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• 11. [Article] Hawaiian Presence at Fort Vancouver National Historic Site

  Fort Vancouver, as the colonial "Capital" of the Pacific Northwest in the 1820s-1840s, supported a multiethnic village of 600-1,000 occupants. A number of the villagers were Hawaiian men who worked in ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hawaiian Presence at Fort Vancouver National Historic Site Author: Wilson, Douglas C. Year: 2012 Fort Vancouver, as the colonial "Capital" of the Pacific Northwest in the 1820s-1840s, supported a multiethnic village of 600-1,000 occupants. A number of the villagers were Hawaiian men who worked in the agricultural fields and sawmills of the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) operations. Identification of Hawaiian residences and activities has been an important element of studies of Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver, Washington, since the 1960s. Kauanui calls for a "broad research agenda that accounts for Hawaiian movements in their respective contexts of conditions, periods, reasons, and desires, to allow us to better account for Hawaiian presence on the North American continent.” Her call is to counter attempts to minimize or alter modern Hawaiian cultural identity and to better define the Hawaiian diaspora history. Research on fur trade Hawaiians dispels the notion that Hawaiian history is limited to Hawaii and allows us to better contextualize the broader issues of fur trade identity and social transition in the Pacific Northwest associated with indigenous, fur trade, and American immigrant eras (e.g., Philips 2008; Klimko 2004). This paper discusses Native Hawaiians at Fort Vancouver, and explores the material evidence of their lives. In it, I raise questions regarding the identity of Hawaiians as revealed in the material culture and documentary record of the Fort Vancouver village. Further, I present the rationale for an expanded exploration of the village to better define the uses of the landscape to augment other ongoing studies of architecture, ceramics, tobacco pipes, glass vessels, and other archeological data. Title: Hawaiian Presence at Fort Vancouver National Historic Site Author: Wilson, Douglas C. Year: 2012 Fort Vancouver, as the colonial "Capital" of the Pacific Northwest in the 1820s-1840s, supported a multiethnic village of 600-1,000 occupants. A number of the villagers were Hawaiian men who worked in the agricultural fields and sawmills of the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) operations. Identification of Hawaiian residences and activities has been an important element of studies of Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, Vancouver, Washington, since the 1960s. Kauanui calls for a "broad research agenda that accounts for Hawaiian movements in their respective contexts of conditions, periods, reasons, and desires, to allow us to better account for Hawaiian presence on the North American continent.” Her call is to counter attempts to minimize or alter modern Hawaiian cultural identity and to better define the Hawaiian diaspora history. Research on fur trade Hawaiians dispels the notion that Hawaiian history is limited to Hawaii and allows us to better contextualize the broader issues of fur trade identity and social transition in the Pacific Northwest associated with indigenous, fur trade, and American immigrant eras (e.g., Philips 2008; Klimko 2004). This paper discusses Native Hawaiians at Fort Vancouver, and explores the material evidence of their lives. In it, I raise questions regarding the identity of Hawaiians as revealed in the material culture and documentary record of the Fort Vancouver village. Further, I present the rationale for an expanded exploration of the village to better define the uses of the landscape to augment other ongoing studies of architecture, ceramics, tobacco pipes, glass vessels, and other archeological data. Close

• 12. [Article] The Pursuit of Commerce: Agricultural Development in Western Oregon, 1825-1861

  This thesis examines how the pursuit of commercial gain affected the development of agriculture in western Oregon's Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River Valleys. The period of study begins when the British ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Pursuit of Commerce: Agricultural Development in Western Oregon, 1825-1861 Author: Smith, Cessna R. Year: 2011 This thesis examines how the pursuit of commercial gain affected the development of agriculture in western Oregon's Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River Valleys. The period of study begins when the British owned Hudson's Bay Company began to farm land in and around Fort Vancouver in 1825, and ends in 1861--during the time when agrarian settlement was beginning to expand east of the Cascade Mountains. Given that agriculture in Oregon, as elsewhere, would eventually reach a standard of national development, and given that most of Oregon's immigrants arrived poor and lacked the farm implements needed for subsistence, the question this study asks is what methods and motivations guided Oregon's first agrarian settlers to improve their industry? It is the central premise of this study that commerce was the sine qua non of agricultural development, and that commercial gain was the incentive that underpinned the improvements necessary to its progress. The question itself necessarily involves physiographical and climatological conditions, existing and potential markets, and a merchant class whose commercial motivations were beyond doubt. Two additional matters that weigh substantially through most of this paper need to be mentioned: First, because not all farmers were commercially-oriented, the focus is on individuals, including merchants, whose entrepreneurial activities contributed the most to agriculture; second, the discovery of gold in California in 1848, and in southern Oregon in the early 1850s, had a huge and lasting influence on Oregon agriculture and on the overall economy. Title: The Pursuit of Commerce: Agricultural Development in Western Oregon, 1825-1861 Author: Smith, Cessna R. Year: 2011 This thesis examines how the pursuit of commercial gain affected the development of agriculture in western Oregon's Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River Valleys. The period of study begins when the British owned Hudson's Bay Company began to farm land in and around Fort Vancouver in 1825, and ends in 1861--during the time when agrarian settlement was beginning to expand east of the Cascade Mountains. Given that agriculture in Oregon, as elsewhere, would eventually reach a standard of national development, and given that most of Oregon's immigrants arrived poor and lacked the farm implements needed for subsistence, the question this study asks is what methods and motivations guided Oregon's first agrarian settlers to improve their industry? It is the central premise of this study that commerce was the sine qua non of agricultural development, and that commercial gain was the incentive that underpinned the improvements necessary to its progress. The question itself necessarily involves physiographical and climatological conditions, existing and potential markets, and a merchant class whose commercial motivations were beyond doubt. Two additional matters that weigh substantially through most of this paper need to be mentioned: First, because not all farmers were commercially-oriented, the focus is on individuals, including merchants, whose entrepreneurial activities contributed the most to agriculture; second, the discovery of gold in California in 1848, and in southern Oregon in the early 1850s, had a huge and lasting influence on Oregon agriculture and on the overall economy. Close

