hypothesized in the present study that freshly consumed crops will continue to be cultivated in the near vicinity of the market center due to characteristics of the crops and the urban market. It was further hypothesized that indirectly consumed crops will continue to be cultivated in the near vicinity of the market center by virtue of greater intensity of production that may be obtained through the use of the environment of designated places. In the case of both crops, the cited factors, as well as others, offset the disadvantages of higher land rent per unit area common to areas close to the market center. These offsetting factors permit agriculture to compete successfully for land in the peri-urban zone. To test these hypotheses, variables were selected to measure the influence that urbanization, transportation, other technologies, the market, the environment, and land use regulations have on agricultural siting patterns in the peri-urban zones of the "Wheat Region" of the central United States. These variables were expressed as equations and were subjected to multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis. The present findings tended to support the research hypotheses. On the basis of these findings, the present research offers a revised model of agricultural cropping patterns, one that reflects the sectoral, rather than the zonal, pattern of crop distribution in peri-urban zones. In the revised model, the mixing of different crops at various locations around the market is feasible, and low-priced grains may compete successfully for high-rent locations in the near vicinity of the urban market. The findings also show that the production of perishable crops in the iIl'.mediate vicinity of the urban market is here to stay, largely due to access to varied means of transportation as well as characteristics of the crops themselves. Furthermore, the findings show that environmental conditions influence the locating of grain production, although economic considerations were seen to supersede them, particularly at high-rent sites. Title: Determinants of the Spatial Distribution of Peri-Urban to Rural Agriculture in the United States Author: Abdel-Karim, Ibrahim Amin Year: 1987 Two issues are focal to the subject of the spatial distribution of crops in peri-urban zones. The first deals with developments in the fields of transportation, other technology, urbanization, and other factors which are not only prevalent in developed world economies, but which also are thought to force the cultivation of freshly consumed agricultural commodities away from the immediate vicinity of the market center. The second issue pertains to indirectly consumed crops, which are thought to shun proximity to the market center, where land rents per unit area are characteristically high, even when conditions for productions are ideal. Traditional models have shown a zonal pattern of crop distribution in peri-urban areas. The present study sets forth two hypotheses, one pertaining to the spatial distribution of freshly consumed crops, and the other pertaining to the spatial distribution of indirectly consumed crops. It was hypothesized in the present study that freshly consumed crops will continue to be cultivated in the near vicinity of the market center due to characteristics of the crops and the urban market. It was further hypothesized that indirectly consumed crops will continue to be cultivated in the near vicinity of the market center by virtue of greater intensity of production that may be obtained through the use of the environment of designated places. In the case of both crops, the cited factors, as well as others, offset the disadvantages of higher land rent per unit area common to areas close to the market center. These offsetting factors permit agriculture to compete successfully for land in the peri-urban zone. To test these hypotheses, variables were selected to measure the influence that urbanization, transportation, other technologies, the market, the environment, and land use regulations have on agricultural siting patterns in the peri-urban zones of the "Wheat Region" of the central United States. These variables were expressed as equations and were subjected to multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis. The present findings tended to support the research hypotheses. On the basis of these findings, the present research offers a revised model of agricultural cropping patterns, one that reflects the sectoral, rather than the zonal, pattern of crop distribution in peri-urban zones. In the revised model, the mixing of different crops at various locations around the market is feasible, and low-priced grains may compete successfully for high-rent locations in the near vicinity of the urban market. The findings also show that the production of perishable crops in the iIl'.mediate vicinity of the urban market is here to stay, largely due to access to varied means of transportation as well as characteristics of the crops themselves. Furthermore, the findings show that environmental conditions influence the locating of grain production, although economic considerations were seen to supersede them, particularly at high-rent sites. Close

• 7. [Article] Hedonic Analysis of Housing Prices Near the Portland Urban Growth Boundary, 1978-1990

