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• 1. [Article] Near-Surface Internal Melting: a Substantial Mass Loss on Antarctic Dry Valley Glaciers

  The McMurdo Dry Valleys, southern Victoria Land, East Antarctica, are a polar desert, and melt from glacial ice is the primary source of water to streams, lakes and associated ecosystems. Previous work ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Near-Surface Internal Melting: a Substantial Mass Loss on Antarctic Dry Valley Glaciers Author: Hoffman, Matthew J., Fountain, Andrew G., Liston, Glen E. Year: 2014 The McMurdo Dry Valleys, southern Victoria Land, East Antarctica, are a polar desert, and melt from glacial ice is the primary source of water to streams, lakes and associated ecosystems. Previous work found that to adequately model glacier ablation and subsurface ice temperatures with a surface energy-balance model required including the transmission of solar radiation into the ice. Here we investigate the contribution of subsurface melt to the mass balance of (and runoff from) Dry Valley glaciers by including a drainage process in the model and applying the model to three glacier sites using 13years of hourly meteorological data. Model results for the smooth glacier surfaces common to many glaciers in the Dry Valleys showed that sublimation was typically the largest component of surface lowering, with rare episodes of surface melting, consistent with anecdotal field observations. Results also showed extensive internal melting 5-15 cm below the ice surface, the drainage of which accounted for 50% of summer ablation. This is consistent with field observations of subsurface streams and formation of a weathering crust. We identify an annual cycle of weathering crust formation in summer and its removal during the 10 months of winter sublimation. Title: Near-Surface Internal Melting: a Substantial Mass Loss on Antarctic Dry Valley Glaciers Author: Hoffman, Matthew J., Fountain, Andrew G., Liston, Glen E. Year: 2014 The McMurdo Dry Valleys, southern Victoria Land, East Antarctica, are a polar desert, and melt from glacial ice is the primary source of water to streams, lakes and associated ecosystems. Previous work found that to adequately model glacier ablation and subsurface ice temperatures with a surface energy-balance model required including the transmission of solar radiation into the ice. Here we investigate the contribution of subsurface melt to the mass balance of (and runoff from) Dry Valley glaciers by including a drainage process in the model and applying the model to three glacier sites using 13years of hourly meteorological data. Model results for the smooth glacier surfaces common to many glaciers in the Dry Valleys showed that sublimation was typically the largest component of surface lowering, with rare episodes of surface melting, consistent with anecdotal field observations. Results also showed extensive internal melting 5-15 cm below the ice surface, the drainage of which accounted for 50% of summer ablation. This is consistent with field observations of subsurface streams and formation of a weathering crust. We identify an annual cycle of weathering crust formation in summer and its removal during the 10 months of winter sublimation. Close

• 2. [Article] Investigations into the Regional and Local Timescale Variations of Subglacial Drainage Networks

  Subglacial water plays an important role in the regulation of an ice sheet's mass balance. It may be the dominant control on the velocities of ice streams and outlet glaciers on scales of months to millennia. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Investigations into the Regional and Local Timescale Variations of Subglacial Drainage Networks Author: Hiester, Justin Year: 2013 Subglacial water plays an important role in the regulation of an ice sheet's mass balance. It may be the dominant control on the velocities of ice streams and outlet glaciers on scales of months to millennia. Recent satellite observations of ice surface elevation changes have given researchers new insights into how subglacial water is stored and transported. Localized uplift and settling of the ice surface implies that lakes exist beneath the ice sheet that are being filled and drained on relatively short time scales. %At the base of an ice sheet water can be transported through a variety of drainage networks or stored in subglacial lakes. Here, a numerical investigation of the mechanisms of transport and storage of subglacial water and the associated time scales is presented. Experiments are carried out using a finite element model of coupled ice and water flow. The first experiment seeks to understand the relationship between the depth of a basal depression and the area over which the feature affects basal water flow. It is found that as the perturbation to a topographic depression's depth is increased, water is rerouted in response to the perturbation. Additionally it is found that the relationship between perturbation depth and the extent upstream to which its effects reach is nonlinear. The second experiment examines how the aspect ratio of bed features (prolate, oblate, or equidimensional) influences basal water flow. It is found that the systems that develop and their interactions are mediated by both the topography and the feedbacks taken into account by the coupling of the systems in the model. Features oriented parallel to ice and water flow are associated with distributed fan systems that develop branches which migrate laterally across the domain and interact with one another on monthly and yearly timescales. Laterally oriented features develop laterally extensive ponds. As the ratio of longitudinal to lateral dimension of the topography is increased, a combination of these two water distributions is seen. Title: Investigations into the Regional and Local Timescale Variations of Subglacial Drainage Networks Author: Hiester, Justin Year: 2013 Subglacial water plays an important role in the regulation of an ice sheet's mass balance. It may be the dominant control on the velocities of ice streams and outlet glaciers on scales of months to millennia. Recent satellite observations of ice surface elevation changes have given researchers new insights into how subglacial water is stored and transported. Localized uplift and settling of the ice surface implies that lakes exist beneath the ice sheet that are being filled and drained on relatively short time scales. %At the base of an ice sheet water can be transported through a variety of drainage networks or stored in subglacial lakes. Here, a numerical investigation of the mechanisms of transport and storage of subglacial water and the associated time scales is presented. Experiments are carried out using a finite element model of coupled ice and water flow. The first experiment seeks to understand the relationship between the depth of a basal depression and the area over which the feature affects basal water flow. It is found that as the perturbation to a topographic depression's depth is increased, water is rerouted in response to the perturbation. Additionally it is found that the relationship between perturbation depth and the extent upstream to which its effects reach is nonlinear. The second experiment examines how the aspect ratio of bed features (prolate, oblate, or equidimensional) influences basal water flow. It is found that the systems that develop and their interactions are mediated by both the topography and the feedbacks taken into account by the coupling of the systems in the model. Features oriented parallel to ice and water flow are associated with distributed fan systems that develop branches which migrate laterally across the domain and interact with one another on monthly and yearly timescales. Laterally oriented features develop laterally extensive ponds. As the ratio of longitudinal to lateral dimension of the topography is increased, a combination of these two water distributions is seen. Close

• 3. [Article] Temporal Variations in Physical and Chemical Features of Cryoconite Holes on Canada Glacier, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica

