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• 13081. [Article] Paleoceanography of the Eastern Equatorial Pacific during the Neogene : synthesis of Leg 138 drilling results

  The primary objective of Leg 138 was to provide detailed information about the ocean's response to global climate change during the Neogene. Two north south transects were drilled (95° and 110°W) within ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Paleoceanography of the Eastern Equatorial Pacific during the Neogene : synthesis of Leg 138 drilling results Author: Mayer, Larry A., Pisias, Nicklas G., Mix, Alan C. The primary objective of Leg 138 was to provide detailed information about the ocean's response to global climate change during the Neogene. Two north south transects were drilled (95° and 110°W) within the region of equatorial divergence driven upwelling (and thus high accumulation rates and resolution) and spanning the major equatorial ocean current boundaries (and thus recording a high amplitude signal of the response of the sediment to climatically and/or tectonically driven changes in ocean circulation). The Neogene is marked by a number of well known climatic and tectonic events (the closing of the Isthmus of Panama, the onset of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), the rapid uplift of the Himalayas, the major intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation), and the response of the ocean before and after these events was a key focus of Leg 138 drilling. To address these objectives at the highest resolution possible, the Leg 138 scientific staff developed a number of new shipboard strategies and analytical procedures. These included the real time analysis of the near continuous gamma ray attenuation porosity evaluator (GRAPE) and susceptibility profiles produced by the multisensor track (MST) on unsplit cores to monitor core recovery and, if necessary, to modify the drilling strategy to ensure proper offset of coring gaps; the collection of near continuous color reflectance data on split cores; the logging of the first hole drilled at each site to optimize drilling and sampling strategies for subsequent holes; and the use of multiple continuous records to unambiguously construct complete composite sections for each site. The complete, continuous records provided by the GRAPE (with a temporal resolution of often yr), in conjunction with an excellent microfossil stratigraphy and often excellent magnetostratigraphy, allowed for astronomical tuning of the stratigraphic record and resulted in a set of internally consistent, high resolution age models that provide a secure, absolute time scale for the past 6 m.y. For the period before 6 m.y., the absolute time calibration is less secure, but it is still better than any previously offered. The high resolution stratigraphic framework of Leg 138 provided new insight into the previously ambiguous tectonic history of the region. By assuming that maximum sedimentation rates along the north south transect would be expected at the equator, the Leg 138 stratigraphy supports the 1985 work of Cox and Engerbretson, which calls for two different poles of rotation of the Pacific Plate during the interval 0-20 Ma. The Leg 138 plate reconstructions also support several previously hypothesized ridge crest jumps and a slowing of the absolute motion of the Nazca Plate at about 5 Ma. Although Leg 138 data that predates about 13 Ma is limited, the impression that one can gain from these data is that the eastern equatorial Pacific was characterized by relatively high carbonate concentrations and accumulation rates before about 11 Ma. This pattern was interrupted occasionally by rapid massive outpourings of near monospecific laminated diatom oozes that probably represent the formation of massive mats along strong surface water fronts. The laminated diatom oozes (LDO) continue to be present in the Leg 138 record (many of them being expressed as seismic reflections) until about 4.4 Ma. Carbonate accumulation rates begin to decline slowly between 11 and 9.8 Ma, when, at about 9.5 Ma, a near complete loss of carbonate (the "carbonate crash") takes place everywhere in the Leg 138 region (and beyond), except at the westernmost sites close to the equator. The "carbonate crash" was a time of fundamental change for the eastern equatorial Pacific, and perhaps for most of the ocean basins. Unlike many of the carbonate variations that precede and postdate it, this "crash" represents a major dissolution event whose effects can be traced seismically in the central and western Pacific. The changes in bottom water chemistry associated with this event (or series of events) appear to be related to the early phases of the closing of the Panama Gateway. The role of NADW initiation and intensification for controlling carbonate accumulation in the eastern equatorial Pacific is still not resolved; however, ocean modeling demonstrates that the closing of the Panama Gateway may also have a direct influence on NADW production. Therefore, the effects of changes in the Panama Gateway sill depth and the production of NADW may be manifested in the history of eastern equatorial Pacific sedimentation. The "carbonate crash" was followed by a recovery of the carbonate system (except in the Guatemala and Peru basins, which never recovered) that led up to the late Miocene/ early Pliocene sedimentation rate maxima, during which equatorial sedimentation rates are as much as five times greater than those of the late Pliocene or Pleistocene. Examination of modern productivity/ preser vation relationships implies that the sedimentation rate maximum was the result of enhanced productivity. The distribution of eolian sediments and isotopic gradients, along with an analysis of the modes of variance in carbonate deposition over the last 6 m.y., suggest a more northerly position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a stronger north south gradient across the equator, and a more zonal circulation focused along the equator during the time of maximum sedimentation. The mechanisms suggested for these changes in circulation patterns include the response of the eastern equatorial Pacific to the closing of the Isthmus of Panama, as well as a global increase in the flux of Ca and Si into the oceans, a possible response to evolution of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. In an effort to understand the response of the climate system to external (orbital) forcing, 6-m.y.-long, continuous records of carbonate (derived from GRAPE), δ¹⁸O and insolation were analyzed and compared. Evolutionary spectral calculations of the variance and coherence among these records indicate that the insolation record is dominated by precessional frequencies, but that the relative importance of the two precessional frequencies has changed significantly over the last 6 m.y. In general, precessional forcing is not found in the carbonate or isotopic records. In the tilt band, however, a linear response is present between solar forcing and the carbonate and isotope records over some intervals. The carbonate record appears to be tightly coupled to the tilt component of insolation before about 1.9 Ma; however, the isotope record does not begin to show sensitivity to orbital tilt until about 4.5 Ma, the time of significant changes in sedimentation patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Only during the last 500,000 yr do all frequencies respond in a similar manner; we also see a marked increase in the response of the isotopic record to orbital forcing (including 100,000- and 400,000-yr periods). Title: Paleoceanography of the Eastern Equatorial Pacific during the Neogene : synthesis of Leg 138 drilling results Author: Mayer, Larry A., Pisias, Nicklas G., Mix, Alan C. The primary objective of Leg 138 was to provide detailed information about the ocean's response to global climate change during the Neogene. Two north south transects were drilled (95° and 110°W) within the region of equatorial divergence driven upwelling (and thus high accumulation rates and resolution) and spanning the major equatorial ocean current boundaries (and thus recording a high amplitude signal of the response of the sediment to climatically and/or tectonically driven changes in ocean circulation). The Neogene is marked by a number of well known climatic and tectonic events (the closing of the Isthmus of Panama, the onset of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), the rapid uplift of the Himalayas, the major intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation), and the response of the ocean before and after these events was a key focus of Leg 138 drilling. To address these objectives at the highest resolution possible, the Leg 138 scientific staff developed a number of new shipboard strategies and analytical procedures. These included the real time analysis of the near continuous gamma ray attenuation porosity evaluator (GRAPE) and susceptibility profiles produced by the multisensor track (MST) on unsplit cores to monitor core recovery and, if necessary, to modify the drilling strategy to ensure proper offset of coring gaps; the collection of near continuous color reflectance data on split cores; the logging of the first hole drilled at each site to optimize drilling and sampling strategies for subsequent holes; and the use of multiple continuous records to unambiguously construct complete composite sections for each site. The complete, continuous records provided by the GRAPE (with a temporal resolution of often yr), in conjunction with an excellent microfossil stratigraphy and often excellent magnetostratigraphy, allowed for astronomical tuning of the stratigraphic record and resulted in a set of internally consistent, high resolution age models that provide a secure, absolute time scale for the past 6 m.y. For the period before 6 m.y., the absolute time calibration is less secure, but it is still better than any previously offered. The high resolution stratigraphic framework of Leg 138 provided new insight into the previously ambiguous tectonic history of the region. By assuming that maximum sedimentation rates along the north south transect would be expected at the equator, the Leg 138 stratigraphy supports the 1985 work of Cox and Engerbretson, which calls for two different poles of rotation of the Pacific Plate during the interval 0-20 Ma. The Leg 138 plate reconstructions also support several previously hypothesized ridge crest jumps and a slowing of the absolute motion of the Nazca Plate at about 5 Ma. Although Leg 138 data that predates about 13 Ma is limited, the impression that one can gain from these data is that the eastern equatorial Pacific was characterized by relatively high carbonate concentrations and accumulation rates before about 11 Ma. This pattern was interrupted occasionally by rapid massive outpourings of near monospecific laminated diatom oozes that probably represent the formation of massive mats along strong surface water fronts. The laminated diatom oozes (LDO) continue to be present in the Leg 138 record (many of them being expressed as seismic reflections) until about 4.4 Ma. Carbonate accumulation rates begin to decline slowly between 11 and 9.8 Ma, when, at about 9.5 Ma, a near complete loss of carbonate (the "carbonate crash") takes place everywhere in the Leg 138 region (and beyond), except at the westernmost sites close to the equator. The "carbonate crash" was a time of fundamental change for the eastern equatorial Pacific, and perhaps for most of the ocean basins. Unlike many of the carbonate variations that precede and postdate it, this "crash" represents a major dissolution event whose effects can be traced seismically in the central and western Pacific. The changes in bottom water chemistry associated with this event (or series of events) appear to be related to the early phases of the closing of the Panama Gateway. The role of NADW initiation and intensification for controlling carbonate accumulation in the eastern equatorial Pacific is still not resolved; however, ocean modeling demonstrates that the closing of the Panama Gateway may also have a direct influence on NADW production. Therefore, the effects of changes in the Panama Gateway sill depth and the production of NADW may be manifested in the history of eastern equatorial Pacific sedimentation. The "carbonate crash" was followed by a recovery of the carbonate system (except in the Guatemala and Peru basins, which never recovered) that led up to the late Miocene/ early Pliocene sedimentation rate maxima, during which equatorial sedimentation rates are as much as five times greater than those of the late Pliocene or Pleistocene. Examination of modern productivity/ preser vation relationships implies that the sedimentation rate maximum was the result of enhanced productivity. The distribution of eolian sediments and isotopic gradients, along with an analysis of the modes of variance in carbonate deposition over the last 6 m.y., suggest a more northerly position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a stronger north south gradient across the equator, and a more zonal circulation focused along the equator during the time of maximum sedimentation. The mechanisms suggested for these changes in circulation patterns include the response of the eastern equatorial Pacific to the closing of the Isthmus of Panama, as well as a global increase in the flux of Ca and Si into the oceans, a possible response to evolution of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. In an effort to understand the response of the climate system to external (orbital) forcing, 6-m.y.-long, continuous records of carbonate (derived from GRAPE), δ¹⁸O and insolation were analyzed and compared. Evolutionary spectral calculations of the variance and coherence among these records indicate that the insolation record is dominated by precessional frequencies, but that the relative importance of the two precessional frequencies has changed significantly over the last 6 m.y. In general, precessional forcing is not found in the carbonate or isotopic records. In the tilt band, however, a linear response is present between solar forcing and the carbonate and isotope records over some intervals. The carbonate record appears to be tightly coupled to the tilt component of insolation before about 1.9 Ma; however, the isotope record does not begin to show sensitivity to orbital tilt until about 4.5 Ma, the time of significant changes in sedimentation patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Only during the last 500,000 yr do all frequencies respond in a similar manner; we also see a marked increase in the response of the isotopic record to orbital forcing (including 100,000- and 400,000-yr periods). Close

• 13082. [Article] Charles Babbage, philosopher, reformer, inventor : a history of his contributions to science

