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• 291. [Article] Perspectives on Urban Economic Planning: The Case of Washington, D.C., Since 1880

  There is little doubt that the United States has been undergoing a sweeping and multi-faceted economic transformation since the early 1970s. The industrial mix and spatial distribution of activities within ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Perspectives on Urban Economic Planning: The Case of Washington, D.C., Since 1880 Author: Abbott, Carl Year: 1989 There is little doubt that the United States has been undergoing a sweeping and multi-faceted economic transformation since the early 1970s. The industrial mix and spatial distribution of activities within the national economy are being altered by basic changes, including (1) the simultaneous growth of certain manufacturing industries and the decline of others, (2) the broad decentralization of manufacturing production to overseas locations and the rising importance of international trade, (3) the shift of employment from manufacturing and transportation into information processing activities, and (4) the emergence of historically peripheral regions in the South and West as centers of innovation and economic change. In varying combinations, these changes are altering the economic circumstances of American cities and forcing reconsideration of appropriate economic roles. With the effective withdrawal of the federal government as an initiator of local economic development in the 1980s, responsibility has fallen on states and municipalities as the traditional promoters of urban growth. State economic development agencies, blue-ribbon panels, futures task forces, and special economic planning committees in a variety of versions have all aimed to consider what their various cities should do next. In some cases, the result may be the abandonment of economic strategies that sufficed for a century or more. Civic leaders across the country chase high-tech industry. Manufacturing cities seek positions in the transactional economy. Other communities try to devise new roles as international retail cities, travel destinations, amateur sports centers, or health care centers. Debates about the future of American cities draw heavily on academic expertise in economics, planning, regional science, and related fields. Book catalogs in these applied fields are filled with city and regional case studies whose titles or subtitles proclaim their interest in "deindustrialization," "reindustrialization," "economic prospects," "structural change," and "prospects for change." However, few studies are available to allow comparison of current economic planning concerns with past experiences. As a contribution toward a historically informed discussion of decision-making in economic restructuring, I have begun to explore the case of Washington, D.C., a city that has never found it easy to achieve a "natural" economic role. It has experienced an ambiguous regional orientation, uncertain opportunities, and entrenched preconceptions about appropriate activities. In particular, the generation of Washington leaders following the upheavals of Civil War and Reconstruction faced a need for economic redirection with parallels to the deindustrializing factory towns of the 1970s and 1980s. The focus of this examination is the evolving character of ideas on Washington's potentials as an economic entity. Washingtonians have engaged in an ongoing "conversation" or discussion about the possibilities of economic development. My interest lies in the articulation and evolution of public ideas, not in the separate questions of the implementation process or the equitable division of the benefits of growth. Ideas about economic development may have their final test as they affect the production and distribution of wealth, but they also have careers as intellectual constructs that express a social context of power and values. Title: Perspectives on Urban Economic Planning: The Case of Washington, D.C., Since 1880 Author: Abbott, Carl Year: 1989 There is little doubt that the United States has been undergoing a sweeping and multi-faceted economic transformation since the early 1970s. The industrial mix and spatial distribution of activities within the national economy are being altered by basic changes, including (1) the simultaneous growth of certain manufacturing industries and the decline of others, (2) the broad decentralization of manufacturing production to overseas locations and the rising importance of international trade, (3) the shift of employment from manufacturing and transportation into information processing activities, and (4) the emergence of historically peripheral regions in the South and West as centers of innovation and economic change. In varying combinations, these changes are altering the economic circumstances of American cities and forcing reconsideration of appropriate economic roles. With the effective withdrawal of the federal government as an initiator of local economic development in the 1980s, responsibility has fallen on states and municipalities as the traditional promoters of urban growth. State economic development agencies, blue-ribbon panels, futures task forces, and special economic planning committees in a variety of versions have all aimed to consider what their various cities should do next. In some cases, the result may be the abandonment of economic strategies that sufficed for a century or more. Civic leaders across the country chase high-tech industry. Manufacturing cities seek positions in the transactional economy. Other communities try to devise new roles as international retail cities, travel destinations, amateur sports centers, or health care centers. Debates about the future of American cities draw heavily on academic expertise in economics, planning, regional science, and related fields. Book catalogs in these applied fields are filled with city and regional case studies whose titles or subtitles proclaim their interest in "deindustrialization," "reindustrialization," "economic prospects," "structural change," and "prospects for change." However, few studies are available to allow comparison of current economic planning concerns with past experiences. As a contribution toward a historically informed discussion of decision-making in economic restructuring, I have begun to explore the case of Washington, D.C., a city that has never found it easy to achieve a "natural" economic role. It has experienced an ambiguous regional orientation, uncertain opportunities, and entrenched preconceptions about appropriate activities. In particular, the generation of Washington leaders following the upheavals of Civil War and Reconstruction faced a need for economic redirection with parallels to the deindustrializing factory towns of the 1970s and 1980s. The focus of this examination is the evolving character of ideas on Washington's potentials as an economic entity. Washingtonians have engaged in an ongoing "conversation" or discussion about the possibilities of economic development. My interest lies in the articulation and evolution of public ideas, not in the separate questions of the implementation process or the equitable division of the benefits of growth. Ideas about economic development may have their final test as they affect the production and distribution of wealth, but they also have careers as intellectual constructs that express a social context of power and values. Close

• 292. [Article] Iron acquisition by cyanobacteria: siderophore production and iron transport by Anabaena

  The cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. (PCC #6411) is known to produce the siderophore, schizokinen, in response to iron limitation. Environmental factors which influence schizokinen production have been examined ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Iron acquisition by cyanobacteria: siderophore production and iron transport by Anabaena Author: Lammers, Peter James Year: 1982 The cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. (PCC #6411) is known to produce the siderophore, schizokinen, in response to iron limitation. Environmental factors which influence schizokinen production have been examined utilizing a bioassay method based upon the stimulation of growth of the siderophore-requiring bacterium Arthrobacter flavescens JG-9. Schizokinen production by Anabaena increased in low-iron media and was stimulated approximately five-fold media containing one millimolar citric acid. Growth of Anabaena under nitrogen-fixing conditions reduced extracellular schizokinen concentrations 3-4 fold, in late growth phase, compared to cells grown on nitrate. Cells grown in ammonium-containing medium yielded intermediate concentrations of schizokinen. The Csaky assay, which is often used to detect hydroxamate siderophores, was found to be subject to interferences that can yield erroneously high values. The problems associated with detection and quantitation of cyanobacterial siderophores are discussed. Anabaena was found to utilize schizokinen to accumulate > 90% of the (('55)Fe)-ferric iron added to the medium. Iron transport capability was increased in iron-starved cells. The transport system appears to be fairly specific for schizokinen, in that an acetylated derivitive of schizokinen, also supported iron transport, but the structurally related siderophore, aerobactin, and the trihydroxamate siderophore, ferrioxamine B, did not support iron uptake by Anabaena. The uptake of ferric schizokinen displayed saturation-type kinetics with an apparent K(,M) of 35 nM, and required the input of metabolic energy. Lightdriven transport was blocked by uncouplers and ATPase inhibitors. Transport in dark-adapted cells was additionally blocked by inhibitors of respiration. We conclude that ATP serves as an energy source for the cellular uptake of schizokinen. Two other kinds of Anabaena were examined for siderophore production. Anabaena sp. (PCC #7120) was found to produce a substance which stimulates the growth of the Arthrobacter JG-9. This substance binds iron and has a similar absorbance maximum to schizokinen in ferric-perchlorate solutions. Anabaena 7120 also utilized ferric schizokinen and ferric acetyl-schizokinen for iron uptake, but not aerobactin or ferrioxamine B. These results suggest that the iron transports systems of Anabaena 6411 and 7120 may be the same. Anabaena cylindrica Lemm. apparently does not produce or utilize a schizokinen-type siderophore. No Arthrobacter JG-9 stimulating material could be detected in low-iron filtrates, even if concentrated 25-fold. Title: Iron acquisition by cyanobacteria: siderophore production and iron transport by Anabaena Author: Lammers, Peter James Year: 1982 The cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. (PCC #6411) is known to produce the siderophore, schizokinen, in response to iron limitation. Environmental factors which influence schizokinen production have been examined utilizing a bioassay method based upon the stimulation of growth of the siderophore-requiring bacterium Arthrobacter flavescens JG-9. Schizokinen production by Anabaena increased in low-iron media and was stimulated approximately five-fold media containing one millimolar citric acid. Growth of Anabaena under nitrogen-fixing conditions reduced extracellular schizokinen concentrations 3-4 fold, in late growth phase, compared to cells grown on nitrate. Cells grown in ammonium-containing medium yielded intermediate concentrations of schizokinen. The Csaky assay, which is often used to detect hydroxamate siderophores, was found to be subject to interferences that can yield erroneously high values. The problems associated with detection and quantitation of cyanobacterial siderophores are discussed. Anabaena was found to utilize schizokinen to accumulate > 90% of the (('55)Fe)-ferric iron added to the medium. Iron transport capability was increased in iron-starved cells. The transport system appears to be fairly specific for schizokinen, in that an acetylated derivitive of schizokinen, also supported iron transport, but the structurally related siderophore, aerobactin, and the trihydroxamate siderophore, ferrioxamine B, did not support iron uptake by Anabaena. The uptake of ferric schizokinen displayed saturation-type kinetics with an apparent K(,M) of 35 nM, and required the input of metabolic energy. Lightdriven transport was blocked by uncouplers and ATPase inhibitors. Transport in dark-adapted cells was additionally blocked by inhibitors of respiration. We conclude that ATP serves as an energy source for the cellular uptake of schizokinen. Two other kinds of Anabaena were examined for siderophore production. Anabaena sp. (PCC #7120) was found to produce a substance which stimulates the growth of the Arthrobacter JG-9. This substance binds iron and has a similar absorbance maximum to schizokinen in ferric-perchlorate solutions. Anabaena 7120 also utilized ferric schizokinen and ferric acetyl-schizokinen for iron uptake, but not aerobactin or ferrioxamine B. These results suggest that the iron transports systems of Anabaena 6411 and 7120 may be the same. Anabaena cylindrica Lemm. apparently does not produce or utilize a schizokinen-type siderophore. No Arthrobacter JG-9 stimulating material could be detected in low-iron filtrates, even if concentrated 25-fold. Close

