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• 121. [Article] Floodplains: Balancing Nature and Human Needs

  For countless years, the interaction between climatic conditions and water flow has forged the rolling hills and rivers in the metroscape. The floods that forced a deluge of water down the Columbia River ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Floodplains: Balancing Nature and Human Needs Author: Shandas, Vivek, Merrick, Meg Year: 2008 For countless years, the interaction between climatic conditions and water flow has forged the rolling hills and rivers in the metroscape. The floods that forced a deluge of water down the Columbia River between 13 and 17 thousand years ago established the fertile and absorptive landscape of the Willamette Valley. The lush vegetation controlled the regional climate and stabilized the soils, while the thirsty wetlands reduced flood potential, provided habitat, and purified the water. Over geological time, these natural processes have created ideal conditions for humans. The Pacific Northwest was home to some of the most densely populated communities of Native Americans, due partly to mild climate, plentiful water, and abundant sources of food and shelter. In the 19th century, Anglo settlers flooded the region for the same amenities, which continues to create ideal conditions for all that the region is known for today, including hiking, kayaking, and sailing - not to mention the provision of climate, topography, and fertile soils for growing some of the world?s best wines! Land surveys from the 1860s suggest that the current form of the metroscape started to take shape at the end of the 19th century. The conifers, alders, and maples that covered the region were slowly removed to make way for new urban settlements, and wetlands were drained to create farms and agricultural areas. In this atlas, we journey 140 years into the past to examine how and where the metroscape has changed. Our aim is to illustrate historic flooding of the region, and ponder what changes might mean to its future. Title: Floodplains: Balancing Nature and Human Needs Author: Shandas, Vivek, Merrick, Meg Year: 2008 For countless years, the interaction between climatic conditions and water flow has forged the rolling hills and rivers in the metroscape. The floods that forced a deluge of water down the Columbia River between 13 and 17 thousand years ago established the fertile and absorptive landscape of the Willamette Valley. The lush vegetation controlled the regional climate and stabilized the soils, while the thirsty wetlands reduced flood potential, provided habitat, and purified the water. Over geological time, these natural processes have created ideal conditions for humans. The Pacific Northwest was home to some of the most densely populated communities of Native Americans, due partly to mild climate, plentiful water, and abundant sources of food and shelter. In the 19th century, Anglo settlers flooded the region for the same amenities, which continues to create ideal conditions for all that the region is known for today, including hiking, kayaking, and sailing - not to mention the provision of climate, topography, and fertile soils for growing some of the world?s best wines! Land surveys from the 1860s suggest that the current form of the metroscape started to take shape at the end of the 19th century. The conifers, alders, and maples that covered the region were slowly removed to make way for new urban settlements, and wetlands were drained to create farms and agricultural areas. In this atlas, we journey 140 years into the past to examine how and where the metroscape has changed. Our aim is to illustrate historic flooding of the region, and ponder what changes might mean to its future. Close

• 122. [Article] Food Deserts and Migrant Farmworkers: Assessing Food Access in Oregon's Willamette Valley

  Food insecurity, often correlated with “food deserts,” affects migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSFW) at greater rates than other populations. Our research evaluates the food desert experiences of MSFW ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Food Deserts and Migrant Farmworkers: Assessing Food Access in Oregon's Willamette Valley Author: Grauel, Katie, Chambers, Kimberlee J. Year: 2014 Food insecurity, often correlated with “food deserts,” affects migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSFW) at greater rates than other populations. Our research evaluates the food desert experiences of MSFW communities in Oregon's Willamette Valley. Through GIS mapping, interviews with MSFW, and food retailer inventories, our research helps elucidate the degree to which the geographical distribution of food retailers and the products they carry affects MSFW. Access to food retailers was assessed for distances of 0.25, 1.5, 5, and 10 miles. Mapping locations of registered MSFW labor camps (n = 62) and food retailers (n = 215) in the Willamette Valley revealed access to a food retailer within 0.25 mile for one labor camp and 1.5 miles for 46% of camps. All MSFW camps had access to a food retailer within 5 miles. Our research further suggests that using distance alone to determine food deserts may be deceptive as these numbers do not show the types of food retailers and challenges that MSFW in rural labor camps, who often lack access to personal vehicles and public transit, encounter when shopping for nutritionally and culturally appropriate foods. Migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the Willamette Valley experience significant physical and economic barriers to food access, especially culturally appropriate foods. Title: Food Deserts and Migrant Farmworkers: Assessing Food Access in Oregon's Willamette Valley Author: Grauel, Katie, Chambers, Kimberlee J. Year: 2014 Food insecurity, often correlated with “food deserts,” affects migrant and seasonal farmworkers (MSFW) at greater rates than other populations. Our research evaluates the food desert experiences of MSFW communities in Oregon's Willamette Valley. Through GIS mapping, interviews with MSFW, and food retailer inventories, our research helps elucidate the degree to which the geographical distribution of food retailers and the products they carry affects MSFW. Access to food retailers was assessed for distances of 0.25, 1.5, 5, and 10 miles. Mapping locations of registered MSFW labor camps (n = 62) and food retailers (n = 215) in the Willamette Valley revealed access to a food retailer within 0.25 mile for one labor camp and 1.5 miles for 46% of camps. All MSFW camps had access to a food retailer within 5 miles. Our research further suggests that using distance alone to determine food deserts may be deceptive as these numbers do not show the types of food retailers and challenges that MSFW in rural labor camps, who often lack access to personal vehicles and public transit, encounter when shopping for nutritionally and culturally appropriate foods. Migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the Willamette Valley experience significant physical and economic barriers to food access, especially culturally appropriate foods. Close