  The cornerstones of Oregon's 1973 Senate Bill 100 are the preservation of farm, forest, and other resource lands and the containment of urban development within urban growth boundaries (UCB). The UCB is ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hedonic Analysis of Housing Prices Near the Portland Urban Growth Boundary, 1978-1990 Author: Alkadi, Abdullah Year: 1996 The cornerstones of Oregon's 1973 Senate Bill 100 are the preservation of farm, forest, and other resource lands and the containment of urban development within urban growth boundaries (UCB). The UCB is a boundary around each incorporated city containing enough land to meet projected needs until the year 2000. The Land Conservation and Development Commission (LCDC), charged with adopting and implementing state planning policy, sought to keep UGBs small enough to contain urban sprawl. To avoid the potential effects of land price inflation, LCDC allowed UGBs to include more land supply than the forecasted demand. The Portland-Metropolitan region was allowed to have a 15.3-percent surplus. Policy makers are unsure what effect UGBs have on housing costs. The common belief is that by restricting the amount of land available for residential construction the market drives prices up. Contrasting opinions suggest that by substituting low-density with high-density development, per-unit construction costs are lower, thus reducing the costs of owning a home. Efforts to dispel some of the mystery about the relationship between UGBs and housing prices are needed. The objective of this research is to provide empirical evidence of the relationship between the Portland-Metropolitan area's UGB and housing prices. The study uses a hedonic model to conduct a time-series analysis for the years 1978 to 1990 for Washington County. This study found no relationship between housing price and the imposition of the UGB. In fact, the rate of increase in price for single-family housing after UGB implementation was found to be much less than before. Proximity as measured by distance of sale to the UGB was the only variable that was associated with a higher rate of increase in housing prices. All of these results, with the exception of those related to proximity, were unexpected but may be explained by several factors: imposition of the Metropolitan Housing Rule in 1981, a severe recession during the 1980s, and excess land supply. These influences do not support a conclusion that UGBs lead to an increase in housing prices, at least prior to 1990, when the UGB did not constrain the supply of land. Title: Hedonic Analysis of Housing Prices Near the Portland Urban Growth Boundary, 1978-1990 Author: Alkadi, Abdullah Year: 1996 The cornerstones of Oregon's 1973 Senate Bill 100 are the preservation of farm, forest, and other resource lands and the containment of urban development within urban growth boundaries (UCB). The UCB is a boundary around each incorporated city containing enough land to meet projected needs until the year 2000. The Land Conservation and Development Commission (LCDC), charged with adopting and implementing state planning policy, sought to keep UGBs small enough to contain urban sprawl. To avoid the potential effects of land price inflation, LCDC allowed UGBs to include more land supply than the forecasted demand. The Portland-Metropolitan region was allowed to have a 15.3-percent surplus. Policy makers are unsure what effect UGBs have on housing costs. The common belief is that by restricting the amount of land available for residential construction the market drives prices up. Contrasting opinions suggest that by substituting low-density with high-density development, per-unit construction costs are lower, thus reducing the costs of owning a home. Efforts to dispel some of the mystery about the relationship between UGBs and housing prices are needed. The objective of this research is to provide empirical evidence of the relationship between the Portland-Metropolitan area's UGB and housing prices. The study uses a hedonic model to conduct a time-series analysis for the years 1978 to 1990 for Washington County. This study found no relationship between housing price and the imposition of the UGB. In fact, the rate of increase in price for single-family housing after UGB implementation was found to be much less than before. Proximity as measured by distance of sale to the UGB was the only variable that was associated with a higher rate of increase in housing prices. All of these results, with the exception of those related to proximity, were unexpected but may be explained by several factors: imposition of the Metropolitan Housing Rule in 1981, a severe recession during the 1980s, and excess land supply. These influences do not support a conclusion that UGBs lead to an increase in housing prices, at least prior to 1990, when the UGB did not constrain the supply of land. Close

• 8. [Article] Local food and land-use in Washington County, Oregon

  Local food networks are often defined as presenting a variety of alternative food production, consumption, and distribution practices to the conventional food system such as community-supported-agriculture, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Local food and land-use in Washington County, Oregon Author: Cousins, Joshua James Year: 2010 Local food networks are often defined as presenting a variety of alternative food production, consumption, and distribution practices to the conventional food system such as community-supported-agriculture, farmers markets, and community gardens. Local food initiatives are commonly proposed as a model for the future of sustainable agriculture, and in the region of Portland, Oregon the abundance of such alternative venues results from the area's natural surroundings and smart planning. The region is host to 39 farmers markets and Portland is often hailed as one of the country's most sustainable cities. This study examines the role of local food networks in preserving agricultural land uses and livelihoods in Washington County, Oregon, a rapidly growing county adjacent to the city of