• 293. [Article] Systems Thinking in the Forest Service: a Framework to Guide Practical Application for Social-Ecological Management in the Enterprise Program

  The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Enterprise Program (EP), which provides fee-for-service consulting services to the USFS, is interested in integrating systems thinking into its service offerings. Despite ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Systems Thinking in the Forest Service: a Framework to Guide Practical Application for Social-Ecological Management in the Enterprise Program Author: Kmon, Megan Kathleen Year: 2016 The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Enterprise Program (EP), which provides fee-for-service consulting services to the USFS, is interested in integrating systems thinking into its service offerings. Despite there being several excellent sources on the range and diversity of systems thinking, no single framework exists that thoroughly yet concisely outlines what systems thinking is along with its deep history, theoretical tenets, and soft and hard approaches. This thesis is an attempt to create such a framework, aimed specifically at practical application in a land management agency, through literature synthesis injected with original analysis. The usefulness of the framework is then tested using three case studies within the EP and the agency as a whole. The framework highlights several important aspects of systems thinking, both generally and related specifically to social-ecological management. First, systems thinking is the transdisciplinary study of complex phenomena from a holistic, rather than reductionist, perspective. The world can be viewed as a massive set of embedded systems -- elements with relations that lead to nonlinear behavior -- making the role of the observer essential in identifying scales of interest and interactions amongst them. Second, the deep history of holistic thinking suggests that its modern scientific study could benefit from exploring the East's long-standing cultural and spiritual approaches to holism through cognitive unity and oneness with mankind and nature. Third, categorizations of systems approaches as "soft" versus "hard" are helpful but can distract us from the ultimate goal of systems thinking, which is to understand the various tools in the systems thinking toolbox so as to apply them critically and creatively to make a meaningful difference in the world. Fourth, I see the soft systems approaches as having a distinct systems thinking orientation and the hard systems approaches as overlapping substantially with operations research, the close cousin of systems thinking. Fifth, I identify a spectrum of complexity, contending that systems thinking tends to be concerned with what I call subjectively and computationally complex systems, as well as complex adaptive systems, leaving simple systems for other approaches. Finally, I contend that it is the soft systems approaches and the two theoretical pillars of hierarchy theory and cooperation theory that will aid wicked social-ecological problem solving the most. The framework is applied to three case studies. Examination of the EP reorganization using a hard systems approach revealed two critical high-level functions that were absent in the current structure, paving the way for new designs that could take those functions into account. Analysis of an initiative to increase citizen recreation on USFS lands showed that a systems approach had been improperly applied and how the application of a soft approach at the onset could have systematically framed the problem and offered unique normative insights for giving voice to relevant non-agency stakeholders as well as nature and future generations. And viewing the perennial problem of wildfire management through the lens of cooperation theory revealed how USFS leadership could take a more active role in promoting the long-term outlook, durable relationships, and reciprocal behaviors that are required for cooperative improvement to take place. As environmental narratives worsen and the need for transitioning towards sustainable ways of living heightens, systems thinking offers ever-increasing value to resource managers for its ability to deal with the many perspectives and normative content that underlie wicked problems and to help to illuminate potential consequences of system interventions given the interplay of complex structural dynamics across space and time. Title: Systems Thinking in the Forest Service: a Framework to Guide Practical Application for Social-Ecological Management in the Enterprise Program Author: Kmon, Megan Kathleen Year: 2016 The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Enterprise Program (EP), which provides fee-for-service consulting services to the USFS, is interested in integrating systems thinking into its service offerings. Despite there being several excellent sources on the range and diversity of systems thinking, no single framework exists that thoroughly yet concisely outlines what systems thinking is along with its deep history, theoretical tenets, and soft and hard approaches. This thesis is an attempt to create such a framework, aimed specifically at practical application in a land management agency, through literature synthesis injected with original analysis. The usefulness of the framework is then tested using three case studies within the EP and the agency as a whole. The framework highlights several important aspects of systems thinking, both generally and related specifically to social-ecological management. First, systems thinking is the transdisciplinary study of complex phenomena from a holistic, rather than reductionist, perspective. The world can be viewed as a massive set of embedded systems -- elements with relations that lead to nonlinear behavior -- making the role of the observer essential in identifying scales of interest and interactions amongst them. Second, the deep history of holistic thinking suggests that its modern scientific study could benefit from exploring the East's long-standing cultural and spiritual approaches to holism through cognitive unity and oneness with mankind and nature. Third, categorizations of systems approaches as "soft" versus "hard" are helpful but can distract us from the ultimate goal of systems thinking, which is to understand the various tools in the systems thinking toolbox so as to apply them critically and creatively to make a meaningful difference in the world. Fourth, I see the soft systems approaches as having a distinct systems thinking orientation and the hard systems approaches as overlapping substantially with operations research, the close cousin of systems thinking. Fifth, I identify a spectrum of complexity, contending that systems thinking tends to be concerned with what I call subjectively and computationally complex systems, as well as complex adaptive systems, leaving simple systems for other approaches. Finally, I contend that it is the soft systems approaches and the two theoretical pillars of hierarchy theory and cooperation theory that will aid wicked social-ecological problem solving the most. The framework is applied to three case studies. Examination of the EP reorganization using a hard systems approach revealed two critical high-level functions that were absent in the current structure, paving the way for new designs that could take those functions into account. Analysis of an initiative to increase citizen recreation on USFS lands showed that a systems approach had been improperly applied and how the application of a soft approach at the onset could have systematically framed the problem and offered unique normative insights for giving voice to relevant non-agency stakeholders as well as nature and future generations. And viewing the perennial problem of wildfire management through the lens of cooperation theory revealed how USFS leadership could take a more active role in promoting the long-term outlook, durable relationships, and reciprocal behaviors that are required for cooperative improvement to take place. As environmental narratives worsen and the need for transitioning towards sustainable ways of living heightens, systems thinking offers ever-increasing value to resource managers for its ability to deal with the many perspectives and normative content that underlie wicked problems and to help to illuminate potential consequences of system interventions given the interplay of complex structural dynamics across space and time. Close

