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• 1. [Article] Where Have All the Native Fish Gone? The Fate of Fish that Lewis and Clark Encountered on the Lower Columbia River

  As part of a special issue of the 'Oregon Historical Quarterly,' discusses the native species of fish in the lower Columbia River described by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805-06. They identified ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Where Have All the Native Fish Gone? The Fate of Fish that Lewis and Clark Encountered on the Lower Columbia River Author: Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2004 As part of a special issue of the 'Oregon Historical Quarterly,' discusses the native species of fish in the lower Columbia River described by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805-06. They identified red charr, salmon trout, sturgeon, anchovy, skeet, and other fish that Indians caught and used as trade items with the Corps of Discovery. However, editors of the Lewis and Clark journals have often erred in identifying the fish Lewis and Clark described; the challenge in identifying anadromous fish lies in changing coloration, markings, and examination of habitat. There has been a drastic decline of native fish since 1805 and a growing dominance of exotic species. Title: Where Have All the Native Fish Gone? The Fate of Fish that Lewis and Clark Encountered on the Lower Columbia River Author: Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2004 As part of a special issue of the 'Oregon Historical Quarterly,' discusses the native species of fish in the lower Columbia River described by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in 1805-06. They identified red charr, salmon trout, sturgeon, anchovy, skeet, and other fish that Indians caught and used as trade items with the Corps of Discovery. However, editors of the Lewis and Clark journals have often erred in identifying the fish Lewis and Clark described; the challenge in identifying anadromous fish lies in changing coloration, markings, and examination of habitat. There has been a drastic decline of native fish since 1805 and a growing dominance of exotic species. Close