• 123. [Article] The Influence of Market Proximity on National Forest Hazardous Fuels Treatments

  The US Department of Agriculture Forest Service's focus on hazardous fuels reduction has increased since the adoption of the National Fire Plan in 2001. However, appropriations for hazardous fuels reduction ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Influence of Market Proximity on National Forest Hazardous Fuels Treatments Author: Nielsen-Pincus, Max, Charnley, Susan, Moseley, Cassandra Year: 2012 The US Department of Agriculture Forest Service's focus on hazardous fuels reduction has increased since the adoption of the National Fire Plan in 2001. However, appropriations for hazardous fuels reduction still lag behind wildfire suppression spending. Offsetting fuels treatment costs through biomass utilization or by using innovative administrative mechanisms such as stewardship contracting are two approaches to stretching appropriated dollars further across the landscape. We use fuels treatment data (n = 8,451 locations) to ask how wood- processing infrastructure influences where and how much hazardous fuels treatments, biomass utilization, and stewardship contracting occur on national forests in Oregon and Washington. We found that national forest ranger districts that are relatively close in proximity to sawmills or biomass facilities treated more overall ha and more wildland-urban interface ha and used stewardship contracting on more ha than ranger districts further away and that there was a threshold distance for these effects (40 minutes). We also found that proximity to sawmills and biomass facilities influenced the location and extent of hazardous fuels treatments that incorporated biomass utilization or were administered through a stewardship contract. Our analysis suggests that to be effective at offsetting some of the costs of hazardous fuels reduction and treat a greater extent of the landscape, policy strategies may need to focus on supporting a network of wood-processing facilities that is distributed across forest-based communities. Title: The Influence of Market Proximity on National Forest Hazardous Fuels Treatments Author: Nielsen-Pincus, Max, Charnley, Susan, Moseley, Cassandra Year: 2012 The US Department of Agriculture Forest Service's focus on hazardous fuels reduction has increased since the adoption of the National Fire Plan in 2001. However, appropriations for hazardous fuels reduction still lag behind wildfire suppression spending. Offsetting fuels treatment costs through biomass utilization or by using innovative administrative mechanisms such as stewardship contracting are two approaches to stretching appropriated dollars further across the landscape. We use fuels treatment data (n = 8,451 locations) to ask how wood- processing infrastructure influences where and how much hazardous fuels treatments, biomass utilization, and stewardship contracting occur on national forests in Oregon and Washington. We found that national forest ranger districts that are relatively close in proximity to sawmills or biomass facilities treated more overall ha and more wildland-urban interface ha and used stewardship contracting on more ha than ranger districts further away and that there was a threshold distance for these effects (40 minutes). We also found that proximity to sawmills and biomass facilities influenced the location and extent of hazardous fuels treatments that incorporated biomass utilization or were administered through a stewardship contract. Our analysis suggests that to be effective at offsetting some of the costs of hazardous fuels reduction and treat a greater extent of the landscape, policy strategies may need to focus on supporting a network of wood-processing facilities that is distributed across forest-based communities. Close

• 124. [Article] Environmental Middle School Making the Connection: Locally grown food and the Portland Public Schools' Meal program