• 294. [Article] Open Source Medical Solutions

  Open Source Medical Solutions is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to the development of medical technologies through open source principles. OS Medical is dedicated to developing low-cost ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Open Source Medical Solutions Author: Alshafi, Rami, King, Joseph Year: 2012 Open Source Medical Solutions is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to the development of medical technologies through open source principles. OS Medical is dedicated to developing low-cost medical devices. The first device, currently in development, is the Blind Vision Project. Worn as a conventional pair of glasses, the BVP utilizes ultrasonic sensors to perceive physical objects, transmitting their proximity with massaging motors connected to the earpieces of the glasses. The device’s range can be easily adjusted to facilitate indoor or outdoor use. The device is powered by a lithium-ion battery, which is recharged with a standard USB cable. 3 million Americans are currently blind and 25 million suffer from impaired vision. Blindness can lead to a variety of other health conditions such as depression, diabetes and high cholesterol. Globally, 40 million are blind and 285 million visually impaired. In developing, lack of mobility can dramatically shorten life expectancy. The BVP will strive to increase the mobility and improve the life of blind people around the world. Both blind people and advocacy groups have expressed interest in the BVP, though similar devices have failed to catch on in the past. The failure of similar devices is generally attributed to a lack of functionality or unwieldy appearance. Competing devices are currently in development by Oxford University, Brainport Technology and potentially Apple Computers. By harnessing the power of open source development, OS Medical will strive to become the preeminent assistive device design community. OS Medical is committed to adhering to open source principles. All design specifications and IP will be published freely. Thriving open source communities exist to support software applications such as Linux, Mozilla and Drupal. Open source hardware communities are growing quickly. OS Medical will be the first open source community dedicated specifically to medical devices. Production of devices will be performed in partnership with electrical engineering classes at universities. The BVP will be delivered as a kit, which will be assembled by students as they learn basic engineering skills. Completed kits will be donated to blindness advocacy organizations for distribution to users. The BVP would replace the kits currently used, which have minimal social value and are generally thrown away or salvaged for parts at the conclusion of the class. OS Medical is currently in discussions with Prof Phillip Wong to develop a pilot program in conjunction with his Electrical Programming class. In 2013, OS Medical would like to provide the BVP to users free of cost. With an initial goal of 200 devices, OS Medical will require $30,000 in start-up funding. This will provide for the components of the device and administrative costs for the website which would support the OS Medical community. OS Medical would like to develop additional devices to serve other disabilities by 2015 and grow to serve 4,000 users by 2017. OS Medical will strive to both supply devices and serve as a cornerstone in the open source medical device community. OS Medical will serve as a conduit connecting disability advocacy organizations, educational institutions and open source developers to facilitate the design and distribution of the next generation of assistive devices. Rami Alshafi is the founder of OS Medical and will serve as Executive Director. He is currently completing a Master’s Degree in electrical engineering at Portland State University. He is assisted by Joseph King, a recent graduate of the Portland State MBA program, who will sit on the OS Medical Board of Directors. Title: Open Source Medical Solutions Author: Alshafi, Rami, King, Joseph Year: 2012 Open Source Medical Solutions is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to the development of medical technologies through open source principles. OS Medical is dedicated to developing low-cost medical devices. The first device, currently in development, is the Blind Vision Project. Worn as a conventional pair of glasses, the BVP utilizes ultrasonic sensors to perceive physical objects, transmitting their proximity with massaging motors connected to the earpieces of the glasses. The device’s range can be easily adjusted to facilitate indoor or outdoor use. The device is powered by a lithium-ion battery, which is recharged with a standard USB cable. 3 million Americans are currently blind and 25 million suffer from impaired vision. Blindness can lead to a variety of other health conditions such as depression, diabetes and high cholesterol. Globally, 40 million are blind and 285 million visually impaired. In developing, lack of mobility can dramatically shorten life expectancy. The BVP will strive to increase the mobility and improve the life of blind people around the world. Both blind people and advocacy groups have expressed interest in the BVP, though similar devices have failed to catch on in the past. The failure of similar devices is generally attributed to a lack of functionality or unwieldy appearance. Competing devices are currently in development by Oxford University, Brainport Technology and potentially Apple Computers. By harnessing the power of open source development, OS Medical will strive to become the preeminent assistive device design community. OS Medical is committed to adhering to open source principles. All design specifications and IP will be published freely. Thriving open source communities exist to support software applications such as Linux, Mozilla and Drupal. Open source hardware communities are growing quickly. OS Medical will be the first open source community dedicated specifically to medical devices. Production of devices will be performed in partnership with electrical engineering classes at universities. The BVP will be delivered as a kit, which will be assembled by students as they learn basic engineering skills. Completed kits will be donated to blindness advocacy organizations for distribution to users. The BVP would replace the kits currently used, which have minimal social value and are generally thrown away or salvaged for parts at the conclusion of the class. OS Medical is currently in discussions with Prof Phillip Wong to develop a pilot program in conjunction with his Electrical Programming class. In 2013, OS Medical would like to provide the BVP to users free of cost. With an initial goal of 200 devices, OS Medical will require $30,000 in start-up funding. This will provide for the components of the device and administrative costs for the website which would support the OS Medical community. OS Medical would like to develop additional devices to serve other disabilities by 2015 and grow to serve 4,000 users by 2017. OS Medical will strive to both supply devices and serve as a cornerstone in the open source medical device community. OS Medical will serve as a conduit connecting disability advocacy organizations, educational institutions and open source developers to facilitate the design and distribution of the next generation of assistive devices. Rami Alshafi is the founder of OS Medical and will serve as Executive Director. He is currently completing a Master’s Degree in electrical engineering at Portland State University. He is assisted by Joseph King, a recent graduate of the Portland State MBA program, who will sit on the OS Medical Board of Directors. Close

• 295. [Article] Competitive Pricing using Data Envelopment Analysis - Pricing for Oscilloscopes

  The research in this paper proposes a new technique for pricing products in competitive markets taking into account the features and prices of competing product offerings. This technique is based on a ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Competitive Pricing using Data Envelopment Analysis - Pricing for Oscilloscopes Author: Wang, Bing, Perrenoud, Christophe, Castillejos, Ignacio, Rampali, Phaneendra, Tsai, Sheng-Te, Zehr, Wilson Year: 2012 The research in this paper proposes a new technique for pricing products in competitive markets taking into account the features and prices of competing product offerings. This technique is based on a methodology known as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and is referred to as Competitive Pricing using Data Envelopment Analysis (CPDEA). The speed of innovation and new product development in competitive markets continues to accelerate at a rapid pace. In this environment, when new products are introduced they do not necessarily disappear, they often remain in the market at a price that decreases over time to reflects the market’s perception of reduced value – the latest and greatest products often command a price premium. Providers of products and services need to be able to price their products competitively: if they price too high then volume can drop to zero; price too low and money is left on the table. There are a number of analytical techniques that are used to determine optimal pricing. These include: Conjoint Analysis, Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter, Gabor Granger, Brand vs. Price Trade-off, and Expert Session. However these techniques rely largely on direct customer survey research which is complicated and time consuming to setup; as well as subject to bias based on individual opinions. This bias can be reduced given a large sample size; however, this does not eliminate the gap that exists between buyer perception (what potential customers say they would do) and buyer behavior (what customers actually do). This bias can be removed by looking directly at the market. This study uses CPDEA to examine the actual prices and features currently available in the oscilloscope market and find those offerings that are state of the art (SOA). In addition, given the results of this analysis, and assuming an efficient market, it is also possible to adjust prices and create an efficient offering even when the “feature set” is not SOA. This provides one more analytical tool to assist with competitive pricing, especially for those offerings with complex feature sets. This, in turn, can boost profit margins for the most advanced and assure competitive pricing for older models. Title: Competitive Pricing using Data Envelopment Analysis - Pricing for Oscilloscopes Author: Wang, Bing, Perrenoud, Christophe, Castillejos, Ignacio, Rampali, Phaneendra, Tsai, Sheng-Te, Zehr, Wilson Year: 2012 The research in this paper proposes a new technique for pricing products in competitive markets taking into account the features and prices of competing product offerings. This technique is based on a methodology known as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and is referred to as Competitive Pricing using Data Envelopment Analysis (CPDEA). The speed of innovation and new product development in competitive markets continues to accelerate at a rapid pace. In this environment, when new products are introduced they do not necessarily disappear, they often remain in the market at a price that decreases over time to reflects the market’s perception of reduced value – the latest and greatest products often command a price premium. Providers of products and services need to be able to price their products competitively: if they price too high then volume can drop to zero; price too low and money is left on the table. There are a number of analytical techniques that are used to determine optimal pricing. These include: Conjoint Analysis, Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter, Gabor Granger, Brand vs. Price Trade-off, and Expert Session. However these techniques rely largely on direct customer survey research which is complicated and time consuming to setup; as well as subject to bias based on individual opinions. This bias can be reduced given a large sample size; however, this does not eliminate the gap that exists between buyer perception (what potential customers say they would do) and buyer behavior (what customers actually do). This bias can be removed by looking directly at the market. This study uses CPDEA to examine the actual prices and features currently available in the oscilloscope market and find those offerings that are state of the art (SOA). In addition, given the results of this analysis, and assuming an efficient market, it is also possible to adjust prices and create an efficient offering even when the “feature set” is not SOA. This provides one more analytical tool to assist with competitive pricing, especially for those offerings with complex feature sets. This, in turn, can boost profit margins for the most advanced and assure competitive pricing for older models. Close