• 13. [Article] Rebuilding the Architectural History of the Fort Vancouver Village

  In the mid-19th century, the Fort Vancouver employee Village was one of the most diverse settlements on the Pacific Coast. Trappers, tradesmen, and laborers from Europe, North America, and Hawaii worked ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Rebuilding the Architectural History of the Fort Vancouver Village Author: Mullaley, Meredith J. Year: 2011 In the mid-19th century, the Fort Vancouver employee Village was one of the most diverse settlements on the Pacific Coast. Trappers, tradesmen, and laborers from Europe, North America, and Hawaii worked and lived within a highly stratified colonial social structure. Their homes have been the site of archaeological research for nearly 50 years, but the architectural features and artifacts have received limited attention. Inspired by an 1845 description of the Village that described houses that were "as various in form" as their occupants (Hussey 1957:218), this study examined community-level social relationships in this 19th-century fur trade community through vernacular architecture and landscape. This thesis presents the life histories and layouts of five Village houses. The architectural analysis relied on data from features, square nails, window glass, and bricks. The resulting architectural interpretations were synthesized to explore the larger vernacular landscape of the Village and investigate whether the house styles reflect processes of creolization and community development, or distinction and segregation among the Village residents. The houses all stem from a common French-Canadian architectural tradition, built by the first employees at Fort Vancouver, but the life histories also revealed that the houses were occupied (and repaired) by a second wave of employees at some time during the 1840s. A reminder that Village houses deposits may reflect multiple owners, and should not be conceptualized as the result of a single household. Finally, this thesis demonstrates that nuanced architectural data that can yet be learned from past excavation assemblages when the many nails, bricks, and window glass specimens are reanalyzed using current methods. Title: Rebuilding the Architectural History of the Fort Vancouver Village Author: Mullaley, Meredith J. Year: 2011 In the mid-19th century, the Fort Vancouver employee Village was one of the most diverse settlements on the Pacific Coast. Trappers, tradesmen, and laborers from Europe, North America, and Hawaii worked and lived within a highly stratified colonial social structure. Their homes have been the site of archaeological research for nearly 50 years, but the architectural features and artifacts have received limited attention. Inspired by an 1845 description of the Village that described houses that were "as various in form" as their occupants (Hussey 1957:218), this study examined community-level social relationships in this 19th-century fur trade community through vernacular architecture and landscape. This thesis presents the life histories and layouts of five Village houses. The architectural analysis relied on data from features, square nails, window glass, and bricks. The resulting architectural interpretations were synthesized to explore the larger vernacular landscape of the Village and investigate whether the house styles reflect processes of creolization and community development, or distinction and segregation among the Village residents. The houses all stem from a common French-Canadian architectural tradition, built by the first employees at Fort Vancouver, but the life histories also revealed that the houses were occupied (and repaired) by a second wave of employees at some time during the 1840s. A reminder that Village houses deposits may reflect multiple owners, and should not be conceptualized as the result of a single household. Finally, this thesis demonstrates that nuanced architectural data that can yet be learned from past excavation assemblages when the many nails, bricks, and window glass specimens are reanalyzed using current methods. Close

• 14. [Article] An Archaeology of Capitalism: Exploring Ideology through Ceramics from the Fort Vancouver and Village Sites

  The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), a mercantile venture that was founded by royal charter in 1670, conceived, constructed and ran Fort Vancouver as its economic center in the Pacific Northwest, a colonial ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An Archaeology of Capitalism: Exploring Ideology through Ceramics from the Fort Vancouver and Village Sites Author: Holschuh, Dana Lynn Year: 2013 The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), a mercantile venture that was founded by royal charter in 1670, conceived, constructed and ran Fort Vancouver as its economic center in the Pacific Northwest, a colonial outpost at the edge of the company's holdings in North America. Research into the history of the HBC revealed that the company was motivated by mercantile interests, and that Fort Vancouver operated under feudal land policies while steadily adopting a hierarchical structure. Following the work of Marxist archaeologist Mark Leone whose work in Annapolis, Maryland explored the effects of capitalist ideology on archaeological assemblages of ceramics, this study sought to locate the material signatures of ideologies in the ceramic assemblages recovered from the Fort and its adjacent multi-ethnic Village sites. In Annapolis, matching sets of ceramics were used as a material indicator of the successful penetration of capitalist ideals of segmentation, division and standardization that accompanied the carefully cultivated ideology of individualism, into working class households. Following this model, this study analyzed six assemblages for the presence of matched sets of ceramic tablewares using the diversity measures of richness and evenness. The results of this analysis for five assemblages from households in the Village were then compared to those expected for a model assemblage that was inferred to represent the ultimate model of participation in and dissemination of the same ideals of segmentation and division: that recovered from the Chief Factor's House within the fort. Documentary research confirmed that ideology was used to indoctrinate workers into the unique relations of production at Fort Vancouver however it was an ideology of paternal allegiance to the company rather than one of possessive individualism, as in Annapolis. At Fort Vancouver the notion of individuality was subtly downplayed in favor of one that addressed the company's responsibility to its workers and encouraged them to view its hierarchy, which was reinforced spatially, socially and economically, as natural. Analysis of the archaeological assemblages revealed that it is unlikely that the Village assemblages are comprised of complete sets of matching ceramicwares. The lack of these sets is likely the result of the multivalent nature of the economic system at the fort and its distinct ideology of paternalism, as well as the diverse backgrounds and outlooks of the Village occupants themselves, who appear to have purchased and used these European ceramics in unique ways. Title: An Archaeology of Capitalism: Exploring Ideology through Ceramics from the Fort Vancouver and Village Sites Author: Holschuh, Dana Lynn Year: 2013 The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), a mercantile venture that was founded by royal charter in 1670, conceived, constructed and ran Fort Vancouver as its economic center in the Pacific Northwest, a colonial outpost at the edge of the company's holdings in North America. Research into the history of the HBC revealed that the company was motivated by mercantile interests, and that Fort Vancouver operated under feudal land policies while steadily adopting a hierarchical structure. Following the work of Marxist archaeologist Mark Leone whose work in Annapolis, Maryland explored the effects of capitalist ideology on archaeological assemblages of ceramics, this study sought to locate the material signatures of ideologies in the ceramic assemblages recovered from the Fort and its adjacent multi-ethnic Village sites. In Annapolis, matching sets of ceramics were used as a material indicator of the successful penetration of capitalist ideals of segmentation, division and standardization that accompanied the carefully cultivated ideology of individualism, into working class households. Following this model, this study analyzed six assemblages for the presence of matched sets of ceramic tablewares using the diversity measures of richness and evenness. The results of this analysis for five assemblages from households in the Village were then compared to those expected for a model assemblage that was inferred to represent the ultimate model of participation in and dissemination of the same ideals of segmentation and division: that recovered from the Chief Factor's House within the fort. Documentary research confirmed that ideology was used to indoctrinate workers into the unique relations of production at Fort Vancouver however it was an ideology of paternal allegiance to the company rather than one of possessive individualism, as in Annapolis. At Fort Vancouver the notion of individuality was subtly downplayed in favor of one that addressed the company's responsibility to its workers and encouraged them to view its hierarchy, which was reinforced spatially, socially and economically, as natural. Analysis of the archaeological assemblages revealed that it is unlikely that the Village assemblages are comprised of complete sets of matching ceramicwares. The lack of these sets is likely the result of the multivalent nature of the economic system at the fort and its distinct ideology of paternalism, as well as the diverse backgrounds and outlooks of the Village occupants themselves, who appear to have purchased and used these European ceramics in unique ways. Close