  A recent "farms to school" movement designed to expand the range and quantity of local foods, especially produce, has taken root across the U.S, with support from the United States Department of Agriculture. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Environmental Middle School Making the Connection: Locally grown food and the Portland Public Schools' Meal program Author: Bender, Paul, Brod, Daniela, Maloney, Lauren, Siebenaler, April, Stocker, David Year: 2002 A recent "farms to school" movement designed to expand the range and quantity of local foods, especially produce, has taken root across the U.S, with support from the United States Department of Agriculture. After finding a suitable client school willing to introduce this idea in Portland, this project, identifies incremental and feasible steps that can be taken toward including more locally gown food into the Environmental Middle School's meal service. The main objectives of this project are: To increase the availability of locally grown foods at EMS, and ultimately in the Portland Public Schools meal service program To encourage food literacy and awareness of the value of locally produced foods among students To engage students, parents, teachers, community members, school district administrators and farmers in dialogue about the community food system To stimulate markets for local farms This project has included conversations with stakeholders in the school food system designed to foster and increase overall communication between these stakeholders and to share information about what possible alternatives may exist to meet the project's goals. Sharing background research, relevant case studies, and the alternatives developed will ideally help others to move forward in bringing more locally grown food to both EMS and PPS. This project was conducted under the supervision of Ethan Seltzer and Thomas Sanchez. Title: Environmental Middle School Making the Connection: Locally grown food and the Portland Public Schools' Meal program Author: Bender, Paul, Brod, Daniela, Maloney, Lauren, Siebenaler, April, Stocker, David Year: 2002 A recent "farms to school" movement designed to expand the range and quantity of local foods, especially produce, has taken root across the U.S, with support from the United States Department of Agriculture. After finding a suitable client school willing to introduce this idea in Portland, this project, identifies incremental and feasible steps that can be taken toward including more locally gown food into the Environmental Middle School's meal service. The main objectives of this project are: To increase the availability of locally grown foods at EMS, and ultimately in the Portland Public Schools meal service program To encourage food literacy and awareness of the value of locally produced foods among students To engage students, parents, teachers, community members, school district administrators and farmers in dialogue about the community food system To stimulate markets for local farms This project has included conversations with stakeholders in the school food system designed to foster and increase overall communication between these stakeholders and to share information about what possible alternatives may exist to meet the project's goals. Sharing background research, relevant case studies, and the alternatives developed will ideally help others to move forward in bringing more locally grown food to both EMS and PPS. This project was conducted under the supervision of Ethan Seltzer and Thomas Sanchez. Close

• 125. [Article] Harvesting Opportunity: A Strategic Vision for Farmworker Housing and Microenterprise in Washington County

  Farmworkers in Washington County face stagnant incomes, limited opportunities and a shortage of affordable, quality housing. In this six month workshop project, Tierra Planning explored the connection ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Harvesting Opportunity: A Strategic Vision for Farmworker Housing and Microenterprise in Washington County Author: Appenbrink, Nadine, Ansary, Raihana, Decker, Elizabeth, McQuillan, Kate, Nelson, Karla, Picha, Emily Year: 2010 Farmworkers in Washington County face stagnant incomes, limited opportunities and a shortage of affordable, quality housing. In this six month workshop project, Tierra Planning explored the connection between quality affordable housing and economic development opportunities for farmworkers in Washington County. We worked with stakeholders, regulators, landowners and farmworkers to identify barriers, opportunities and alternatives. Our final product was a "strategic vision" that included both general recommendations and recommendations specific to Washington County based on extensive research, outreach, and alternatives analysis. Our hope is that our work will spark discourse among local farmers, housing developers, and policy makers in the Portland metropolitan region and beyond by providing alternative models for integrated farmworker housing and economic development. In particular, we hope to highlight the connection between the growing local food movement and the workers who harvest local food to broaden support for the social aspects of sustainability. This project was conducted under the supervision of Sumner Sharpe and Ellen Bassett. Title: Harvesting Opportunity: A Strategic Vision for Farmworker Housing and Microenterprise in Washington County Author: Appenbrink, Nadine, Ansary, Raihana, Decker, Elizabeth, McQuillan, Kate, Nelson, Karla, Picha, Emily Year: 2010 Farmworkers in Washington County face stagnant incomes, limited opportunities and a shortage of affordable, quality housing. In this six month workshop project, Tierra Planning explored the connection between quality affordable housing and economic development opportunities for farmworkers in Washington County. We worked with stakeholders, regulators, landowners and farmworkers to identify barriers, opportunities and alternatives. Our final product was a "strategic vision" that included both general recommendations and recommendations specific to Washington County based on extensive research, outreach, and alternatives analysis. Our hope is that our work will spark discourse among local farmers, housing developers, and policy makers in the Portland metropolitan region and beyond by providing alternative models for integrated farmworker housing and economic development. In particular, we hope to highlight the connection between the growing local food movement and the workers who harvest local food to broaden support for the social aspects of sustainability. This project was conducted under the supervision of Sumner Sharpe and Ellen Bassett. Close