• 2. [Article] Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River

  Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River Author: Rosenberg, J. Shoshana Year: 2015 Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue on the Northwest Coast. Faunal remains are one potential but as yet underutilized path for examining this relationship. My thesis work takes on this approach through the analysis of fish remains from the Cathlapotle archaeological site (45CL1). Cathlapotle is a large Chinookan village site located on the Lower Columbia River that was extensively excavated in the 1990s. Previous work has established prestige distinctions between houses and house compartments, making it possible to examine the relationship between prestige and the spatial distribution of fish remains. In this study, I examine whether having high prestige afforded its bearers greater access to preferred fish, utilizing comparisons of fish remains at two different levels of social organization, between and within households, to determine which social mechanisms could account for potential differences in access to fish resources. Differential access to these resources within the village could have occurred through household-level ownership of harvesting sites or control over the post-harvesting distribution of food by certain individuals. Previous work in this region on the relationship between faunal remains and prestige has relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources to determine the relative value of taxa. These sources do not provide adequate data to make detailed comparisons between all of the taxa encountered at archaeological sites, so in this study I utilize optimal foraging theory as an alternative means of determining which fish taxa were preferred. Optimal foraging theory provides a universal, quantitative analytical rule for ranking fish that I was able to apply to all of the taxa encountered at Cathlapotle. Given these rankings, which are based primarily on size, I examine the degree to which relative prestige designations of two households (Houses 1 and 4) and compartments within one of those households (House 1) are reflected in the spatial distribution of fish remains. I also offer a new method for quantifying sturgeon that utilizes specimen weight to account for differential fragmentation rates while still allowing for sturgeon abundance to be compared to the abundances of other taxa that have been quantified by number of identified specimens (NISP). Based on remains recovered from 1/4" mesh screens, comparisons between compartments within House 1 indicate that the chief and possibly other elite members of House 1 likely had some control over the distribution of fish resources within their household, taking more of the preferred sturgeon and salmon, particularly more chinook salmon, for themselves. Comparisons between households provide little evidence to support household-based ownership of fishing sites. A greater abundance of chinook salmon in the higher prestige House 1 may indicate ownership of fishing platforms at major chinook fisheries such as Willamette Falls or Cascades Rapids, but other explanations for this difference between households are possible. Analyses of a limited number of bulk samples, which were included in the study in order to examine utilization of very small fishes, provided insufficient data to allow for meaningful intrasite comparisons. These data indicate that the inhabitants of Cathlapotle were exploiting a broad fish subsistence base that included large numbers of eulachon and stickleback in addition to the larger fishes. This study provides a promising approach for examining prestige on the Northwest Coast and expanding our understanding of the dynamics between social inequality and resource access and control. Title: Study of Prestige and Resource Control Using Fish Remains from Cathlapotle, a Plankhouse Village on the Lower Columbia River Author: Rosenberg, J. Shoshana Year: 2015 Social inequality is a trademark of Northwest Coast native societies, and the relationship between social prestige and resource control, particularly resource ownership, is an important research issue on the Northwest Coast. Faunal remains are one potential but as yet underutilized path for examining this relationship. My thesis work takes on this approach through the analysis of fish remains from the Cathlapotle archaeological site (45CL1). Cathlapotle is a large Chinookan village site located on the Lower Columbia River that was extensively excavated in the 1990s. Previous work has established prestige distinctions between houses and house compartments, making it possible to examine the relationship between prestige and the spatial distribution of fish remains. In this study, I examine whether having high prestige afforded its bearers greater access to preferred fish, utilizing comparisons of fish remains at two different levels of social organization, between and within households, to determine which social mechanisms could account for potential differences in access to fish resources. Differential access to these resources within the village could have occurred through household-level ownership of harvesting sites or control over the post-harvesting distribution of food by certain individuals. Previous work in this region on the relationship between faunal remains and prestige has relied heavily on ethnohistoric sources to determine the relative value of taxa. These sources do not provide adequate data to make detailed comparisons between all of the taxa encountered at archaeological sites, so in this study I utilize optimal foraging theory as an alternative means of determining which fish taxa were preferred. Optimal foraging theory provides a universal, quantitative analytical rule for ranking fish that I was able to apply to all of the taxa encountered at Cathlapotle. Given these rankings, which are based primarily on size, I examine the degree to which relative prestige designations of two households (Houses 1 and 4) and compartments within one of those households (House 1) are reflected in the spatial distribution of fish remains. I also offer a new method for quantifying sturgeon that utilizes specimen weight to account for differential fragmentation rates while still allowing for sturgeon abundance to be compared to the abundances of other taxa that have been quantified by number of identified specimens (NISP). Based on remains recovered from 1/4" mesh screens, comparisons between compartments within House 1 indicate that the chief and possibly other elite members of House 1 likely had some control over the distribution of fish resources within their household, taking more of the preferred sturgeon and salmon, particularly more chinook salmon, for themselves. Comparisons between households provide little evidence to support household-based ownership of fishing sites. A greater abundance of chinook salmon in the higher prestige House 1 may indicate ownership of fishing platforms at major chinook fisheries such as Willamette Falls or Cascades Rapids, but other explanations for this difference between households are possible. Analyses of a limited number of bulk samples, which were included in the study in order to examine utilization of very small fishes, provided insufficient data to allow for meaningful intrasite comparisons. These data indicate that the inhabitants of Cathlapotle were exploiting a broad fish subsistence base that included large numbers of eulachon and stickleback in addition to the larger fishes. This study provides a promising approach for examining prestige on the Northwest Coast and expanding our understanding of the dynamics between social inequality and resource access and control. Close

• 3. [Article] Aboriginal Fisheries of the Lower Columbia River

  This chapter, included in Chinookan Peoples of the Lower Columbia, published by the University of Washington Press in 2013, explores the aboriginal fisheries of the Lower Columbia River. The authors reviewed ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Aboriginal Fisheries of the Lower Columbia River Author: Butler, Virginia L., Martin, Michael A. Year: 2013 This chapter, included in Chinookan Peoples of the Lower Columbia, published by the University of Washington Press in 2013, explores the aboriginal fisheries of the Lower Columbia River. The authors reviewed ethnohistorical accounts and studies of archaeological sites to create a complex picture of Columbia River fisheries that challenges the prevailing view among anthropologists that salmon was the primary and predominant fishery among Chinookan peoples. The authors show that 19th century Native fishers targeted virtually all native fish species in the Lower Columbia River, and employed a wide range of strategies and tactics to acquire and process fish. Title: Aboriginal Fisheries of the Lower Columbia River Author: Butler, Virginia L., Martin, Michael A. Year: 2013 This chapter, included in Chinookan Peoples of the Lower Columbia, published by the University of Washington Press in 2013, explores the aboriginal fisheries of the Lower Columbia River. The authors reviewed ethnohistorical accounts and studies of archaeological sites to create a complex picture of Columbia River fisheries that challenges the prevailing view among anthropologists that salmon was the primary and predominant fishery among Chinookan peoples. The authors show that 19th century Native fishers targeted virtually all native fish species in the Lower Columbia River, and employed a wide range of strategies and tactics to acquire and process fish. Close