  This history concerns the scientific contributions of Charles Babbage (1791-1871) to mathematics, to the invention of calculating machines, and machine tools, to the development of scientific ideas through ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Charles Babbage, philosopher, reformer, inventor : a history of his contributions to science Author: Bell, Walter Lyle This history concerns the scientific contributions of Charles Babbage (1791-1871) to mathematics, to the invention of calculating machines, and machine tools, to the development of scientific ideas through a wide variety of scientific investigations and his involvement in several different scientific reforms. Babbage considered himself a philosopher in the broadest sense of the word and looked upon the whole of science as his domain of inquiry. The broad speculative and philosophical aspects of his scientific inquiries; the theoretical and technical aspects of his work relating to mathematics and calculating machines; and his ideas concerning the development of science as a profession and the role of government in the support of science will be examined in relation to his scientific career. Babbage began his scientific career in 1812, when, as an undergraduate at the University of Cambridge, he joined with John Herschel (1792-1871), Edward Ffrench Bromhead (1789-1855), George Peacock (1791-1858), and other students to form the Analytical Society for the purpose of promoting the study of mathematical analysis and introducing the methods and notation of the differential calculus of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) to replace the fluxional calculus of Isaac Newton (1642-1716). Babbage and his friends were actually carrying out a reform movement begun by Robert Woodhouse (1773-1827), a professor at Cambridge, whose ideas had not gained much acceptance until the Analytical Society was formed. The members of the Society published mathematical works which utilized Leibnizian methods and notation; translated and supplemented an elementary calculus textbook by Sylvestre Franiois Lacroix (1765- 1843), a French mathematician; wrote and published three books of examples to accompany Lacroix's textbook; and gained control of the mathematical content at Cambridge by becoming moderators of the annual Senate House examinations and posing examination questions which made use of Leibnizian methods and notation. Through these activities the members of the Analytical Society were successful in achieving their mathematical reform by about 1822. Babbage and his associates continued to promote scientific reform throughout the eighteen twenties and thirties by attempting, unsuccessfully, two reforms in 1828 and 1830 of the Royal Society; by successfully reforming the Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris which prior to 1811 had been the foremost work of its kind in Europe; and by forming new scientific societies. After Babbage and his associates were unsuccessful in attempting the reform of the Royal Society in 1830, David Brewster (1781-1839), a scientist and Vice- Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh, assumed the leadership for the group and founded the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831. Babbage participated in the British Association between 1832, when he was named a permanent trustee, and 1839 when he resigned because of an intrigue by another trustee of the Association. These reform activities and his mathematical researches form the first aspect of Babbage's career, between about 1812 and 1840. Babbage established a reputation as a first-rate mathematician through his work in the calculus of functions, in statistics, and in probability theory. As the result of his mathematical work, he was named Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, a chair which Newton had held and which Babbage held from 1828 to 1839. Babbage was also instrumental in the founding of a statistical section of the British Association in 1833. In 1834, the statistical section was established as a separate society, the London Statistical Society, and it was in this Society that Babbage remained active for the remainder of his life. A second aspect of Babbagets scientific career began about 1820 and was devoted to the development of automatic calculating machines. His first calculating machine, Difference Engine No. 1, was designed to calculate and print mathematical and astronomical tables. Babbage received a gold medal from the Astronomical Society of London in 1823 for the invention of Difference Engine No. 1. He worked upon this engine from 1823 to 1833, during which time he received support from the government. After 1833, following a dispute with his engineer, Joseph Clement, Babbage ceased work upon Difference Engine No. 1 and began work upon a new calculating engine, the Analytical Engine. Babbage continued to negotiate with the government concerning Difference Engine No. 1 until 1842, when the government formally withdrew its support of the engine. Babbage continued to work upon the Analytical Engine for the remainder of his life. This machine employed many of the features of modern digital computers--punched cards for data and instructions; an arithmetical-logical unit; a unit to store instructions, data, and results; and a printing device for recording the results of the calculations. In 1848, Babbage also drew up plans for a Difference Engine No. 2 based upon the improvements resulting from the development of the Analytical Engine. While none of the calculating machines were completed, the principles upon which they were based were fully demonstrated by the portion of Difference Engine No. 1 which was assembled in 1833; by the advancement of the machine tool industry and mechanical,engineering through the development of new machine tools, new standards of tolerances and mechanical drawings, and a mechanical notation; and by the advanced principles employed in the Analytical Engine which was capable of calculating any function and was therefore an entirely general calculating machine. In addition to his reform activities, mathematical researches, and work with calculating engines, Babbage carried out many varied scientific experiments which were reported in publications throughout his career. Although he is remembered primarily for his work as a reformer and as an inventor of calculating machines, Babbage possessed broad interests and an inquiring intellect as demonstrated by such diverse publications as a book on life assurance societies, a paper on his invention of occulting signal lights for lighthouses, a paper on his experiments with magnetism, and a paper on the principles of turning and planing metals. Title: Charles Babbage, philosopher, reformer, inventor : a history of his contributions to science Author: Bell, Walter Lyle This history concerns the scientific contributions of Charles Babbage (1791-1871) to mathematics, to the invention of calculating machines, and machine tools, to the development of scientific ideas through a wide variety of scientific investigations and his involvement in several different scientific reforms. Babbage considered himself a philosopher in the broadest sense of the word and looked upon the whole of science as his domain of inquiry. The broad speculative and philosophical aspects of his scientific inquiries; the theoretical and technical aspects of his work relating to mathematics and calculating machines; and his ideas concerning the development of science as a profession and the role of government in the support of science will be examined in relation to his scientific career. Babbage began his scientific career in 1812, when, as an undergraduate at the University of Cambridge, he joined with John Herschel (1792-1871), Edward Ffrench Bromhead (1789-1855), George Peacock (1791-1858), and other students to form the Analytical Society for the purpose of promoting the study of mathematical analysis and introducing the methods and notation of the differential calculus of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) to replace the fluxional calculus of Isaac Newton (1642-1716). Babbage and his friends were actually carrying out a reform movement begun by Robert Woodhouse (1773-1827), a professor at Cambridge, whose ideas had not gained much acceptance until the Analytical Society was formed. The members of the Society published mathematical works which utilized Leibnizian methods and notation; translated and supplemented an elementary calculus textbook by Sylvestre Franiois Lacroix (1765- 1843), a French mathematician; wrote and published three books of examples to accompany Lacroix's textbook; and gained control of the mathematical content at Cambridge by becoming moderators of the annual Senate House examinations and posing examination questions which made use of Leibnizian methods and notation. Through these activities the members of the Analytical Society were successful in achieving their mathematical reform by about 1822. Babbage and his associates continued to promote scientific reform throughout the eighteen twenties and thirties by attempting, unsuccessfully, two reforms in 1828 and 1830 of the Royal Society; by successfully reforming the Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris which prior to 1811 had been the foremost work of its kind in Europe; and by forming new scientific societies. After Babbage and his associates were unsuccessful in attempting the reform of the Royal Society in 1830, David Brewster (1781-1839), a scientist and Vice- Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh, assumed the leadership for the group and founded the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831. Babbage participated in the British Association between 1832, when he was named a permanent trustee, and 1839 when he resigned because of an intrigue by another trustee of the Association. These reform activities and his mathematical researches form the first aspect of Babbage's career, between about 1812 and 1840. Babbage established a reputation as a first-rate mathematician through his work in the calculus of functions, in statistics, and in probability theory. As the result of his mathematical work, he was named Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, a chair which Newton had held and which Babbage held from 1828 to 1839. Babbage was also instrumental in the founding of a statistical section of the British Association in 1833. In 1834, the statistical section was established as a separate society, the London Statistical Society, and it was in this Society that Babbage remained active for the remainder of his life. A second aspect of Babbagets scientific career began about 1820 and was devoted to the development of automatic calculating machines. His first calculating machine, Difference Engine No. 1, was designed to calculate and print mathematical and astronomical tables. Babbage received a gold medal from the Astronomical Society of London in 1823 for the invention of Difference Engine No. 1. He worked upon this engine from 1823 to 1833, during which time he received support from the government. After 1833, following a dispute with his engineer, Joseph Clement, Babbage ceased work upon Difference Engine No. 1 and began work upon a new calculating engine, the Analytical Engine. Babbage continued to negotiate with the government concerning Difference Engine No. 1 until 1842, when the government formally withdrew its support of the engine. Babbage continued to work upon the Analytical Engine for the remainder of his life. This machine employed many of the features of modern digital computers--punched cards for data and instructions; an arithmetical-logical unit; a unit to store instructions, data, and results; and a printing device for recording the results of the calculations. In 1848, Babbage also drew up plans for a Difference Engine No. 2 based upon the improvements resulting from the development of the Analytical Engine. While none of the calculating machines were completed, the principles upon which they were based were fully demonstrated by the portion of Difference Engine No. 1 which was assembled in 1833; by the advancement of the machine tool industry and mechanical,engineering through the development of new machine tools, new standards of tolerances and mechanical drawings, and a mechanical notation; and by the advanced principles employed in the Analytical Engine which was capable of calculating any function and was therefore an entirely general calculating machine. In addition to his reform activities, mathematical researches, and work with calculating engines, Babbage carried out many varied scientific experiments which were reported in publications throughout his career. Although he is remembered primarily for his work as a reformer and as an inventor of calculating machines, Babbage possessed broad interests and an inquiring intellect as demonstrated by such diverse publications as a book on life assurance societies, a paper on his invention of occulting signal lights for lighthouses, a paper on his experiments with magnetism, and a paper on the principles of turning and planing metals. Close

• 13083. [Article] The effect of fertilizer treatments on oil content and nutrient concentration of peppermint in western Oregon

  During the summer of 1967 a fertilizer survey was conducted to determine the nutrient status of peppermint fields, the nutrient concentration of plant tissue and the oil content of peppermint in Oregon. Plant ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The effect of fertilizer treatments on oil content and nutrient concentration of peppermint in western Oregon Author: Huettig, Myron Allen During the summer of 1967 a fertilizer survey was conducted to determine the nutrient status of peppermint fields, the nutrient concentration of plant tissue and the oil content of peppermint in Oregon. Plant and soil samples and the field's fertilizer history were collected from cooperators in Oregon's peppermint growing areas in June. Oil samples and plant samples were collected in August and September. Results of the survey indicated the following: (1) Micronutrient levels of the plant tissue were relatively high and the highest Mn concentrations were associated with lower oil concentrations. (2) The highest levels of total nitrogen in the leaf analyses were associated with lower oil concentrations. The higher N levels appeared to be related to fields with rank stemmy growth. (3) All P levels were quite high and there were no apparent associations between P concentration and oil concentration. (4) There was an antagonistic relationship between K and Na concentration within the plant and the higher oil concentrations were associated with moderate levels of both K and Na in the plant. (5) The majority of the oil is located within the top 15 inches of the plant. The results indicated major emphasis of field experiments should be placed on time and rate of N application and the Na-K relationship. Since P is a major fertilizer expenditure for many growers, P should be included in the over-all nutrient evaluation. Five experiments were established in the spring of 1968 to evaluate the effects of N, P, K and Na fertilizers on the oil content and nutrient concentration of peppermint in western Oregon. Nitrogen experiments were located south of Junction City (Harper) and west of Grants Pass (N-Fry) while P, K and Na experiments were located west of Jefferson (Stauble), north of Corvallis (Belnap) and west of Grants Pass (K-Fry). The N experiments were randomized blocks with four replications. Seven rates of N were used in combination with five application dates. The P, K and Na experiments were randomized blocks with three replications. Four rates of K were applied with and without Na. Phosphorus was applied to all but two treatments. Plant samples were collected June 25-27 at all locations and plant and oil samples were collected at harvest. The plant sample consisted of the main stem from the latest matured leaves at the top of the plant down the stem six inches. The Stauble location was sampled every two weeks during the growing season and both the stems and the mature leaves on the sampled stem portion were collected. P, K, Na, Mn, Ca and Mg were determined on the June samples while NO₃-N and Cl were determined on the harvest sam- ples and NO₃-N on the June samples of the N experiments. Oil samples of about five pounds of green plant material were taken from the center of each plot. The sample was placed on a wire screen and dried either in the field or the greenhouse. After the samples had dried for two to three days, they were placed in a cotton bag and were ready for distillation. A portable still designed after commercial stills was used to remove the oil from the hay. Increasing rates of N increased the NO₃-N concentration of peppermint stems and the oil content of the plants. Delayed application of N did not affect the NO₃-N concentration of the plants at a given rate of N at harvest. However, delayed application did increase the percent oil and total oil yield. The July 1 application date had a significantly higher percent oil and total oil yield than the June 1 date. Yield of hay increased significantly to about the 250 pound rate and subsequently decreased with higher N application. Delayed N application decreased the hay yield. Phosphorus fertilization did not increase the P concentration at any of the locations nor did it have any effect on the oil content. P concentration ranged from .31 - .49 percent in the stem sample taken June 25-27. Potassium fertilization increased the K concentration of peppermint with the greatest increase occurring where the soil had a low K soil test. However, K fertilization did not affect the oil content. K concentration of the June stem sample varied from 2.5 to 6.1 percent.. Application of Na increased the Na concentration at all locations where Na was applied. Sodium fertilization significantly increased the percent oil at the Stauble location and increased the percent oil at the K- Fay location. Hay yield was not affected by Na. There was a considerable amount of variation in the oil and NO₃-N analysis for all experiments. The coefficient of variation for NO₃-N analysis was 37.9 and 38.7 percent for N-Fry and Harper respectively and 89 percent for Stauble. The coefficient of variation for percent oil was 14.0, 20.6, 21.7 and 14.3 percent for N-Fry, Harper, Stauble and K-Fry respectively. Since there was a large variability in the oil data, an experiment was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the method of handling the oil samples. Four samples, similar in size, were taken from peppermint variety trials that were established on uniform, first year row mint. Drying and distillation were the same as described for the other oil samples. There were no significant differences among the distillation units and the coefficient of varia- tion was 7.1 percent.. It was concluded that reproducible results could be obtained for oil analysis when uniform plant material was used. Title: The effect of fertilizer treatments on oil content and nutrient concentration of peppermint in western Oregon Author: Huettig, Myron Allen During the summer of 1967 a fertilizer survey was conducted to determine the nutrient status of peppermint fields, the nutrient concentration of plant tissue and the oil content of peppermint in Oregon. Plant and soil samples and the field's fertilizer history were collected from cooperators in Oregon's peppermint growing areas in June. Oil samples and plant samples were collected in August and September. Results of the survey indicated the following: (1) Micronutrient levels of the plant tissue were relatively high and the highest Mn concentrations were associated with lower oil concentrations. (2) The highest levels of total nitrogen in the leaf analyses were associated with lower oil concentrations. The higher N levels appeared to be related to fields with rank stemmy growth. (3) All P levels were quite high and there were no apparent associations between P concentration and oil concentration. (4) There was an antagonistic relationship between K and Na concentration within the plant and the higher oil concentrations were associated with moderate levels of both K and Na in the plant. (5) The majority of the oil is located within the top 15 inches of the plant. The results indicated major emphasis of field experiments should be placed on time and rate of N application and the Na-K relationship. Since P is a major fertilizer expenditure for many growers, P should be included in the over-all nutrient evaluation. Five experiments were established in the spring of 1968 to evaluate the effects of N, P, K and Na fertilizers on the oil content and nutrient concentration of peppermint in western Oregon. Nitrogen experiments were located south of Junction City (Harper) and west of Grants Pass (N-Fry) while P, K and Na experiments were located west of Jefferson (Stauble), north of Corvallis (Belnap) and west of Grants Pass (K-Fry). The N experiments were randomized blocks with four replications. Seven rates of N were used in combination with five application dates. The P, K and Na experiments were randomized blocks with three replications. Four rates of K were applied with and without Na. Phosphorus was applied to all but two treatments. Plant samples were collected June 25-27 at all locations and plant and oil samples were collected at harvest. The plant sample consisted of the main stem from the latest matured leaves at the top of the plant down the stem six inches. The Stauble location was sampled every two weeks during the growing season and both the stems and the mature leaves on the sampled stem portion were collected. P, K, Na, Mn, Ca and Mg were determined on the June samples while NO₃-N and Cl were determined on the harvest sam- ples and NO₃-N on the June samples of the N experiments. Oil samples of about five pounds of green plant material were taken from the center of each plot. The sample was placed on a wire screen and dried either in the field or the greenhouse. After the samples had dried for two to three days, they were placed in a cotton bag and were ready for distillation. A portable still designed after commercial stills was used to remove the oil from the hay. Increasing rates of N increased the NO₃-N concentration of peppermint stems and the oil content of the plants. Delayed application of N did not affect the NO₃-N concentration of the plants at a given rate of N at harvest. However, delayed application did increase the percent oil and total oil yield. The July 1 application date had a significantly higher percent oil and total oil yield than the June 1 date. Yield of hay increased significantly to about the 250 pound rate and subsequently decreased with higher N application. Delayed N application decreased the hay yield. Phosphorus fertilization did not increase the P concentration at any of the locations nor did it have any effect on the oil content. P concentration ranged from .31 - .49 percent in the stem sample taken June 25-27. Potassium fertilization increased the K concentration of peppermint with the greatest increase occurring where the soil had a low K soil test. However, K fertilization did not affect the oil content. K concentration of the June stem sample varied from 2.5 to 6.1 percent.. Application of Na increased the Na concentration at all locations where Na was applied. Sodium fertilization significantly increased the percent oil at the Stauble location and increased the percent oil at the K- Fay location. Hay yield was not affected by Na. There was a considerable amount of variation in the oil and NO₃-N analysis for all experiments. The coefficient of variation for NO₃-N analysis was 37.9 and 38.7 percent for N-Fry and Harper respectively and 89 percent for Stauble. The coefficient of variation for percent oil was 14.0, 20.6, 21.7 and 14.3 percent for N-Fry, Harper, Stauble and K-Fry respectively. Since there was a large variability in the oil data, an experiment was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the method of handling the oil samples. Four samples, similar in size, were taken from peppermint variety trials that were established on uniform, first year row mint. Drying and distillation were the same as described for the other oil samples. There were no significant differences among the distillation units and the coefficient of varia- tion was 7.1 percent.. It was concluded that reproducible results could be obtained for oil analysis when uniform plant material was used. Close