• 126. [Article] Environmental Geology of the Marquam Hill Area

  This work on Marquam Hill area in Portland, a relatively undeveloped urban hillside area, is a pilot study in which environmental factors are evaluated quantitatively in order to delineate limitations ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Environmental Geology of the Marquam Hill Area Author: Redfern, Roger Alan Year: 1973 This work on Marquam Hill area in Portland, a relatively undeveloped urban hillside area, is a pilot study in which environmental factors are evaluated quantitatively in order to delineate limitations on development. The study was undertaken at the request of and in cooperation with the City of Portland Planning Commission and with the State of Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. Factors considered include various aspects of the land, vegetation and attitudes of inhabitants. Findings are not intended to satisfy need for individual site studies by qualified experts but should show where that expertise is needed. Field data were collected on site by observations, borings, personal interviews and by geophysical surveys; laboratory tests were made on soil samples; studies were compiled of topographic maps and aerial photographs; and pertinent data from available previous works were incorporated. Data were integrated into a series of environmental factor maps including ground slope, bedrock and soil, bedrock structure, soil thickness, ground stability, hydrology, and vegetation. Land use constraints and environmental limitations were defined using u.s. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, soil suitability and limitations criteria as a guide. Mapped geologic and environmental constraints were overlayed with the mapped soil criteria to identify areas by limitations. An interpretive map and chart show that most of the study area is moderately to severly limited for most land uses. Some small areas can be considered as slightly limited, but the majority of these are already developed. The constraints are so severe that most of the area should be left in open space. The major recommendation is that any development must be carefully controlled, utilizing stringent grading codes (such as Chapter 70 of the Uniform Building Code) and professional expertise to assure the safety and environmental compatibility of the site. It is suggested that planned unit development, in the form of clustered or low- to medium-rise structures would optimize design for natural conditions, siting locations, and residential density least affecting the surrounding, naturally vegetated, hazardous slopes. Title: Environmental Geology of the Marquam Hill Area Author: Redfern, Roger Alan Year: 1973 This work on Marquam Hill area in Portland, a relatively undeveloped urban hillside area, is a pilot study in which environmental factors are evaluated quantitatively in order to delineate limitations on development. The study was undertaken at the request of and in cooperation with the City of Portland Planning Commission and with the State of Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. Factors considered include various aspects of the land, vegetation and attitudes of inhabitants. Findings are not intended to satisfy need for individual site studies by qualified experts but should show where that expertise is needed. Field data were collected on site by observations, borings, personal interviews and by geophysical surveys; laboratory tests were made on soil samples; studies were compiled of topographic maps and aerial photographs; and pertinent data from available previous works were incorporated. Data were integrated into a series of environmental factor maps including ground slope, bedrock and soil, bedrock structure, soil thickness, ground stability, hydrology, and vegetation. Land use constraints and environmental limitations were defined using u.s. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, soil suitability and limitations criteria as a guide. Mapped geologic and environmental constraints were overlayed with the mapped soil criteria to identify areas by limitations. An interpretive map and chart show that most of the study area is moderately to severly limited for most land uses. Some small areas can be considered as slightly limited, but the majority of these are already developed. The constraints are so severe that most of the area should be left in open space. The major recommendation is that any development must be carefully controlled, utilizing stringent grading codes (such as Chapter 70 of the Uniform Building Code) and professional expertise to assure the safety and environmental compatibility of the site. It is suggested that planned unit development, in the form of clustered or low- to medium-rise structures would optimize design for natural conditions, siting locations, and residential density least affecting the surrounding, naturally vegetated, hazardous slopes. Close