• 4. [Article] On the Validity of the Radiographic Method for Determining Age of Ancient Salmon

  White rings visible on the centrum face of salmon vertebrae with X-rays have been used since the 1980s to age Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), which in turn have been used to determine salmon species, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On the Validity of the Radiographic Method for Determining Age of Ancient Salmon Author: Hofkamp, Anthony R., Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2017 White rings visible on the centrum face of salmon vertebrae with X-rays have been used since the 1980s to age Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), which in turn have been used to determine salmon species, season of capture and season of site occupation. This approach relies on a variety of assumptions, the most fundamental of which is that rings represent true years. Recent aDNA analysis has shown that the X-ray approach has flaws but the source of the error has been unknown. Given the value of reconstructing salmon population demographics and life history from ancient remains, establishing a valid and reliable method of ageing salmon vertebrae is extremely worthwhile. The main goal of our study was to evaluate if X-ray images of ring patterns on vertebrae provide a valid method of estimating fish age. Vertebrae from 66 adult Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) of known age were studied with X-rays, thin sections or low-powered (10–30 ×) magnification. We found that the white bands observed in X-rays are structural walls that do not grow annually. While X-rays are not a valid method for ageing salmonids, incremental growth seen on the surface of fish centra shows great promise for reconstructing ancient fish life history. Title: On the Validity of the Radiographic Method for Determining Age of Ancient Salmon Author: Hofkamp, Anthony R., Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2017 White rings visible on the centrum face of salmon vertebrae with X-rays have been used since the 1980s to age Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), which in turn have been used to determine salmon species, season of capture and season of site occupation. This approach relies on a variety of assumptions, the most fundamental of which is that rings represent true years. Recent aDNA analysis has shown that the X-ray approach has flaws but the source of the error has been unknown. Given the value of reconstructing salmon population demographics and life history from ancient remains, establishing a valid and reliable method of ageing salmon vertebrae is extremely worthwhile. The main goal of our study was to evaluate if X-ray images of ring patterns on vertebrae provide a valid method of estimating fish age. Vertebrae from 66 adult Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha) of known age were studied with X-rays, thin sections or low-powered (10–30 ×) magnification. We found that the white bands observed in X-rays are structural walls that do not grow annually. While X-rays are not a valid method for ageing salmonids, incremental growth seen on the surface of fish centra shows great promise for reconstructing ancient fish life history. Close

• 5. [Article] Assessing Reproducibility in Faunal Analysis Using Blind Tests: A case Study From Northwestern North America