• 296. [Article] Employment of Crystallographic Image Processing Techniques to Scanning Probe Microscopy Images of Two-Dimensional Periodic Objects

  Thin film arrays of molecules or supramolecules are active subjects of investigation because of their potential value in electronics, chemical sensing, catalysis, and other areas. Scanning probe microscopes ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Employment of Crystallographic Image Processing Techniques to Scanning Probe Microscopy Images of Two-Dimensional Periodic Objects Author: Moon, Bill Year: 2011 Thin film arrays of molecules or supramolecules are active subjects of investigation because of their potential value in electronics, chemical sensing, catalysis, and other areas. Scanning probe microscopes (SPMs), including scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs) and atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are commonly used for the characterization and metrology of thin film arrays. As opposed to transmission electron microscopy (TEM), SPMs have the advantage that they can often make observations of thin films in air or liquid, while TEM requires highly specialized techniques if the sample is to be in anything but vacuum. SPM is a surface imaging technique, while TEM typically images a 2D projection of a thin 3D sample. Additionally, variants of SPM can make observations of more than just topography; for instance, magnetic force microscopy measures nanoscale magnetic properties. Thin film arrays are typically two-dimensionally periodic. A perfect, infinite two-dimensionally periodic array is mathematically constrained to belong to one of only 17 possible 2D plane symmetry groups. Any real image is both finite and imperfect. Crystallographic Image Processing (CIP) is an algorithm that Fourier transforms a real image into a 2D array of complex numbers, the Fourier coefficients of the image intensity, and then uses the relationship between those coefficients to first ascertain the 2D plane symmetry group that the imperfect, finite image is most likely to possess, and then adjust those coefficients that are symmetry-related so as to perfect the symmetry. A Fourier synthesis of the symmetrized coefficients leads to a perfectly symmetric image in direct space (when accumulated rounding and calculation errors are ignored). The technique is, thus, an averaging technique over the direct space experimental data that were selected from the thin film array. The image must have periodicity in two dimensions in order for this technique to be applicable. CIP has been developed over the past 40 years by the electron crystallography community, which works with 2D projections from 3D samples. Any periodic sample, whether it is 2D or 3D has an "ideal structure" which is the structure absent any crystal defects. The ideal structure can be considered one average unit cell, propagated by translation into the whole sample. The "real structure" is an actual sample containing vacancies, dislocations, and other defects. Typically the goal of electron and other types of microscopy is examination of the real structure, as the ideal structure of a crystal is already known from X-ray crystallography. High resolution transmission electron microscope image based electron crystallography, on the other hand, reveals the ideal crystal structure by crystallographic averaging. The ideal structure of a 2D thin film cannot be easily in a spatially selective fashion examined by grazing incidence X-ray or low energy electron diffraction based crystallography. SPMs straightforwardly observe thin films in direct space, but SPM accuracy is hampered by blunt or multiple tips and other unavoidable instrument errors. Especially since the film is often of a supramolecular system whose molecules are weakly bonded (via pi bonds, hydrogen bonds, etc.) both to the substrate and to each other, it is relatively easy for a molecule from the film to adhere to the scanning tip during the scan and become part of the tip during subsequent observation. If the thin film array has two-dimensional periodicity, CIP is a unique and effective tool both for image enhancement (determination of ideal structure) and for the quantification of overall instrument error. In addition, if a sample of known 2D periodicity is scanned, CIP can return information about the contribution of the instrument itself to the image. In this thesis we show how the technique is applied to images of two dimensionally periodic samples taken by SPMs. To the best of our knowledge, this has never been done before. Since 2D periodic thin film arrays have an ideal structure that is mathematically constrained to belong to one of the 17 plane symmetry groups, we can use CIP to determine that group and use it for a particularly effective averaging algorithm. We demonstrate that the use of this averaging algorithm removes noise and random error from images more effectively than translational averaging, also known as "lattice averaging" or "Fourier filtering". We also demonstrate the ability to correct systematic errors caused by hysteresis in the scanning process. These results have the effect of obtaining the ideal structure of the sample, averaging out the defects crystallographically, by providing an average unit cell which, when translated, represents the ideal structure. In addition, if one has recorded a scanning probe image of a 2D periodic sample of known symmetry, we demonstrate that it is possible to use the Fourier coefficients of the image transform to solve the inverse problem and calculate the point spread function (PSF) of the instrument. Any real scanning probe instrument departs from the ideal PSF of a Dirac delta function, and CIP allows us to quantify this departure as far as point symmetries are concerned. The result is a deconvolution of the "effective tip", which includes any blunt or multiple tip effects, as well as the effects caused by adhesion of a sample molecule to the scanning tip, or scanning irregularities unrelated to the physical tip. We also demonstrate that the PSF, once known, can be used on a second image taken by the same instrument under approximately the same experimental conditions to remove errors introduced during that second imaging process. The preponderance of two-dimensionally periodic samples as subjects of SPM observation makes the application of CIP to SPM images a valuable technique to extract a maximum amount of information from these images. The improved resolution of current SPMs creates images with more higher-order Fourier coefficients than earlier, "softer" images; these higher-order coefficients are especially amenable to CIP, which can then effectively magnify the resolution improvement created by better hardware. The improved resolution combined with the current interest in supramolecular structures (which although 3D usually start building on a 2D periodic surface) appears to provide an opportunity for CIP to significantly contribute to SPM image processing. Title: Employment of Crystallographic Image Processing Techniques to Scanning Probe Microscopy Images of Two-Dimensional Periodic Objects Author: Moon, Bill Year: 2011 Thin film arrays of molecules or supramolecules are active subjects of investigation because of their potential value in electronics, chemical sensing, catalysis, and other areas. Scanning probe microscopes (SPMs), including scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs) and atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are commonly used for the characterization and metrology of thin film arrays. As opposed to transmission electron microscopy (TEM), SPMs have the advantage that they can often make observations of thin films in air or liquid, while TEM requires highly specialized techniques if the sample is to be in anything but vacuum. SPM is a surface imaging technique, while TEM typically images a 2D projection of a thin 3D sample. Additionally, variants of SPM can make observations of more than just topography; for instance, magnetic force microscopy measures nanoscale magnetic properties. Thin film arrays are typically two-dimensionally periodic. A perfect, infinite two-dimensionally periodic array is mathematically constrained to belong to one of only 17 possible 2D plane symmetry groups. Any real image is both finite and imperfect. Crystallographic Image Processing (CIP) is an algorithm that Fourier transforms a real image into a 2D array of complex numbers, the Fourier coefficients of the image intensity, and then uses the relationship between those coefficients to first ascertain the 2D plane symmetry group that the imperfect, finite image is most likely to possess, and then adjust those coefficients that are symmetry-related so as to perfect the symmetry. A Fourier synthesis of the symmetrized coefficients leads to a perfectly symmetric image in direct space (when accumulated rounding and calculation errors are ignored). The technique is, thus, an averaging technique over the direct space experimental data that were selected from the thin film array. The image must have periodicity in two dimensions in order for this technique to be applicable. CIP has been developed over the past 40 years by the electron crystallography community, which works with 2D projections from 3D samples. Any periodic sample, whether it is 2D or 3D has an "ideal structure" which is the structure absent any crystal defects. The ideal structure can be considered one average unit cell, propagated by translation into the whole sample. The "real structure" is an actual sample containing vacancies, dislocations, and other defects. Typically the goal of electron and other types of microscopy is examination of the real structure, as the ideal structure of a crystal is already known from X-ray crystallography. High resolution transmission electron microscope image based electron crystallography, on the other hand, reveals the ideal crystal structure by crystallographic averaging. The ideal structure of a 2D thin film cannot be easily in a spatially selective fashion examined by grazing incidence X-ray or low energy electron diffraction based crystallography. SPMs straightforwardly observe thin films in direct space, but SPM accuracy is hampered by blunt or multiple tips and other unavoidable instrument errors. Especially since the film is often of a supramolecular system whose molecules are weakly bonded (via pi bonds, hydrogen bonds, etc.) both to the substrate and to each other, it is relatively easy for a molecule from the film to adhere to the scanning tip during the scan and become part of the tip during subsequent observation. If the thin film array has two-dimensional periodicity, CIP is a unique and effective tool both for image enhancement (determination of ideal structure) and for the quantification of overall instrument error. In addition, if a sample of known 2D periodicity is scanned, CIP can return information about the contribution of the instrument itself to the image. In this thesis we show how the technique is applied to images of two dimensionally periodic samples taken by SPMs. To the best of our knowledge, this has never been done before. Since 2D periodic thin film arrays have an ideal structure that is mathematically constrained to belong to one of the 17 plane symmetry groups, we can use CIP to determine that group and use it for a particularly effective averaging algorithm. We demonstrate that the use of this averaging algorithm removes noise and random error from images more effectively than translational averaging, also known as "lattice averaging" or "Fourier filtering". We also demonstrate the ability to correct systematic errors caused by hysteresis in the scanning process. These results have the effect of obtaining the ideal structure of the sample, averaging out the defects crystallographically, by providing an average unit cell which, when translated, represents the ideal structure. In addition, if one has recorded a scanning probe image of a 2D periodic sample of known symmetry, we demonstrate that it is possible to use the Fourier coefficients of the image transform to solve the inverse problem and calculate the point spread function (PSF) of the instrument. Any real scanning probe instrument departs from the ideal PSF of a Dirac delta function, and CIP allows us to quantify this departure as far as point symmetries are concerned. The result is a deconvolution of the "effective tip", which includes any blunt or multiple tip effects, as well as the effects caused by adhesion of a sample molecule to the scanning tip, or scanning irregularities unrelated to the physical tip. We also demonstrate that the PSF, once known, can be used on a second image taken by the same instrument under approximately the same experimental conditions to remove errors introduced during that second imaging process. The preponderance of two-dimensionally periodic samples as subjects of SPM observation makes the application of CIP to SPM images a valuable technique to extract a maximum amount of information from these images. The improved resolution of current SPMs creates images with more higher-order Fourier coefficients than earlier, "softer" images; these higher-order coefficients are especially amenable to CIP, which can then effectively magnify the resolution improvement created by better hardware. The improved resolution combined with the current interest in supramolecular structures (which although 3D usually start building on a 2D periodic surface) appears to provide an opportunity for CIP to significantly contribute to SPM image processing. Close