• 13084. [Article] Numerical Simulation, Laboratory and Field Experiments, Analysis and Design of Wave Energy Converter and Mooring System

  This dissertation studies the coupled fluid-structure interaction (FSI) of a wave energy converter (WEC) and evaluates the design of a WEC mooring system. The research is conducted in support of conceptual ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Numerical Simulation, Laboratory and Field Experiments, Analysis and Design of Wave Energy Converter and Mooring System Author: Lou, Junhui This dissertation studies the coupled fluid-structure interaction (FSI) of a wave energy converter (WEC) and evaluates the design of a WEC mooring system. The research is conducted in support of conceptual development, field test and performance evaluation of WECs as part of the mission of the Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center at Oregon State University. The coupled FSI study focuses on the evaluation of predictive capabilities and computational performance of commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and potential flow codes using laboratory model test results. The evaluations of a WEC mooring system focus on analysis of field test data and evaluations of the anchor movability, fatigue design and extreme load of the Ocean Sentinel (OS) test platform mooring system deployed off the Oregon coast. Numerical data using a commercial mooring system simulation code are conducted to supplement time history data for the calculations of anchor pulling force, fatigue damage and extreme load. Specifically, this dissertation can be divided into three parts. In the first part the performances of a finite element explicit Navier-Stokes (NS) solver (LS-DYNA ALE), a finite element implicit NS solver (LS-DYNA ICFD), and a nonlinear potential flow solver (AQWA) in predicting highly nonlinear hydrodynamic responses of a floating point absorber (FPA) under large-amplitude waves are studied. The two NS solvers calculate the coupled FSI including fully nonlinear inviscid and viscous forces. The nonlinear potential flow solver calculates individual inviscid wave force components (a Froud-Krylov force, a radiation force, a diffraction force and a hydrostatic force) and empirical (Morison equation) viscous force. Comparing numerical results to laboratory experimental measurements, the two NS solvers and the nonlinear potential flow solver are found to be capable of providing accurate predictions of the nonlinear motion responses of the FPA. FSI coupling algorithms and computational costs of these three solvers are evaluated. Based on the results of the nonlinear potential flow solver at different wave periods, the individual wave force components and the viscous force are studied quantitatively. The nonlinearity of the restoring force and the Froude-Krylov force are found to be important for the FPA responses in all (heave, surge and pitch) directions; the nonlinearity of the viscous force is found to be important in only the heave and pitch directions. The second part first presents a catenary spread mooring system design of a mobile ocean test berth (MOTB), the Ocean Sentinel (OS) instrumentation buoy, which is developed by the Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center (NNMREC) to facilitate ocean test of wave energy converters (WECs). Then the OS mooring design, which is similar to a conventional WEC point absorber mooring system, is evaluated through both field test analysis and quasi-static analysis: the field test analysis is based on the extensive data of the OS positions, mooring tensions on the OS and environmental conditions of waves, wind and current, collected during the 2013 field test of the OS mooring system; the quasi-static analysis is based on the analytical catenary equations of mooring chains. Both global characteristics and survivability characteristics of the mooring system are evaluated: the global characteristics include the influence of the OS excursion to mooring tension, positional distribution of the OS, directional control of the OS and environmental contributions of waves, current and wind to mooring tensions; the survivability characteristics include the anchor movability and strength capacities of mooring. Because anchor movement occurred near the end of the field test, a systematic procedure of designing a mooring system with adequate anchor holding capacity is developed and applied to design a new OS mooring system. In the third part, first, the accuracies of a fully coupled method based numerical model in predicting the mooring tensions of the OS mooring system and the OS positions are validated by comparing the numerical results to the field data collected during the 2013 OS field test. Then, the anchor movability, fatigue damage and extreme mooring tension of the OS mooring system are investigated using the mooring tensions predicted by the numerical model. The results of the above studies are summarized as follows: (1) The numerical model provides accurate predictions of the mooring tensions and OS positions under harsh environmental conditions; (2) When the OS drifted significantly near the end of the field test, the bow, port and starboard anchors were likely not dragged, dragged significantly and dragged slightly, respectively; (3) The fatigue damages of mooring lines are predicted for environmental conditions from low to high sea states; and (4) The strengths of mooring lines in the original mooring design are adequate compared to the predicted extreme mooring tensions. Title: Numerical Simulation, Laboratory and Field Experiments, Analysis and Design of Wave Energy Converter and Mooring System Author: Lou, Junhui This dissertation studies the coupled fluid-structure interaction (FSI) of a wave energy converter (WEC) and evaluates the design of a WEC mooring system. The research is conducted in support of conceptual development, field test and performance evaluation of WECs as part of the mission of the Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center at Oregon State University. The coupled FSI study focuses on the evaluation of predictive capabilities and computational performance of commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and potential flow codes using laboratory model test results. The evaluations of a WEC mooring system focus on analysis of field test data and evaluations of the anchor movability, fatigue design and extreme load of the Ocean Sentinel (OS) test platform mooring system deployed off the Oregon coast. Numerical data using a commercial mooring system simulation code are conducted to supplement time history data for the calculations of anchor pulling force, fatigue damage and extreme load. Specifically, this dissertation can be divided into three parts. In the first part the performances of a finite element explicit Navier-Stokes (NS) solver (LS-DYNA ALE), a finite element implicit NS solver (LS-DYNA ICFD), and a nonlinear potential flow solver (AQWA) in predicting highly nonlinear hydrodynamic responses of a floating point absorber (FPA) under large-amplitude waves are studied. The two NS solvers calculate the coupled FSI including fully nonlinear inviscid and viscous forces. The nonlinear potential flow solver calculates individual inviscid wave force components (a Froud-Krylov force, a radiation force, a diffraction force and a hydrostatic force) and empirical (Morison equation) viscous force. Comparing numerical results to laboratory experimental measurements, the two NS solvers and the nonlinear potential flow solver are found to be capable of providing accurate predictions of the nonlinear motion responses of the FPA. FSI coupling algorithms and computational costs of these three solvers are evaluated. Based on the results of the nonlinear potential flow solver at different wave periods, the individual wave force components and the viscous force are studied quantitatively. The nonlinearity of the restoring force and the Froude-Krylov force are found to be important for the FPA responses in all (heave, surge and pitch) directions; the nonlinearity of the viscous force is found to be important in only the heave and pitch directions. The second part first presents a catenary spread mooring system design of a mobile ocean test berth (MOTB), the Ocean Sentinel (OS) instrumentation buoy, which is developed by the Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center (NNMREC) to facilitate ocean test of wave energy converters (WECs). Then the OS mooring design, which is similar to a conventional WEC point absorber mooring system, is evaluated through both field test analysis and quasi-static analysis: the field test analysis is based on the extensive data of the OS positions, mooring tensions on the OS and environmental conditions of waves, wind and current, collected during the 2013 field test of the OS mooring system; the quasi-static analysis is based on the analytical catenary equations of mooring chains. Both global characteristics and survivability characteristics of the mooring system are evaluated: the global characteristics include the influence of the OS excursion to mooring tension, positional distribution of the OS, directional control of the OS and environmental contributions of waves, current and wind to mooring tensions; the survivability characteristics include the anchor movability and strength capacities of mooring. Because anchor movement occurred near the end of the field test, a systematic procedure of designing a mooring system with adequate anchor holding capacity is developed and applied to design a new OS mooring system. In the third part, first, the accuracies of a fully coupled method based numerical model in predicting the mooring tensions of the OS mooring system and the OS positions are validated by comparing the numerical results to the field data collected during the 2013 OS field test. Then, the anchor movability, fatigue damage and extreme mooring tension of the OS mooring system are investigated using the mooring tensions predicted by the numerical model. The results of the above studies are summarized as follows: (1) The numerical model provides accurate predictions of the mooring tensions and OS positions under harsh environmental conditions; (2) When the OS drifted significantly near the end of the field test, the bow, port and starboard anchors were likely not dragged, dragged significantly and dragged slightly, respectively; (3) The fatigue damages of mooring lines are predicted for environmental conditions from low to high sea states; and (4) The strengths of mooring lines in the original mooring design are adequate compared to the predicted extreme mooring tensions. Close

• 13085. [Article] Distribution, Abundance, and Settlement of Slope-spawning Flatfish during Early Life Stages in the Eastern Bering Sea

  Changes in environmental conditions in marine ecosystems could directly or indirectly influence distribution, abundance, settlement, and size at settlement of flatfish. Understanding species-specific and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution, Abundance, and Settlement of Slope-spawning Flatfish during Early Life Stages in the Eastern Bering Sea Author: Sohn, Dongwha Changes in environmental conditions in marine ecosystems could directly or indirectly influence distribution, abundance, settlement, and size at settlement of flatfish. Understanding species-specific and age-specific responses to environmental variability is important for managing commercially important flatfish stocks. Slope-spawning flatfish whose offspring rely on extensive drift from the slope (spawning) to the shelf (settlement) and which require specific habitat for settlement could be especially vulnerable to environmental variability. Arrowtooth flounder (ATF; Atheresthes stomias), Greenland halibut (GH; Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), and Pacific halibut (PH; Hippoglossus stenolepis) are commercially and ecologically important slope-spawning flatfish species in the eastern Bering Sea (EBS), which has experienced fluctuating warm and cold periods since 2000. Although the three species share many attributes, their population trajectories have fluctuated differently. This difference could result from contrasting responses to environmental variability during early life history. To understand how physical variability of the Bering Sea can differentially affect flatfish ecology from pre-settlement to post-settlement phases, I used a combination of field data, biophysical modeling, and statistical modeling to characterize early life stage attributes (chapter 2), settlement success (chapter 3), and size, abundance, and distribution at settlement (age-0) and age-1 (chapter 4). Based on historical ichthyoplankton survey data for GH and PH, I found that there were species-specific differences in the spatial distribution (vertically and horizontally) and juvenile nursery areas between the two species during early life stages in the EBS. Specifically, I found that PH larvae abruptly move to shallower water as they grow, and cross onto the shelf earlier than GH. This ontogenetic movement has the benefit of allowing PH larvae to take advantage of on-shelf transport to reach their settlement locations. However, an early transition from the slope to the shelf may not equally benefit GH, whose settlement locations are further from the spawning ground. Using a bio-physical modeling approach parameterized on the field data summarized in chapter 2, I found that species-specific variability of early life attributes causes interannual and species-specific variability of GH and PH settlement success in the EBS. GH settlement increased with increasing along-shelf (northwestward) flow whereas PH settlement decreased. GH that spawned in November and December were highly successful at settling while PH settlement was most successful when they spawned in January and February. Furthermore, GH settlement is affected by temperature dependence of pelagic larval duration, but not PH, indicating a strong resilience of PH to temperature induced variations in development and dispersal duration. Using otolith microstructure analysis, I found that variations in size at settlement for ATF are significantly correlated with latitude of sampling location. For GH, their size at settlement is associated with bottom water temperature and sea ice extent. Especially, sea ice coverage has a strong negative correlation with on-shelf winds, which drive along-shelf Ekman transport to southeast impacting dispersal pathways and duration. Size at settlement for ATF increased with increasing latitude of sampling location, which could be impacted by currents. For GH, size at settlement decreased with decreasing bottom water temperature and increasing sea ice extent. Also, my results showed that settlement habitat increases for GH in cold years whereas that of ATF increases in warm years. The bottom temperature of age-0 habitat for both ATF and GH affected on their age-1 abundance; GH age-1 abundance increased with decreasing bottom temperature of age-0 habitat, but no clear directionality was found for ATF. The findings from this study have implications for understanding settlement success and recruitment of slope-spawning flatfish in the EBS. In most cold years when along-shelf flow is generally strong, the level of larval supply of GH to their settlement areas is higher than in warm years. Size at settlement for GH decreased in cold years. The larger amount of suitable habitat for settlement and post-settlement stages could result in lower competition and less predation in comparison to warm years. In support of this hypothesis, I found greater age-1 abundance in cold years, indicating size at settlement in GH may not be critical compared to suitability of habitat features and larval supply to settlement grounds. On the other hand, in cold years with strong along-shelf transport to northwest, PH (or ATF), which settle in the southern part of the EBS, have lower numbers of successful settlers. Size at settlement for ATF increased in cold years, and I assumed that size at settlement for PH may have similar patterns. The amount of suitable habitat after settlement would be smaller, resulting in lower recruitment due to increased competition for limited resources. By studying how physical factors and their variability influence these three flatfish during early life stages, this study provides valuable insight into the response of flatfish stocks to past and future climate changes in the eastern Bering Sea – a system that is especially vulnerable to warming. Title: Distribution, Abundance, and Settlement of Slope-spawning Flatfish during Early Life Stages in the Eastern Bering Sea Author: Sohn, Dongwha Changes in environmental conditions in marine ecosystems could directly or indirectly influence distribution, abundance, settlement, and size at settlement of flatfish. Understanding species-specific and age-specific responses to environmental variability is important for managing commercially important flatfish stocks. Slope-spawning flatfish whose offspring rely on extensive drift from the slope (spawning) to the shelf (settlement) and which require specific habitat for settlement could be especially vulnerable to environmental variability. Arrowtooth flounder (ATF; Atheresthes stomias), Greenland halibut (GH; Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), and Pacific halibut (PH; Hippoglossus stenolepis) are commercially and ecologically important slope-spawning flatfish species in the eastern Bering Sea (EBS), which has experienced fluctuating warm and cold periods since 2000. Although the three species share many attributes, their population trajectories have fluctuated differently. This difference could result from contrasting responses to environmental variability during early life history. To understand how physical variability of the Bering Sea can differentially affect flatfish ecology from pre-settlement to post-settlement phases, I used a combination of field data, biophysical modeling, and statistical modeling to characterize early life stage attributes (chapter 2), settlement success (chapter 3), and size, abundance, and distribution at settlement (age-0) and age-1 (chapter 4). Based on historical ichthyoplankton survey data for GH and PH, I found that there were species-specific differences in the spatial distribution (vertically and horizontally) and juvenile nursery areas between the two species during early life stages in the EBS. Specifically, I found that PH larvae abruptly move to shallower water as they grow, and cross onto the shelf earlier than GH. This ontogenetic movement has the benefit of allowing PH larvae to take advantage of on-shelf transport to reach their settlement locations. However, an early transition from the slope to the shelf may not equally benefit GH, whose settlement locations are further from the spawning ground. Using a bio-physical modeling approach parameterized on the field data summarized in chapter 2, I found that species-specific variability of early life attributes causes interannual and species-specific variability of GH and PH settlement success in the EBS. GH settlement increased with increasing along-shelf (northwestward) flow whereas PH settlement decreased. GH that spawned in November and December were highly successful at settling while PH settlement was most successful when they spawned in January and February. Furthermore, GH settlement is affected by temperature dependence of pelagic larval duration, but not PH, indicating a strong resilience of PH to temperature induced variations in development and dispersal duration. Using otolith microstructure analysis, I found that variations in size at settlement for ATF are significantly correlated with latitude of sampling location. For GH, their size at settlement is associated with bottom water temperature and sea ice extent. Especially, sea ice coverage has a strong negative correlation with on-shelf winds, which drive along-shelf Ekman transport to southeast impacting dispersal pathways and duration. Size at settlement for ATF increased with increasing latitude of sampling location, which could be impacted by currents. For GH, size at settlement decreased with decreasing bottom water temperature and increasing sea ice extent. Also, my results showed that settlement habitat increases for GH in cold years whereas that of ATF increases in warm years. The bottom temperature of age-0 habitat for both ATF and GH affected on their age-1 abundance; GH age-1 abundance increased with decreasing bottom temperature of age-0 habitat, but no clear directionality was found for ATF. The findings from this study have implications for understanding settlement success and recruitment of slope-spawning flatfish in the EBS. In most cold years when along-shelf flow is generally strong, the level of larval supply of GH to their settlement areas is higher than in warm years. Size at settlement for GH decreased in cold years. The larger amount of suitable habitat for settlement and post-settlement stages could result in lower competition and less predation in comparison to warm years. In support of this hypothesis, I found greater age-1 abundance in cold years, indicating size at settlement in GH may not be critical compared to suitability of habitat features and larval supply to settlement grounds. On the other hand, in cold years with strong along-shelf transport to northwest, PH (or ATF), which settle in the southern part of the EBS, have lower numbers of successful settlers. Size at settlement for ATF increased in cold years, and I assumed that size at settlement for PH may have similar patterns. The amount of suitable habitat after settlement would be smaller, resulting in lower recruitment due to increased competition for limited resources. By studying how physical factors and their variability influence these three flatfish during early life stages, this study provides valuable insight into the response of flatfish stocks to past and future climate changes in the eastern Bering Sea – a system that is especially vulnerable to warming. Close