• 127. [Article] Water Quality Within East Portland Terraces

  Groundwater from thirty-three wells which are randomly distributed within 42 square miles of the residential, agricultural and industrial area of East Portland Terraces have been analyzed. The area is ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water Quality Within East Portland Terraces Author: Tawfik, Fouad Mohamed Year: 1974 Groundwater from thirty-three wells which are randomly distributed within 42 square miles of the residential, agricultural and industrial area of East Portland Terraces have been analyzed. The area is moderately wet with an annual precipitation of about 37 inches. Residual and transported sediments from different sources, dominantly volcanic, comprise the subsurface lithology. The sedimentary units that were deposited by means of rivers and lakes have filled an original structural and erosional valley in the area. This relatively unconsolidated valley filling is about 900 feet of predominantly lenticular, stratified and cross-bedded lenses of clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders. The topsoil throughout the area has generally similar mechanical characteristics with good drainage. Due to the physical characteristics of the rocks, soils and topography, the area has an open hydraulic system that contains a substantial amount of usable subsurface water. The wells sampled are relatively shallow and their aquifers receive their main recharge from percolated rainfall water. Most of these aquifers occur within the Troutdale Formation rock unit. The major sources of the dissolved elements in the water are the rock units and the organic material of present or buried soils. These sources, along with mixing of water through subsurface migration, created similar compositions in all the tested aquifers, except nitrates and probably phosphates which show a general minor change from east to west, generally correlative with population density. These major mechanisms, man-made activities and/or analytical errors produced only minor differences in the analyses. No major change was detected which could be related to the minor lithologic differences or of the small changes in soils. Comparison with a few older analyses did not indicate a change with time. Alkaline earths in the water exceeded alkalies and weak acids alee exceeded strong ones. This meteoric ground water is bicarbonaceous-siliceous and is good for general use. It is diluted, neutral, fresh, moderately hard and has low salinity hazard. Title: Water Quality Within East Portland Terraces Author: Tawfik, Fouad Mohamed Year: 1974 Groundwater from thirty-three wells which are randomly distributed within 42 square miles of the residential, agricultural and industrial area of East Portland Terraces have been analyzed. The area is moderately wet with an annual precipitation of about 37 inches. Residual and transported sediments from different sources, dominantly volcanic, comprise the subsurface lithology. The sedimentary units that were deposited by means of rivers and lakes have filled an original structural and erosional valley in the area. This relatively unconsolidated valley filling is about 900 feet of predominantly lenticular, stratified and cross-bedded lenses of clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders. The topsoil throughout the area has generally similar mechanical characteristics with good drainage. Due to the physical characteristics of the rocks, soils and topography, the area has an open hydraulic system that contains a substantial amount of usable subsurface water. The wells sampled are relatively shallow and their aquifers receive their main recharge from percolated rainfall water. Most of these aquifers occur within the Troutdale Formation rock unit. The major sources of the dissolved elements in the water are the rock units and the organic material of present or buried soils. These sources, along with mixing of water through subsurface migration, created similar compositions in all the tested aquifers, except nitrates and probably phosphates which show a general minor change from east to west, generally correlative with population density. These major mechanisms, man-made activities and/or analytical errors produced only minor differences in the analyses. No major change was detected which could be related to the minor lithologic differences or of the small changes in soils. Comparison with a few older analyses did not indicate a change with time. Alkaline earths in the water exceeded alkalies and weak acids alee exceeded strong ones. This meteoric ground water is bicarbonaceous-siliceous and is good for general use. It is diluted, neutral, fresh, moderately hard and has low salinity hazard. Close

• 128. [Article] History, Current Conditions, and Wetland Restoration at Killin Wetlands Natural Area, Washington County, Oregon

  In September 2014, the Metro Natural Area Program engaged The Wetland Conservancy to develop a scientific assessment of Metro’s 590-acre Killin Wetlands Natural Area. Metro acquired the lands comprising ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: History, Current Conditions, and Wetland Restoration at Killin Wetlands Natural Area, Washington County, Oregon Author: Christy, John A. Year: 2015 In September 2014, the Metro Natural Area Program engaged The Wetland Conservancy to develop a scientific assessment of Metro’s 590-acre Killin Wetlands Natural Area. Metro acquired the lands comprising the KWNA between 2000 and 2012 with funds from two voterapproved open space bond measures. Since 2000, Metro has sought to advance natural area restoration at the site, focusing on the suppression of non-native pasture weeds and planting of native trees and shrubs in higher parts of the floodplain and its edges. Most uplands in Metro ownership have been maintained in agriculture through leased partnerships with local farmers. Metro and its partners have observed the effects of persistent flooding at the site, which began prior to Metro’s acquisition of the property. Most notable has been the decline of the once abundant Geyer willow stand, a prominent and valued feature of the site. In February 2014, Metro convened several key scientists familiar with the wetland, and its underlying Labish soil, to discuss what was known about the Killin Wetlands and possible next steps in advancing restoration there. That discussion focused on the subsidence of organic soils, caused by artificial drainage, and led to the recommendation that a review of regional peat soil wetlands would be an important step in developing an informed plan for preserving and restoring Killin Wetlands. This report presents that review. Title: History, Current Conditions, and Wetland Restoration at Killin Wetlands Natural Area, Washington County, Oregon Author: Christy, John A. Year: 2015 In September 2014, the Metro Natural Area Program engaged The Wetland Conservancy to develop a scientific assessment of Metro’s 590-acre Killin Wetlands Natural Area. Metro acquired the lands comprising the KWNA between 2000 and 2012 with funds from two voterapproved open space bond measures. Since 2000, Metro has sought to advance natural area restoration at the site, focusing on the suppression of non-native pasture weeds and planting of native trees and shrubs in higher parts of the floodplain and its edges. Most uplands in Metro ownership have been maintained in agriculture through leased partnerships with local farmers. Metro and its partners have observed the effects of persistent flooding at the site, which began prior to Metro’s acquisition of the property. Most notable has been the decline of the once abundant Geyer willow stand, a prominent and valued feature of the site. In February 2014, Metro convened several key scientists familiar with the wetland, and its underlying Labish soil, to discuss what was known about the Killin Wetlands and possible next steps in advancing restoration there. That discussion focused on the subsidence of organic soils, caused by artificial drainage, and led to the recommendation that a review of regional peat soil wetlands would be an important step in developing an informed plan for preserving and restoring Killin Wetlands. This report presents that review. Close