• 297. [Article] Novel Methods for Learning and Adaptation in Chemical Reaction Networks

  State-of-the-art biochemical systems for medical applications and chemical computing are application-specific and cannot be re-programmed or trained once fabricated. The implementation of adaptive biochemical ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Novel Methods for Learning and Adaptation in Chemical Reaction Networks Author: Banda, Peter Year: 2015 State-of-the-art biochemical systems for medical applications and chemical computing are application-specific and cannot be re-programmed or trained once fabricated. The implementation of adaptive biochemical systems that would offer flexibility through programmability and autonomous adaptation faces major challenges because of the large number of required chemical species as well as the timing-sensitive feedback loops required for learning. Currently, biochemistry lacks a systems vision on how the user-level programming interface and abstraction with a subsequent translation to chemistry should look like. By developing adaptation in chemistry, we could replace multiple hard-wired systems with a single programmable template that can be (re)trained to match a desired input-output profile benefiting smart drug delivery, pattern recognition, and chemical computing. I aimed to address these challenges by proposing several approaches to learning and adaptation in Chemical Reaction Networks (CRNs), a type of simulated chemistry, where species are unstructured, i.e., they are identified by symbols rather than molecular structure, and their dynamics or concentration evolution are driven by reactions and reaction rates that follow mass-action and Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Several CRN and experimental DNA-based models of neural networks exist. However, these models successfully implement only the forward-pass, i.e., the input-weight integration part of a perceptron model. Learning is delegated to a non-chemical system that computes the weights before converting them to molecular concentrations. Autonomous learning, i.e., learning implemented fully inside chemistry has been absent from both theoretical and experimental research. The research in this thesis offers the first constructive evidence that learning in CRNs is, in fact, possible. I have introduced the original concept of a chemical binary perceptron that can learn all 14 linearly-separable logic functions and is robust to the perturbation of rate constants. That shows learning is universal and substrate-free. To simplify the model I later proposed and applied the "asymmetric" chemical arithmetic providing a compact solution for representing negative numbers in chemistry. To tackle more difficult tasks and to serve more complicated biochemical applications, I introduced several key modular building blocks, each addressing certain aspects of chemical information processing and learning. These parts organically combined into gradually more complex systems. First, instead of simple static Boolean functions, I tackled analog time-series learning and signal processing by modeling an analog chemical perceptron. To store past input concentrations as a sliding window I implemented a chemical delay line, which feeds the values to the underlying chemical perceptron. That allows the system to learn, e.g., the linear moving-average and to some degree predict a highly nonlinear NARMA benchmark series. Another important contribution to the area of chemical learning, which I have helped to shape, is the composability of perceptrons into larger multi-compartment networks. Each compartment hosts a single chemical perceptron and compartments communicate with each other through a channel-mediated exchange of molecular species. Besides the feedforward pass, I implemented the chemical error backpropagation analogous to that of feedforward neural networks. Also, after applying mass-action kinetics for the catalytic reactions, I succeeded to systematically analyze the ODEs of my models and derive the closed exact and approximative formulas for both the input-weight integration and the weight update with a learning rate annealing. I proved mathematically that the formulas of certain chemical perceptrons equal the formal linear and sigmoid neurons, essentially bridging neural networks and adaptive CRNs. For all my models the basic methodology was to first design species and reactions, and then set the rate constants either "empirically" by hand, automatically by a standard genetic algorithm (GA), or analytically if possible. I performed all simulations in my COEL framework, which is the first cloud-based chemistry modeling tool, accessible at http://coel-sim.org. I minimized the amount of required molecular species and reactions to make wet chemical implementation possible. I applied an automatized mapping technique, Soloveichik's CRN-to-DNA-strand-displacement transformation, to the chemical linear perceptron and the manual signalling delay line and obtained their full DNA-strand specified implementations. As an alternative DNA-based substrate, I mapped these two models also to deoxyribozyme-mediated cleavage reactions reducing the size of the displacement variant to a third. Both DNA-based incarnations could directly serve as blue-prints for wet biochemicals. Besides an actual synthesis of my models and conducting an experiment in a biochemical laboratory, the most promising future work is to employ so-called reservoir computing (RC), which is a novel machine learning method based on recurrent neural networks. The RC approach is relevant because for time-series prediction it is clearly superior to classical recurrent networks. It can also be implemented in various ways, such as electrical circuits, physical systems, such as a colony of Escherichia Coli, and water. RC's loose structural assumptions therefore suggest that it could be expressed in a chemical form as well. This could further enhance the expressivity and capabilities of chemically-embedded learning. My chemical learning systems may have applications in the area of medical diagnosis and smart medication, e.g., concentration signal processing and monitoring, and the detection of harmful species, such as chemicals produced by cancer cells in a host (cancer miRNAs) or the detection of a severe event, defined as a linear or nonlinear temporal concentration pattern. My approach could replace hard-coded solutions and would allow to specify, train, and reuse chemical systems without redesigning them. With time-series integration, biochemical computers could keep a record of changing biological systems and act as diagnostic aids and tools in preventative and highly personalized medicine. Title: Novel Methods for Learning and Adaptation in Chemical Reaction Networks Author: Banda, Peter Year: 2015 State-of-the-art biochemical systems for medical applications and chemical computing are application-specific and cannot be re-programmed or trained once fabricated. The implementation of adaptive biochemical systems that would offer flexibility through programmability and autonomous adaptation faces major challenges because of the large number of required chemical species as well as the timing-sensitive feedback loops required for learning. Currently, biochemistry lacks a systems vision on how the user-level programming interface and abstraction with a subsequent translation to chemistry should look like. By developing adaptation in chemistry, we could replace multiple hard-wired systems with a single programmable template that can be (re)trained to match a desired input-output profile benefiting smart drug delivery, pattern recognition, and chemical computing. I aimed to address these challenges by proposing several approaches to learning and adaptation in Chemical Reaction Networks (CRNs), a type of simulated chemistry, where species are unstructured, i.e., they are identified by symbols rather than molecular structure, and their dynamics or concentration evolution are driven by reactions and reaction rates that follow mass-action and Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Several CRN and experimental DNA-based models of neural networks exist. However, these models successfully implement only the forward-pass, i.e., the input-weight integration part of a perceptron model. Learning is delegated to a non-chemical system that computes the weights before converting them to molecular concentrations. Autonomous learning, i.e., learning implemented fully inside chemistry has been absent from both theoretical and experimental research. The research in this thesis offers the first constructive evidence that learning in CRNs is, in fact, possible. I have introduced the original concept of a chemical binary perceptron that can learn all 14 linearly-separable logic functions and is robust to the perturbation of rate constants. That shows learning is universal and substrate-free. To simplify the model I later proposed and applied the "asymmetric" chemical arithmetic providing a compact solution for representing negative numbers in chemistry. To tackle more difficult tasks and to serve more complicated biochemical applications, I introduced several key modular building blocks, each addressing certain aspects of chemical information processing and learning. These parts organically combined into gradually more complex systems. First, instead of simple static Boolean functions, I tackled analog time-series learning and signal processing by modeling an analog chemical perceptron. To store past input concentrations as a sliding window I implemented a chemical delay line, which feeds the values to the underlying chemical perceptron. That allows the system to learn, e.g., the linear moving-average and to some degree predict a highly nonlinear NARMA benchmark series. Another important contribution to the area of chemical learning, which I have helped to shape, is the composability of perceptrons into larger multi-compartment networks. Each compartment hosts a single chemical perceptron and compartments communicate with each other through a channel-mediated exchange of molecular species. Besides the feedforward pass, I implemented the chemical error backpropagation analogous to that of feedforward neural networks. Also, after applying mass-action kinetics for the catalytic