  Zooarchaeologists have long recognized that assigning taxonomic identifications to animal remains is a subjective process, and recent studies have highlighted the need for data quality assurance standards ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Assessing Reproducibility in Faunal Analysis Using Blind Tests: A case Study From Northwestern North America Author: Nims, Reno, Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2017 Zooarchaeologists have long recognized that assigning taxonomic identifications to animal remains is a subjective process, and recent studies have highlighted the need for data quality assurance standards in archaeofaunal research. Our study contributes to this growing interest in quality assurance by presenting simple quantitative methods for assessing the reproducibility of analytic results through blind reanalysis of animal remains that we developed during analysis of fishbone from Čḯxwicən, a large Native American village on the coast of Washington State, U.S.A. Given the large scale of the Čḯxwicən project – over 112,000 fish remains were documented by five different analysts over three years – there was a real possibility that inconsistencies in laboratory practices affected analytic results (e.g., number of identified specimens, taxa present and relative abundance, elements identified, burning frequencies). To evaluate the reproducibility of the Čḯxwicən fishbone data, and the possibility of “protocol drift” – changes in how specimens and bone modifications were identified over the course of analysis – we reanalyzed samples of fish remains that were previously documented during three discrete stages (beginning, middle, and end) of the Čḯxwicən project. The original data and the reanalysis results show close agreement in each stage, with only minor differences in the numbers of recorded specimens, taxonomic representation at family- and finer taxonomic levels, and body part representation assessed for a single taxonomic order. Identifying burning on bone was not very reproducible. Reproducibility studies such as this are useful for highlighting ambiguous identification criteria (e.g., in taxonomic assignment, bone modification), and could stimulate dialog among researchers about ways to address such issues in future studies. Increasing the implementation of these, and other, widely applicable methods should improve zooarchaeological data quality and stimulate further research on quality assurance in archaeology overall. Title: Assessing Reproducibility in Faunal Analysis Using Blind Tests: A case Study From Northwestern North America Author: Nims, Reno, Butler, Virginia L. Year: 2017 Zooarchaeologists have long recognized that assigning taxonomic identifications to animal remains is a subjective process, and recent studies have highlighted the need for data quality assurance standards in archaeofaunal research. Our study contributes to this growing interest in quality assurance by presenting simple quantitative methods for assessing the reproducibility of analytic results through blind reanalysis of animal remains that we developed during analysis of fishbone from Čḯxwicən, a large Native American village on the coast of Washington State, U.S.A. Given the large scale of the Čḯxwicən project – over 112,000 fish remains were documented by five different analysts over three years – there was a real possibility that inconsistencies in laboratory practices affected analytic results (e.g., number of identified specimens, taxa present and relative abundance, elements identified, burning frequencies). To evaluate the reproducibility of the Čḯxwicən fishbone data, and the possibility of “protocol drift” – changes in how specimens and bone modifications were identified over the course of analysis – we reanalyzed samples of fish remains that were previously documented during three discrete stages (beginning, middle, and end) of the Čḯxwicən project. The original data and the reanalysis results show close agreement in each stage, with only minor differences in the numbers of recorded specimens, taxonomic representation at family- and finer taxonomic levels, and body part representation assessed for a single taxonomic order. Identifying burning on bone was not very reproducible. Reproducibility studies such as this are useful for highlighting ambiguous identification criteria (e.g., in taxonomic assignment, bone modification), and could stimulate dialog among researchers about ways to address such issues in future studies. Increasing the implementation of these, and other, widely applicable methods should improve zooarchaeological data quality and stimulate further research on quality assurance in archaeology overall. Close

• 6. [Article] The Spatial Distribution of Ground Stone Tools as a Marker of Status Differentials in a Chinookan Plank House on the Lower Columbia River