• 15. [Article] Patterns from the past : exploring gender and ethnicity through historical archaeology among fur trade families in the Willamette Valley of Oregon

  This thesis examines archaeological material in order to explore gender and ethnicity issues concerning fur trade era families from a settlement in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. Ethnohistorical information ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Patterns from the past : exploring gender and ethnicity through historical archaeology among fur trade families in the Willamette Valley of Oregon Author: McAleer, Carolyn Patricia This thesis examines archaeological material in order to explore gender and ethnicity issues concerning fur trade era families from a settlement in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. Ethnohistorical information consisting of traders journals and travelers observations, as well as documentation from the Hudson's Bay Company, Catholic church records, and genealogical information helped support and guide this research. By using historical information as well as archaeological material, this research attempted to interpret possible ethnic markers and gender relationships between husbands and wives among five fur trade era families. Families of mixed ethnicity, including French Canadian, Native, Metis and American, settled the valley after 1828 bringing with them objects and activities characteristic of their way of life. Retired fur trade trappers, of French Canadian and American decent, married either Metis or Native women. Of 53 identified families, four French Canadian/Native families have been chosen for this project, as well as one American settler, and his Native wife. Little is known about how these women interacted within their families or whether they maintained certain characteristics of their Native culture. It was hoped that these unique cultural dynamics might become evident through an analysis of the ceramic assemblages from these sites. Due to the extensive nature of the archaeological collections, and time constraints related to this thesis, only ceramics have been examined. Information concerning the cultural characteristics of these Native cultures was included along with family biographical information and a history of the fur trade culture. This background information was then examined in reference to the ceramic analysis. All data associated with ceramic characteristics was placed into an Excel file. The information was processed using frequency charts, and examined for the presence and/or absence of certain ceramics, specifically looking at variations in color and pattern. These data were then compared to information compiled by Judith Sanders Chapman (1993) in regards to the Harriet D. Munnick Archaeological Collection, another French Prairie ceramic collection. This analysis identified few differences in pattern and color specifically among transfer-printed ceramics, however, other types of ceramics were analyzed. No ethnic markers were identifiable when the historical material was examined against the ceramic analysis, suggesting that perhaps these Native and Metis women did not make consumer choices based on ethnicity, or that their ethnicity or cultural affiliations were incorrectly established. There was also insufficient evidence supporting the hypothesis that these women actually made consumer purchases at all or even traded for ceramics. However, this study does contribute to the sparse body of knowledge that we have on French Prairie and the family and cultural dynamics that guided this group of settlers. It also suggests that any future study concerning ethnicity or tribal affiliation, may be difficult due to the multi-cultural atmosphere of the period. Title: Patterns from the past : exploring gender and ethnicity through historical archaeology among fur trade families in the Willamette Valley of Oregon Author: McAleer, Carolyn Patricia This thesis examines archaeological material in order to explore gender and ethnicity issues concerning fur trade era families from a settlement in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. Ethnohistorical information consisting of traders journals and travelers observations, as well as documentation from the Hudson's Bay Company, Catholic church records, and genealogical information helped support and guide this research. By using historical information as well as archaeological material, this research attempted to interpret possible ethnic markers and gender relationships between husbands and wives among five fur trade era families. Families of mixed ethnicity, including French Canadian, Native, Metis and American, settled the valley after 1828 bringing with them objects and activities characteristic of their way of life. Retired fur trade trappers, of French Canadian and American decent, married either Metis or Native women. Of 53 identified families, four French Canadian/Native families have been chosen for this project, as well as one American settler, and his Native wife. Little is known about how these women interacted within their families or whether they maintained certain characteristics of their Native culture. It was hoped that these unique cultural dynamics might become evident through an analysis of the ceramic assemblages from these sites. Due to the extensive nature of the archaeological collections, and time constraints related to this thesis, only ceramics have been examined. Information concerning the cultural characteristics of these Native cultures was included along with family biographical information and a history of the fur trade culture. This background information was then examined in reference to the ceramic analysis. All data associated with ceramic characteristics was placed into an Excel file. The information was processed using frequency charts, and examined for the presence and/or absence of certain ceramics, specifically looking at variations in color and pattern. These data were then compared to information compiled by Judith Sanders Chapman (1993) in regards to the Harriet D. Munnick Archaeological Collection, another French Prairie ceramic collection. This analysis identified few differences in pattern and color specifically among transfer-printed ceramics, however, other types of ceramics were analyzed. No ethnic markers were identifiable when the historical material was examined against the ceramic analysis, suggesting that perhaps these Native and Metis women did not make consumer choices based on ethnicity, or that their ethnicity or cultural affiliations were incorrectly established. There was also insufficient evidence supporting the hypothesis that these women actually made consumer purchases at all or even traded for ceramics. However, this study does contribute to the sparse body of knowledge that we have on French Prairie and the family and cultural dynamics that guided this group of settlers. It also suggests that any future study concerning ethnicity or tribal affiliation, may be difficult due to the multi-cultural atmosphere of the period. Close