  Cryoconite holes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys are ice-lidded, thus isolating the pools of water from the atmosphere and from potential surface melt. Hourly measurements of ice and water temperature and water ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Temporal Variations in Physical and Chemical Features of Cryoconite Holes on Canada Glacier, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica Author: Fountain, Andrew G., Nylen, Thomas H., Tranter, Martyn, Bagshaw, Elizabeth A. Year: 2008 Cryoconite holes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys are ice-lidded, thus isolating the pools of water from the atmosphere and from potential surface melt. Hourly measurements of ice and water temperature and water electrical conductivity (EC) were recorded to broadly characterize the physical and chemical changes on daily to seasonal timescales. Overall, subsurface ice/water temperatures were typically several degrees warmer than air temperatures, underscoring the importance of subsurface solar heating. At no time was surface melt observed and the holes melted from within. Detailed differences in the timing and magnitude of both temperature and EC variations during melt-out and freezeup existed between holes despite short separation distances (m). We attribute these differences to small-scale changes in the optical characteristics of the ice and perhaps different efficiencies in hydrologic connections between holes. The holes melt-deepened quickly in the first half of the summer before slowing to a rate equal to the rate of surface ablation that kept hole depth constant for the remainder of the season. The relatively constant EC of the hole waters during midsummer indicates that these holes were connected to a subsurface water system that flushed the holes with fresher meltwater. The early and late season ECs are dominated by freeze-thaw effects that concentrate/dilute the solutes. We speculate that high solute concentrations imply high nutrient concentrations in early summer that may help alleviate potential stresses caused by the production of new biomass after the winter freeze. Title: Temporal Variations in Physical and Chemical Features of Cryoconite Holes on Canada Glacier, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica Author: Fountain, Andrew G., Nylen, Thomas H., Tranter, Martyn, Bagshaw, Elizabeth A. Year: 2008 Cryoconite holes in the McMurdo Dry Valleys are ice-lidded, thus isolating the pools of water from the atmosphere and from potential surface melt. Hourly measurements of ice and water temperature and water electrical conductivity (EC) were recorded to broadly characterize the physical and chemical changes on daily to seasonal timescales. Overall, subsurface ice/water temperatures were typically several degrees warmer than air temperatures, underscoring the importance of subsurface solar heating. At no time was surface melt observed and the holes melted from within. Detailed differences in the timing and magnitude of both temperature and EC variations during melt-out and freezeup existed between holes despite short separation distances (m). We attribute these differences to small-scale changes in the optical characteristics of the ice and perhaps different efficiencies in hydrologic connections between holes. The holes melt-deepened quickly in the first half of the summer before slowing to a rate equal to the rate of surface ablation that kept hole depth constant for the remainder of the season. The relatively constant EC of the hole waters during midsummer indicates that these holes were connected to a subsurface water system that flushed the holes with fresher meltwater. The early and late season ECs are dominated by freeze-thaw effects that concentrate/dilute the solutes. We speculate that high solute concentrations imply high nutrient concentrations in early summer that may help alleviate potential stresses caused by the production of new biomass after the winter freeze. Close

• 4. [Article] Introduction to Special Section on Microcosms in Ice: The Biogeochemistry of Cryoconite Holes

  Cryoconite holes are small, water filled, cylindrical melt-holes on glacial ice surface. Cryoconite, 'cold dust,' refers to the thin layer of sediment at the hole bottom. The holes form from surficial ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Introduction to Special Section on Microcosms in Ice: The Biogeochemistry of Cryoconite Holes Author: Fountain, Andrew G., Tranter, Martyn Year: 2008 Cryoconite holes are small, water filled, cylindrical melt-holes on glacial ice surface. Cryoconite, 'cold dust,' refers to the thin layer of sediment at the hole bottom. The holes form from surficial sediment patches that absorbs more solar radiation than the surrounding ice and which preferentially melt into the glacier forming a cylindrical water-filled hole. These holes form on the ice-covered, as opposed to snow covered, parts of glaciers world-wide, wherever there is sufficient energy for melting. Biogeochemically, cryoconite holes are interesting because the sediment is inncoculated with biologic material, a fraction of which thrives in the cryoconite environment of near-freezing waters and limited nutrient supply. The holes are thus oases for microbial life and biologically mediated chemical reactions on otherwise relatively inert glacier surfaces. Examining the chemical evolution of waters in cryoconite holes, showing how biogeochemical processes in cryoconite holes lead to increasing concentrations of dissolved organic carbon over time, which in may enhance adsorption of solar radiation by the water, aiding the development of deeper holes. If this is true, it suggests that there are a number of complex interactions between the biology, chemistry and biology of cryoconite holes, which act in concert to maintain life on glacier surfaces. Title: Introduction to Special Section on Microcosms in Ice: The Biogeochemistry of Cryoconite Holes Author: Fountain, Andrew G., Tranter, Martyn Year: 2008 Cryoconite holes are small, water filled, cylindrical melt-holes on glacial ice surface. Cryoconite, 'cold dust,' refers to the thin layer of sediment at the hole bottom. The holes form from surficial sediment patches that absorbs more solar radiation than the surrounding ice and which preferentially melt into the glacier forming a cylindrical water-filled hole. These holes form on the ice-covered, as opposed to snow covered, parts of glaciers world-wide, wherever there is sufficient energy for melting. Biogeochemically, cryoconite holes are interesting because the sediment is inncoculated with biologic material, a fraction of which thrives in the cryoconite environment of near-freezing waters and limited nutrient supply. The holes are thus oases for microbial life and biologically mediated chemical reactions on otherwise relatively inert glacier surfaces. Examining the chemical evolution of waters in cryoconite holes, showing how biogeochemical processes in cryoconite holes lead to increasing concentrations of dissolved organic carbon over time, which in may enhance adsorption of solar radiation by the water, aiding the development of deeper holes. If this is true, it suggests that there are a number of complex interactions between the biology, chemistry and biology of cryoconite holes, which act in concert to maintain life on glacier surfaces. Close

• 5. [Article] Distributed Modeling of Ablation (1996–2011) and Climate Sensitivity on the Glaciers of Taylor Valley, Antarctica

  The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica host the coldest and driest ecosystem on Earth, which is acutely sensitive to the availability of water coming from glacial runoff. We modeled the spatial variability ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distributed Modeling of Ablation (1996–2011) and Climate Sensitivity on the Glaciers of Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Hoffman, Matthew J., Fountain, Andrew G., Liston, Glen E. Year: 2016 The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica host the coldest and driest ecosystem on Earth, which is acutely sensitive to the availability of water coming from glacial runoff. We modeled the spatial variability in ablation and assessed climate sensitivity of the glacier ablation zones using 16 years of meteorological and surface mass-balance observations collected in Taylor Valley. Sublimation was the primary form of mass loss over much of the ablation zones, except for near the termini where melt, primarily below the surface, dominated. Microclimates in ~10 m scale topographic basins generated melt rates up to ten times higher than over smooth glacier surfaces. In contrast, the vertical terminal cliffs on the glaciers can have higher or lower melt rates than the horizontal surfaces due to differences in incoming solar radiation. The model systematically underpredicted ablation for the final 5 years studied, possibly due to an increase of windblown sediment. Surface mass-balance sensitivity to temperature was ~−0.02 m w.e. K−1, which is among the smallest magnitudes observed globally. We also identified a high sensitivity to ice albedo, with a decrease of 0.02 having similar effects as a 1 K increase in temperature, and a complex sensitivity to wind speed. Title: Distributed Modeling of Ablation (1996–2011) and Climate Sensitivity on the Glaciers of Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Hoffman, Matthew J., Fountain, Andrew G., Liston, Glen E. Year: 2016 The McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica host the coldest and driest ecosystem on Earth, which is acutely sensitive to the availability of water coming from glacial runoff. We modeled the spatial variability in ablation and assessed climate sensitivity of the glacier ablation zones using 16 years of meteorological and surface mass-balance observations collected in Taylor Valley. Sublimation was the primary form of mass loss over much of the ablation zones, except for near the termini where melt, primarily below the surface, dominated. Microclimates in ~10 m scale topographic basins generated melt rates up to ten times higher than over smooth glacier surfaces. In contrast, the vertical terminal cliffs on the glaciers can have higher or lower melt rates than the horizontal surfaces due to differences in incoming solar radiation. The model systematically underpredicted ablation for the final 5 years studied, possibly due to an increase of windblown sediment. Surface mass-balance sensitivity to temperature was ~−0.02 m w.e. K−1, which is among the smallest magnitudes observed globally. We also identified a high sensitivity to ice albedo, with a decrease of 0.02 having similar effects as a 1 K increase in temperature, and a complex sensitivity to wind speed. Close