• 129. [Article] No Place for Middlemen: Civic Culture, Downtown Environment, and the Carroll Public Market during the Modernization of Portland, Oregon

  Following the Civil War, the American government greatly expanded the opportunities available for private businessmen and investors in an effort to rapidly colonize the West. This expansion of private ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: No Place for Middlemen: Civic Culture, Downtown Environment, and the Carroll Public Market during the Modernization of Portland, Oregon Author: Louderman, James Richard Year: 2013 Following the Civil War, the American government greatly expanded the opportunities available for private businessmen and investors in an effort to rapidly colonize the West. This expansion of private commerce led to the second industrial revolution in which railroads and the corporation became the symbols and tools of a rapidly modernizing nation. It was also during this period that the responsibility of food distribution was released from municipal accountability and institutions like public markets began to fade from the American urbanscape. While the proliferation of private grocers greatly aided many metropolises' rapid growth, they did little to secure a sustainable and desirable form of food distribution. During the decades before and after the turn of the century, public market campaigns began to develop in response to the widespread abandonment of municipal food distribution. Like many western cities, Portland, Oregon matured during the second half of the nineteenth century and lacked the historical and social precedent for the construction of a public market. Between 1851 and 1914, residents of Portland and its agricultural hinterland fought for the construction of a municipally-owned public market rallying against the perceived harmful and growing influences of middlemen. As a result of their efforts, the Carroll Public Market was founded on the curbsides of Yamhill Street in downtown Portland. While success encouraged multiple expansions and an increasingly supportive consumer base, a growing commitment to modernist planning among city officials and the spread of automobile ownership determined the market to be incompatible with the commercial future of Portland. In an effort to acknowledge and capitalize on the Carroll Public Market's community, a group of investors, incorporated as the Portland Market Company, worked with city officials between 1926 and 1934 to create the largest public market in the United States, the Portland Public Market. As the first building of the newly constructed waterfront development, many believed the massive institution would reinvigorate nearby businesses and ultimately influence the potential of the downtown business district. The Portland Public Market was decidedly distinct from the market along Yamhill and the promoters cast it as such. By utilizing the most modern technologies and promises of convenience there was little that the two organizations shared in common. In the end, the potential of the waterfront market was never fulfilled and amidst legal scandals, an ongoing struggle to meet operating costs, and the success of a rebellious Farmers Cooperative, it shut down after nine years. This thesis discusses these two public markets during a period of changing consumer interests and the rise of modernist planning in Portland, Oregon. Ultimately, the Carroll Public Market was torn down for reasons beyond its own control despite the comfortable profit it enjoyed each year. Many city officials refused to support the institution as they increasingly supported the values of modernism and urban planning. The Portland Public Market fit perfectly with many city planners' and private investors' intents for the future. This essay seeks to offer a unique glimpse of how commercial communities form and how commercial environments evolve through the politics of food distribution, consumerism, and producer-to-consumer relationships. Title: No Place for Middlemen: Civic Culture, Downtown Environment, and the Carroll Public Market during the Modernization of Portland, Oregon Author: Louderman, James Richard Year: 2013 Following the Civil War, the American government greatly expanded the opportunities available for private businessmen and investors in an effort to rapidly colonize the West. This expansion of private commerce led to the second industrial revolution in which railroads and the corporation became the symbols and tools of a rapidly modernizing nation. It was also during this period that the responsibility of food distribution was released from municipal accountability and institutions like public markets began to fade from the American urbanscape. While the proliferation of private grocers greatly aided many metropolises' rapid growth, they did little to secure a sustainable and desirable form of food distribution. During the decades before and after the turn of the century, public market campaigns began to develop in response to the widespread abandonment of municipal food distribution. Like many western cities, Portland, Oregon matured during the second half of the nineteenth century and lacked the historical and social precedent for the construction of a public market. Between 1851 and 1914, residents of Portland and its agricultural hinterland fought for the construction of a municipally-owned public market rallying against the perceived harmful and growing influences of middlemen. As a result of their efforts, the Carroll Public Market was founded on the curbsides of Yamhill Street in downtown Portland. While success encouraged multiple expansions and an increasingly supportive consumer base, a growing commitment to modernist planning among city officials and the spread of automobile ownership determined the market to be incompatible with the commercial future of Portland. In an effort to acknowledge and capitalize on the Carroll Public Market's community, a group of investors, incorporated as the Portland Market Company, worked with city officials between 1926 and 1934 to create the largest public market in the United States, the Portland Public Market. As the first building of the newly constructed waterfront development, many believed the massive institution would reinvigorate nearby businesses and ultimately influence the potential of the downtown business district. The Portland Public Market was decidedly distinct from the market along Yamhill and the promoters cast it as such. By utilizing the most modern technologies and promises of convenience there was little that the two organizations shared in common. In the end, the potential of the waterfront market was never fulfilled and amidst legal scandals, an ongoing struggle to meet operating costs, and the success of a rebellious Farmers Cooperative, it shut down after nine years. This thesis discusses these two public markets during a period of changing consumer interests and the rise of modernist planning in Portland, Oregon. Ultimately, the Carroll Public Market was torn down for reasons beyond its own control despite the comfortable profit it enjoyed each year. Many city officials refused to support the institution as they increasingly supported the values of modernism and urban planning. The Portland Public Market fit perfectly with many city planners' and private investors' intents for the future. This essay seeks to offer a unique glimpse of how commercial communities form and how commercial environments evolve through the politics of food distribution, consumerism, and producer-to-consumer relationships. Close