• 13086. [Article] Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i

  The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i Author: Malachowski, Christopher P. The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as habitat loss, overharvest, introduced mammalian predators, and hybridization with introduced feral Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). A key objective for Hawaiian Duck recovery is to establish a protected and managed network of wetland habitats; however, development of effective habitat management plans is stymied by the lack of information on patterns of habitat use in relation to fundamental resource requirements. Furthermore, many generalizations regarding dabbling duck behavior and resource requirements that guide seasonal wetland management objectives in North America may not apply to tropical regions and island systems. In this thesis, I compare the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck with closely related island-endemic waterfowl and migratory North American Anas, I investigate the behavioral response of Hawaiian Ducks to wetland habitat management and taro cultivation, and I examine the effects of environmental, climatic, temporal, and social factors on the activity budgets of Hawaiian Ducks. I conducted instantaneous focal sampling (n = 984 observation sessions; 328.8 hr) throughout the annual cycle from September 2010 to August 2011 at managed wetlands and taro lo'i within Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Kaua'i. I documented 73 specific Hawaiian Duck behaviors in eight broad behavior categories including foraging, maintenance, resting, locomotion, alert, courtship, and intraspecific and interspecific agonistic interactions. I found that the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck was similar to that of the Mallard; however, subtle variations in the form and linkage of certain courtship displays, such as nod-swimming, were observed. Additionally, male Hawaiian Ducks were occasionally associated with brood-rearing females (11% of brood observations), and this behavior appeared to be a male strategy whereby females received little perceived benefit , but males may have potentially garnered additional breeding attempts or maintained pair-bonds for subsequent breeding seasons. After accounting for sex, pair status, month, and time of day, the diurnal behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed between managed wetlands and taro habitats (F₆,₉₆₀ = 30.3, P < 0.001). Hawaiian Ducks utilized taro predominantly for resting (44%), maintenance (21%), and foraging (15%), while birds used managed wetlands for a variety of activities, including foraging (11%), maintenance (28%), resting (27%), and locomotion (22%). Social activities, particularly courtship, occurred more frequently in managed wetlands than in taro (H₁ = 11.9, P < 0.001). In managed wetlands, birds foraged slightly more with increasing cover of Cyperus spp. (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and Fimbristylis littoralis (r = 0.17, P < 0.01) and decreasing cover of Urochloa mutica (r = -0.15, P < 0.01) and wetland vegetation height (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Within taro habitat, the behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed significantly between birds in lo'i and on dikes (F₆,₄₆₈ = 142.8, P < 0.001); birds utilized lo‘i dikes for resting (60%) and maintenance activities (21%), whereas birds entered lo‘i primarily to forage (45%). The activity budget of Hawaiian Ducks was strongly influenced by time of day (F₁₈,₂₇₁₅.₇₈ = 6.4, P < 0.001), and birds spent more time engaged in active behaviors (i.e., foraging, locomotion, and alert) and less time resting during early morning and evening than during late morning and afternoon. While strong seasonal shifts in most behavioral patterns were not detected, males allocated more time to courting (1.1 vs. 0.3%; H1 = 6.92, P = 0.009) and mate-guarding (0.5 vs. <0.1%; H₁ = 9.83, P = 0.002) in managed wetlands between November and March than the remainder of the year. The effects of sex (F₆,₉₆₀ = 6.06, P < 0.001) and social status (F₆,₆₈₂ = 6.69, P < 0.001) on activity budgets were also significant. Females spent more time foraging (18 vs. 12%) and less time in alert, locomotor, and social behaviors than males. Paired birds allocated more time to aggression towards conspecifics, mate-guarding, and courtship, and within taro lo‘i, paired birds foraged more and rested less than unpaired birds. Overall, Hawaiian Duck allocated diurnal activity budgets differently in managed and cultivated wetland habitat at Hanalei NWR, suggesting that both systems may play an important role in fulfilling fundamental daily and seasonal resource requirements. The increased range of activities and foraging tactics used in managed wetlands may indicate the greater habitat diversity (e.g., vegetation structure, patchiness, plant species richness, range of water depths) provided by seasonal wetlands. In general, Hawaiian Duck allocated less time to diurnal foraging than North American Anas, such Mallard and Mottled Duck (A. fulvigula), suggesting that Hawaiian Duck may have lower daily and seasonal energy demands, have access to higher quality diet, or allot more time to nocturnal foraging activities. Also, unlike many North American migratory waterfowl that demonstrate significant behavioral plasticity in adjusting activity budgets to meet seasonal energy demands associated with breeding, molting, wintering, and migration, Hawaiian Duck did not exhibit a strong seasonal shift in most behaviors which may reflect their non-migratory nature and asynchronous life history cycle. Title: Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i Author: Malachowski, Christopher P. The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as habitat loss, overharvest, introduced mammalian predators, and hybridization with introduced feral Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). A key objective for Hawaiian Duck recovery is to establish a protected and managed network of wetland habitats; however, development of effective habitat management plans is stymied by the lack of information on patterns of habitat use in relation to fundamental resource requirements. Furthermore, many generalizations regarding dabbling duck behavior and resource requirements that guide seasonal wetland management objectives in North America may not apply to tropical regions and island systems. In this thesis, I compare the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck with closely related island-endemic waterfowl and migratory North American Anas, I investigate the behavioral response of Hawaiian Ducks to wetland habitat management and taro cultivation, and I examine the effects of environmental, climatic, temporal, and social factors on the activity budgets of Hawaiian Ducks. I conducted instantaneous focal sampling (n = 984 observation sessions; 328.8 hr) throughout the annual cycle from September 2010 to August 2011 at managed wetlands and taro lo'i within Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Kaua'i. I documented 73 specific Hawaiian Duck behaviors in eight broad behavior categories including foraging, maintenance, resting, locomotion, alert, courtship, and intraspecific and interspecific agonistic interactions. I found that the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck was similar to that of the Mallard; however, subtle variations in the form and linkage of certain courtship displays, such as nod-swimming, were observed. Additionally, male Hawaiian Ducks were occasionally associated with brood-rearing females (11% of brood observations), and this behavior appeared to be a male strategy whereby females received little perceived benefit , but males may have potentially garnered additional breeding attempts or maintained pair-bonds for subsequent breeding seasons. After accounting for sex, pair status, month, and time of day, the diurnal behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed between managed wetlands and taro habitats (F₆,₉₆₀ = 30.3, P < 0.001). Hawaiian Ducks utilized taro predominantly for resting (44%), maintenance (21%), and foraging (15%), while birds used managed wetlands for a variety of activities, including foraging (11%), maintenance (28%), resting (27%), and locomotion (22%). Social activities, particularly courtship, occurred more frequently in managed wetlands than in taro (H₁ = 11.9, P < 0.001). In managed wetlands, birds foraged slightly more with increasing cover of Cyperus spp. (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and Fimbristylis littoralis (r = 0.17, P < 0.01) and decreasing cover of Urochloa mutica (r = -0.15, P < 0.01) and wetland vegetation height (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Within taro habitat, the behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed significantly between birds in lo'i and on dikes (F₆,₄₆₈ = 142.8, P < 0.001); birds utilized lo‘i dikes for resting (60%) and maintenance activities (21%), whereas birds entered lo‘i primarily to forage (45%). The activity budget of Hawaiian Ducks was strongly influenced by time of day (F₁₈,₂₇₁₅.₇₈ = 6.4, P < 0.001), and birds spent more time engaged in active behaviors (i.e., foraging, locomotion, and alert) and less time resting during early morning and evening than during late morning and afternoon. While strong seasonal shifts in most behavioral patterns were not detected, males allocated more time to courting (1.1 vs. 0.3%; H1 = 6.92, P = 0.009) and mate-guarding (0.5 vs. <0.1%; H₁ = 9.83, P = 0.002) in managed wetlands between November and March than the remainder of the year. The effects of sex (F₆,₉₆₀ = 6.06, P < 0.001) and social status (F₆,₆₈₂ = 6.69, P < 0.001) on activity budgets were also significant. Females spent more time foraging (18 vs. 12%) and less time in alert, locomotor, and social behaviors than males. Paired birds allocated more time to aggression towards conspecifics, mate-guarding, and courtship, and within taro lo‘i, paired birds foraged more and rested less than unpaired birds. Overall, Hawaiian Duck allocated diurnal activity budgets differently in managed and cultivated wetland habitat at Hanalei NWR, suggesting that both systems may play an important role in fulfilling fundamental daily and seasonal resource requirements. The increased range of activities and foraging tactics used in managed wetlands may indicate the greater habitat diversity (e.g., vegetation structure, patchiness, plant species richness, range of water depths) provided by seasonal wetlands. In general, Hawaiian Duck allocated less time to diurnal foraging than North American Anas, such Mallard and Mottled Duck (A. fulvigula), suggesting that Hawaiian Duck may have lower daily and seasonal energy demands, have access to higher quality diet, or allot more time to nocturnal foraging activities. Also, unlike many North American migratory waterfowl that demonstrate significant behavioral plasticity in adjusting activity budgets to meet seasonal energy demands associated with breeding, molting, wintering, and migration, Hawaiian Duck did not exhibit a strong seasonal shift in most behaviors which may reflect their non-migratory nature and asynchronous life history cycle. Close

• 13087. [Article] All in a DNA's work : conservation genetics and monitoring of the New Zealand endemic Maui's and Hector's dolphins