• 16. [Article] Willamette Mission archeological project : phase III assessment

  The Willamette Mission archeological project consists of a broad program of cultural research in the fields of archeology, history, and architecture. The study focuses on the first Methodist mission in ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Willamette Mission archeological project : phase III assessment Author: Chapman, Judith Sanders The Willamette Mission archeological project consists of a broad program of cultural research in the fields of archeology, history, and architecture. The study focuses on the first Methodist mission in the Pacific Northwest. Archeological excavations were conducted in 1980 to locate the site of the mission, to assess the site's internal integrity, and to analyze the material content remaining from the 1830s occupation. Historical documentation provided the archeologists with necessary information on the general location, spatial living pattern, time frame and material culture of the mission occupants. Archeological data provided additional information on the location and spatial arrangement of the mission complex; the date range and the form and function of recovered artifacts; a behavioral concept of mission lifestyle; and the processes of abandonment of the mission complex in the historic period. The role of the mission enterprise within the general context of Oregon development is explored. The founders of the mission colony were not intent on accomplishing their task of "civilizing" the local Native American population in a brief visit. The missionaries brought to the Oregon country their families, personal possessions, furnishings, goods, equipment, and construction materials. They built shelters, farmed, operated a mercantile business, taught school, held services, and performed essential mechanical duties. The geographic isolation of the mission, and the missionaries response to the new environment, are reflected in the archeological record. The architectural plan and featuring of the mission house points to a use of traditional log shelter construction techniques. These techniques involved the incorporation of native construction fabric with cottage made or imported joining materials. An inadequate response to the environment is evidenced by the erection of the mission house on a Willamette River floodplain. This error in reasoning as well as visions of expansion triggered a move from the complex to present Salem after a seven-year occupation. The materials items recovered from the site reflect a material culture brought to the new country from the United States. An independency from the British Hudson Bay Company is inferred. A contradiction between the hardships of remote log cabin living and stringent missionary duties, and the retainment of New England social attitudes and customs is evident. Important to areal archeological research and settlement studies are the implications behind the presence of the American missionaries and their goods in the Willamette Valley. Enlightened information on goods available during the Northwest frontier period can be useful in deciphering early trade networks, and avenues of cultural exchange and influence. The missionaries' inducement toward the promotion of American jurisdiction and settlement in the Oregon country was significant. The success of the missionaries as colonizers cannot be overstated considering the impact of the colony on the course of political, spiritual, social and economic development of the region. Title: Willamette Mission archeological project : phase III assessment Author: Chapman, Judith Sanders The Willamette Mission archeological project consists of a broad program of cultural research in the fields of archeology, history, and architecture. The study focuses on the first Methodist mission in the Pacific Northwest. Archeological excavations were conducted in 1980 to locate the site of the mission, to assess the site's internal integrity, and to analyze the material content remaining from the 1830s occupation. Historical documentation provided the archeologists with necessary information on the general location, spatial living pattern, time frame and material culture of the mission occupants. Archeological data provided additional information on the location and spatial arrangement of the mission complex; the date range and the form and function of recovered artifacts; a behavioral concept of mission lifestyle; and the processes of abandonment of the mission complex in the historic period. The role of the mission enterprise within the general context of Oregon development is explored. The founders of the mission colony were not intent on accomplishing their task of "civilizing" the local Native American population in a brief visit. The missionaries brought to the Oregon country their families, personal possessions, furnishings, goods, equipment, and construction materials. They built shelters, farmed, operated a mercantile business, taught school, held services, and performed essential mechanical duties. The geographic isolation of the mission, and the missionaries response to the new environment, are reflected in the archeological record. The architectural plan and featuring of the mission house points to a use of traditional log shelter construction techniques. These techniques involved the incorporation of native construction fabric with cottage made or imported joining materials. An inadequate response to the environment is evidenced by the erection of the mission house on a Willamette River floodplain. This error in reasoning as well as visions of expansion triggered a move from the complex to present Salem after a seven-year occupation. The materials items recovered from the site reflect a material culture brought to the new country from the United States. An independency from the British Hudson Bay Company is inferred. A contradiction between the hardships of remote log cabin living and stringent missionary duties, and the retainment of New England social attitudes and customs is evident. Important to areal archeological research and settlement studies are the implications behind the presence of the American missionaries and their goods in the Willamette Valley. Enlightened information on goods available during the Northwest frontier period can be useful in deciphering early trade networks, and avenues of cultural exchange and influence. The missionaries' inducement toward the promotion of American jurisdiction and settlement in the Oregon country was significant. The success of the missionaries as colonizers cannot be overstated considering the impact of the colony on the course of political, spiritual, social and economic development of the region. Close