  Social status was an integral part of the social structure of Northwest Coast societies. The presence of ranked social structures and household space based on rank is reported in the ethnographic literature. ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Spatial Distribution of Ground Stone Tools as a Marker of Status Differentials in a Chinookan Plank House on the Lower Columbia River Author: Wolf, John William Year: 1994 Social status was an integral part of the social structure of Northwest Coast societies. The presence of ranked social structures and household space based on rank is reported in the ethnographic literature. Archaeologists have long searched for independent and verifiable means to infer social structure from archaeological deposits. Burial goods have been used to identify status differences. Do other items of material culture also reflect such differences? The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether or not the distribution of certain tools recovered from a Chinookan plank house on the lower Columbia River paralleled the household residence location that was keyed to social status. Among Northwest Coast societies the household was the basic social and economic unit. Ground stone tools were selected for study because they include tools which were instrumental parts of a technology that depended upon highly organized and scheduled activities, i.e. fishing and house construction. If these tools were controlled by particular individuals or families within the household, their archaeological deposition might reflect social status differences. Two questions were asked in this study. (1) What is the correlation between the volume of sediment excavated and the number of ground stone artifacts recovered from the house? (2) What is the relationship between residence location and the density of ground stone artifacts recovered from the house? The ground stone artifacts were identified, classified and counted. Correlation coefficients between the volumes of sediment excavated and the number of ground stone artifacts recovered showed that the correlation was suspiciously weak, in general, and not correlated for fishing net weights. Some factor other than solely excavation volumes was affecting ground stone artifact counts. To answer the second question linear regressions were performed. They revealed that although location was to some degree a function of the density of ground stone artifacts, that relationship was weak at the .05 significance level. However, the relationship was stronger for fishing net weights. It is likely that there are multiple reasons for ground stone tool distributions and sites must be excavated with broad exposures in order to understand the relationship between residence location and artifact densities. Title: The Spatial Distribution of Ground Stone Tools as a Marker of Status Differentials in a Chinookan Plank House on the Lower Columbia River Author: Wolf, John William Year: 1994 Social status was an integral part of the social structure of Northwest Coast societies. The presence of ranked social structures and household space based on rank is reported in the ethnographic literature. Archaeologists have long searched for independent and verifiable means to infer social structure from archaeological deposits. Burial goods have been used to identify status differences. Do other items of material culture also reflect such differences? The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether or not the distribution of certain tools recovered from a Chinookan plank house on the lower Columbia River paralleled the household residence location that was keyed to social status. Among Northwest Coast societies the household was the basic social and economic unit. Ground stone tools were selected for study because they include tools which were instrumental parts of a technology that depended upon highly organized and scheduled activities, i.e. fishing and house construction. If these tools were controlled by particular individuals or families within the household, their archaeological deposition might reflect social status differences. Two questions were asked in this study. (1) What is the correlation between the volume of sediment excavated and the number of ground stone artifacts recovered from the house? (2) What is the relationship between residence location and the density of ground stone artifacts recovered from the house? The ground stone artifacts were identified, classified and counted. Correlation coefficients between the volumes of sediment excavated and the number of ground stone artifacts recovered showed that the correlation was suspiciously weak, in general, and not correlated for fishing net weights. Some factor other than solely excavation volumes was affecting ground stone artifact counts. To answer the second question linear regressions were performed. They revealed that although location was to some degree a function of the density of ground stone artifacts, that relationship was weak at the .05 significance level. However, the relationship was stronger for fishing net weights. It is likely that there are multiple reasons for ground stone tool distributions and sites must be excavated with broad exposures in order to understand the relationship between residence location and artifact densities. Close

• 7. [Article] Finding and Dating Cathlapotle

  The people of the Cathlapotle town played a significant role in the fur trade era history of the Lower Columbia River, including Lewis and Clark’s visit on March 29th, 1806. Archaeologists and others have ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Finding and Dating Cathlapotle Author: Ames, Kenneth M., Sobel, Elizabeth A. Year: 2009 The people of the Cathlapotle town played a significant role in the fur trade era history of the Lower Columbia River, including Lewis and Clark’s visit on March 29th, 1806. Archaeologists and others have sought the town’s location for years. Long-term research has established that archaeological site 45CL1 on the US Fish and Wildlife Refuge near Ridgefield, Washington is Cathlapotle. This determination is based on the close match between site details with various ethnohistoric accounts of Cathlapotle. The site was occupied by ca. AD 1450 and probably moved there from another nearby location. It was abandoned sometime in the 1830s or 1840s. This chronology is based on 54 radiocarbon dates, historic trade goods including glass beads and ceramics, and documentary accounts. Title: Finding and Dating Cathlapotle Author: Ames, Kenneth M., Sobel, Elizabeth A. Year: 2009 The people of the Cathlapotle town played a significant role in the fur trade era history of the Lower Columbia River, including Lewis and Clark’s visit on March 29th, 1806. Archaeologists and others have sought the town’s location for years. Long-term research has established that archaeological site 45CL1 on the US Fish and Wildlife Refuge near Ridgefield, Washington is Cathlapotle. This determination is based on the close match between site details with various ethnohistoric accounts of Cathlapotle. The site was occupied by ca. AD 1450 and probably moved there from another nearby location. It was abandoned sometime in the 1830s or 1840s. This chronology is based on 54 radiocarbon dates, historic trade goods including glass beads and ceramics, and documentary accounts. Close