Portland. I focus on small-scale agricultural landscapes where the producer sells at farmers markets or through community supported agriculture (CSAs). I explore farmers' concerns about urbanization and farmland preservation, their relationship to urban markets, motives to become a farmer, engagement with the surrounding environment, and their difficulties participating in local food networks. In addition, I explore farmers market managers' insights into the development of local food networks and how they see their markets supporting small-scale farmers. In a survey of consumers I examine consumer motives to `buy local' and consumer concerns about farmland preservation. The research is qualitative and explores: 1) the processes shaping the development of local food networks; 2) how particular ideas and images of nature and the countryside inform both consumer desires to purchase from farmers selling locally and; 3) how those same images of nature and the countryside inform and motivate people to become farmers participating in local food networks. In so doing, I argue that the networks that sustain urban and rural systems are important in understanding the development of local food networks, and that the preservation of economically and culturally important agricultural lands in Washington County depends on a diversity of opinions and rural narratives in order to preserve small-scale sustainable farmlands close-in to cities. The conclusion is that local food sold through alternative venues can be used as a means to preserve and develop specific and manageable farm sites and agricultural land uses but the impact is limited. Large scale impacts on agricultural land uses and livelihoods will depend on planners and advocates agreeing on policies that encompass a diversity of opinions, land uses, and land managers, while understanding the array of networks beyond the city that sustain both urban and rural systems. Title: Local food and land-use in Washington County, Oregon Author: Cousins, Joshua James Year: 2010 Local food networks are often defined as presenting a variety of alternative food production, consumption, and distribution practices to the conventional food system such as community-supported-agriculture, farmers markets, and community gardens. Local food initiatives are commonly proposed as a model for the future of sustainable agriculture, and in the region of Portland, Oregon the abundance of such alternative venues results from the area's natural surroundings and smart planning. The region is host to 39 farmers markets and Portland is often hailed as one of the country's most sustainable cities. This study examines the role of local food networks in preserving agricultural land uses and livelihoods in Washington County, Oregon, a rapidly growing county adjacent to the city of Portland. I focus on small-scale agricultural landscapes where the producer sells at farmers markets or through community supported agriculture (CSAs). I explore farmers' concerns about urbanization and farmland preservation, their relationship to urban markets, motives to become a farmer, engagement with the surrounding environment, and their difficulties participating in local food networks. In addition, I explore farmers market managers' insights into the development of local food networks and how they see their markets supporting small-scale farmers. In a survey of consumers I examine consumer motives to `buy local' and consumer concerns about farmland preservation. The research is qualitative and explores: 1) the processes shaping the development of local food networks; 2) how particular ideas and images of nature and the countryside inform both consumer desires to purchase from farmers selling locally and; 3) how those same images of nature and the countryside inform and motivate people to become farmers participating in local food networks. In so doing, I argue that the networks that sustain urban and rural systems are important in understanding the development of local food networks, and that the preservation of economically and culturally important agricultural lands in Washington County depends on a diversity of opinions and rural narratives in order to preserve small-scale sustainable farmlands close-in to cities. The conclusion is that local food sold through alternative venues can be used as a means to preserve and develop specific and manageable farm sites and agricultural land uses but the impact is limited. Large scale impacts on agricultural land uses and livelihoods will depend on planners and advocates agreeing on policies that encompass a diversity of opinions, land uses, and land managers, while understanding the array of networks beyond the city that sustain both urban and rural systems. Close

• 9. [Article] "Railcars Loaded With Crisp Fresh Vegetables" A study of Agriculture at the Tule Lake Relocation Center 1942-1946