• 17. [Article] Willamette Mission archeological project : phase III assessment

  The Willamette Mission archeological project consists of a broad program of cultural research in the fields of archeology, history, and architecture. The study focuses on the first Methodist mission in ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Willamette Mission archeological project : phase III assessment Author: Weber, Mary K. (Mary Kathryn) The Willamette Mission archeological project consists of a broad program of cultural research in the fields of archeology, history, and architecture. The study focuses on the first Methodist mission in the Pacific Northwest. Archeological excavations were conducted in 1980 to locate the site of the mission, to assess the site's internal integrity, and to analyze the material content remaining from the 1830s occupation. Historical documentation provided the archeologists with necessary information on the general location, spatial living pattern, time frame and material culture of the mission occupants. Archeological data provided additional information on the location and spatial arrangement of the mission complex; the date range and the form and function of recovered artifacts; a behavioral concept of mission lifestyle; and the processes of abandonment of the mission complex in the historic period. The role of the mission enterprise within the general context of Oregon development is explored. The founders of the mission colony were not intent on accomplishing their task of "civilizing" the local Native American population in a brief visit. The missionaries brought to the Oregon country their families, personal possessions, furnishings, goods, equipment, and construction materials. They built shelters, farmed, operated a mercantile business, taught school, held services, and performed essential mechanical duties. The geographic isolation of the mission, and the missionaries response to the new environment, are reflected in the archeological record. The architectural plan and featuring of the mission house points to a use of traditional log shelter construction techniques. These techniques involved the incorporation of native construction fabric with cottage made or imported joining materials. An inadequate response to the environment is evidenced by the erection of the mission house on a Willamette River floodplain. This error in reasoning as well as visions of expansion triggered a move from the complex to present Salem after a seven-year occupation. The materials items recovered from the site reflect a material culture brought to the new country from the United States. An independency from the British Hudson Bay Company is inferred. A contradiction between the hardships of remote log cabin living and stringent missionary duties, and the retainment of New England social attitudes and customs is evident. Important to areal archeological research and settlement studies are the implications behind the presence of the American missionaries and their goods in the Willamette Valley. Enlightened information on goods available during the Northwest frontier period can be useful in deciphering early trade networks, and avenues of cultural exchange and influence. The missionaries' inducement toward the promotion of American jurisdiction and settlement in the Oregon country was significant. The success of the missionaries as colonizers cannot be overstated considering the impact of the colony on the course of political, spiritual, social and economic development of the region. Title: Willamette Mission archeological project : phase III assessment Author: Weber, Mary K. (Mary Kathryn) The Willamette Mission archeological project consists of a broad program of cultural research in the fields of archeology, history, and architecture. The study focuses on the first Methodist mission in the Pacific Northwest. Archeological excavations were conducted in 1980 to locate the site of the mission, to assess the site's internal integrity, and to analyze the material content remaining from the 1830s occupation. Historical documentation provided the archeologists with necessary information on the general location, spatial living pattern, time frame and material culture of the mission occupants. Archeological data provided additional information on the location and spatial arrangement of the mission complex; the date range and the form and function of recovered artifacts; a behavioral concept of mission lifestyle; and the processes of abandonment of the mission complex in the historic period. The role of the mission enterprise within the general context of Oregon development is explored. The founders of the mission colony were not intent on accomplishing their task of "civilizing" the local Native American population in a brief visit. The missionaries brought to the Oregon country their families, personal possessions, furnishings, goods, equipment, and construction materials. They built shelters, farmed, operated a mercantile business, taught school, held services, and performed essential mechanical duties. The geographic isolation of the mission, and the missionaries response to the new environment, are reflected in the archeological record. The architectural plan and featuring of the mission house points to a use of traditional log shelter construction techniques. These techniques involved the incorporation of native construction fabric with cottage made or imported joining materials. An inadequate response to the environment is evidenced by the erection of the mission house on a Willamette River floodplain. This error in reasoning as well as visions of expansion triggered a move from the complex to present Salem after a seven-year occupation. The materials items recovered from the site reflect a material culture brought to the new country from the United States. An independency from the British Hudson Bay Company is inferred. A contradiction between the hardships of remote log cabin living and stringent missionary duties, and the retainment of New England social attitudes and customs is evident. Important to areal archeological research and settlement studies are the implications behind the presence of the American missionaries and their goods in the Willamette Valley. Enlightened information on goods available during the Northwest frontier period can be useful in deciphering early trade networks, and avenues of cultural exchange and influence. The missionaries' inducement toward the promotion of American jurisdiction and settlement in the Oregon country was significant. The success of the missionaries as colonizers cannot be overstated considering the impact of the colony on the course of political, spiritual, social and economic development of the region. Close