reactions, I succeeded to systematically analyze the ODEs of my models and derive the closed exact and approximative formulas for both the input-weight integration and the weight update with a learning rate annealing. I proved mathematically that the formulas of certain chemical perceptrons equal the formal linear and sigmoid neurons, essentially bridging neural networks and adaptive CRNs. For all my models the basic methodology was to first design species and reactions, and then set the rate constants either "empirically" by hand, automatically by a standard genetic algorithm (GA), or analytically if possible. I performed all simulations in my COEL framework, which is the first cloud-based chemistry modeling tool, accessible at http://coel-sim.org. I minimized the amount of required molecular species and reactions to make wet chemical implementation possible. I applied an automatized mapping technique, Soloveichik's CRN-to-DNA-strand-displacement transformation, to the chemical linear perceptron and the manual signalling delay line and obtained their full DNA-strand specified implementations. As an alternative DNA-based substrate, I mapped these two models also to deoxyribozyme-mediated cleavage reactions reducing the size of the displacement variant to a third. Both DNA-based incarnations could directly serve as blue-prints for wet biochemicals. Besides an actual synthesis of my models and conducting an experiment in a biochemical laboratory, the most promising future work is to employ so-called reservoir computing (RC), which is a novel machine learning method based on recurrent neural networks. The RC approach is relevant because for time-series prediction it is clearly superior to classical recurrent networks. It can also be implemented in various ways, such as electrical circuits, physical systems, such as a colony of Escherichia Coli, and water. RC's loose structural assumptions therefore suggest that it could be expressed in a chemical form as well. This could further enhance the expressivity and capabilities of chemically-embedded learning. My chemical learning systems may have applications in the area of medical diagnosis and smart medication, e.g., concentration signal processing and monitoring, and the detection of harmful species, such as chemicals produced by cancer cells in a host (cancer miRNAs) or the detection of a severe event, defined as a linear or nonlinear temporal concentration pattern. My approach could replace hard-coded solutions and would allow to specify, train, and reuse chemical systems without redesigning them. With time-series integration, biochemical computers could keep a record of changing biological systems and act as diagnostic aids and tools in preventative and highly personalized medicine. Close

• 298. [Article] Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River

  Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River Author: Rosenberg, J. Shoshana Year: 2015 Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue on the Northwest Coast. Faunal remains are one potential but as yet underutilized path for examining this relationship. My thesis work takes on this approach through the analysis of fish remains from the Cathlapotle archaeological site (45CL1). Cathlapotle is a large Chinookan village site located on the Lower Columbia River that was extensively excavated in the 1990s. Previous work has established prestige distinctions between houses and house compartments, making it possible to examine the relationship between prestige and the spatial distribution of fish remains. In this study, I examine whether having high prestige afforded its bearers greater access to preferred fish, utilizing comparisons of fish remains at two different levels of social organization, between and within households, to determine which social mechanisms could account for potential differences in access to fish resources. Differential access to these resources within the village could have occurred through household-level ownership of harvesting sites or control over the post-harvesting distribution of food by certain individuals. Previous work in this region on the relationship between faunal remains and prestige has relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources to determine the relative value of taxa. These sources do not provide adequate data to make detailed comparisons between all of the taxa encountered at archaeological sites, so in this study I utilize optimal foraging theory as an alternative means of determining which fish taxa were preferred. Optimal foraging theory provides a universal, quantitative analytical rule for ranking fish that I was able to apply to all of the taxa encountered at Cathlapotle. Given these rankings, which are based primarily on size, I examine the degree to which relative prestige designations of two households (Houses 1 and 4) and compartments within one of those households (House 1) are reflected in the spatial distribution of fish remains. I also offer a new method for quantifying sturgeon that utilizes specimen weight to account for differential fragmentation rates while still allowing for sturgeon abundance to be compared to the abundances of other taxa that have been quantified by number of identified specimens (NISP). Based on remains recovered from 1/4" mesh screens, comparisons between compartments within House 1 indicate that the chief and possibly other elite members of House 1 likely had some control over the distribution of fish resources within their household, taking more of the preferred sturgeon and salmon, particularly more chinook salmon, for themselves. Comparisons between households provide little evidence to support household-based ownership of fishing sites. A greater abundance of chinook salmon in the higher prestige House 1 may indicate ownership of fishing platforms at major chinook fisheries such as Willamette Falls or Cascades Rapids, but other explanations for this difference between households are possible. Analyses of a limited number of bulk samples, which were included in the study in order to examine utilization of very small fishes, provided insufficient data to allow for meaningful intrasite comparisons. These data indicate that the inhabitants of Cathlapotle were exploiting a broad fish subsistence base that included large numbers of eulachon and stickleback in addition to the larger fishes. This study provides a promising approach for examining prestige on the Northwest Coast and expanding our understanding of the dynamics between social inequality and resource access and control. Title: Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River Author: Rosenberg, J. Shoshana Year: 2015 Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue on the Northwest Coast. Faunal remains are one potential but as yet underutilized path for examining this relationship. My thesis work takes on this approach through the analysis of fish remains from the Cathlapotle archaeological site (45CL1). Cathlapotle is a large Chinookan village site located on the Lower Columbia River that was extensively excavated in the 1990s. Previous work has established prestige distinctions between houses and house compartments, making it possible to examine the relationship between prestige and the spatial distribution of fish remains. In this study, I examine whether having high prestige afforded its bearers greater access to preferred fish, utilizing comparisons of fish remains at two different levels of social organization, between and within households, to determine which social mechanisms could account for potential differences in access to fish resources. Differential access to these resources within the village could have occurred through household-level ownership of harvesting sites or control over the post-harvesting distribution of food by certain individuals. Previous work in this region on the relationship between faunal remains and prestige has relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources to determine the relative value of taxa. These sources do not provide adequate data to make detailed comparisons between all of the taxa encountered at archaeological sites, so in this study I utilize optimal foraging theory as an alternative means of determining which fish taxa were preferred. Optimal foraging theory provides a universal, quantitative analytical rule for ranking fish that I was able to apply to all of the taxa encountered at Cathlapotle. Given these rankings, which are based primarily on size, I examine the degree to which relative prestige designations of two households (Houses 1 and 4) and compartments within one of those households (House 1) are reflected in the spatial distribution of fish remains. I also offer a new method for quantifying sturgeon that utilizes specimen weight to account for differential fragmentation rates while still allowing for sturgeon abundance to be compared to the abundances of other taxa that have been quantified by number of identified specimens (NISP). Based on remains recovered from 1/4" mesh screens, comparisons between compartments within House 1 indicate that the chief and possibly other elite members of House 1 likely had some control over the distribution of fish resources within their household, taking more of the preferred sturgeon and salmon, particularly more chinook salmon, for themselves. Comparisons between households provide little evidence to support household-based ownership of fishing sites. A greater abundance of chinook salmon in the higher prestige House 1 may indicate ownership of fishing platforms at major chinook fisheries such as Willamette Falls or Cascades Rapids, but other explanations for this difference between households are possible. Analyses of a limited number of bulk samples, which were included in the study in order to examine utilization of very small fishes, provided insufficient data to allow for meaningful intrasite comparisons. These data indicate that the inhabitants of Cathlapotle were exploiting a broad fish subsistence base that included large numbers of eulachon and stickleback in addition to the larger fishes. This study provides a promising approach for examining prestige on the Northwest Coast and expanding our understanding of the dynamics between social inequality and resource access and control. Close