• 130. [Article] Investigation of Ambient Reactive Nitrogen Emissions Sources and Deposition in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area

  Anthropogenic reactive nitrogen is emitted into the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion (nitrogen oxides) and agricultural activities (nitrogen oxides and ammonia). Nitrogen oxide emissions have long ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Investigation of Ambient Reactive Nitrogen Emissions Sources and Deposition in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area Author: Mainord, Jacinda L. Year: 2017 Anthropogenic reactive nitrogen is emitted into the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion (nitrogen oxides) and agricultural activities (nitrogen oxides and ammonia). Nitrogen oxide emissions have long been controlled for their role in ambient air pollution and human health effects. However, reactive nitrogen deposition is less understood even though it can play a significant role in altering biodiversity, impairing ecosystem and biogeochemical function and degrading cultural artifacts. Although nitrogen deposition is a natural part of biogeochemical cycling, many ecosystems across the United States are at risk of exceeding the critical nitrogen deposition load. While nitrogen oxides are routinely measured in urban areas, far less is known in non-urban landscapes where ecosystems may be especially sensitive. Regional chemical transport models have been used to predict the impacts of ambient reactive nitrogen deposition in non-urban areas, but models have difficulty simulating reactive nitrogen due to poorly quantified emissions, especially from the agricultural sector. My research explores the speciated deposition of reactive nitrogen through monitoring and modeling in the unique field setting of the 150 mile Columbia River Gorge (CRG) located along the border of Oregon and Washington. This site is ideally suited for this investigation due to the large sources of reactive nitrogen at either end of the CRG and unique seasonally driven channel wind flow. Seasonally driven wind allowed us to look at the reactive nitrogen emissions flowing through the CRG to assess ambient the reactive nitrogen partitioning and deposition gradient. Using data collected by the United States Forest Service to control ambient haze in the CRG and our co-located nitrogen oxides (NOx) gas analyzer, we first characterized the influence of seasonal, bimodal wind distributions on the spatial distribution of reactive nitrogen. We found that during winter months with predominantly easterly winds, particulate nitrate and ammonium and gas-phase nitrogen dioxide levels create a gradient from the eastern end to the western end. Particulate nitrate and sulfate mass concentrations influence the CRG gradient during summer months with predominantly western winds. We also found that the magnitude of the impact from east is greater than the magnitude of impact from the west. When we compared our observations to regional chemistry transport models, we found that models are significantly under-predicting levels of reactive nitrogen in the CRG. This bias is not isolated to a single station within the Gorge, but throughout the whole Columbia Basin. Our results indicate that there are under-represented emissions in the region leading to this bias. Partly due to the bias in reactive N gas-phase species in the CRG, regional models have been underestimating the impact of gas-phase reactive N on dry N deposition. We conducted field studies at two sites within the CRG monitoring reactive nitrogen species (nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, nitric acid, particulate nitrate, particulate ammonium, and particulate sulfate) as well as ozone and meteorological parameters. These measurements allowed us to conduct the first comprehensive analysis of reactive nitrogen partitioning and deposition in the CRG. Through our measurements, we found reactive nitrogen was higher in the spring than the summer. We found concentrations ranging from 0-15 ppbv ammonia, 0-7 ppbv nitric acid, 0-2 μg/m3 ammonium nitrate and 0-1 μg/m3 ammonium sulfate at the sites. Through the measurements of all these species, we evaluated the limiting gas-phase precursor to inorganic nitrogen particle formation. In the springtime, ammonia limits the formation of particulate reactive nitrogen; while in the summer, nitric acid and oxidized sulfur limit the formation of inorganic nitrogen particles. This suggests that there may be more sources of ammonia in the spring with fertilizer application or perhaps reactive nitrogen reservoirs are renoxified through thermal dissociation during warmer summer months. Our estimated deposition from gas and particle phase reactive nitrogen ranged from 0 – 0.14 kg N/ha per day. We also found that gas-phase reactive nitrogen plays the largest role in dry N deposition in the CRG with particle-phase contributing less than 15% of total dry N deposition. These results are important for land managers to understand the total impact of reactive nitrogen to non-urban