• 18. [Article] Indians and Criminal Justice in Early Oregon, 1842-1859

  Indian-white relations in early Oregon are often viewed in terms of warfare and treatymaking, but these are only the most obvious aspects of a larger struggle to resolve cultural conflicts, settle land ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Indians and Criminal Justice in Early Oregon, 1842-1859 Author: Ferrell, John Samuel Year: 1973 Indian-white relations in early Oregon are often viewed in terms of warfare and treatymaking, but these are only the most obvious aspects of a larger struggle to resolve cultural conflicts, settle land disputes, and establish order in a new territory. Additional understanding of both white attitudes toward Indians and of Indian exasperation with the settlers may be gained from a study of how criminal justice applied to the red man during the turbulent pre-reservation era. Prior to the coming of America settlers, Oregon Indians knew the justice of the Hudson's Bay Company. In dealing with personas accused of harming HBC personnel or property, Dr. John McLoughlin acted with firmness and persistence while taking cognizance of the Indian's own ideas of just treatment, The American leaders of later years sometimes imitated McLoughlin's firmness but failed to recognize the importance of Indian tradition. Dr. Elijah White, after bring appointed the first U.S. Indian agent for Oregon in 1842, presented the natives with a law code which largely ignored their own traditions and confused them by making major offenses of what had formerly been viewed as minor infractions. Dr. White assured his charges that the new law code came from God and was recognized by all civilized nations. A similar smugness was apparent in later leaders who were convinced that the court proceedings against Indian troublemakers could not help but make a deep and beneficial impression on the defendants' fellow tribesman. Such assurance sometimes blinded the whites to inequities in their application of justice to Indian-white disputes and this blindness contributed to friction between the races. Criminal justice for Indians was a more complex matter during Oregon's territorial period than it had been during the HBC era. To the Indians, the British had been trading partners, but the Americans were dispossessors. A sizable influx of settlers preceded the signing of the Indian treaties, and the presence of two divergent cultures on the same disputed ground made necessary some means of dealing with the disagreements which inevitably arose. But civil officials, army officers, judges, and Indian agents were still working out their respective spheres of influence while new settlers might be many miles away from any hands. The belief expressed by leading figures in the army and the Indian Bureau that whites were to blame for outbreaks of violence did not encourage irate settlers or miners to rely on these agencies to settle disputes with Indians, and citizens' courts, minors' committees, or indiscriminate reprisals were often only forms of "justice" employed. Indians noted the infrequencies of prosecution for whites who committed crimes against them and complained that the whites had one set of laws for themselves and another for the red man, Adverse public opinion worked against the efforts of Indian superintendent Joel Palmer to correct this grievance, and lawyers sometimes questioned whether Indian were, in fact, "persons" or whether their mistreatment could constitute a crime. Even Dick Johnson, a successful Indian farmer who abandoned his native culture and won the support of Palmer and of Jesse Applegate in his efforts to model his life on white men's ideals, had so little legal identity that his suspected murderers were not tried and one of them was allowed to take his farm. Segregation of land and of peoples was the distraction in which both the law and public opinion pointed in Oregon Territory. Consciously and unconsciously, whites encouraged Indians to accept a reservation solution to the problems generated by land-hunger and culture clash, and among these problems legal discrimination and vigilante justice figured prominently. Hatred of the Indians among many of the settlers contributed substantially to distortion and non-application of criminal justice, but even with favorable public opinion, as in the case of Dick Johnson, the law itself was insufficient for an Indian who did not remove himself from white society and accept the treaty protections of the reservation. Title: Indians and Criminal Justice in Early Oregon, 1842-1859 Author: Ferrell, John Samuel Year: 1973 Indian-white relations in early Oregon are often viewed in terms of warfare and treatymaking, but these are only the most obvious aspects of a larger struggle to resolve cultural conflicts, settle land disputes, and establish order in a new territory. Additional understanding of both white attitudes toward Indians and of Indian exasperation with the settlers may be gained from a study of how criminal justice applied to the red man during the turbulent pre-reservation era. Prior to the coming of America settlers, Oregon Indians knew the justice of the Hudson's Bay Company. In dealing with personas accused of harming HBC personnel or property, Dr. John McLoughlin acted with firmness and persistence while taking cognizance of the Indian's own ideas of just treatment, The American leaders of later years sometimes imitated McLoughlin's firmness but failed to recognize the importance of Indian tradition. Dr. Elijah White, after bring appointed the first U.S. Indian agent for Oregon in 1842, presented the natives with a law code which largely ignored their own traditions and confused them by making major offenses of what had formerly been viewed as minor infractions. Dr. White assured his charges that the new law code came from God and was recognized by all civilized nations. A similar smugness was apparent in later leaders who were convinced that the court proceedings against Indian troublemakers could not help but make a deep and beneficial impression on the defendants' fellow tribesman. Such assurance sometimes blinded the whites to inequities in their application of justice to Indian-white disputes and this blindness contributed to friction between the races. Criminal justice for Indians was a more complex matter during Oregon's territorial period than it had been during the HBC era. To the Indians, the British had been trading partners, but the Americans were dispossessors. A sizable influx of settlers preceded the signing of the Indian treaties, and the presence of two divergent cultures on the same disputed ground made necessary some means of dealing with the disagreements which inevitably arose. But civil officials, army officers, judges, and Indian agents were still working out their respective spheres of influence while new settlers might be many miles away from any hands. The belief expressed by leading figures in the army and the Indian Bureau that whites were to blame for outbreaks of violence did not encourage irate settlers or miners to rely on these agencies to settle disputes with Indians, and citizens' courts, minors' committees, or indiscriminate reprisals were often only forms of "justice" employed. Indians noted the infrequencies of prosecution for whites who committed crimes against them and complained that the whites had one set of laws for themselves and another for the red man, Adverse public opinion worked against the efforts of Indian superintendent Joel Palmer to correct this grievance, and lawyers sometimes questioned whether Indian were, in fact, "persons" or whether their mistreatment could constitute a crime. Even Dick Johnson, a successful Indian farmer who abandoned his native culture and won the support of Palmer and of Jesse Applegate in his efforts to model his life on white men's ideals, had so little legal identity that his suspected murderers were not tried and one of them was allowed to take his farm. Segregation of land and of peoples was the distraction in which both the law and public opinion pointed in Oregon Territory. Consciously and unconsciously, whites encouraged Indians to accept a reservation solution to the problems generated by land-hunger and culture clash, and among these problems legal discrimination and vigilante justice figured prominently. Hatred of the Indians among many of the settlers contributed substantially to distortion and non-application of criminal justice, but even with favorable public opinion, as in the case of Dick Johnson, the law itself was insufficient for an Indian who did not remove himself from white society and accept the treaty protections of the reservation. Close