• 299. [Article] An Analysis of the Ability and Achievement of Business Education Students Compared to Non-Business Education Students

  Since some educators believe the underachiever and the low-ability student are frequently placed in business education classes for the purpose of finding him an easy way through school, this study attempts ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An Analysis of the Ability and Achievement of Business Education Students Compared to Non-Business Education Students Author: Warberg, William B. Year: 1971 Since some educators believe the underachiever and the low-ability student are frequently placed in business education classes for the purpose of finding him an easy way through school, this study attempts to determine just where the business education student actually ranks in achievement and ability as compared to students in other academic areas. The students used in this study come from the graduating classes of 1969 and 1970 of Beaverton and Sunset High Schools in Beaverton School District 48, Beaverton, Oregon. A business education student has been defined as one who has successfully completed at least two of the following courses: Shorthand II; Office Techniques or Vocational Office Block; Bookkeeping; and Business Law. A survey instrument was used to separate the business education from the non-business education students. The survey instrument records the scores of DAT (Differential Aptitude Tests) and the GPAs (grade point averages) of all students included in this study. Mean scores were computed reflecting the DAT scores and GPAs of both groups. These mean scores reflecting the difference between the business education and non-business education students were tested to determine the level of significance. StUdents included in this survey numbered 1705: 199 classified as business education students and 1506 classified as non-business education students. The study revealed a sharp decline in the number of students enrolled in business education in 1970, as compared to 1969. The mean DAT score for the business education student was 56.35 as compared to 62.60 for the non-business education student. The difference of 6.25 was tested and had a critical ratio of 3.11, which is significant at the .01 level. The mean GPA for business education students was 2.56 as compared to 2.68 for the non-business education students. This difference of .12 was tested and had a critical ratio of .86, which is not significant. The reasons for the decline in the number of students enrolled In business may be: (1) the addition of new courses to the school curriculum; (2) fewer students are taking business education classes as defined by this study; and (3) business education is not as appealling as it once was because of changing business patterns. The fact that business eciucation students are of a lower ability might be because; (1) business education classes appeal to the lower ability student; or (2) that counselors do, in fact, use business education as a dumping ground. Since this study revealed that the GPA of business education students nearly equals that of other students, the possibility exists that: (1) business education is more Interesting than some other subjects; (2) the content of business education classes is less challenging; (3) less student performance is required in business education; or (4) business education attracts the overachiever. The main purposes of this study were to: (1) provide more effective guidance and placement of students in business education; (2) provide informative data upon which to base future curriculum planning; and (3) verify or disprove the prevailing assumption that business education students are of a lower caliber. Since this study has revealed that the number of students enrolled in business education has declined and that business education students are in reality of lower ability, the results have been given to the counseling and business education departments at the schools involved. It is hoped that the results will help educators make a realistic assessment of the condition that does exists, so students can be placed and schooled in their areas of interest. Further studies are needed to: (1) determine whether or not the decline of students enrolling in business education will continue; (2) determine if the low-ability students are being channeled into new courses added to the school curriculum; and (3) reveal how business education students are performing in specific academic areas. Such studies might be of additional value to counselors through a more effective channeling of students into appropriate interest areas and careers. Title: An Analysis of the Ability and Achievement of Business Education Students Compared to Non-Business Education Students Author: Warberg, William B. Year: 1971 Since some educators believe the underachiever and the low-ability student are frequently placed in business education classes for the purpose of finding him an easy way through school, this study attempts to determine just where the business education student actually ranks in achievement and ability as compared to students in other academic areas. The students used in this study come from the graduating classes of 1969 and 1970 of Beaverton and Sunset High Schools in Beaverton School District 48, Beaverton, Oregon. A business education student has been defined as one who has successfully completed at least two of the following courses: Shorthand II; Office Techniques or Vocational Office Block; Bookkeeping; and Business Law. A survey instrument was used to separate the business education from the non-business education students. The survey instrument records the scores of DAT (Differential Aptitude Tests) and the GPAs (grade point averages) of all students included in this study. Mean scores were computed reflecting the DAT scores and GPAs of both groups. These mean scores reflecting the difference between the business education and non-business education students were tested to determine the level of significance. StUdents included in this survey numbered 1705: 199 classified as business education students and 1506 classified as non-business education students. The study revealed a sharp decline in the number of students enrolled in business education in 1970, as compared to 1969. The mean DAT score for the business education student was 56.35 as compared to 62.60 for the non-business education student. The difference of 6.25 was tested and had a critical ratio of 3.11, which is significant at the .01 level. The mean GPA for business education students was 2.56 as compared to 2.68 for the non-business education students. This difference of .12 was tested and had a critical ratio of .86, which is not significant. The reasons for the decline in the number of students enrolled In business may be: (1) the addition of new courses to the school curriculum; (2) fewer students are taking business education classes as defined by this study; and (3) business education is not as appealling as it once was because of changing business patterns. The fact that business eciucation students are of a lower ability might be because; (1) business education classes appeal to the lower ability student; or (2) that counselors do, in fact, use business education as a dumping ground. Since this study revealed that the GPA of business education students nearly equals that of other students, the possibility exists that: (1) business education is more Interesting than some other subjects; (2) the content of business education classes is less challenging; (3) less student performance is required in business education; or (4) business education attracts the overachiever. The main purposes of this study were to: (1) provide more effective guidance and placement of students in business education; (2) provide informative data upon which to base future curriculum planning; and (3) verify or disprove the prevailing assumption that business education students are of a lower caliber. Since this study has revealed that the number of students enrolled in business education has declined and that business education students are in reality of lower ability, the results have been given to the counseling and business education departments at the schools involved. It is hoped that the results will help educators make a realistic assessment of the condition that does exists, so students can be placed and schooled in their areas of interest. Further studies are needed to: (1) determine whether or not the decline of students enrolling in business education will continue; (2) determine if the low-ability students are being channeled into new courses added to the school curriculum; and (3) reveal how business education students are performing in specific academic areas. Such studies might be of additional value to counselors through a more effective channeling of students into appropriate interest areas and careers. Close