  In the Spring and Summer of 1942, the population of West Coast Japanese were rounded up and forcibly moved from their homes to temporary camps and soon after to ten permanent relocation camps in the interior ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: "Railcars Loaded With Crisp Fresh Vegetables" A study of Agriculture at the Tule Lake Relocation Center 1942-1946 Author: Schmidli, Michael David Year: 2008 In the Spring and Summer of 1942, the population of West Coast Japanese were rounded up and forcibly moved from their homes to temporary camps and soon after to ten permanent relocation camps in the interior Western United States. This thesis traces the history of one such camp, the Tule Lake Relocation Center. In this thesis I argue that from its inception the Tule Lake Center was unique among the ten camps. The decision to build a permanent center at Tule Lake was based upon the unique potential the area provided for agriculture on a huge scale. The other permanent centers were located in remote inhospitable areas where large scale agricultural operations were impossible. The introduction outlines my key research questions and the methodology used. This section identifies my central theme, agriculture at the Tule Lake Relocation Center, and situates my own research within the existing scholarship on the Japanese-American Relocation. Chapter one is a review of the factors, including racial animosity, and wartime hysteria leading up to the decision to relocate every Japanese individual living on the West Coast. Chapter two discusses the little known history of how and why Tule Lake was chosen for a permanent relocation center. Chapter three documents the commitment of the War Relocation Authority to a massive agricultural project at the Tule Lake Center. Chapter four recounts the tumultuous registration period at Tule Lake. In the winter of 1943, the War Relocation Authority and the War Department combined to administer a loyalty questionnaire to every internee over the age of 17, revealing shocking disloyalty at Tule Lake. Chapter five discusses the decision of the War Relocation Authority to segregate Japanese Americans declared disloyal, and the choice of Tule Lake as the segregation center. Chapter six discusses the events, in particular the tragic accidental death of a farm worker, which led to the end of large scale agriculture at Tule Lake. In conclusion, I assert that War Relocation Authority blunders, including a lack of cultural sensitivity, led directly to the cessation of the agricultural project at Tule Lake Segregation Center. Title: "Railcars Loaded With Crisp Fresh Vegetables" A study of Agriculture at the Tule Lake Relocation Center 1942-1946 Author: Schmidli, Michael David Year: 2008 In the Spring and Summer of 1942, the population of West Coast Japanese were rounded up and forcibly moved from their homes to temporary camps and soon after to ten permanent relocation camps in the interior Western United States. This thesis traces the history of one such camp, the Tule Lake Relocation Center. In this thesis I argue that from its inception the Tule Lake Center was unique among the ten camps. The decision to build a permanent center at Tule Lake was based upon the unique potential the area provided for agriculture on a huge scale. The other permanent centers were located in remote inhospitable areas where large scale agricultural operations were impossible. The introduction outlines my key research questions and the methodology used. This section identifies my central theme, agriculture at the Tule Lake Relocation Center, and situates my own research within the existing scholarship on the Japanese-American Relocation. Chapter one is a review of the factors, including racial animosity, and wartime hysteria leading up to the decision to relocate every Japanese individual living on the West Coast. Chapter two discusses the little known history of how and why Tule Lake was chosen for a permanent relocation center. Chapter three documents the commitment of the War Relocation Authority to a massive agricultural project at the Tule Lake Center. Chapter four recounts the tumultuous registration period at Tule Lake. In the winter of 1943, the War Relocation Authority and the War Department combined to administer a loyalty questionnaire to every internee over the age of 17, revealing shocking disloyalty at Tule Lake. Chapter five discusses the decision of the War Relocation Authority to segregate Japanese Americans declared disloyal, and the choice of Tule Lake as the segregation center. Chapter six discusses the events, in particular the tragic accidental death of a farm worker, which led to the end of large scale agriculture at Tule Lake. In conclusion, I assert that War Relocation Authority blunders, including a lack of cultural sensitivity, led directly to the cessation of the agricultural project at Tule Lake Segregation Center. Close

• 10. [Article] The effect of human activity on the middle course of the Tualatin River, Oregon

  A diurnal study of biological, chemical, and physical parameters was made on the middle course of the, Tualatin River, which drains a 1840 km2 (711 mi2) basin adjacent to metropolitan Portland, Oregon. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effect of human activity on the middle course of the Tualatin River, Oregon Author: Carter, Lolita M. Year: 1975 A diurnal study of biological, chemical, and physical parameters was made on the middle course of the, Tualatin River, which drains a 1840 km2 (711 mi2) basin adjacent to metropolitan Portland, Oregon. This portion of the river lies along land in transition of use from rural agriculture to highly urbanized development. There is no nutrient loading of the river from farming practices because there was no return of water from summer, sprinkler irrigation of commercial crops. However, irrigation significantly reduces the volume of water in the river in the summers. Effluents from sewage treatment plants flowing into the tributaries that drain the highly urbanized eastern areas of the river basin are the main cause of degraded water quality and algal biomass in the lower reaches of the river. The Tualatin River above the mouth of Rock Creek is relatively unpolluted, but downstream from Rock Creek the river is highly eutrophic and during the periods of low flow in the summer serves as a sewage oxidation channel. In this same portion of the river there is also evidence that nitrification occurs. Winter floods leach nitrate-nitrogen from the