• 8. [Article] Late Pleistocene and recent archaeology and geomorphology of the south shore of Harney Lake, Oregon

  The present study was a response to the discovery of two artifacts found in a ditch wall near Harney Lake, Oregon. These were lying on a buried lake floor that appeared to be of late Pleistocene or early ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Late Pleistocene and recent archaeology and geomorphology of the south shore of Harney Lake, Oregon Author: Gehr, Keith Donald Year: 1980 The present study was a response to the discovery of two artifacts found in a ditch wall near Harney Lake, Oregon. These were lying on a buried lake floor that appeared to be of late Pleistocene or early Recent age. Other sediments exposed in the ditch seemed to relate to at least some of the phases of the pluvial lake sequence in the Harney Basin. Three problems were considered: (1) the geomorphology and dating of the pluvial lake stillstands, (2) whether the original artifacts were part of a larger early site, and (3) whether there was any relationship between archaeological sites and geomorphic features in the area. These problems were approached in the field by stratigraphic mapping of exposed sediments and by an archaeological survey of a defined study area. Test excavations were made adjacent to the location of the original artifact discovery to search for other cultural material. Beachline records of four stillstands of Pluvial Lake Malheur are preserved in the exposed sediments. The youngest beachline is undated. Three others were 14C dated from associated fossil molluscs at 32,000, 9620 and 8680 B.P. At least in the case of the 8680 B.P. lake, the Harney Basin was filled to overflowing and was a part of the Columbia River system. The Voltage basalt flow, which dammed the outlet of the Basin in Malheur Gap, was in place by 32,000 years ago. There is no evidence for a diversion of the Basin outlet to Crane Gap following this event. Molluscan fossils and diatoms were used, along with soil texture analyses, to help identify and differentiate sedimentary deposits and to draw environmental inferences. Artifacts were found both on and beneath buried beach deposits of the 8680 B.P. lake. Four of the five sites in the study area were either on wave-cut terraces or other lakeshore features associated with this lake. Diagnostic artifacts are Lind Coulee points, crescents, basally ground leaf-shaped points, and what are apparently true blades. The sites seem to have been located to take advantage of shallow water littoral zone resources. Fish may have been an important dietary item of the early Harney Basin dwellers. Large salmonid vertebrae from fish in the 10 kg weight class are found on the playa. By using the relationship between landforms and elevations it may be possible to predict the general age class of other sites on the margin of the playas. Title: Late Pleistocene and recent archaeology and geomorphology of the south shore of Harney Lake, Oregon Author: Gehr, Keith Donald Year: 1980 The present study was a response to the discovery of two artifacts found in a ditch wall near Harney Lake, Oregon. These were lying on a buried lake floor that appeared to be of late Pleistocene or early Recent age. Other sediments exposed in the ditch seemed to relate to at least some of the phases of the pluvial lake sequence in the Harney Basin. Three problems were considered: (1) the geomorphology and dating of the pluvial lake stillstands, (2) whether the original artifacts were part of a larger early site, and (3) whether there was any relationship between archaeological sites and geomorphic features in the area. These problems were approached in the field by stratigraphic mapping of exposed sediments and by an archaeological survey of a defined study area. Test excavations were made adjacent to the location of the original artifact discovery to search for other cultural material. Beachline records of four stillstands of Pluvial Lake Malheur are preserved in the exposed sediments. The youngest beachline is undated. Three others were 14C dated from associated fossil molluscs at 32,000, 9620 and 8680 B.P. At least in the case of the 8680 B.P. lake, the Harney Basin was filled to overflowing and was a part of the Columbia River system. The Voltage basalt flow, which dammed the outlet of the Basin in Malheur Gap, was in place by 32,000 years ago. There is no evidence for a diversion of the Basin outlet to Crane Gap following this event. Molluscan fossils and diatoms were used, along with soil texture analyses, to help identify and differentiate sedimentary deposits and to draw environmental inferences. Artifacts were found both on and beneath buried beach deposits of the 8680 B.P. lake. Four of the five sites in the study area were either on wave-cut terraces or other lakeshore features associated with this lake. Diagnostic artifacts are Lind Coulee points, crescents, basally ground leaf-shaped points, and what are apparently true blades. The sites seem to have been located to take advantage of shallow water littoral zone resources. Fish may have been an important dietary item of the early Harney Basin dwellers. Large salmonid vertebrae from fish in the 10 kg weight class are found on the playa. By using the relationship between landforms and elevations it may be possible to predict the general age class of other sites on the margin of the playas. Close