• 6. [Article] Processes Controlling Carbon Cycling in Antarctic Glacier Surface Ecosystems

  Glacier surface ecosystems, including cryoconite holes and cryolakes, are significant contributors to regional carbon cycles. Incubation experiments to determine the net production (NEP) of organic matter ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Processes Controlling Carbon Cycling in Antarctic Glacier Surface Ecosystems Author: Bagshaw, Elizabeth A., Tranter, Martyn, Wadham, Jemma L., Fountain, Andrew G., Dubnick, A., Fitzsimons, S. Year: 2016 Glacier surface ecosystems, including cryoconite holes and cryolakes, are significant contributors to regional carbon cycles. Incubation experiments to determine the net production (NEP) of organic matter in cryoconite typically have durations of 6-24 hours, and produce a wide range of results, many of which indicate that the system is net heterotrophic. We employ longer term incubations to examine the temporal variation of NEP in cryoconite from the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica to examine the effect of sediment disturbance on system production, and to understand processes controlling production over the lifetimes of glacier surface ecosystems. The shorter-term incubations have durations of one week and show net heterotrophy. The longer term incubations of approximately one year show net autotrophy, but only after a period of about 40 days (~1000 hours). The control on net organic carbon production is a combination of the rate of diffusion of dissolved inorganic carbon from heterotrophic activity within cryoconite into the water, the rate of carbonate dissolution, and the saturation of carbonate in the water (which is a result of photosynthesis in a closed system). We demonstrate that sediment on glacier surfaces has the potential to accumulate carbon over timescales of months to years. Title: Processes Controlling Carbon Cycling in Antarctic Glacier Surface Ecosystems Author: Bagshaw, Elizabeth A., Tranter, Martyn, Wadham, Jemma L., Fountain, Andrew G., Dubnick, A., Fitzsimons, S. Year: 2016 Glacier surface ecosystems, including cryoconite holes and cryolakes, are significant contributors to regional carbon cycles. Incubation experiments to determine the net production (NEP) of organic matter in cryoconite typically have durations of 6-24 hours, and produce a wide range of results, many of which indicate that the system is net heterotrophic. We employ longer term incubations to examine the temporal variation of NEP in cryoconite from the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica to examine the effect of sediment disturbance on system production, and to understand processes controlling production over the lifetimes of glacier surface ecosystems. The shorter-term incubations have durations of one week and show net heterotrophy. The longer term incubations of approximately one year show net autotrophy, but only after a period of about 40 days (~1000 hours). The control on net organic carbon production is a combination of the rate of diffusion of dissolved inorganic carbon from heterotrophic activity within cryoconite into the water, the rate of carbonate dissolution, and the saturation of carbonate in the water (which is a result of photosynthesis in a closed system). We demonstrate that sediment on glacier surfaces has the potential to accumulate carbon over timescales of months to years. Close

• 7. [Article] A Dynamic Physical Model for Soil Temperature and Water in Taylor Valley, Antarctica

  We developed a simulation model for terrestrial sites including sensible heat exchange between the atmosphere and ground surface, inter- and intra-layer heat conduction by rock and soil, and shortwave ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A Dynamic Physical Model for Soil Temperature and Water in Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Hunt, H. W., Fountain, Andrew G., Doran, Peter T., Basagic, Hassan J. Year: 2010 We developed a simulation model for terrestrial sites including sensible heat exchange between the atmosphere and ground surface, inter- and intra-layer heat conduction by rock and soil, and shortwave and longwave radiation. Water fluxes included snowmelt, freezing/thawing of soil water, soil capillary flow, and vapour flows among atmosphere, soil, and snow. The model accounted for 96-99% of variation in soil temperature data. No long-term temporal trends in soil temperature were apparent. Soil water vapour concentration in thawed surface soil in summer often was higher than in frozen deeper soils, leading to downward vapour fluxes. Katabatic winds caused a reversal of the usual winter pattern of upward vapour fluxes. The model exhibited a steady state depth distribution of soil water due to vapour flows and in the absence of capillary flows below the top 0.5 cm soil layer. Beginning with a completely saturated soil profile, soil water was lost rapidly, and within a few hundred years approached a steady state characterized by dry soil (,0.5% gravimetric) down to one metre depth and saturated soil below that. In contrast, it took 42,000 years to approach steady state beginning from a completely dry initial condition. Title: A Dynamic Physical Model for Soil Temperature and Water in Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Hunt, H. W., Fountain, Andrew G., Doran, Peter T., Basagic, Hassan J. Year: 2010 We developed a simulation model for terrestrial sites including sensible heat exchange between the atmosphere and ground surface, inter- and intra-layer heat conduction by rock and soil, and shortwave and longwave radiation. Water fluxes included snowmelt, freezing/thawing of soil water, soil capillary flow, and vapour flows among atmosphere, soil, and snow. The model accounted for 96-99% of variation in soil temperature data. No long-term temporal trends in soil temperature were apparent. Soil water vapour concentration in thawed surface soil in summer often was higher than in frozen deeper soils, leading to downward vapour fluxes. Katabatic winds caused a reversal of the usual winter pattern of upward vapour fluxes. The model exhibited a steady state depth distribution of soil water due to vapour flows and in the absence of capillary flows below the top 0.5 cm soil layer. Beginning with a completely saturated soil profile, soil water was lost rapidly, and within a few hundred years approached a steady state characterized by dry soil (,0.5% gravimetric) down to one metre depth and saturated soil below that. In contrast, it took 42,000 years to approach steady state beginning from a completely dry initial condition. Close