  The critically endangered Maui's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori maui) and the endangered Hector's dolphin (C. h. hectori) are endemic to the coastal waters of New Zealand, where their primary threat ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: All in a DNA's work : conservation genetics and monitoring of the New Zealand endemic Maui's and Hector's dolphins Author: Hamner, Rebecca Marie The critically endangered Maui's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori maui) and the endangered Hector's dolphin (C. h. hectori) are endemic to the coastal waters of New Zealand, where their primary threat is fisheries-related mortality. The Maui's dolphin is among the most critically endangered cetaceans in the world, with its remnant population primarily concentrated in approximately 140 km along the central west coast of New Zealand's North Island. Its closely related sister subspecies, the Hector's dolphin, is more abundant and offers a useful comparison for studying the Maui's dolphin. My work used genetic tools to examine demographic and genetic parameters relevant for conservation considerations regarding Maui's and Hector's dolphins, as well as to build upon past genetic baselines for the purpose of long-term genetic monitoring of these subspecies. Three genetic datasets formed the basis for most analyses: (1) Maui's 01-07, including 54 Maui's dolphin individuals sampled between 2001 and 2007 (n = 70 biopsies, 12 beachcast); (2) Maui's 10-11, including 40 Maui's dolphin individuals sampled in 2010 and 2011 (n = 69 biopsies, 1 beachcast); and (3) Hector's CB11-12, including 148 Hector's dolphin individuals sampled in Cloudy Bay in 2011 and 2012 (n = 263 biopsies). Microsatellite genotypes were used to identify individuals for a genotype recapture abundance estimate of individuals age 1⁺ (N₁₊) and for the estimation of effective population size (N[subscript e]). Both populations exhibited a high N[subscript e] relative to N₁₊, consistent with expectations given their life history characteristics and the limited data available for other dolphin species. The abundance of Maui's dolphins was confirmed to be very low, Maui's 10-11 N₁₊ = 55 (95% CL = 48 - 69), and as expected, it had much lower linkage disequilibrium N[subscript e] (61, 95% CL = 29 - 338) than Hector's CB11-12 (N[subscript e] = 207, 95% CL = 127 - 447; N₁₊ = 272, 95% CL = 236 - 323). The slightly higher Ne/N₁₊ ratio of the Maui's dolphin compared to the Hector's dolphin is consistent with a recent decline in the Maui's dolphin. Although the point estimates of both N[subscript e] and N₁₊ decreased between the two Maui's dolphin datasets (Maui's 01-07: N[subscript e] = 74, 95% CL = 37 - 318; N₁₊ = 69, 95% CL = 38 - 125), the confidence intervals widely overlapped. Maui's 10-11 had significantly fewer alleles (average 4 alleles/locus) and lower heterozygosity (H₀ = 0.316, H[subscript e] = 0.319) than Hector's CB11-12 (average 7 alleles/locus, H₀ = 0.500, H[subscript e] = 0.495; all P <0.001). Interestingly, one microsatellite locus (PPHO104) had anomalously high diversity (31 to 63 alleles) in both Hector's and Maui's dolphins and appears to be influenced by diversifying selection. The observed and expected heterozygosity, internal relatedness, and F[subscript IS] of Maui's dolphins all showed patterns consistent with a decline of the subspecies, although none differed significantly over the short time interval between the two datasets collected in 2001-07 and 2010-11. The lack of significant decline in any of the parameters analyzed for Maui's dolphins is not surprising given the low power to detect a low to moderate decline over the short interval (<1 generation) between the two sampling periods. Compared to minimum viable effective population sizes proposed to guide management decisions, the Maui's dolphin has declined below the recommended threshold of N[subscript e] = 50, recently increased to N[subscript e] ≥100, thought to be necessary to avoid inbreeding depression in the short term (5 generations, ~65.2 years for Maui's and Hector's dolphins). Additionally, both the Maui's dolphin and Cloudy Bay Hector's dolphin populations are below the recommended threshold of N[subscript e] = 500, recently increased to N[subscript e] ≥1000, thought to be necessary to preserve long-term evolutionary potential. This is less of a concern for the Cloudy Bay Hector's population, which is thought to maintain gene flow with neighboring populations. However, for the small, isolated Maui's dolphin population, inbreeding depression is likely to be an increasing concern. Furthermore, each Maui's dolphin individual holds a disproportionate amount of the total genetic variation of the subspecies and would represent a disproportionately large demographic and genetic loss if it died before realizing its reproductive potential in the population. There is, however, potential for genetic restoration by interbreeding with Hector's dolphins, as genetic monitoring of Maui's dolphins revealed the first contemporary dispersal of four (two living females, one dead female, one dead male) Hector's dolphins into the Maui's dolphin distribution. Two Hector's dolphins (one dead female neonate, one living male) were also sampled along the North Island's southwest coast, outside the presumed range of either subspecies. Together, these records provide evidence of long-distance dispersal by Hector's dolphins (≥400 km) and the possibility of an unsampled Hector's dolphin population along the southwest coast of the North Island or northern South Island. These results highlight the value of genetic monitoring for subspecies lacking distinctive physical appearances, as such discoveries are not detected by other means but have important conservation implications. Although the Maui's dolphin is critically endangered, it is not necessarily doomed to extinction. The subspecies appears to be maintaining an equal sex ratio and connectivity within its remnant range, and the highly diverse locus PPHO104 could potentially offer clues to an inbreeding avoidance mechanism. If Maui's dolphins interbreed with the recently identified Hector's dolphin immigrants, it could provide genetic restoration, enhancing chances of long-term survival of the Maui's dolphin. Continued genetic monitoring and examination of recovered carcasses for phenotypic signs of inbreeding are important for gauging genetic threats to the survival of Maui's dolphins, as well as determining if any Hector's dolphin populations appear to be declining toward the critically endangered state of the Maui's dolphin. The results of this work contributed to the decision by the New Zealand Department of Conservation and Ministry for Primary Industries to conduct an updated risk assessment for Maui's dolphins and accelerate the review of the Maui's Dolphin Threat Management Plan. Consequently, commercial and recreational set net restrictions were extended slightly to reduce entanglement risk to Maui's dolphins utilizing the southern part of their distribution, as well as any Hector's dolphins that disperse north into that area. The results related to the population of Hector's dolphins in Cloudy Bay provide information that will contribute to the upcoming review of the Hector's dolphin component of the Threat Management Plan. Title: All in a DNA's work : conservation genetics and monitoring of the New Zealand endemic Maui's and Hector's dolphins Author: Hamner, Rebecca Marie The critically endangered Maui's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori maui) and the endangered Hector's dolphin (C. h. hectori) are endemic to the coastal waters of New Zealand, where their primary threat is fisheries-related mortality. The Maui's dolphin is among the most critically endangered cetaceans in the world, with its remnant population primarily concentrated in approximately 140 km along the central west coast of New Zealand's North Island. Its closely related sister subspecies, the Hector's dolphin, is more abundant and offers a useful comparison for studying the Maui's dolphin. My work used genetic tools to examine demographic and genetic parameters relevant for conservation considerations regarding Maui's and Hector's dolphins, as well as to build upon past genetic baselines for the purpose of long-term genetic monitoring of these subspecies. Three genetic datasets formed the basis for most analyses: (1) Maui's 01-07, including 54 Maui's dolphin individuals sampled between 2001 and 2007 (n = 70 biopsies, 12 beachcast); (2) Maui's 10-11, including 40 Maui's dolphin individuals sampled in 2010 and 2011 (n = 69 biopsies, 1 beachcast); and (3) Hector's CB11-12, including 148 Hector's dolphin individuals sampled in Cloudy Bay in 2011 and 2012 (n = 263 biopsies). Microsatellite genotypes were used to identify individuals for a genotype recapture abundance estimate of individuals age 1⁺ (N₁₊) and for the estimation of effective population size (N[subscript e]). Both populations exhibited a high N[subscript e] relative to N₁₊, consistent with expectations given their life history characteristics and the limited data available for other dolphin species. The abundance of Maui's dolphins was confirmed to be very low, Maui's 10-11 N₁₊ = 55 (95% CL = 48 - 69), and as expected, it had much lower linkage disequilibrium N[subscript e] (61, 95% CL = 29 - 338) than Hector's CB11-12 (N[subscript e] = 207, 95% CL = 127 - 447; N₁₊ = 272, 95% CL = 236 - 323). The slightly higher Ne/N₁₊ ratio of the Maui's dolphin compared to the Hector's dolphin is consistent with a recent decline in the Maui's dolphin. Although the point estimates of both N[subscript e] and N₁₊ decreased between the two Maui's dolphin datasets (Maui's 01-07: N[subscript e] = 74, 95% CL = 37 - 318; N₁₊ = 69, 95% CL = 38 - 125), the confidence intervals widely overlapped. Maui's 10-11 had significantly fewer alleles (average 4 alleles/locus) and lower heterozygosity (H₀ = 0.316, H[subscript e] = 0.319) than Hector's CB11-12 (average 7 alleles/locus, H₀ = 0.500, H[subscript e] = 0.495; all P <0.001). Interestingly, one microsatellite locus (PPHO104) had anomalously high diversity (31 to 63 alleles) in both Hector's and Maui's dolphins and appears to be influenced by diversifying selection. The observed and expected heterozygosity, internal relatedness, and F[subscript IS] of Maui's dolphins all showed patterns consistent with a decline of the subspecies, although none differed significantly over the short time interval between the two datasets collected in 2001-07 and 2010-11. The lack of significant decline in any of the parameters analyzed for Maui's dolphins is not surprising given the low power to detect a low to moderate decline over the short interval (<1 generation) between the two sampling periods. Compared to minimum viable effective population sizes proposed to guide management decisions, the Maui's dolphin has declined below the recommended threshold of N[subscript e] = 50, recently increased to N[subscript e] ≥100, thought to be necessary to avoid inbreeding depression in the short term (5 generations, ~65.2 years for Maui's and Hector's dolphins). Additionally, both the Maui's dolphin and Cloudy Bay Hector's dolphin populations are below the recommended threshold of N[subscript e] = 500, recently increased to N[subscript e] ≥1000, thought to be necessary to preserve long-term evolutionary potential. This is less of a concern for the Cloudy Bay Hector's population, which is thought to maintain gene flow with neighboring populations. However, for the small, isolated Maui's dolphin population, inbreeding depression is likely to be an increasing concern. Furthermore, each Maui's dolphin individual holds a disproportionate amount of the total genetic variation of the subspecies and would represent a disproportionately large demographic and genetic loss if it died before realizing its reproductive potential in the population. There is, however, potential for genetic restoration by interbreeding with Hector's dolphins, as genetic monitoring of Maui's dolphins revealed the first contemporary dispersal of four (two living females, one dead female, one dead male) Hector's dolphins into the Maui's dolphin distribution. Two Hector's dolphins (one dead female neonate, one living male) were also sampled along the North Island's southwest coast, outside the presumed range of either subspecies. Together, these records provide evidence of long-distance dispersal by Hector's dolphins (≥400 km) and the possibility of an unsampled Hector's dolphin population along the southwest coast of the North Island or northern South Island. These results highlight the value of genetic monitoring for subspecies lacking distinctive physical appearances, as such discoveries are not detected by other means but have important conservation implications. Although the Maui's dolphin is critically endangered, it is not necessarily doomed to extinction. The subspecies appears to be maintaining an equal sex ratio and connectivity within its remnant range, and the highly diverse locus PPHO104 could potentially offer clues to an inbreeding avoidance mechanism. If Maui's dolphins interbreed with the recently identified Hector's dolphin immigrants, it could provide genetic restoration, enhancing chances of long-term survival of the Maui's dolphin. Continued genetic monitoring and examination of recovered carcasses for phenotypic signs of inbreeding are important for gauging genetic threats to the survival of Maui's dolphins, as well as determining if any Hector's dolphin populations appear to be declining toward the critically endangered state of the Maui's dolphin. The results of this work contributed to the decision by the New Zealand Department of Conservation and Ministry for Primary Industries to conduct an updated risk assessment for Maui's dolphins and accelerate the review of the Maui's Dolphin Threat Management Plan. Consequently, commercial and recreational set net restrictions were extended slightly to reduce entanglement risk to Maui's dolphins utilizing the southern part of their distribution, as well as any Hector's dolphins that disperse north into that area. The results related to the population of Hector's dolphins in Cloudy Bay provide information that will contribute to the upcoming review of the Hector's dolphin component of the Threat Management Plan. Close

• 13088. [Article] Conserving energy by safe and environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1985