• 9. [Article] Structural Bone Density of Pacific Cod (<i>Gadus macrocephalus</i>) and Halibut (<i>Hippoglossus stenolepis</i>): Taphonomic and Archaeological Implications

  Describing prehistoric human subsistence strategies and mobility patterns using archaeofaunal assemblages requires archaeologists to differentiate the effects of human behavior from natural taphonomic ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Structural Bone Density of Pacific Cod (<i>Gadus macrocephalus</i>) and Halibut (<i>Hippoglossus stenolepis</i>): Taphonomic and Archaeological Implications Author: Smith, Ross E. Year: 2008 Describing prehistoric human subsistence strategies and mobility patterns using archaeofaunal assemblages requires archaeologists to differentiate the effects of human behavior from natural taphonomic processes. Previous studies demonstrate that differences in bone density both within and between taxa contribute to variation in element representation in archaeofaunal assemblages. Measurements of contemporary Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus) and Pacific Halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) skeletal elements using Dual Energy Absorptiometry (DEXA) and hydrostatic weighing revealed differences in bone volume density between elements and taxa. Density values were highest in Pacific cod and halibut jaw elements; the lowest bone volume densities were measured in Pacific cod and halibut basipterygia. While halibut and salmon often exhibited similar bone density values, the densities of Pacific cod elements were consistently higher than those from either salmon or halibut. These density data indicate that the remains of Pacific cod are more likely to persist in archaeological deposits. When combined with existing salmon bone density measurements, these data allow for the identification of density-mediated destruction in fish faunal assemblages from along the North Pacific rim. Analysis of cod, halibut and salmon faunal assemblages from the North Point, Cape Addington Rockshelter, Rice Ridge, Uyak and Amaknak Bridge sites revealed that density-mediated element attrition has not consistently affected cod, halibut and salmon element representation in these sites. Significant correlations identified in aggregate site assemblages were not present at finer scales of analysis; the effects of density-mediated element attrition varied between depositional contexts. This research demonstrates that bone density data can be used to differentiate the effects of density-mediated element attrition from the results of human decision-making. Once density-mediated element attrition is ruled out, archaeologists can examine the effects of human processing, transportation, preparation and disposal activities on the distribution of Pacific cod and halibut skeletal elements both within and between archaeological contexts. Title: Structural Bone Density of Pacific Cod (<i>Gadus macrocephalus</i>) and Halibut (<i>Hippoglossus stenolepis</i>): Taphonomic and Archaeological Implications Author: Smith, Ross E. Year: 2008 Describing prehistoric human subsistence strategies and mobility patterns using archaeofaunal assemblages requires archaeologists to differentiate the effects of human behavior from natural taphonomic processes. Previous studies demonstrate that differences in bone density both within and between taxa contribute to variation in element representation in archaeofaunal assemblages. Measurements of contemporary Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus) and Pacific Halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) skeletal elements using Dual Energy Absorptiometry (DEXA) and hydrostatic weighing revealed differences in bone volume density between elements and taxa. Density values were highest in Pacific cod and halibut jaw elements; the lowest bone volume densities were measured in Pacific cod and halibut basipterygia. While halibut and salmon often exhibited similar bone density values, the densities of Pacific cod elements were consistently higher than those from either salmon or halibut. These density data indicate that the remains of Pacific cod are more likely to persist in archaeological deposits. When combined with existing salmon bone density measurements, these data allow for the identification of density-mediated destruction in fish faunal assemblages from along the North Pacific rim. Analysis of cod, halibut and salmon faunal assemblages from the North Point, Cape Addington Rockshelter, Rice Ridge, Uyak and Amaknak Bridge sites revealed that density-mediated element attrition has not consistently affected cod, halibut and salmon element representation in these sites. Significant correlations identified in aggregate site assemblages were not present at finer scales of analysis; the effects of density-mediated element attrition varied between depositional contexts. This research demonstrates that bone density data can be used to differentiate the effects of density-mediated element attrition from the results of human decision-making. Once density-mediated element attrition is ruled out, archaeologists can examine the effects of human processing, transportation, preparation and disposal activities on the distribution of Pacific cod and halibut skeletal elements both within and between archaeological contexts. Close