areas. This research can inform mitigation strategies for haze formation, identify the major species and sources involved in dry N deposition and assess the potential impacts to ecosystems and cultural artifacts. Title: Investigation of Ambient Reactive Nitrogen Emissions Sources and Deposition in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area Author: Mainord, Jacinda L. Year: 2017 Anthropogenic reactive nitrogen is emitted into the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion (nitrogen oxides) and agricultural activities (nitrogen oxides and ammonia). Nitrogen oxide emissions have long been controlled for their role in ambient air pollution and human health effects. However, reactive nitrogen deposition is less understood even though it can play a significant role in altering biodiversity, impairing ecosystem and biogeochemical function and degrading cultural artifacts. Although nitrogen deposition is a natural part of biogeochemical cycling, many ecosystems across the United States are at risk of exceeding the critical nitrogen deposition load. While nitrogen oxides are routinely measured in urban areas, far less is known in non-urban landscapes where ecosystems may be especially sensitive. Regional chemical transport models have been used to predict the impacts of ambient reactive nitrogen deposition in non-urban areas, but models have difficulty simulating reactive nitrogen due to poorly quantified emissions, especially from the agricultural sector. My research explores the speciated deposition of reactive nitrogen through monitoring and modeling in the unique field setting of the 150 mile Columbia River Gorge (CRG) located along the border of Oregon and Washington. This site is ideally suited for this investigation due to the large sources of reactive nitrogen at either end of the CRG and unique seasonally driven channel wind flow. Seasonally driven wind allowed us to look at the reactive nitrogen emissions flowing through the CRG to assess ambient the reactive nitrogen partitioning and deposition gradient. Using data collected by the United States Forest Service to control ambient haze in the CRG and our co-located nitrogen oxides (NOx) gas analyzer, we first characterized the influence of seasonal, bimodal wind distributions on the spatial distribution of reactive nitrogen. We found that during winter months with predominantly easterly winds, particulate nitrate and ammonium and gas-phase nitrogen dioxide levels create a gradient from the eastern end to the western end. Particulate nitrate and sulfate mass concentrations influence the CRG gradient during summer months with predominantly western winds. We also found that the magnitude of the impact from east is greater than the magnitude of impact from the west. When we compared our observations to regional chemistry transport models, we found that models are significantly under-predicting levels of reactive nitrogen in the CRG. This bias is not isolated to a single station within the Gorge, but throughout the whole Columbia Basin. Our results indicate that there are under-represented emissions in the region leading to this bias. Partly due to the bias in reactive N gas-phase species in the CRG, regional models have been underestimating the impact of gas-phase reactive N on dry N deposition. We conducted field studies at two sites within the CRG monitoring reactive nitrogen species (nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, nitric acid, particulate nitrate, particulate ammonium, and particulate sulfate) as well as ozone and meteorological parameters. These measurements allowed us to conduct the first comprehensive analysis of reactive nitrogen partitioning and deposition in the CRG. Through our measurements, we found reactive nitrogen was higher in the spring than the summer. We found concentrations ranging from 0-15 ppbv ammonia, 0-7 ppbv nitric acid, 0-2 μg/m3 ammonium nitrate and 0-1 μg/m3 ammonium sulfate at the sites. Through the measurements of all these species, we evaluated the limiting gas-phase precursor to inorganic nitrogen particle formation. In the springtime, ammonia limits the formation of particulate reactive nitrogen; while in the summer, nitric acid and oxidized sulfur limit the formation of inorganic nitrogen particles. This suggests that there may be more sources of ammonia in the spring with fertilizer application or perhaps reactive nitrogen reservoirs are renoxified through thermal dissociation during warmer summer months. Our estimated deposition from gas and particle phase reactive nitrogen ranged from 0 – 0.14 kg N/ha per day. We also found that gas-phase reactive nitrogen plays the largest role in dry N deposition in the CRG with particle-phase contributing less than 15% of total dry N deposition. These results are important for land managers to understand the total impact of reactive nitrogen to non-urban areas. This research can inform mitigation strategies for haze formation, identify the major species and sources involved in dry N deposition and assess the potential impacts to ecosystems and cultural artifacts. Close