• 19. [Article] Exploring Colonization and Ethnogenesis through an Analysis of the Flaked Glass Tools of the Lower Columbia Chinookans and Fur Traders

  At the end of the 18th century, Anglo Americans and Europeans entered the mouth of the Columbia River for the first time. There they encountered large villages of Chinookan and other Native Americans. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Exploring Colonization and Ethnogenesis through an Analysis of the Flaked Glass Tools of the Lower Columbia Chinookans and Fur Traders Author: Simmons, Stephanie Catherine Year: 2014 At the end of the 18th century, Anglo Americans and Europeans entered the mouth of the Columbia River for the first time. There they encountered large villages of Chinookan and other Native Americans. Soon afterwards, the Chinookan People became involved in the global fur trade. Pelts, supplies, and native made goods were exchanged with fur traders, who in return provided Chinookans with a number of trade goods. Over the next 40 years, life changed greatly for the Chinookans; new trade and political alliances were created, foreign goods were introduced, and diseases killed large portions of the population (Hajda 1984; Gibson 1992; Schwantes 1996; Boyd 2011; Boyd et al. 2013). Additionally, fur trade forts, like the Hudson's Bay Company's (HBC) Fort Vancouver, were established. At these forts, new multiethnic communities were created to support the fur trade economy (Hussey 1957; Kardas 1971; Warner and Munnik 1972; Erigero 1992; Burley 1997; Mackie 1997; Wilson 2010). This thesis is an historical archaeological study of how Chinookan peoples at three villages and employees of the later multicultural Village at Fort Vancouver negotiated the processes of contact and colonization. Placed in the theoretical framework of practice theory, everyday ordinary activities are studied to understand how cultural identities are created, reinforced, and changed (Lightfoot et al. 1998; Martindale 2009; Voss 2008). Additionally uneven power relationships are examined, in this case between the colonizer and the colonized, which could lead to subjugation but also resistance (Silliman 2001). In order to investigate these issues, this thesis studies how the new foreign material of vessel glass was and was not used during the everyday practice of tool production. Archaeological studies have found that vessel glass, which has physical properties similar to obsidian, was used to create a variety of tool forms by cultures worldwide (Conte and Romero 2008). Modified glass studies (Harrison 2003; Martindale and Jurakic 2006) have demonstrated that they can contribute important new insights into how cultures negotiated colonization. In this study, modified glass tools from three contact period Chinookan sites: Cathlapotle, Meier, and Middle Village, and the later multiethnic Employee Village of Fort Vancouver were examined. Glass tool and debitage analysis based on lithic macroscopic analytical techniques was used to determine manufacturing techniques, tool types, and functions. Additionally, these data were compared to previous analyses of lithics and trade goods at the study sites. This thesis demonstrates that Chinookans modified glass into tools, though there was variation in the degree to which glass was modified and the types of tools that were produced between sites. Some of these differences are probably related to availability, how glass was conceptualized by Native Peoples, or other unidentified causes. This study suggests that in some ways glass was just another raw material, similar to stone, that was used to create tools that mirrored the existing lithic technology. However at Cathlapotle at least, glass appears to have been relatively scarce and perhaps valued even as a status item. While at Middle Village, glass (as opposed to stone) was being used about a third of the time to produce tools. Glass tool technology at Cathlapotle, Meier, and Middle Village was very similar to the existing stone tool technology dominated by expedient/low energy tools; however, novel new bottle abraders do appear at Middle Village. This multifaceted response reflects how some traditional lifeways continued, while at the same time new materials and technology was recontextualized in ways that made sense to Chinookan peoples. Glass tools increase at the Fort Vancouver Employee Village rather than decrease through time. This response appears to be a type of resistance to the HBC's economic hegemony and rigid social structure. Though it is impossible to know if such resistance was consciously acted on or was just part of everyday activities that made sense in the economic climate of the time. Overall, this thesis demonstrates how a mundane object such as vessel glass, can provide a wealth of information about how groups like the Chinookans dealt with a changing world, and how the multiethnic community at Fort Vancouver dealt with the hegemony of the HBC. Chinookan peoples and the later inhabitants of the Fort Vancouver Employee Village responded to colonization in ways that made sense to their larger cultural system. These responses led to both continuity and change across time. Title: Exploring Colonization and Ethnogenesis through an Analysis of the Flaked Glass Tools of the Lower Columbia Chinookans and Fur Traders Author: Simmons, Stephanie Catherine Year: 2014 At the end of the 18th century, Anglo Americans and Europeans entered the mouth of the Columbia River for the first time. There they encountered large villages of Chinookan and other Native Americans. Soon afterwards, the Chinookan People became involved in the global fur trade. Pelts, supplies, and native made goods were exchanged with fur traders, who in return provided Chinookans with a number of trade goods. Over the next 40 years, life changed greatly for the Chinookans; new trade and political alliances were created, foreign goods were introduced, and diseases killed large portions of the population (Hajda 1984; Gibson 1992; Schwantes 1996; Boyd 2011; Boyd et al. 2013). Additionally, fur trade forts, like the Hudson's Bay Company's (HBC) Fort Vancouver, were established. At these forts, new multiethnic communities were created to support the fur trade economy (Hussey 1957; Kardas 1971; Warner and Munnik 1972; Erigero 1992; Burley 1997; Mackie 1997; Wilson 2010). This thesis is an historical archaeological study of how Chinookan peoples at three villages and employees of the later multicultural Village at Fort Vancouver negotiated the processes of contact and colonization. Placed in the theoretical framework of practice theory, everyday ordinary activities are studied to understand how cultural identities are created, reinforced, and changed (Lightfoot et al. 1998; Martindale 2009; Voss 2008). Additionally uneven power relationships are examined, in this case between the colonizer and the colonized, which could lead to subjugation but also resistance (Silliman 2001). In order to investigate these issues, this thesis studies how the new foreign material of vessel glass was and was not used during the everyday practice of tool production. Archaeological studies have found that vessel glass, which has physical properties similar to obsidian, was used to create a variety of tool forms by cultures worldwide (Conte and Romero 2008). Modified glass studies (Harrison 2003; Martindale and Jurakic 2006) have demonstrated that they can contribute important new insights into how cultures negotiated colonization. In this study, modified glass tools from three contact period Chinookan sites: Cathlapotle, Meier, and Middle Village, and the later multiethnic Employee Village of Fort Vancouver were examined. Glass tool and debitage analysis based on lithic macroscopic analytical techniques was used to determine manufacturing techniques, tool types, and functions. Additionally, these data were compared to previous analyses of lithics and trade goods at the study sites. This thesis demonstrates that Chinookans modified glass into tools, though there was variation in the degree to which glass was modified and the types of tools that were produced between sites. Some of these differences are probably related to availability, how glass was conceptualized by Native Peoples, or other unidentified causes. This study suggests that in some ways glass was just another raw material, similar to stone, that was used to create tools that mirrored the existing lithic technology. However at Cathlapotle at least, glass appears to have been relatively scarce and perhaps valued even as a status item. While at Middle Village, glass (as opposed to stone) was being used about a third of the time to produce tools. Glass tool technology at Cathlapotle, Meier, and Middle Village was very similar to the existing stone tool technology dominated by expedient/low energy tools; however, novel new bottle abraders do appear at Middle Village. This multifaceted response reflects how some traditional lifeways continued, while at the same time new materials and technology was recontextualized in ways that made sense to Chinookan peoples. Glass tools increase at the Fort Vancouver Employee Village rather than decrease through time. This response appears to be a type of resistance to the HBC's economic hegemony and rigid social structure. Though it is impossible to know if such resistance was consciously acted on or was just part of everyday activities that made sense in the economic climate of the time. Overall, this thesis demonstrates how a mundane object such as vessel glass, can provide a wealth of information about how groups like the Chinookans dealt with a changing world, and how the multiethnic community at Fort Vancouver dealt with the hegemony of the HBC. Chinookan peoples and the later inhabitants of the Fort Vancouver Employee Village responded to colonization in ways that made sense to their larger cultural system. These responses led to both continuity and change across time. Close