• 8. [Article] Glacier Change on the Three Sisters Volcanoes, Oregon: 1900-2010

  A glacier responds to changes in climate by subsequent retreat and advance as a result of changes in snow inputs and outputs. Understanding these changes is important because shrinking glaciers limit and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Glacier Change on the Three Sisters Volcanoes, Oregon: 1900-2010 Author: Ohlschlager, Justin George Year: 2015 A glacier responds to changes in climate by subsequent retreat and advance as a result of changes in snow inputs and outputs. Understanding these changes is important because shrinking glaciers limit and diminish local water resources. They contribute to alpine runoff in the late-summer months by delaying the maximum runoff until late in the melt season. A comprehensive glacier and perennial snowfield inventory has not been completed for the Three Sisters in Central Oregon. Using aerial photography, Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), previous studies, and historical ground based photographs these glacier and perennial snowfields were defined and their surface area change was quantified along with surface area and volume change for the 15 named glaciers for multiple years. The glaciers and perennial snowfields totaled 9.03 ± 1.65 km2 in 1949 and decreased to 7.1 ± 1.16 km2 in 2003 giving a total loss of -1.914 ± 0.974 km2 ( 21%). The 15 named glaciers totaled 12.43 ± 0.417 km2 in ~1900 and decreased to 5.65 ± 0.135 km2 in 2003 giving a total loss of -6.70 ± 0.439 km2 (54%) with more loss occurring in the early part of the century. It's estimated that the 15 named glaciers lost roughly 61% of volume from 1900 to 2010. From 1957 to 2010 their surface's dropped in elevation on average by -8.9m, losing an estimated 71.96 x 106 ± 2.87 x 106 m3 (53%) in total volume, seen across accumulation and ablation zones, with more loss happening from 1957 to 1990. There was no relationship found between topography and area. A small correlation was found between slope and increased volume change. Debris cover on glacier surfaces has increased and showed a correlation between decreasing area loss (no correlation with volume changes). Title: Glacier Change on the Three Sisters Volcanoes, Oregon: 1900-2010 Author: Ohlschlager, Justin George Year: 2015 A glacier responds to changes in climate by subsequent retreat and advance as a result of changes in snow inputs and outputs. Understanding these changes is important because shrinking glaciers limit and diminish local water resources. They contribute to alpine runoff in the late-summer months by delaying the maximum runoff until late in the melt season. A comprehensive glacier and perennial snowfield inventory has not been completed for the Three Sisters in Central Oregon. Using aerial photography, Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), previous studies, and historical ground based photographs these glacier and perennial snowfields were defined and their surface area change was quantified along with surface area and volume change for the 15 named glaciers for multiple years. The glaciers and perennial snowfields totaled 9.03 ± 1.65 km2 in 1949 and decreased to 7.1 ± 1.16 km2 in 2003 giving a total loss of -1.914 ± 0.974 km2 ( 21%). The 15 named glaciers totaled 12.43 ± 0.417 km2 in ~1900 and decreased to 5.65 ± 0.135 km2 in 2003 giving a total loss of -6.70 ± 0.439 km2 (54%) with more loss occurring in the early part of the century. It's estimated that the 15 named glaciers lost roughly 61% of volume from 1900 to 2010. From 1957 to 2010 their surface's dropped in elevation on average by -8.9m, losing an estimated 71.96 x 106 ± 2.87 x 106 m3 (53%) in total volume, seen across accumulation and ablation zones, with more loss happening from 1957 to 1990. There was no relationship found between topography and area. A small correlation was found between slope and increased volume change. Debris cover on glacier surfaces has increased and showed a correlation between decreasing area loss (no correlation with volume changes). Close

• 9. [Article] Surface Energy Balance and Melt Thresholds over 11 years at Taylor Glacier, Antarctica

  In the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Victoria Land, Antarctica, melting of glacial ice is the primary source of water to streams, lakes, and associated ecosystems. To understand geochemical fluxes and ecological ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Surface Energy Balance and Melt Thresholds over 11 years at Taylor Glacier, Antarctica Author: Hoffman, Matthew James, Fountain, Andrew G., Liston, Glen E. Year: 2008 In the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Victoria Land, Antarctica, melting of glacial ice is the primary source of water to streams, lakes, and associated ecosystems. To understand geochemical fluxes and ecological responses to past and future climates requires a physically based energy balance model. We applied a one-dimensional model to one site on Taylor Glacier using 11 years of daily meteorological data and seasonal ablation measurements. Inclusion of transmission of solar radiation into the ice was necessary to accurately model summer ablation and ice temperatures. Results showed good correspondence between calculated and measured ablation and ice temperatures over the 11 years. Ablation (18 cm a??) was dominated by sublimation with very few occurrences of melt (42 days during 11 years). Results also indicated that above freezing air temperatures did not necessarily result in melt and, in turn, melt occurred during subfreezing air temperatures under some conditions. For air temperatures near freezing, low wind speed was critically important for melt initiation. According to the model, subsurface melt, away from rocks and sediment in the ice, occurred three times more frequently than surface melt; occurs no deeper than 50 cm below the glacier surface; and was small, never exceeding 8% by mass. The magnitude of subsurface melting and the energy balance indicate that Taylor Title: Surface Energy Balance and Melt Thresholds over 11 years at Taylor Glacier, Antarctica Author: Hoffman, Matthew James, Fountain, Andrew G., Liston, Glen E. Year: 2008 In the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Victoria Land, Antarctica, melting of glacial ice is the primary source of water to streams, lakes, and associated ecosystems. To understand geochemical fluxes and ecological responses to past and future climates requires a physically based energy balance model. We applied a one-dimensional model to one site on Taylor Glacier using 11 years of daily meteorological data and seasonal ablation measurements. Inclusion of transmission of solar radiation into the ice was necessary to accurately model summer ablation and ice temperatures. Results showed good correspondence between calculated and measured ablation and ice temperatures over the 11 years. Ablation (18 cm a??) was dominated by sublimation with very few occurrences of melt (42 days during 11 years). Results also indicated that above freezing air temperatures did not necessarily result in melt and, in turn, melt occurred during subfreezing air temperatures under some conditions. For air temperatures near freezing, low wind speed was critically important for melt initiation. According to the model, subsurface melt, away from rocks and sediment in the ice, occurred three times more frequently than surface melt; occurs no deeper than 50 cm below the glacier surface; and was small, never exceeding 8% by mass. The magnitude of subsurface melting and the energy balance indicate that Taylor Close

• 10. [Article] Modeling the Thickness of Perennial Ice Covers on Stratified Lakes of the Taylor Valley, Antarctica