• 300. [Article] Understanding the Emission from Semiconductor Nanoparticles

  This dissertation describes the synthesis and characterization of fluorescent semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs) in order to optimize their biomedical utility for imaging and sensing applications. While ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Understanding the Emission from Semiconductor Nanoparticles Author: Manhat, Beth Ann Year: 2012 This dissertation describes the synthesis and characterization of fluorescent semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs) in order to optimize their biomedical utility for imaging and sensing applications. While both direct and indirect bandgap semiconductor NPs have been studied, control over their emission properties vary. Quantum confinement (QC), which primarily controls the emission wavelength of nanosized semiconductors, dictates that as the size of semiconductor NPs decrease, the magnitude of the bandgap increases, resulting in changes in the observed emission wavelength: smaller NPs have a larger bandgap, and thus a bluer emission. However, surface, interfacial, or shell defects can act as non-radiative or radiative recombination sites for excitons formed within the NP; the latter results in emission competition with the bandgap transition, as described Chapters 1 and 2. Because the emission wavelengths of direct bandgap semiconductor NPs correlate with size according to the expectations of QC, and are stable in aqueous environments with high quantum efficiencies (quantum yield, QY), current research focuses on their potential biomedical applications. Chapter 3 describes red-emitting CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QDs) that exhibit a concentration-dependent decrease in fluorescence intensity in response to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). A mechanistic study was performed to understand a 5-HT-dependent decrease in QD emission and calibration curves relating QD intensity loss to 5-HT concentration in ensemble and single QD studies were generated. Unfortunately, the known toxicity of CdSe-based QDs has generated interest in more benign semiconductor NPs to replace these QDs in biological applications, while maintaining the same degree of control over the emission color and QY. Bulk indirect bandgap semiconductors, such as Si, have low efficiency inter-band transitions, and Si NPs are known to contain radiative defects that can alter the emission wavelength from QC-based size expectations; these competitive emission pathways must be controlled in order for Si NPs to be successfully used in biological applications. In general, synthetic methods that gives precise control over both the particle size and surface termination are needed in order to produce emission controlled Si NPs. Relative to groups II and VI QDs, synthetic routes to prepare Si NPs are few in numbers, and the size vs. defect emission events are difficult to assign. Not only do these assignments vary amongst reports, but they also vary with particle size, solvent, sample age, and identities of the surface ligands. Si NPs have been prepared through two synthetic routes using the Zintl salt, sodium silicide (NaSi) and ammonium bromide (NH4Br) as precursors. Chapter 4 describes the synthesis performed in the solvent N,N,-dimethylformamide (DMF). This reaction produces blue-emitting Si NPs (5.02 ± 1.21 nm) that bear partial hydride surface termination. However, it was determined that the solvent was able to interact with the Si NP surface, and prevent subsequent functionalization. This observation was used advantageously, and Chapter 5 describes a one-pot Zintl salt metathesis of Si NPs (3.9 + 9.8 nm) performed in a bi-functional (amine or carboxylic acid) solvent ligand, where the observations indicated that the solvent ligands coordinate to the Si NP. The emission maxima of the Si NPs prepared from the Zintl salt metathesis exhibited a dependence on the excitation energy, and is indicative of emission that is influenced by QC, which likely originates from deeply oxide embedded 1-2 nm crystalline cores. The Si NPs prepared from the one-pot Zintl salt metathesis were exposed to metals salt ions of varying reduction potentials to determine the band edges by what will or will not be reduced (Chapter 6). By monitoring the emission intensity of the Si NPs, in addition to the UV-Vis of the metal ions, the band edge of Si NPs may be determined. The value of the band edge may lend insight into the origin of Si NP emission. To utilize fluorescent Si NPs for biological applications, red emission is strongly preferred. Unfortunately, when preparing aqueous Si NPs, red emission usually changes to blue, likely from the oxidation of the Si NP surface. Therefore, the red emission needs to be efficiently protected from surface oxidants. Because both increased chain lengths and steric modalities have been found to protect the emission properties of Si NPs, red-emitting, ester-functionalized Si NPs (5.51+1.35 nm) with varying chain lengths and ester termination moieties were prepared to determine the best method of preserving the observed red emission in the presence of potential alcoholic oxidants. By determining the best was to protect Si NPs emission, the red-emission from Si NPs may be preserved for biological applications. Title: Understanding the Emission from Semiconductor Nanoparticles Author: Manhat, Beth Ann Year: 2012 This dissertation describes the synthesis and characterization of fluorescent semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs) in order to optimize their biomedical utility for imaging and sensing applications. While both direct and indirect bandgap semiconductor NPs have been studied, control over their emission properties vary. Quantum confinement (QC), which primarily controls the emission wavelength of nanosized semiconductors, dictates that as the size of semiconductor NPs decrease, the magnitude of the bandgap increases, resulting in changes in the observed emission wavelength: smaller NPs have a larger bandgap, and thus a bluer emission. However, surface, interfacial, or shell defects can act as non-radiative or radiative recombination sites for excitons formed within the NP; the latter results in emission competition with the bandgap transition, as described Chapters 1 and 2. Because the emission wavelengths of direct bandgap semiconductor NPs correlate with size according to the expectations of QC, and are stable in aqueous environments with high quantum efficiencies (quantum yield, QY), current research focuses on their potential biomedical applications. Chapter 3 describes red-emitting CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QDs) that exhibit a concentration-dependent decrease in fluorescence intensity in response to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). A mechanistic study was performed to understand a 5-HT-dependent decrease in QD emission and calibration curves relating QD intensity loss to 5-HT concentration in ensemble and single QD studies were generated. Unfortunately, the known toxicity of CdSe-based QDs has generated interest in more benign semiconductor NPs to replace these QDs in biological applications, while maintaining the same degree of control over the emission color and QY. Bulk indirect bandgap semiconductors, such as Si, have low efficiency inter-band transitions, and Si NPs are known to contain radiative defects that can alter the emission wavelength from QC-based size expectations; these competitive emission pathways must be controlled in order for Si NPs to be successfully used in biological applications. In general, synthetic methods that gives precise control over both the particle size and surface termination are needed in order to produce emission controlled Si NPs. Relative to groups II and VI QDs, synthetic routes to prepare Si NPs are few in numbers, and the size vs. defect emission events are difficult to assign. Not only do these assignments vary amongst reports, but they also vary with particle size, solvent, sample age, and identities of the surface ligands. Si NPs have been prepared through two synthetic routes using the Zintl salt, sodium silicide (NaSi) and ammonium bromide (NH4Br) as precursors. Chapter 4 describes the synthesis performed in the solvent N,N,-dimethylformamide (DMF). This reaction produces blue-emitting Si NPs (5.02 ± 1.21 nm) that bear partial hydride surface termination. However, it was determined that the solvent was able to interact with the Si NP surface, and prevent subsequent functionalization. This observation was used advantageously, and Chapter 5 describes a one-pot Zintl salt metathesis of Si NPs (3.9 + 9.8 nm) performed in a bi-functional (amine or carboxylic acid) solvent ligand, where the observations indicated that the solvent ligands coordinate to the Si NP. The emission maxima of the Si NPs prepared from the Zintl salt metathesis exhibited a dependence on the excitation energy, and is indicative of emission that is influenced by QC, which likely originates from deeply oxide embedded 1-2 nm crystalline cores. The Si NPs prepared from the one-pot Zintl salt metathesis were exposed to metals salt ions of varying reduction potentials to determine the band edges by what will or will not be reduced (Chapter 6). By monitoring the emission intensity of the Si NPs, in addition to the UV-Vis of the metal ions, the band edge of Si NPs may be determined. The value of the band edge may lend insight into the origin of Si NP emission. To utilize fluorescent Si NPs for biological applications, red emission is strongly preferred. Unfortunately, when preparing aqueous Si NPs, red emission usually changes to blue, likely from the oxidation of the Si NP surface. Therefore, the red emission needs to be efficiently protected from surface oxidants. Because both increased chain lengths and steric modalities have been found to protect the emission properties of Si NPs, red-emitting, ester-functionalized Si NPs (5.51+1.35 nm) with varying chain lengths and ester termination moieties were prepared to determine the best method of preserving the observed red emission in the presence of potential alcoholic oxidants. By determining the best was to protect Si NPs emission, the red-emission from Si NPs may be preserved for biological applications. Close