• 20. [Article] Calcium carbonate saturation states in the waters of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the Labrador Sea

  Ocean acidification is predicted to occur first in polar oceans. We investigated the saturation state of waters with respect to calcite (Wcal) and aragonite (Warg) in six sections along an Arctic outflow ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Calcium carbonate saturation states in the waters of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the Labrador Sea Author: Petrie, Biran, Azetsu-Scott, Kumiko, Starr, Michel, Hamilton, James, Falkner, Kelly, Prinsenberg, Simon, Lee, Craig, Yeats, Philip, Clarke, Allyn, Jones, E. Peter Ocean acidification is predicted to occur first in polar oceans. We investigated the saturation state of waters with respect to calcite (Wcal) and aragonite (Warg) in six sections along an Arctic outflow pathway through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) and into the northwestern Atlantic using dissolved inorganic carbon and total alkalinity measurements from 2003 to 2005. The study area, a key region connecting the Arctic and the North Atlantic, includes Smith Sound, Barrow Strait, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Hudson Strait, and the Labrador Sea. The average Warg in the Arctic outflow was 1.18 ± 0.17 in Barrow Strait and 1.31 ± 0.14 in Smith Sound, with areas where Warg < 1. The Arctic outflow through the CAA has a high content of Pacific waters, which have a low saturation state. These waters can be traced along the western Baffin Bay to Davis Strait. South of Davis Strait, this outflow is modified by mixing with slope and offshore waters of Atlantic origin and with the outflow from Hudson Strait. Despite the mixing, low saturation state water can still be identified on the southern Labrador Shelf. The aragonite saturation horizon is found at ∼150 m in Barrow Strait; at 200 m in Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and Hudson Strait; and at 2300 m in the Labrador Sea. This study provides baseline data of the saturation states for the waters of the CAA and the northwest Atlantic. It also illustrates the downstream evolution of low saturation state Arctic outflow in the northwest Atlantic. Title: Calcium carbonate saturation states in the waters of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the Labrador Sea Author: Petrie, Biran, Azetsu-Scott, Kumiko, Starr, Michel, Hamilton, James, Falkner, Kelly, Prinsenberg, Simon, Lee, Craig, Yeats, Philip, Clarke, Allyn, Jones, E. Peter Ocean acidification is predicted to occur first in polar oceans. We investigated the saturation state of waters with respect to calcite (Wcal) and aragonite (Warg) in six sections along an Arctic outflow pathway through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) and into the northwestern Atlantic using dissolved inorganic carbon and total alkalinity measurements from 2003 to 2005. The study area, a key region connecting the Arctic and the North Atlantic, includes Smith Sound, Barrow Strait, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Hudson Strait, and the Labrador Sea. The average Warg in the Arctic outflow was 1.18 ± 0.17 in Barrow Strait and 1.31 ± 0.14 in Smith Sound, with areas where Warg < 1. The Arctic outflow through the CAA has a high content of Pacific waters, which have a low saturation state. These waters can be traced along the western Baffin Bay to Davis Strait. South of Davis Strait, this outflow is modified by mixing with slope and offshore waters of Atlantic origin and with the outflow from Hudson Strait. Despite the mixing, low saturation state water can still be identified on the southern Labrador Shelf. The aragonite saturation horizon is found at ∼150 m in Barrow Strait; at 200 m in Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and Hudson Strait; and at 2300 m in the Labrador Sea. This study provides baseline data of the saturation states for the waters of the CAA and the northwest Atlantic. It also illustrates the downstream evolution of low saturation state Arctic outflow in the northwest Atlantic. Close