  A 1-D ice cover model was developed to predict and constrain drivers of long-term ice thick-ness trends in chemically stratified lakes of Taylor Valley, Antarctica. The model is driven by surface ra-diative ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Modeling the Thickness of Perennial Ice Covers on Stratified Lakes of the Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Obryk, Maciej K., Doran, Peter T., Hicks, Jared A., McKay, Christopher P., Priscu, John Charles Year: 2016 A 1-D ice cover model was developed to predict and constrain drivers of long-term ice thick-ness trends in chemically stratified lakes of Taylor Valley, Antarctica. The model is driven by surface ra-diative heat fluxes and heat fluxes from the underlying water column. The model successfully reproduced 16 a (between 1996 and 2012) of ice thickness changes for the west lobe of Lake Bonney (average ice thickness = 3.53 m) and Lake Fryxell (average ice thickness = 4.22 m). Long-term ice thick-ness trends require coupling with the thermal structure of the water column. The heat stored within the temperature maximum of lakes exceeding a liquid water column depth of 20 m can either impede or fa-cilitate ice thickness change depending on the predominant climatic trend (cooling or warming). As such, shallow (columns) perennially ice-covered lakes without deep temperature maxima are more sensitive indicators of climate change. The long-term ice thickness trends are a result of surface energy flux and heat flux from the deep temperature maximum in the water column, the latter of which results from absorbed solar radiation. Title: Modeling the Thickness of Perennial Ice Covers on Stratified Lakes of the Taylor Valley, Antarctica Author: Obryk, Maciej K., Doran, Peter T., Hicks, Jared A., McKay, Christopher P., Priscu, John Charles Year: 2016 A 1-D ice cover model was developed to predict and constrain drivers of long-term ice thick-ness trends in chemically stratified lakes of Taylor Valley, Antarctica. The model is driven by surface ra-diative heat fluxes and heat fluxes from the underlying water column. The model successfully reproduced 16 a (between 1996 and 2012) of ice thickness changes for the west lobe of Lake Bonney (average ice thickness = 3.53 m) and Lake Fryxell (average ice thickness = 4.22 m). Long-term ice thick-ness trends require coupling with the thermal structure of the water column. The heat stored within the temperature maximum of lakes exceeding a liquid water column depth of 20 m can either impede or fa-cilitate ice thickness change depending on the predominant climatic trend (cooling or warming). As such, shallow (columns) perennially ice-covered lakes without deep temperature maxima are more sensitive indicators of climate change. The long-term ice thickness trends are a result of surface energy flux and heat flux from the deep temperature maximum in the water column, the latter of which results from absorbed solar radiation. Close

• 11. [Article] The Link Between Climate Warming and Break-Up of Ice Shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula

  A review of in situ and remote-sensing data covering the ice shelves of the Antarctic Peninsula provides a series of characteristics closely associated with rapid shelf retreat: deeply embayed ice fronts; ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Link Between Climate Warming and Break-Up of Ice Shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula Author: Scambos, Ted A., Hulbe, Christina L., Fahnestock, Mark A., Bohlander, Jennifer Year: 2000 A review of in situ and remote-sensing data covering the ice shelves of the Antarctic Peninsula provides a series of characteristics closely associated with rapid shelf retreat: deeply embayed ice fronts; calving of myriad small elongate bergs in punctuated events; increasing flow speed; and the presence of melt ponds on the ice-shelf surface in the vicinity of the break-ups. As climate has warmed in the Antarctic Peninsula region, melt-season duration and the extent of ponding have increased. Most break-up events have occurred during longer melt seasons, suggesting that meltwater itself, not just warming, is responsible. Regions that show melting without pond formation are relatively unchanged. Melt ponds thus appear to be a robust harbinger of ice-shelf retreat. We use these observations to guide a model of ice-shelf flow and the effects of meltwater. Crevasses present in a region of surface ponding will likely fill to the brim with water. We hypothesize (building on Weertman (1973), Hughes (1983) and Van der Veen (1998)) that crevasse propagation by meltwater is the main mechanism by which ice shelves weaken and retreat. A thermodynamic finite-element model is used to evaluate ice flow and the strain field, and simple extensions of this model are used to investigate crack propagation by meltwater. The model results support the hypothesis. Title: The Link Between Climate Warming and Break-Up of Ice Shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula Author: Scambos, Ted A., Hulbe, Christina L., Fahnestock, Mark A., Bohlander, Jennifer Year: 2000 A review of in situ and remote-sensing data covering the ice shelves of the Antarctic Peninsula provides a series of characteristics closely associated with rapid shelf retreat: deeply embayed ice fronts; calving of myriad small elongate bergs in punctuated events; increasing flow speed; and the presence of melt ponds on the ice-shelf surface in the vicinity of the break-ups. As climate has warmed in the Antarctic Peninsula region, melt-season duration and the extent of ponding have increased. Most break-up events have occurred during longer melt seasons, suggesting that meltwater itself, not just warming, is responsible. Regions that show melting without pond formation are relatively unchanged. Melt ponds thus appear to be a robust harbinger of ice-shelf retreat. We use these observations to guide a model of ice-shelf flow and the effects of meltwater. Crevasses present in a region of surface ponding will likely fill to the brim with water. We hypothesize (building on Weertman (1973), Hughes (1983) and Van der Veen (1998)) that crevasse propagation by meltwater is the main mechanism by which ice shelves weaken and retreat. A thermodynamic finite-element model is used to evaluate ice flow and the strain field, and simple extensions of this model are used to investigate crack propagation by meltwater. The model results support the hypothesis. Close

• 12. [Article] Biogeochemical Stoichiometry of Antarctic Dry Valley Ecosystems

  Among aquatic and terrestrial landscapes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, ecosystem stoichiometry ranges from values near the Redfield ratios for C:N:P to nutrient concentrations in proportions ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Biogeochemical Stoichiometry of Antarctic Dry Valley Ecosystems Author: Barrett, John E., Virginia, Ross A., Lyons, W. Berry, McKnight, Diane M., Priscu, John Charles, Doran, Peter T., Fountain, Andrew G., Wall, Diana H., Moorhead, D. L. Year: 2007 Among aquatic and terrestrial landscapes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, ecosystem stoichiometry ranges from values near the Redfield ratios for C:N:P to nutrient concentrations in proportions far above or below ratios necessary to support balanced microbial growth. This polar desert provides an opportunity to evaluate stoichiometric approaches to understand nutrient cycling in an ecosystem where biological diversity and activity are low, and controls over the movement and mass balances of nutrients operate over 10–10⁶ years. The simple organisms (microbial and metazoan) comprising dry valley foodwebs adhere to strict biochemical requirements in the composition of their biomass, and when activated by availability of liquid water, they influence the chemical composition of their environment according to these ratios. Nitrogen and phosphorus varied significantly in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems occurring on landscape surfaces across a wide range of exposure ages, indicating strong influences of landscape development and geochemistry on nutrient availability. Biota control the elemental ratio of stream waters, while geochemical stoichiometry (e.g., weathering, atmospheric deposition) evidently limits the distribution of soil invertebrates. We present a conceptual model describing transformations across dry valley landscapes facilitated by exchanges of liquid water and biotic processing of dissolved nutrients. We conclude that contemporary ecosystem stoichiometry of Antarctic Dry Valley soils, glaciers, streams, and lakes results from a combination of extant biological processes superimposed on a legacy of landscape processes and previous climates. Title: Biogeochemical Stoichiometry of Antarctic Dry Valley Ecosystems Author: Barrett, John E., Virginia, Ross A., Lyons, W. Berry, McKnight, Diane M., Priscu, John Charles, Doran, Peter T., Fountain, Andrew G., Wall, Diana H., Moorhead, D. L. Year: 2007 Among aquatic and terrestrial landscapes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, ecosystem stoichiometry ranges from values near the Redfield ratios for C:N:P to nutrient concentrations in proportions far above or below ratios necessary to support balanced microbial growth. This polar desert provides an opportunity to evaluate stoichiometric approaches to understand nutrient cycling in an ecosystem where biological diversity and activity are low, and controls over the movement and mass balances of nutrients operate over 10–10⁶ years. The simple organisms (microbial and metazoan) comprising dry valley foodwebs adhere to strict biochemical requirements in the composition of their biomass, and when activated by availability of liquid water, they influence the chemical composition of their environment according to these ratios. Nitrogen and phosphorus varied significantly in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems occurring on landscape surfaces across a wide range of exposure ages, indicating strong influences of landscape development and geochemistry on nutrient availability. Biota control the elemental ratio of stream waters, while geochemical stoichiometry (e.g., weathering, atmospheric deposition) evidently limits the distribution of soil invertebrates. We present a conceptual model describing transformations across dry valley landscapes facilitated by exchanges of liquid water and biotic processing of dissolved nutrients. We conclude that contemporary ecosystem stoichiometry of Antarctic Dry Valley soils, glaciers, streams, and lakes results from a combination of extant biological processes superimposed on a legacy of landscape processes and previous climates. Close