  This fifth annual Cooperative Pole Research Program report outlines our progress in the six project objectives. Improved Fumigants Sampling of previously established field tests revealed that Vorlex and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by safe and environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1985 Author: Oregon State University, Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products This fifth annual Cooperative Pole Research Program report outlines our progress in the six project objectives. Improved Fumigants Sampling of previously established field tests revealed that Vorlex and Chloropicrin continued to perform well after 15 years, while Vapam was slightly less effective. Solid methylisothiocyanate (MIT) also performed well in the field after 7 years. In additional tests, gelatin encapsulated MIT migrated through Douglas-fir heartwood with addition of moderate quantities of water to degrade the gelatin. However, in the presence of higher quantities of water or no additional water, MIT migration into the wood was slowed. In a previously established test, gelatin encapsulated MIT continues to inhibit reinfestation of poles 3 years after treatment. Pelletized MIT is a new formulation (65% active ingredient) that appears to have some promise. Preliminary tests indicate that up to 95% of the MIT is release in 24 hours, but a small quantity of MIT remains in the pellets after 63 days aeration and may pose a disposal hazard. The solid MIT formulations will permit aboveground applications, increasing the risk that MIT will come in contact with pole hardware. Preliminary tests indicate that MIT had little effect on corrosion of hot dipped, galvanized bolts attached to wood. This suggests that treatment in the crossarm zone with MIT or fumigants that produce MIT should not affect the integrity of attached hardware. i-i In addition to fumigant evaluations, we recently examined an earlier test of groundline treatments with Osmoplastic® and Hollowheart®. After 10 years, these treatments are performing reasonably well, with only a slight rise in the incidence of decay fungi in the past 4 years. We also reevaluated the effectiveness of kerfing for preventing decay and found that this process reduced the depth and width of checks, resulting in a decreased incidence of decay fungi. Kerfing appears to be a valuable method for preventing internal decay at the groundline. Cedar Sapwood Decay Control This past year, the second set of five chemicals applied to control sapwood decay were evaluated after 2 years of exposure. As in earlier evaluations using the Aspergillus bioassay, none of the chemicals approach pentachlorophenol in oil for ability to inhibit sporulation of Aspergillus niger; however, several samples from zones deep in the wood produced a slight zone of effect. This may indicate the presence of a reservoir for long-term protection against decay. Several of the chemicals including Fluor Chrome Arsenic Phenol and Ammoniacal Copper Arsenate (ACA) appear to bind to the wood and may be difficult to detect by the bioassay method. We expect to assess the effectiveness of these treatments using a soil block test. Investigations of the reliability of the Aspergillus bioassay under a variety of conditions indicated that quantity of spores, use of glass or plastic petri dishes, long-term cold storage, and the use of spray inoculum instead of flooding spores had little influence on the bioassay results with pentachiorophenol, Tributyl-tinoxide, or 3 iodo propynyl butylcarbamate; however, incubation temperature did influence assay results. The Aspergillus bioassay is a simple, effective means for estimating residual preservative levels. Bolt Holes Again this year, wood around the unprotected, control bolt holes in pole sections contained such low levels of decay fungi that evaluation of the treated poles will be delayed another year. In addition to the initial bolt hole treatments, we have begun a test to determine if gelatin encapsulated or pelletized MIT can prevent decay development in field-drilled bolt holes. The pole sections used in these tests had already begun to develop decay prior to treatment and will provide an ideal test material. Detecting Decay and Estimatin& Residual Strength of Poles Fluorescent labeled lectins used in our earlier studies detected decay fungi at low weight losses under laboratory conditions. We are currently evaluating this method for detecting fungi in increment cores removed from poles to reduce the need for culturing. Last year we identified a peak that was unique to infrared (IR) spectra of warm water extracts from decayed wood. This past year we attempted to identify the chemical responsible for this peak and found that carbonyl compounds, probably from oxidative lignin degradation, were responsible for the peak. Since brown rot fungi apparently do iv not completely metabolize lignin breakdown products, they accumulate in the decaying wood and can be readily detected by their IR spectra. Strength properties of beams cut front Douglas-fir pole sections, air-seasoned for 3 years significantly decreased although decay fungi could not be uniformly isolated from the beams. In addition, there were gradual declines in work to maximum load and modulus of elasticity, as well as increased Pilodyn pin penetration. These results suggest that some strength losses occurred during air-seasoning; however, the losses were not large and should not endanger pole users. We compared several test methods including the Pilodyn, radial compression tests, longitudinal compression tests, and the pick test for evaluating residual pole strength of the wood surface of Douglas-fir treated with combinations of funtigants or groundline wraps. The results indicate that only the pick test could accurately detect surface damage and illustrate the difficulty of detecting surface damage. This past year we evaluated several sections cut from ACA treated poles stored for a number of years to determine if they were worth salvaging. Static bending tests of beams cut from the ACA treated zone, the treated/untreated boundary, and the inner heartwood revealed ACA treated sapwood had lower MOR and longitudinal compression strength than the other zones. These results represent only a small sample, but they suggest that some strength loss occurs during ACA V treatments. More importantly, the results suggest that we could have reliably predicted beam MOR by testing small plugs removed from the poles. Small beams cut from decaying, pentachlorophenol treated Douglas-fir poles were acoustically tested for residual wood strength, then evaluated to failure in static bending. The acoustic test consisted of sending a pulsed sonic wave into the wood and recording this wave after it passed through the beam. As it moved, the wave was altered by the presence of any wood defects or decay, and these alterations create a "fingerprint" specific for that defect. Preliminary results indicated that signal analysis was highly 2 2 correlated with work to maximum load (r =.82) and MOR (r .88), suggesting that this approach to decay detection may prove more reliable than measuring of sound velocity. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir The results of the initial survey to determine the incidence of decay fungi in poles from widely scattered Pacific Northwest seasoning yards indicated that a variety of fungi were colonizing the wood. While most of these fungi do not pose a serious decay problem, two species, Poria carbonica and Poria placenta, became increasingly abundant with length of air-seasoning. These fungi are also the most conunon decayers of Douglas-fir poles in service. As expected, the number of fungi and the wood volume they occupied increased with seasoning time; however, this incidence varied considerably between yards, especially in poles air-seasoned for vi shorter time periods. In addition to the variation between sites, many of the decay fungi colonizing the wood appear to be monokaryons, indicating that spores landing on the wood are initiating the infestation. The distribution of fungi within the poles indicated that several of the more abundant decay fungi were present in the outer sapwood where they would be eliminated by conventional pressure treatment. The remaining fungi were most abundant in the heartwood but were more concentrated near the pole end. This suggests that exposed end grain was more readily invaded than lateral grain exposed in checks. In addition to identifying the fungi colonizing Douglas-fir, we examined the effects these fungi had on wood strength. Toughness tests indicated the presence of wide variation in decay capability of the isolates. Although there was no consistent pattern, most of the isolates did not cause substantial decay and, of those that did, only . carbonica and P. placenta were sufficiently abundant to have a large influence on wood strength. Due to the prevalence of P. carbonica and P. placenta in the inner heartwood, where they might not be eliminated in a short heating cycle, we evaluated the temperature tolerance of these two fungi in Douglas-fir heartwood blocks. These tests indicated that both fungi were eliminated by exposure to temperatures above 71°C for over 1 hour or 60°C for 2 hours. The results suggest that careful control of temperature during treatment should eliminate decay fungi and that wood treated at ambient temperatures should be heated to kill fungi that become established during air-seasoning. vii This past year was the third and final year of the decay development study. In this study, sterile pole sections have been exposed for 1, 2, or 3 years at widely scattered Pacific Northwest sites, then returned to the laboratory and extensively sampled. We are now in the process of identifying the fungi from the third year poles. In addition to examining poles prior to preservative treatment, we are also evaluating poles treated with waterborne chemicals (ACA or CCA) for the incidence of surface decay. This past year we examined twenty ACA-treated poles from a line installed in 1946. While a variety of fungi were cultured from the wood, none of the poles had evidence of substantial surface deterioration. A study was initiated on the fungal flora of fumigant treated wood because of the potential for fungi developing resistance to low levels of fumigant or the ability to actively degrade the chemical. Both of these developments could shorten fumigant retreatment cycles and increase maintenance costs. We have evaluated poles treated 7 and 15 years ago with fumigants and find markedly reduced fungal flora. Tests are continuing on the fungi isolated, and we hope to assess the effects of these isolates on long-term fumigant effectiveness. Title: Conserving energy by safe and environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1985 Author: Oregon State University, Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products This fifth annual Cooperative Pole Research Program report outlines our progress in the six project objectives. Improved Fumigants Sampling of previously established field tests revealed that Vorlex and Chloropicrin continued to perform well after 15 years, while Vapam was slightly less effective. Solid methylisothiocyanate (MIT) also performed well in the field after 7 years. In additional tests, gelatin encapsulated MIT migrated through Douglas-fir heartwood with addition of moderate quantities of water to degrade the gelatin. However, in the presence of higher quantities of water or no additional water, MIT migration into the wood was slowed. In a previously established test, gelatin encapsulated MIT continues to inhibit reinfestation of poles 3 years after treatment. Pelletized MIT is a new formulation (65% active ingredient) that appears to have some promise. Preliminary tests indicate that up to 95% of the MIT is release in 24 hours, but a small quantity of MIT remains in the pellets after 63 days aeration and may pose a disposal hazard. The solid MIT formulations will permit aboveground applications, increasing the risk that MIT will come in contact with pole hardware. Preliminary tests indicate that MIT had little effect on corrosion of hot dipped, galvanized bolts attached to wood. This suggests that treatment in the crossarm zone with MIT or fumigants that produce MIT should not affect the integrity of attached hardware. i-i In addition to fumigant evaluations, we recently examined an earlier test of groundline treatments with Osmoplastic® and Hollowheart®. After 10 years, these treatments are performing reasonably well, with only a slight rise in the incidence of decay fungi in the past 4 years. We also reevaluated the effectiveness of kerfing for preventing decay and found that this process reduced the depth and width of checks, resulting in a decreased incidence of decay fungi. Kerfing appears to be a valuable method for preventing internal decay at the groundline. Cedar Sapwood Decay Control This past year, the second set of five chemicals applied to control sapwood decay were evaluated after 2 years of exposure. As in earlier evaluations using the Aspergillus bioassay, none of the chemicals approach pentachlorophenol in oil for ability to inhibit sporulation of Aspergillus niger; however, several samples from zones deep in the wood produced a slight zone of effect. This may indicate the presence of a reservoir for long-term protection against decay. Several of the chemicals including Fluor Chrome Arsenic Phenol and Ammoniacal Copper Arsenate (ACA) appear to bind to the wood and may be difficult to detect by the bioassay method. We expect to assess the effectiveness of these treatments using a soil block test. Investigations of the reliability of the Aspergillus bioassay under a variety of conditions indicated that quantity of spores, use of glass or plastic petri dishes, long-term cold storage, and the use of spray inoculum instead of flooding spores had little influence on the bioassay results with pentachiorophenol, Tributyl-tinoxide, or 3 iodo propynyl butylcarbamate; however, incubation temperature did influence assay results. The Aspergillus bioassay is a simple, effective means for estimating residual preservative levels. Bolt Holes Again this year, wood around the unprotected, control bolt holes in pole sections contained such low levels of decay fungi that evaluation of the treated poles will be delayed another year. In addition to the initial bolt hole treatments, we have begun a test to determine if gelatin encapsulated or pelletized MIT can prevent decay development in field-drilled bolt holes. The pole sections used in these tests had already begun to develop decay prior to treatment and will provide an ideal test material. Detecting Decay and Estimatin& Residual Strength of Poles Fluorescent labeled lectins used in our earlier studies detected decay fungi at low weight losses under laboratory conditions. We are currently evaluating this method for detecting fungi in increment cores removed from poles to reduce the need for culturing. Last year we identified a peak that was unique to infrared (IR) spectra of warm water extracts from decayed wood. This past year we attempted to identify the chemical responsible for this peak and found that carbonyl compounds, probably from oxidative lignin degradation, were responsible for the peak. Since brown rot fungi apparently do iv not completely metabolize lignin breakdown products, they accumulate in the decaying wood and can be readily detected by their IR spectra. Strength properties of beams cut front Douglas-fir pole sections, air-seasoned for 3 years significantly decreased although decay fungi could not be uniformly isolated from the beams. In addition, there were gradual declines in work to maximum load and modulus of elasticity, as well as increased Pilodyn pin penetration. These results suggest that some strength losses occurred during air-seasoning; however, the losses were not large and should not endanger pole users. We compared several test methods including the Pilodyn, radial compression tests, longitudinal compression tests, and the pick test for evaluating residual pole strength of the wood surface of Douglas-fir treated with combinations of funtigants or groundline wraps. The results indicate that only the pick test could accurately detect surface damage and illustrate the difficulty of detecting surface damage. This past year we evaluated several sections cut from ACA treated poles stored for a number of years to determine if they were worth salvaging. Static bending tests of beams cut from the ACA treated zone, the treated/untreated boundary, and the inner heartwood revealed ACA treated sapwood had lower MOR and longitudinal compression strength than the other zones. These results represent only a small sample, but they suggest that some strength loss occurs during ACA V treatments. More importantly, the results suggest that we could have reliably predicted beam MOR by testing small plugs removed from the poles. Small beams cut from decaying, pentachlorophenol treated Douglas-fir poles were acoustically tested for residual wood strength, then evaluated to failure in static bending. The acoustic test consisted of sending a pulsed sonic wave into the wood and recording this wave after it passed through the beam. As it moved, the wave was altered by the presence of any wood defects or decay, and these alterations create a "fingerprint" specific for that defect. Preliminary results indicated that signal analysis was highly 2 2 correlated with work to maximum load (r =.82) and MOR (r .88), suggesting that this approach to decay detection may prove more reliable than measuring of sound velocity. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir The results of the initial survey to determine the incidence of decay fungi in poles from widely scattered Pacific Northwest seasoning yards indicated that a variety of fungi were colonizing the wood. While most of these fungi do not pose a serious decay problem, two species, Poria carbonica and Poria placenta, became increasingly abundant with length of air-seasoning. These fungi are also the most conunon decayers of Douglas-fir poles in service. As expected, the number of fungi and the wood volume they occupied increased with seasoning time; however, this incidence varied considerably between yards, especially in poles air-seasoned for vi shorter time periods. In addition to the variation between sites, many of the decay fungi colonizing the wood appear to be monokaryons, indicating that spores landing on the wood are initiating the infestation. The distribution of fungi within the poles indicated that several of the more abundant decay fungi were present in the outer sapwood where they would be eliminated by conventional pressure treatment. The remaining fungi were most abundant in the heartwood but were more concentrated near the pole end. This suggests that exposed end grain was more readily invaded than lateral grain exposed in checks. In addition to identifying the fungi colonizing Douglas-fir, we examined the effects these fungi had on wood strength. Toughness tests indicated the presence of wide variation in decay capability of the isolates. Although there was no consistent pattern, most of the isolates did not cause substantial decay and, of those that did, only . carbonica and P. placenta were sufficiently abundant to have a large influence on wood strength. Due to the prevalence of P. carbonica and P. placenta in the inner heartwood, where they might not be eliminated in a short heating cycle, we evaluated the temperature tolerance of these two fungi in Douglas-fir heartwood blocks. These tests indicated that both fungi were eliminated by exposure to temperatures above 71°C for over 1 hour or 60°C for 2 hours. The results suggest that careful control of temperature during treatment should eliminate decay fungi and that wood treated at ambient temperatures should be heated to kill fungi that become established during air-seasoning. vii This past year was the third and final year of the decay development study. In this study, sterile pole sections have been exposed for 1, 2, or 3 years at widely scattered Pacific Northwest sites, then returned to the laboratory and extensively sampled. We are now in the process of identifying the fungi from the third year poles. In addition to examining poles prior to preservative treatment, we are also evaluating poles treated with waterborne chemicals (ACA or CCA) for the incidence of surface decay. This past year we examined twenty ACA-treated poles from a line installed in 1946. While a variety of fungi were cultured from the wood, none of the poles had evidence of substantial surface deterioration. A study was initiated on the fungal flora of fumigant treated wood because of the potential for fungi developing resistance to low levels of fumigant or the ability to actively degrade the chemical. Both of these developments could shorten fumigant retreatment cycles and increase maintenance costs. We have evaluated poles treated 7 and 15 years ago with fumigants and find markedly reduced fungal flora. Tests are continuing on the fungi isolated, and we hope to assess the effects of these isolates on long-term fumigant effectiveness. Close

• 13089. [Article] Students as pro-social bystanders : opportunities, past behaviors, and intentions to intervene in sexual assault risk situations