• 10. [Article] Archaeological Investigations at 45CL1 Cathlapotle (1991-1996) , Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge Clark County, Washington A Preliminary Report

  Archaeological investigations at site 45CL1, Clark County, Washington, demonstrate that the locality is a very large (c 1.5ha), deeply stratified (2-4m) town site with an occupation spanning at least 1000 ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Archaeological Investigations at 45CL1 Cathlapotle (1991-1996) , Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge Clark County, Washington A Preliminary Report Author: Ames, Kenneth M., Smith, Cameron M., Cornett, William L., Sobel, Elizabeth A., Hamilton, Stephen C., Wolf, John, Raetz, Doria, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Region 1, Portland State University. Department of Anthropology Year: 1999 Archaeological investigations at site 45CL1, Clark County, Washington, demonstrate that the locality is a very large (c 1.5ha), deeply stratified (2-4m) town site with an occupation spanning at least 1000 years (c. AD 1000 to 1840). Six large, complex depressions have been mapped. Test excavations show that these depressions represent the semisubterranean portions of residential structures, probably large plankhouses of the type common on the Lower Columbia River and the Northwest Coast in aboriginal times. The depressions may represent as many as 11 such dwellings. A seventh depression is deeply buried beneath midden deposits. The cultural deposits contain very high densities of artifacts, ecofacts (including both faunal and floral remains), debris and features. The site is near the Columbia River on a very active flood plain, resulting in site stratigraphy produced by a combination of active cultural and alluvial depositional processes. Site 45CL1, given its location and size, is the best candidate to be the site of Cathlapotle, a Middle Chinookan town visited by Lewis and Clark in 1806, as well as by other early Europeans in the area. The site is extraordinarily well preserved, having undergone only minor alterations since its abandonment, probably in the third or fourth decade of the 19th century AD. Title: Archaeological Investigations at 45CL1 Cathlapotle (1991-1996) , Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge Clark County, Washington A Preliminary Report Author: Ames, Kenneth M., Smith, Cameron M., Cornett, William L., Sobel, Elizabeth A., Hamilton, Stephen C., Wolf, John, Raetz, Doria, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Region 1, Portland State University. Department of Anthropology Year: 1999 Archaeological investigations at site 45CL1, Clark County, Washington, demonstrate that the locality is a very large (c 1.5ha), deeply stratified (2-4m) town site with an occupation spanning at least 1000 years (c. AD 1000 to 1840). Six large, complex depressions have been mapped. Test excavations show that these depressions represent the semisubterranean portions of residential structures, probably large plankhouses of the type common on the Lower Columbia River and the Northwest Coast in aboriginal times. The depressions may represent as many as 11 such dwellings. A seventh depression is deeply buried beneath midden deposits. The cultural deposits contain very high densities of artifacts, ecofacts (including both faunal and floral remains), debris and features. The site is near the Columbia River on a very active flood plain, resulting in site stratigraphy produced by a combination of active cultural and alluvial depositional processes. Site 45CL1, given its location and size, is the best candidate to be the site of Cathlapotle, a Middle Chinookan town visited by Lewis and Clark in 1806, as well as by other early Europeans in the area. The site is extraordinarily well preserved, having undergone only minor alterations since its abandonment, probably in the third or fourth decade of the 19th century AD. Close