• 13. [Article] Patterns and Processes of Salt Efflorescences in the McMurdo region, Antarctica

  Evaporite salts are abundant around the McMurdo region, Antarctica (~78°S) due to very low precipitation, low relative humidity, and limited overland flow. Hygroscopic salts in the McMurdo Dry Valleys ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Patterns and Processes of Salt Efflorescences in the McMurdo region, Antarctica Author: Bisson, Kelsey M., Welch, Kathleen A., Welch, Susan A., Sheets, Julia Meyer, Lyons, W. Berry, Levy, Joseph S., Fountain, Andrew G. Year: 2015 Evaporite salts are abundant around the McMurdo region, Antarctica (~78°S) due to very low precipitation, low relative humidity, and limited overland flow. Hygroscopic salts in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDVs) are preferentially formed in locations where liquid water is present in the austral summer, including along ephemeral streams, ice-covered lake boundaries, or shallow groundwater tracks. In this study, we collected salts from the Miers, Garwood, and Taylor Valleys on the Antarctic continent, as well as around McMurdo Station on Ross Island in close proximity to water sources with the goal of understanding salt geochemistry in relationship to the hydrology of the area. Halite is ubiquitous; sodium is the major cation (ranging from 70%–90% of cations by meq kg-1 sediment) and chloride is the major anion (>50%) in nearly all samples. However, a wide variety of salt phases and morphologies are tentatively identified through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) work. We present new data that identifies trona (Na3(CO3)(HCO3)·2H2O), tentative gaylussite (Na2Ca(CO3)2·5H2O), and tentative glauberite (Na2Ca(SO4)2) in the MDV, of which the later one has not been documented previously. Our work allows for the evaluation of processes that influence brine evolution on a local scale, consequently informing assumptions underlying large-scale processes (such as paleoclimate) in the MDV. Hydrological modeling conducted in FREZCHEM and PHREEQC suggests that a model based on aerosol deposition alone in low elevations on the valley floor inadequately characterizes salt distributions found on the surfaces of the soil because it does not account for other hydrologic inputs/outputs. Implications for the salt distributions include their use as tracers for paleolake levels, geochemical tracers of ephemeral water tracks or “wet patches” in the soil, indicators of chemical weathering products, and potential delineators of ecological communities. Title: Patterns and Processes of Salt Efflorescences in the McMurdo region, Antarctica Author: Bisson, Kelsey M., Welch, Kathleen A., Welch, Susan A., Sheets, Julia Meyer, Lyons, W. Berry, Levy, Joseph S., Fountain, Andrew G. Year: 2015 Evaporite salts are abundant around the McMurdo region, Antarctica (~78°S) due to very low precipitation, low relative humidity, and limited overland flow. Hygroscopic salts in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDVs) are preferentially formed in locations where liquid water is present in the austral summer, including along ephemeral streams, ice-covered lake boundaries, or shallow groundwater tracks. In this study, we collected salts from the Miers, Garwood, and Taylor Valleys on the Antarctic continent, as well as around McMurdo Station on Ross Island in close proximity to water sources with the goal of understanding salt geochemistry in relationship to the hydrology of the area. Halite is ubiquitous; sodium is the major cation (ranging from 70%–90% of cations by meq kg-1 sediment) and chloride is the major anion (>50%) in nearly all samples. However, a wide variety of salt phases and morphologies are tentatively identified through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) work. We present new data that identifies trona (Na3(CO3)(HCO3)·2H2O), tentative gaylussite (Na2Ca(CO3)2·5H2O), and tentative glauberite (Na2Ca(SO4)2) in the MDV, of which the later one has not been documented previously. Our work allows for the evaluation of processes that influence brine evolution on a local scale, consequently informing assumptions underlying large-scale processes (such as paleoclimate) in the MDV. Hydrological modeling conducted in FREZCHEM and PHREEQC suggests that a model based on aerosol deposition alone in low elevations on the valley floor inadequately characterizes salt distributions found on the surfaces of the soil because it does not account for other hydrologic inputs/outputs. Implications for the salt distributions include their use as tracers for paleolake levels, geochemical tracers of ephemeral water tracks or “wet patches” in the soil, indicators of chemical weathering products, and potential delineators of ecological communities. Close

• 14. [Article] Hyperspectral Measurements of Wet, Dry and Saline Soils from the McMurdo Dry Valleys: Soil Moisture Properties from Remote Sensing

  Soil moisture is a spatially heterogeneous quantity in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica that exerts a large influence on the biological community and on the thermal state of Dry Valleys permafrost. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hyperspectral Measurements of Wet, Dry and Saline Soils from the McMurdo Dry Valleys: Soil Moisture Properties from Remote Sensing Author: Levy, Joseph S., Nolin, Anne, Fountain, Andrew G., Head, James W. Year: 2014 Soil moisture is a spatially heterogeneous quantity in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica that exerts a large influence on the biological community and on the thermal state of Dry Valleys permafrost. The goal of this project was to determine whether hyperspectral remote sensing techniques could be used to determine soil moisture conditions in the Dry Valleys. We measured the spectral reflectance factors of wetted soil samples from the Dry Valleys under natural light conditions and related diagnostic spectral features to surface layer soil moisture content. Diagnostic water absorption features in the spectra at 1.4 mu m and 1.9 mu m were present in all samples, including samples doped with high concentrations of chloride salts. The depth of the 1.4 mu m absorption is shown to increase linearly with increasing gravimetric water content. These results suggest that airborne hyperspectral imaging of the Dry Valleys could generate soil moisture maps of this environment over large spatial areas using non-invasive remote-sensing techniques. Title: Hyperspectral Measurements of Wet, Dry and Saline Soils from the McMurdo Dry Valleys: Soil Moisture Properties from Remote Sensing Author: Levy, Joseph S., Nolin, Anne, Fountain, Andrew G., Head, James W. Year: 2014 Soil moisture is a spatially heterogeneous quantity in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica that exerts a large influence on the biological community and on the thermal state of Dry Valleys permafrost. The goal of this project was to determine whether hyperspectral remote sensing techniques could be used to determine soil moisture conditions in the Dry Valleys. We measured the spectral reflectance factors of wetted soil samples from the Dry Valleys under natural light conditions and related diagnostic spectral features to surface layer soil moisture content. Diagnostic water absorption features in the spectra at 1.4 mu m and 1.9 mu m were present in all samples, including samples doped with high concentrations of chloride salts. The depth of the 1.4 mu m absorption is shown to increase linearly with increasing gravimetric water content. These results suggest that airborne hyperspectral imaging of the Dry Valleys could generate soil moisture maps of this environment over large spatial areas using non-invasive remote-sensing techniques. Close