  Sexual assault is a major public health concern in the U.S, and college students are particularly vulnerable to victimization. A health issue that affects nearly one in four women (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Students as pro-social bystanders : opportunities, past behaviors, and intentions to intervene in sexual assault risk situations Author: Hoxmeier, Jill C. Sexual assault is a major public health concern in the U.S, and college students are particularly vulnerable to victimization. A health issue that affects nearly one in four women (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; Karjane, Cullen, & Turner, 2005) and that is associated with severe negative health outcomes, including depression substance abuse, suicide ideation, and risky sexual behaviors (CDC, 2012), warrants effective prevention programs. Moving away from traditional prevention efforts, which target females as potential victims in risk reduction programs and males as potential perpetrators in attitudinal-shifting programs, bystander engagement programs have become increasingly more widespread. These programs aim to engage all students on the college campus as potential bystanders who can intervene to prevent a sexual assault or reduce the harm of an assault that has already occurred (Banyard, Moynihan & Plante, 2007). Burn (2009) investigated potential barriers to pro-social bystander intervention using the Situational Model of Bystander Intervention, a model based on the original research of bystander behavior of Latanè and Darley (1970). The model outlines five barriers that influence students' intent to intervene as witnesses to sexual assault: failure to notice the situation, failure to identify the situation as high risk, failure to take intervention responsibility, failure to intervene due to skills deficit, and failure to intervene due to audience inhibition (Burn, 2009). She found that students' perception of barriers negatively correlated with intervention behaviors as bystanders to sexual assault (Burn, 2009). Although bystander engagement programs have shown initial promise in increasing students' intent to intervene, more needs to be known about the opportunities students have to intervene, their past intervention actions, and their intent to intervene in the future across the wide range of situations that encompass sexual assault risk. In addition, to develop effective programs that aim to increase pro-social behavior, understanding the salient influences of students' intent is critical. This study uses the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1991) to examine the influences of students’ intent to perform 12 different pro-social bystander behaviors. The TPB asserts that individuals' behavior is most proximally influenced by their behavioral intentions, and intentions are influences by their perceived behavioral control to perform the behavior, subjective norms that support performing the behavior, and attitudes toward the behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1991). The four primary aims of this study were: 1) to examine the demographic correlates of students' opportunities, past intervention actions, and reported intent to intervene; 2) to examine any differences in students' intent to intervene based on the level of intervention (pre-, mid-, and post-assault) and type of intervention (with the potential or actual victim compared to the potential or actual perpetrator); 3) to examine the influences of perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes on students' intent to intervene as bystanders; and 4) to compare the TPB-based model to the Situational Model of Bystander Intervention (Burn, 2009) in its ability to explain students' intent to intervene as bystanders. In the Fall of 2014, a sample of 815 undergraduate students at Oregon State University completed the Sexual Assault Bystander Behavior Questionnaire (SABB-Q), a tool comprised of items to measure students' opportunities, past behaviors, and future intent, in addition to measures assessing the influences of students' intent in line with the Theory of Planned Behavior and Burn's (2009) Situational Model of Bystander Intervention. Students who participate in Greek communities (fraternities and sororities) reported significantly greater odds of having the opportunity to perform four of the 12 intervention behaviors compared to non-Greek students, while student-athletes reported significantly greater odds of having the opportunity to perform two of the 12 intervention behaviors. Females reported significantly more past pro-social intervention behaviors (x̄ = 0.87) compared to males (x̄ = 0.79; p = 0.007). Regarding intent to intervene in the future, females reported significantly greater intent to intervene compared to males (x̄ = 6.07 vs. 5.68; p = 0.007). Students with friends who have been victims of sexual assault reported greater intent to intervene compared those without friends who have been victims (x̄ = 6.04 vs. 5.89; p = 0.02). Students with a personal history of victimization reported significantly greater intent compared to those without a personal history (x̄ =6.13 vs 5.93; p = 0.03). Students reported significantly greater intent to intervene with the potential or actual victim compared to the potential or actual perpetrator (x̄ = 6.19 vs. 5.74, p < 0.001). Females reported significantly greater intent to intervene with both the potential or actual victims and perpetrators (x̄ = 6.31 and 5.84, respectively) compared to males (x̄ = 5.88 and 5.49, respectively). Both males and females reported the greatest intent to perform post-assault intervention behavior (x̄ = 6.23), followed by pre-assault (x̄ = 6.08) and mid-assault behaviors (x̄ = 5.57). Females reported significantly greater intent to perform nine of the 12 pro-social intervention behaviors compared to males. A multiple regression analysis revealed that perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes explained a significant proportion of the variance in intent to intervene (R² = 0.55, F(3, 771) = 315.68, p < 0.000). Perceived behavioral control was highly significant (β = 0.48, p < 0.001), as were subjective norms (β = 0.15, p < 0.001) and attitudes (β = 0.30, p < 0.001). Gender differences were also observed. For females, perceived behavioral control was highly significant (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), as were subjective norms (β = 0.15, p < 0.001) and attitudes (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). For males, perceived behavioral control was highly significant (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), as were attitudes (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). However, males' subjective norms were not significantly related (β = 0.07, p = 0.199) to their intent to intervene. Further analysis revealed a significant interaction between gender and subjective norms (β = -0.28; p = 0.039). The TPB-based model including this moderation effect explained a significant proportion of the variance in students' intent to intervene (R² = 0.57, F(6, 766) = 168.46, p < 0.000). Interveners reported significantly greater perceived behavioral control than non-interveners for seven of the 12 intervention behaviors; more supportive subjective norms than non-interveners for six of the 12 intervention behaviors; more positive attitudes than non-interveners for only one of the 12 intervention behaviors; and greater intent to intervene in the future for six of the 12 intervention behaviors. However, differences in the three TPB variables between interveners and non-interveners were not consistent for the 12 intervention behaviors. Regarding Burn's (2009) Situational Model of Bystander Intervention, a multiple regression analysis revealed two of the five barriers were significantly related to students’ intent to intervene: the failure to take intervention responsibility barrier (β = -0.29, p < 0.001) and the failure to intervene due to audience inhibition barrier (β = -0.22, p < 0.001). The model in whole explained a large proportion of the variance (R2 = 0.25, F(5, 768) = 50.14, p < 0.000). Gender differences were also observed. For females, failure to take intervention responsibility (β = -0.23; p < 0.000) and failure to intervene due to audience inhibition (β = -0.23; p < 0.001) both had a significant, negative influence on their intent to intervene. For males, failure to take intervention responsibility (β = -0.21; p < 0.014) had a significant, negative influence on intent to intervene. Additional analysis revealed no significant interactions between gender and any of the five barriers. The TPB-based model explained a greater proportion of the variance (R2 = 0.55) compared to Situational Model of Bystander Intervention (R² = 0.25) in the multiple regression analysis using all 12 intervention behaviors. All three variables in the TPB-based model were significantly related to students’ intent, whereas only two of the five barriers were significantly related. A final multiple regression analysis was conducted using all three significant TPB variables and the two significant barriers to explain students' intent to intervene. The combined model explained a significant proportion of variance in students' intent (R² = 0.58 F(5, 756) = 206.19, p < 0.000) and significantly improved upon the TPB-based model (Δ R² = 0.03; p < 0.000). The results of this study have several implications for future research and public health practice. First, it is important to ask students about their opportunities to intervene in addition to their actual intervention behaviors because this information helps paint a clearer picture of bystander engagement. This assessment could also help identify high-risk groups: students who have greater opportunities to intervene as bystanders and/or report fewer intervention behaviors compared to their reported opportunities. Second, students may conceptualize intervention behaviors differently depending on the phase of the assault and with whom the intervention behavior requires intervening. Accordingly, programs aimed at encouraging students to intervene should take these differences into consideration. Third, the Theory of Planned Behavior, used to explain and change other health-related behaviors, can effectively be applied to help uncover determinants of pro-social bystander behaviors. Perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes appear to be salient influences in students' intent to intervene. Therefore, bystander engagement programs should incorporate activities to heighten students' skills to intervene, change social norms that support bystander intervention, and shift attitudes toward the benefits of intervening. This study demonstrates the importance of using an established, evidenced-based theoretical framework to explain behavioral influences and strengthens the argument for continued use of theory to identify, and potentially change, salient influences in behavioral performance. Students as pro-social bystanders have the potential to make a positive impact on the reduction of sexual assault on the college campus. Although the responsibility for sexual assault rests on those who perpetrate such acts, and primary prevention strategies aimed at those demonstrating a risk for perpetration are imperative, sexual assault is a public health issue that warrants a multi-pronged approach to reduce its incidence and migrate its associated harms. Programs that engage students as pro-social bystanders have the potential to make a positive impact on the reduction of sexual assault incidence in the absence of effective primary prevention strategies. The findings of this study make a contribution to the literature examining influences of students' pro-social bystander intervention to sexual assault situations and provide suggestions for strategies to increase bystander engagement. Title: Students as pro-social bystanders : opportunities, past behaviors, and intentions to intervene in sexual assault risk situations Author: Hoxmeier, Jill C. Sexual assault is a major public health concern in the U.S, and college students are particularly vulnerable to victimization. A health issue that affects nearly one in four women (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; Karjane, Cullen, & Turner, 2005) and that is associated with severe negative health outcomes, including depression substance abuse, suicide ideation, and risky sexual behaviors (CDC, 2012), warrants effective prevention programs. Moving away from traditional prevention efforts, which target females as potential victims in risk reduction programs and males as potential perpetrators in attitudinal-shifting programs, bystander engagement programs have become increasingly more widespread. These programs aim to engage all students on the college campus as potential bystanders who can intervene to prevent a sexual assault or reduce the harm of an assault that has already occurred (Banyard, Moynihan & Plante, 2007). Burn (2009) investigated potential barriers to pro-social bystander intervention using the Situational Model of Bystander Intervention, a model based on the original research of bystander behavior of Latanè and Darley (1970). The model outlines five barriers that influence students' intent to intervene as witnesses to sexual assault: failure to notice the situation, failure to identify the situation as high risk, failure to take intervention responsibility, failure to intervene due to skills deficit, and failure to intervene due to audience inhibition (Burn, 2009). She found that students' perception of barriers negatively correlated with intervention behaviors as bystanders to sexual assault (Burn, 2009). Although bystander engagement programs have shown initial promise in increasing students' intent to intervene, more needs to be known about the opportunities students have to intervene, their past intervention actions, and their intent to intervene in the future across the wide range of situations that encompass sexual assault risk. In addition, to develop effective programs that aim to increase pro-social behavior, understanding the salient influences of students' intent is critical. This study uses the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1991) to examine the influences of students’ intent to perform 12 different pro-social bystander behaviors. The TPB asserts that individuals' behavior is most proximally influenced by their behavioral intentions, and intentions are influences by their perceived behavioral control to perform the behavior, subjective norms that support performing the behavior, and attitudes toward the behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1991). The four primary aims of this study were: 1) to examine the demographic correlates of students' opportunities, past intervention actions, and reported intent to intervene; 2) to examine any differences in students' intent to intervene based on the level of intervention (pre-, mid-, and post-assault) and type of intervention (with the potential or actual victim compared to the potential or actual perpetrator); 3) to examine the influences of perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes on students' intent to intervene as bystanders; and 4) to compare the TPB-based model to the Situational Model of Bystander Intervention (Burn, 2009) in its ability to explain students' intent to intervene as bystanders. In the Fall of 2014, a sample of 815 undergraduate students at Oregon State University completed the Sexual Assault Bystander Behavior Questionnaire (SABB-Q), a tool comprised of items to measure students' opportunities, past behaviors, and future intent, in addition to measures assessing the influences of students' intent in line with the Theory of Planned Behavior and Burn's (2009) Situational Model of Bystander Intervention. Students who participate in Greek communities (fraternities and sororities) reported significantly greater odds of having the opportunity to perform four of the 12 intervention behaviors compared to non-Greek students, while student-athletes reported significantly greater odds of having the opportunity to perform two of the 12 intervention behaviors. Females reported significantly more past pro-social intervention behaviors (x̄ = 0.87) compared to males (x̄ = 0.79; p = 0.007). Regarding intent to intervene in the future, females reported significantly greater intent to intervene compared to males (x̄ = 6.07 vs. 5.68; p = 0.007). Students with friends who have been victims of sexual assault reported greater intent to intervene compared those without friends who have been victims (x̄ = 6.04 vs. 5.89; p = 0.02). Students with a personal history of victimization reported significantly greater intent compared to those without a personal history (x̄ =6.13 vs 5.93; p = 0.03). Students reported significantly greater intent to intervene with the potential or actual victim compared to the potential or actual perpetrator (x̄ = 6.19 vs. 5.74, p < 0.001). Females reported significantly greater intent to intervene with both the potential or actual victims and perpetrators (x̄ = 6.31 and 5.84, respectively) compared to males (x̄ = 5.88 and 5.49, respectively). Both males and females reported the greatest intent to perform post-assault intervention behavior (x̄ = 6.23), followed by pre-assault (x̄ = 6.08) and mid-assault behaviors (x̄ = 5.57). Females reported significantly greater intent to perform nine of the 12 pro-social intervention behaviors compared to males. A multiple regression analysis revealed that perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes explained a significant proportion of the variance in intent to intervene (R² = 0.55, F(3, 771) = 315.68, p < 0.000). Perceived behavioral control was highly significant (β = 0.48, p < 0.001), as were subjective norms (β = 0.15, p < 0.001) and attitudes (β = 0.30, p < 0.001). Gender differences were also observed. For females, perceived behavioral control was highly significant (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), as were subjective norms (β = 0.15, p < 0.001) and attitudes (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). For males, perceived behavioral control was highly significant (β = 0.49, p < 0.001), as were attitudes (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). However, males' subjective norms were not significantly related (β = 0.07, p = 0.199) to their intent to intervene. Further analysis revealed a significant interaction between gender and subjective norms (β = -0.28; p = 0.039). The TPB-based model including this moderation effect explained a significant proportion of the variance in students' intent to intervene (R² = 0.57, F(6, 766) = 168.46, p < 0.000). Interveners reported significantly greater perceived behavioral control than non-interveners for seven of the 12 intervention behaviors; more supportive subjective norms than non-interveners for six of the 12 intervention behaviors; more positive attitudes than non-interveners for only one of the 12 intervention behaviors; and greater intent to intervene in the future for six of the 12 intervention behaviors. However, differences in the three TPB variables between interveners and non-interveners were not consistent for the 12 intervention behaviors. Regarding Burn's (2009) Situational Model of Bystander Intervention, a multiple regression analysis revealed two of the five barriers were significantly related to students’ intent to intervene: the failure to take intervention responsibility barrier (β = -0.29, p < 0.001) and the failure to intervene due to audience inhibition barrier (β = -0.22, p < 0.001). The model in whole explained a large proportion of the variance (R2 = 0.25, F(5, 768) = 50.14, p < 0.000). Gender differences were also observed. For females, failure to take intervention responsibility (β = -0.23; p < 0.000) and failure to intervene due to audience inhibition (β = -0.23; p < 0.001) both had a significant, negative influence on their intent to intervene. For males, failure to take intervention responsibility (β = -0.21; p < 0.014) had a significant, negative influence on intent to intervene. Additional analysis revealed no significant interactions between gender and any of the five barriers. The TPB-based model explained a greater proportion of the variance (R2 = 0.55) compared to Situational Model of Bystander Intervention (R² = 0.25) in the multiple regression analysis using all 12 intervention behaviors. All three variables in the TPB-based model were significantly related to students’ intent, whereas only two of the five barriers were significantly related. A final multiple regression analysis was conducted using all three significant TPB variables and the two significant barriers to explain students' intent to intervene. The combined model explained a significant proportion of variance in students' intent (R² = 0.58 F(5, 756) = 206.19, p < 0.000) and significantly improved upon the TPB-based model (Δ R² = 0.03; p < 0.000). The results of this study have several implications for future research and public health practice. First, it is important to ask students about their opportunities to intervene in addition to their actual intervention behaviors because this information helps paint a clearer picture of bystander engagement. This assessment could also help identify high-risk groups: students who have greater opportunities to intervene as bystanders and/or report fewer intervention behaviors compared to their reported opportunities. Second, students may conceptualize intervention behaviors differently depending on the phase of the assault and with whom the intervention behavior requires intervening. Accordingly, programs aimed at encouraging students to intervene should take these differences into consideration. Third, the Theory of Planned Behavior, used to explain and change other health-related behaviors, can effectively be applied to help uncover determinants of pro-social bystander behaviors. Perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and attitudes appear to be salient influences in students' intent to intervene. Therefore, bystander engagement programs should incorporate activities to heighten students' skills to intervene, change social norms that support bystander intervention, and shift attitudes toward the benefits of intervening. This study demonstrates the importance of using an established, evidenced-based theoretical framework to explain behavioral influences and strengthens the argument for continued use of theory to identify, and potentially change, salient influences in behavioral performance. Students as pro-social bystanders have the potential to make a positive impact on the reduction of sexual assault on the college campus. Although the responsibility for sexual assault rests on those who perpetrate such acts, and primary prevention strategies aimed at those demonstrating a risk for perpetration are imperative, sexual assault is a public health issue that warrants a multi-pronged approach to reduce its incidence and migrate its associated harms. Programs that engage students as pro-social bystanders have the potential to make a positive impact on the reduction of sexual assault incidence in the absence of effective primary prevention strategies. The findings of this study make a contribution to the literature examining influences of students' pro-social bystander intervention to sexual assault situations and provide suggestions for strategies to increase bystander engagement. Close