basin, but in the summer the possibility exists. that nitrate-nitrogen may be a limiting nutrient for algal productivity in the river above Hillsboro. The principal source of poly-phosphates is from sewage treatment plant effluents, but concentrations of poly-phosphates in the middle reaches of the river indicate that there is a natural source of poly- and/or ortho-phosphates in the watershed. Removal of phosphorous compounds from the effluents probably would not affect the large algal blooms occurring in the river below Hillsboro. Trace metal analyses indicated that iron, potassium, nickel, zinc, lead, copper, cobalt, and chromium concentrations were higher during flooding. Turbidity readings suggest that these trace elements are deposited on the floodplain. Melted snow water, which caused one of the winter floods, contained concentrations of zinc, ·copper, and lead greater than those found in the river during the flood. Greater concentrations of arsenic and zinc came from farmland than from urban areas. Diversities of the net plankton as measured by the Shannon-Weaver Index did not change from season to season, nor with downstream flow. Species in the net plankton were benthic forms at the upper stations and planktonic forms downstream from Hillsboro, especially in the summer when the reduced flow caused the river to pond. The enriched effluents from Rock Creek did not affect the diversity of the organisms downstream, but supported a larger biomass. By rating the diversities with other studies it was found that the middle course of the Tualatin River is eutrophic but not heavily polluted. A diurnal study was especially valuable from April to September, inclusive, when insolation and temperatures favored biological activities such as photosynthesis and decomposition. From November to January little diurnal change in the water quality was found. Farming had its greatest impact in the quantity of water and municipalities had a more serious impact on the water quality in the middle course of the Tualatin River. Even with the reduced flow from agricultural irrigation, the river can maintain relatively good water quality, except when effluents from sewage plants caused highly eutrophic conditions. Title: The effect of human activity on the middle course of the Tualatin River, Oregon Author: Carter, Lolita M. Year: 1975 A diurnal study of biological, chemical, and physical parameters was made on the middle course of the, Tualatin River, which drains a 1840 km2 (711 mi2) basin adjacent to metropolitan Portland, Oregon. This portion of the river lies along land in transition of use from rural agriculture to highly urbanized development. There is no nutrient loading of the river from farming practices because there was no return of water from summer, sprinkler irrigation of commercial crops. However, irrigation significantly reduces the volume of water in the river in the summers. Effluents from sewage treatment plants flowing into the tributaries that drain the highly urbanized eastern areas of the river basin are the main cause of degraded water quality and algal biomass in the lower reaches of the river. The Tualatin River above the mouth of Rock Creek is relatively unpolluted, but downstream from Rock Creek the river is highly eutrophic and during the periods of low flow in the summer serves as a sewage oxidation channel. In this same portion of the river there is also evidence that nitrification occurs. Winter floods leach nitrate-nitrogen from the basin, but in the summer the possibility exists. that nitrate-nitrogen may be a limiting nutrient for algal productivity in the river above Hillsboro. The principal source of poly-phosphates is from sewage treatment plant effluents, but concentrations of poly-phosphates in the middle reaches of the river indicate that there is a natural source of poly- and/or ortho-phosphates in the watershed. Removal of phosphorous compounds from the effluents probably would not affect the large algal blooms occurring in the river below Hillsboro. Trace metal analyses indicated that iron, potassium, nickel, zinc, lead, copper, cobalt, and chromium concentrations were higher during flooding. Turbidity readings suggest that these trace elements are deposited on the floodplain. Melted snow water, which caused one of the winter floods, contained concentrations of zinc, ·copper, and lead greater than those found in the river during the flood. Greater concentrations of arsenic and zinc came from farmland than from urban areas. Diversities of the net plankton as measured by the Shannon-Weaver Index did not change from season to season, nor with downstream flow. Species in the net plankton were benthic forms at the upper stations and planktonic forms downstream from Hillsboro, especially in the summer when the reduced flow caused the river to pond. The enriched effluents from Rock Creek did not affect the diversity of the organisms downstream, but supported a larger biomass. By rating the diversities with other studies it was found that the middle course of the Tualatin River is eutrophic but not heavily polluted. A diurnal study was especially valuable from April to September, inclusive, when insolation and temperatures favored biological activities such as photosynthesis and decomposition. From November to January little diurnal change in the water quality was found. Farming had its greatest impact in the quantity of water and municipalities had a more serious impact on the water quality in the middle course of the Tualatin River. Even with the reduced flow from agricultural irrigation, the river can maintain relatively good water quality, except when effluents from sewage plants caused highly eutrophic conditions. Close