• 15. [Article] Grounding Zone Processes: Ice Mechanics and Margin Lakes, Kamb Ice Stream and Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica

  The lateral "corners" where Kamb and Whillans Ice Streams (KIS and WIS) discharge into the Ross Ice Shelf share common geometries and ice mechanical settings. At both corners of the now-stagnant KIS outlet, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Grounding Zone Processes: Ice Mechanics and Margin Lakes, Kamb Ice Stream and Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica Author: Fried, Mason Joseph Year: 2013 The lateral "corners" where Kamb and Whillans Ice Streams (KIS and WIS) discharge into the Ross Ice Shelf share common geometries and ice mechanical settings. At both corners of the now-stagnant KIS outlet, shear margins of apparently different ages confine regions with a relatively flat, smooth surface expression. These features are called the "Duckfoot" on the northern, right-lateral side and the "Goosefoot" on the other. It has been suggested, on evidence found in ice internal layers, that the flat ice terrains on KIS were afloat in the recent past, at a time when the ice stream grounding line was upstream of its present location. The overdeepening in the bed just upstream of the KIS grounding line supports this view of the past geometry. The right-lateral margin at the outlet of the currently active WIS, the location of Subglacial Lake Englehardt (SLE), appears to have many similarities with the right lateral margin of KIS, though with a less developed looking inboard margin. This paper presents a mechanical analysis using surface and bed topography and velocity datasets comparing the Duckfoot flat ice terrain with the terrain around Subglacial Lake Englehardt. At both locations mechanical thinning along shear margins and lows in the bed topography redirects basal water routing towards the features. Here, I consider the history of these features and their role in ice stream variability by comparison of the relict and modern features and via numerical modeling of ice shelf grounding and ungrounding in response to variations in ice flow. We propose two scenarios for the development of flat ice terrains/subglacial lakes at the outlets of ice streams. In the first, development of a lake in the hydraulic potential low along a shear margin forces a margin jump as shearing develops along the inboard shore of the margin lake. This thesis presents evidence for an inboard (relative to the main outboard shear margin) zone of shear along the inboard shoreline of SLE, suggesting that subglacial lakes along shear margins are capable of facilitating shear margin jumps. In the second, grounding line advance around a relative low in the bed, creating adjacent margins along the lakeshores, forms a remnant lake. Discerning which of these scenarios is appropriate at the KIS outlet has implications for understanding the history of the ice stream grounding line. An ice flow model is used to place these local conditions in a regional context by studying the effect of internal perturbations, such as ice rise stagnation or inward margin jumps, on grounding line position. Bathymetry is important in determining ice stream flow in the ways that might not be otherwise realized in 1-D flow model studies. In the numerical modeling experiments, grounding line advance across the KIS outlet is mediated by the overdeepening in the bed and proceeds not in the direction of ice flow but transverse to flow. This finding adds complexity to both a flowline view of grounding line migration and the theory that grounding lines are unstable in the presence of inward sloping bed topography. Title: Grounding Zone Processes: Ice Mechanics and Margin Lakes, Kamb Ice Stream and Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica Author: Fried, Mason Joseph Year: 2013 The lateral "corners" where Kamb and Whillans Ice Streams (KIS and WIS) discharge into the Ross Ice Shelf share common geometries and ice mechanical settings. At both corners of the now-stagnant KIS outlet, shear margins of apparently different ages confine regions with a relatively flat, smooth surface expression. These features are called the "Duckfoot" on the northern, right-lateral side and the "Goosefoot" on the other. It has been suggested, on evidence found in ice internal layers, that the flat ice terrains on KIS were afloat in the recent past, at a time when the ice stream grounding line was upstream of its present location. The overdeepening in the bed just upstream of the KIS grounding line supports this view of the past geometry. The right-lateral margin at the outlet of the currently active WIS, the location of Subglacial Lake Englehardt (SLE), appears to have many similarities with the right lateral margin of KIS, though with a less developed looking inboard margin. This paper presents a mechanical analysis using surface and bed topography and velocity datasets comparing the Duckfoot flat ice terrain with the terrain around Subglacial Lake Englehardt. At both locations mechanical thinning along shear margins and lows in the bed topography redirects basal water routing towards the features. Here, I consider the history of these features and their role in ice stream variability by comparison of the relict and modern features and via numerical modeling of ice shelf grounding and ungrounding in response to variations in ice flow. We propose two scenarios for the development of flat ice terrains/subglacial lakes at the outlets of ice streams. In the first, development of a lake in the hydraulic potential low along a shear margin forces a margin jump as shearing develops along the inboard shore of the margin lake. This thesis presents evidence for an inboard (relative to the main outboard shear margin) zone of shear along the inboard shoreline of SLE, suggesting that subglacial lakes along shear margins are capable of facilitating shear margin jumps. In the second, grounding line advance around a relative low in the bed, creating adjacent margins along the lakeshores, forms a remnant lake. Discerning which of these scenarios is appropriate at the KIS outlet has implications for understanding the history of the ice stream grounding line. An ice flow model is used to place these local conditions in a regional context by studying the effect of internal perturbations, such as ice rise stagnation or inward margin jumps, on grounding line position. Bathymetry is important in determining ice stream flow in the ways that might not be otherwise realized in 1-D flow model studies. In the numerical modeling experiments, grounding line advance across the KIS outlet is mediated by the overdeepening in the bed and proceeds not in the direction of ice flow but transverse to flow. This finding adds complexity to both a flowline view of grounding line migration and the theory that grounding lines are unstable in the presence of inward sloping bed topography. Close