• 13090. [Article] Maximizing urban property values through open space conservation

  This study investigates the share of open space that maximizes total private property values in urban areas. Open space poses a number of trade-offs to city managers. On the one hand, previous studies ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Maximizing urban property values through open space conservation Author: Oakley, Winston This study investigates the share of open space that maximizes total private property values in urban areas. Open space poses a number of trade-offs to city managers. On the one hand, previous studies have shown that certain kinds of open space can increase property values, which tends to increase tax revenues. On the other hand, open space typically requires substantial capital to establish and perpetual maintenance costs to maintain. This means that in order to keep the city budget balanced, financing open space requires either taking money away from other municipal services, which may be of greater value to residents than open space, or increasing the property tax rate. Both these courses of actions tend to reduce property values, and therefore, lower tax revenues. Open space also incurs an opportunity cost, in that land used for open space could be developed and taxed. While previous research has modeled these trade-offs, there is still more to be learned by empirically estimating the share of open space that maximizes property values in urban areas. According to the theoretical underpinnings of this study, one of the primary determinants of a city's value-maximizing, or "optimal", share of open space is the price elasticity of housing supply. Therefore, in order to estimate the optimal share of open space, this study estimates the price elasticity of housing supply for 349 U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs). According to theory, the other factors that determine the optimal share of open space are the price elasticity of housing demand, the economies of scale in the provision of municipal services, the elasticity of property values with respect to municipal services, and the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space. For these factors, an example value is establish based on prior research and used commonly among all MSAs to estimate the optimal share. Once the estimated and example values are determined, they are inserted into the equation that determines the optimal share of open space. The result provides an estimate of this optimal share of open space for 349 MSAs. On average, the model, combined with the estimated and assumed values, produces very low estimates for the optimal share of open space. The mean optimal share was 1.5%, and 95% of the estimates were 5% or less. For shares based on statistically significant supply elasticity estimates, optimal shares ranged from 0.2% to 27%. In order to gauge how far cities were from their estimated optimal share of open space, this study compared the estimated optimal share to observed shares of open space in 72 MSAs. When compared to observed shares of open space, the model (along with the estimated and assumed values) showed that 89% of the observed MSAs displayed "excesses" of open space, or, an observed share of open space that exceeded their optimal share. The other 11% demonstrated a "shortage" of open space. The average deviation between optimal and actual share was an excess of 6.3 percentage points. Further analysis was conducted in order to account for the error inherent in the supply elasticity estimates (and subsequently inherent to the estimates of optimal share). Once this error was accounted for, only two cities still showed evidence of having open space shortages: Stockton, CA and Miami, FL. However, both cities were within a percentage point of their optimal share's confidence interval, making it possible these cities are not experiencing meaningful shortages of open space. In contrast, 92% of the cities in the sample set showed statistically significant excesses of open space. Of these, five MSAs exceeded their confidence intervals by 15 or more percentage points: Austin, TX; Albuquerque, NM; Akron, OH; New Orleans, LA; and Anchorage, AK. Because these cities' actual share of open space lies so far above their optimal share, it is very likely that decreasing open space area would increase property values. Two cities in the sample fell within their optimal share's confidence interval: Washington, DC and Virginia Beach, VA. Of all the cities in the sample set, these two are the most likely to be at their optimal share of open space, and therefore, are the most likely to decrease property values by making any changes to their share of open space. After this primary analysis, a sensitivity analysis was conducted in order to determine how assumptions regarding the variables impacted the estimated optimal share of open space. A reasonable range for each variable was established based on the literature, and this range was used to test each variable’s effect on the optimal share of open space. These tests revealed that the optimal share is not especially sensitive to the assumed values for the price elasticity of housing demand, nor to the economy of scale in the provision of municipal services. However, the elasticity of property values with respect to municipal services and the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space both have large influences on the optimal share. The impact of all the other variables increased as supply elasticity decreased, and as the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space increased. Because the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space has such a disproportionate influence on the optimal share of open space, and because there is very little empirical evidence surrounding its value, further analysis was done to investigate this variable. By assuming that the 72 MSAs for which there is an observed share of open space are at their optimal share, in conjunction with the estimated and assumed values for the other variables, one can estimate the implied value for the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space. Using this method, this study found that the average implied elasticity was 0.57. While this result could indicate that open space has a higher-than-assumed effect on housing demand, evidence from the literature suggests this value is too high. It is more likely that this result provides further evidence that the model is indicating actual shares of open space are higher than optimal. In the final portion of the sensitivity analysis, cities' observed shares of open space were again assumed to be at the optimal level, however, the other variables assume the limits of their reasonable range so as to make the implied elasticity as high or as low as possible. This analysis provided further evidence of discrepancies between actual and optimal shares of open space. While the evidence for open space shortages was fairly slim, the analysis reinforced evidence that some cities have excess open space. Those that presented the highest implied elasticities (and therefore show the strongest evidence of open space excess) are Austin, TX; Akron, OH; and Greensboro, NC. By comparing optimal shares of open space to observed shares of open space, the results show that the majority of cities could likely increase property values by decreasing their share of open space. This study also sheds new light on the relationship between housing demand and open space. By defining a reasonable value and range for the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space, this study adds to the scarce information on this variable. While the results of this study indicate that many urban areas in the U.S. have larger shares of open space than would maximize property values, it is important to emphasize that the value-maximizing share of open space is not the socially optimal share. Open space provides a number of other social benefits that are not capitalized into property values, and are therefore not considered in this study. Environmental benefits are one important example. Further research is needed to determine the socially optimal amount of open space that maximizes social welfare. The appendices of this study list both the estimates of housing supply elasticity and the estimates of value-maximizing share for the 349 MSAs in the sample set. For the managers of cities that were included in the study, these figures can provide valuable information to help them better understand the implications of open space provision. The housing supply elasticities serve to better illuminate housing markets in their area. The optimal share estimates allow managers to better understand the relationship between property values and open space. For the managers of cities not included in this study, the methods presented here offer a relatively simple way to calculate their own housing supply elasticity and optimal share. With data on housing prices, housing construction, and population, interested parties can estimate the supply elasticity in their cities. Using this estimate in combination with the values this study assumed for the other variables, they can estimate their own value-maximizing share of open space. By comparing this figure to their present share of open space, city managers can gain a better understanding of the effect open space has on the property values within their city. Title: Maximizing urban property values through open space conservation Author: Oakley, Winston This study investigates the share of open space that maximizes total private property values in urban areas. Open space poses a number of trade-offs to city managers. On the one hand, previous studies have shown that certain kinds of open space can increase property values, which tends to increase tax revenues. On the other hand, open space typically requires substantial capital to establish and perpetual maintenance costs to maintain. This means that in order to keep the city budget balanced, financing open space requires either taking money away from other municipal services, which may be of greater value to residents than open space, or increasing the property tax rate. Both these courses of actions tend to reduce property values, and therefore, lower tax revenues. Open space also incurs an opportunity cost, in that land used for open space could be developed and taxed. While previous research has modeled these trade-offs, there is still more to be learned by empirically estimating the share of open space that maximizes property values in urban areas. According to the theoretical underpinnings of this study, one of the primary determinants of a city's value-maximizing, or "optimal", share of open space is the price elasticity of housing supply. Therefore, in order to estimate the optimal share of open space, this study estimates the price elasticity of housing supply for 349 U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs). According to theory, the other factors that determine the optimal share of open space are the price elasticity of housing demand, the economies of scale in the provision of municipal services, the elasticity of property values with respect to municipal services, and the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space. For these factors, an example value is establish based on prior research and used commonly among all MSAs to estimate the optimal share. Once the estimated and example values are determined, they are inserted into the equation that determines the optimal share of open space. The result provides an estimate of this optimal share of open space for 349 MSAs. On average, the model, combined with the estimated and assumed values, produces very low estimates for the optimal share of open space. The mean optimal share was 1.5%, and 95% of the estimates were 5% or less. For shares based on statistically significant supply elasticity estimates, optimal shares ranged from 0.2% to 27%. In order to gauge how far cities were from their estimated optimal share of open space, this study compared the estimated optimal share to observed shares of open space in 72 MSAs. When compared to observed shares of open space, the model (along with the estimated and assumed values) showed that 89% of the observed MSAs displayed "excesses" of open space, or, an observed share of open space that exceeded their optimal share. The other 11% demonstrated a "shortage" of open space. The average deviation between optimal and actual share was an excess of 6.3 percentage points. Further analysis was conducted in order to account for the error inherent in the supply elasticity estimates (and subsequently inherent to the estimates of optimal share). Once this error was accounted for, only two cities still showed evidence of having open space shortages: Stockton, CA and Miami, FL. However, both cities were within a percentage point of their optimal share's confidence interval, making it possible these cities are not experiencing meaningful shortages of open space. In contrast, 92% of the cities in the sample set showed statistically significant excesses of open space. Of these, five MSAs exceeded their confidence intervals by 15 or more percentage points: Austin, TX; Albuquerque, NM; Akron, OH; New Orleans, LA; and Anchorage, AK. Because these cities' actual share of open space lies so far above their optimal share, it is very likely that decreasing open space area would increase property values. Two cities in the sample fell within their optimal share's confidence interval: Washington, DC and Virginia Beach, VA. Of all the cities in the sample set, these two are the most likely to be at their optimal share of open space, and therefore, are the most likely to decrease property values by making any changes to their share of open space. After this primary analysis, a sensitivity analysis was conducted in order to determine how assumptions regarding the variables impacted the estimated optimal share of open space. A reasonable range for each variable was established based on the literature, and this range was used to test each variable’s effect on the optimal share of open space. These tests revealed that the optimal share is not especially sensitive to the assumed values for the price elasticity of housing demand, nor to the economy of scale in the provision of municipal services. However, the elasticity of property values with respect to municipal services and the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space both have large influences on the optimal share. The impact of all the other variables increased as supply elasticity decreased, and as the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space increased. Because the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space has such a disproportionate influence on the optimal share of open space, and because there is very little empirical evidence surrounding its value, further analysis was done to investigate this variable. By assuming that the 72 MSAs for which there is an observed share of open space are at their optimal share, in conjunction with the estimated and assumed values for the other variables, one can estimate the implied value for the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space. Using this method, this study found that the average implied elasticity was 0.57. While this result could indicate that open space has a higher-than-assumed effect on housing demand, evidence from the literature suggests this value is too high. It is more likely that this result provides further evidence that the model is indicating actual shares of open space are higher than optimal. In the final portion of the sensitivity analysis, cities' observed shares of open space were again assumed to be at the optimal level, however, the other variables assume the limits of their reasonable range so as to make the implied elasticity as high or as low as possible. This analysis provided further evidence of discrepancies between actual and optimal shares of open space. While the evidence for open space shortages was fairly slim, the analysis reinforced evidence that some cities have excess open space. Those that presented the highest implied elasticities (and therefore show the strongest evidence of open space excess) are Austin, TX; Akron, OH; and Greensboro, NC. By comparing optimal shares of open space to observed shares of open space, the results show that the majority of cities could likely increase property values by decreasing their share of open space. This study also sheds new light on the relationship between housing demand and open space. By defining a reasonable value and range for the elasticity of housing demand with respect to open space, this study adds to the scarce information on this variable. While the results of this study indicate that many urban areas in the U.S. have larger shares of open space than would maximize property values, it is important to emphasize that the value-maximizing share of open space is not the socially optimal share. Open space provides a number of other social benefits that are not capitalized into property values, and are therefore not considered in this study. Environmental benefits are one important example. Further research is needed to determine the socially optimal amount of open space that maximizes social welfare. The appendices of this study list both the estimates of housing supply elasticity and the estimates of value-maximizing share for the 349 MSAs in the sample set. For the managers of cities that were included in the study, these figures can provide valuable information to help them better understand the implications of open space provision. The housing supply elasticities serve to better illuminate housing markets in their area. The optimal share estimates allow managers to better understand the relationship between property values and open space. For the managers of cities not included in this study, the methods presented here offer a relatively simple way to calculate their own housing supply elasticity and optimal share. With data on housing prices, housing construction, and population, interested parties can estimate the supply elasticity in their cities. Using this estimate in combination with the values this study assumed for the other variables, they can estimate their own value-maximizing share of open space. By comparing this figure to their present share of open space, city managers can gain a better understanding of the effect open space has on the property values within their city. Close