• 16. [Article] Glacial Ecosystems

  There is now compelling evidence that microbially mediated reactions impart a significant effect upon the dynamics, composition, and abundance of nutrients in glacial melt water. Consequently, we must ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Glacial Ecosystems Author: Hodson, Amy, Anesio, Alexandre M., Tranter, Martyn, Fountain, Andrew G., Osborn, Mark, Priscu, John Charles, Laybourn-Perry, Johanna, Sattler, Birgit Year: 2008 There is now compelling evidence that microbially mediated reactions impart a significant effect upon the dynamics, composition, and abundance of nutrients in glacial melt water. Consequently, we must now consider ice masses as ecosystem habitats in their own right and address their diversity, functional potential, and activity as part of alpine and polar environments. Although such research is already underway, its fragmentary nature provides little basis for developing modern concepts of glacier ecology. This paper therefore provides a much-needed framework for development by reviewing the physical, biogeochemical, and microbiological characteristics of microbial habitats that have been identified within glaciers and ice sheets. Two key glacial ecosystems emerge, one inhabiting the glacier surface (the supraglacial ecosystem) and one at the ice-bed interface (the subglacial ecosystem). The supraglacial ecosystem is characterized by a diverse consortium of microbes (usually bacteria, algae, phytoflagellates, fungi, viruses and occasional rotifers, tardigrades, and diatoms) within the snowpack, supraglacial streams, and melt pools (cryoconite holes). The subglacial system is dominated by aerobic/anaerobic bacteria and most probably viruses in basal ice/till mixtures and subglacial lakes. A third, so-called englacial ecosystem is also described, but it is demonstrated that conditions within glacier ice are sufficient to make metabolic activity and its impact upon nutrient dynamics negligible at the glacier scale. Consideration of the surface and internal heat balances of the glacier show that all glacial ecosystems are sensitive to climate change, although at different timescales. Thus, while rapid, melt-driven habitat changes lead to melt-out, resuscitation, and redistribution of microorganisms in many supraglacial ecosystems, much slower climatic and glacial mass-balance processes effect such changes in the subglacial ecosystem. Paradoxically, it is shown that these forces have brought about net refreezing and the onset of cryostasis in the subglacial ecosystems of many Arctic glaciers subject to thinning in recent decades. Title: Glacial Ecosystems Author: Hodson, Amy, Anesio, Alexandre M., Tranter, Martyn, Fountain, Andrew G., Osborn, Mark, Priscu, John Charles, Laybourn-Perry, Johanna, Sattler, Birgit Year: 2008 There is now compelling evidence that microbially mediated reactions impart a significant effect upon the dynamics, composition, and abundance of nutrients in glacial melt water. Consequently, we must now consider ice masses as ecosystem habitats in their own right and address their diversity, functional potential, and activity as part of alpine and polar environments. Although such research is already underway, its fragmentary nature provides little basis for developing modern concepts of glacier ecology. This paper therefore provides a much-needed framework for development by reviewing the physical, biogeochemical, and microbiological characteristics of microbial habitats that have been identified within glaciers and ice sheets. Two key glacial ecosystems emerge, one inhabiting the glacier surface (the supraglacial ecosystem) and one at the ice-bed interface (the subglacial ecosystem). The supraglacial ecosystem is characterized by a diverse consortium of microbes (usually bacteria, algae, phytoflagellates, fungi, viruses and occasional rotifers, tardigrades, and diatoms) within the snowpack, supraglacial streams, and melt pools (cryoconite holes). The subglacial system is dominated by aerobic/anaerobic bacteria and most probably viruses in basal ice/till mixtures and subglacial lakes. A third, so-called englacial ecosystem is also described, but it is demonstrated that conditions within glacier ice are sufficient to make metabolic activity and its impact upon nutrient dynamics negligible at the glacier scale. Consideration of the surface and internal heat balances of the glacier show that all glacial ecosystems are sensitive to climate change, although at different timescales. Thus, while rapid, melt-driven habitat changes lead to melt-out, resuscitation, and redistribution of microorganisms in many supraglacial ecosystems, much slower climatic and glacial mass-balance processes effect such changes in the subglacial ecosystem. Paradoxically, it is shown that these forces have brought about net refreezing and the onset of cryostasis in the subglacial ecosystems of many Arctic glaciers subject to thinning in recent decades. Close

• 17. [Article] Quantifying 20th Century Glacier Change in the Sierra Nevada, California

  Numerous small alpine glaciers occupy the high elevation regions of the central and southern Sierra Nevada, California. An inventory based on 1:24,000 topographic maps revealed 1719 glaciers and perennial ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Quantifying 20th Century Glacier Change in the Sierra Nevada, California Author: Fountain, Andrew G., Basagic, Hassan J. Year: 2011 Numerous small alpine glaciers occupy the high elevation regions of the central and southern Sierra Nevada, California. An inventory based on 1:24,000 topographic maps revealed 1719 glaciers and perennial snowfields for a total area of 39.15 +/- 0.13 km(2). The number of 'true' glaciers, versus non-moving ice, is estimated to be 122 covering 14.89 +/- 0.08 km(2) or 38% of the ice-covered area. Historic photographs, geologic evidence, and field mapping were used to determine the magnitude of area change over the past century at 14 glaciers. The area change between 1903 and 2004 ranged from -31% to -78%, averaging -55%. Based on these values rough estimates of volume change suggest an ice volume loss from 1903 (1.09 km(3)) to 2004 (0.43 km(3)) of 0.66 km(3) (0.59 km(3) water). Rapid retreat occurred over the first half of the 20th century beginning in the 1920s and continued through the 1960s after which recession ceased by the early 1980s and some glaciers advanced. Since the late 1980s glaciers resumed retreat with a rapid acceleration starting in the early 2000s. The relatively uniform timing of area changes in the study glaciers is a response to regional climate whereas the magnitude of change is influenced by local topographic effects. Area changes correlate significantly with changes in summer and winter air temperatures. Warmer winter temperatures warm the snowpack lengthening the summer melt season. Spring air temperatures and precipitation may also play an important role. The occurrence of spring snowfall can delay the onset of melt due to the increased surface albedo. Examining the influence of topographic variables we only found headwall height at the top of the glacier to show an influence on glacier change. Higher headwalls shadow the glacier from solar radiation reducing melt and enhancing snow accumulation via avalanching. If the glaciers continue to shrink at current (1972-2004) rates, most will disappear in 50-250 years. Title: Quantifying 20th Century Glacier Change in the Sierra Nevada, California Author: Fountain, Andrew G., Basagic, Hassan J. Year: 2011 Numerous small alpine glaciers occupy the high elevation regions of the central and southern Sierra Nevada, California. An inventory based on 1:24,000 topographic maps revealed 1719 glaciers and perennial snowfields for a total area of 39.15 +/- 0.13 km(2). The number of 'true' glaciers, versus non-moving ice, is estimated to be 122 covering 14.89 +/- 0.08 km(2) or 38% of the ice-covered area. Historic photographs, geologic evidence, and field mapping were used to determine the magnitude of area change over the past century at 14 glaciers. The area change between 1903 and 2004 ranged from -31% to -78%, averaging -55%. Based on these values rough estimates of volume change suggest an ice volume loss from 1903 (1.09 km(3)) to 2004 (0.43 km(3)) of 0.66 km(3) (0.59 km(3) water). Rapid retreat occurred over the first half of the 20th century beginning in the 1920s and continued through the 1960s after which recession ceased by the early 1980s and some glaciers advanced. Since the late 1980s glaciers resumed retreat with a rapid acceleration starting in the early 2000s. The relatively uniform timing of area changes in the study glaciers is a response to regional climate whereas the magnitude of change is influenced by local topographic effects. Area changes correlate significantly with changes in summer and winter air temperatures. Warmer winter temperatures warm the snowpack lengthening the summer melt season. Spring air temperatures and precipitation may also play an important role. The occurrence of spring snowfall can delay the onset of melt due to the increased surface albedo. Examining the influence of topographic variables we only found headwall height at the top of the glacier to show an influence on glacier change. Higher headwalls shadow the glacier from solar radiation reducing melt and enhancing snow accumulation via avalanching. If the glaciers continue to shrink at current (1972-2004) rates, most will disappear in 50-250 years. Close