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• 21. [Article] Large-scale sea surface temperature variability from satellite and shipboard measurements

  Copyrighted by American Geophysical Union.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Large-scale sea surface temperature variability from satellite and shipboard measurements Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Berstein, R. Copyrighted by American Geophysical Union. Title: Large-scale sea surface temperature variability from satellite and shipboard measurements Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Berstein, R. Copyrighted by American Geophysical Union. Close

• 22. [Article] High-Resolution Satellite Measurements of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Response to SST Variations along the Agulhas Return Current

  The marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) response to sea surface temperature (SST) perturbations with wavelengths shorter than 30° longitude by 10° latitude along the Agulhas Return Current (ARC) is ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: High-Resolution Satellite Measurements of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Response to SST Variations along the Agulhas Return Current Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Esbensen, Steven K., Wentz, Frank J., O’Neill, Larry W. The marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) response to sea surface temperature (SST) perturbations with wavelengths shorter than 30° longitude by 10° latitude along the Agulhas Return Current (ARC) is described from the first year of SST and cloud liquid water (CLW) measurements from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR) on the Earth Observing System (EOS) Aqua satellite and surface wind stress measurements from the QuikSCAT scatterometer. AMSR measurements of SST at a resolution of 58 km considerably improves upon a previous analysis that used the Reynolds SST analyses, which underestimate the short-scale SST gradient magnitude over the ARC region by more than a factor of 5. The AMSR SST data thus provide the first quantitatively accurate depiction of the SST-induced MABL response along the ARC. Warm (cold) SST perturbations produce positive (negative) wind stress magnitude perturbations, leading to short-scale perturbations in the wind stress curl and divergence fields that are linearly related to the crosswind and downwind components of the SST gradient, respectively. The magnitudes of the curl and divergence responses vary seasonally and spatially with a response nearly twice as strong during the winter than during the summer along a zonal band between 40° and 50°S. These seasonal variations closely correspond to seasonal and spatial variability of large-scale MABL stability and surface sensible heat flux estimated from NCEP reanalysis fields. SST-induced deepening of the MABL over warm water is evident in AMSR measurements of CLW. Typical annual mean differences in cloud thickness between cold and warm SST perturbations are estimated to be about 300 m Title: High-Resolution Satellite Measurements of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Response to SST Variations along the Agulhas Return Current Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Esbensen, Steven K., Wentz, Frank J., O’Neill, Larry W. The marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) response to sea surface temperature (SST) perturbations with wavelengths shorter than 30° longitude by 10° latitude along the Agulhas Return Current (ARC) is described from the first year of SST and cloud liquid water (CLW) measurements from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR) on the Earth Observing System (EOS) Aqua satellite and surface wind stress measurements from the QuikSCAT scatterometer. AMSR measurements of SST at a resolution of 58 km considerably improves upon a previous analysis that used the Reynolds SST analyses, which underestimate the short-scale SST gradient magnitude over the ARC region by more than a factor of 5. The AMSR SST data thus provide the first quantitatively accurate depiction of the SST-induced MABL response along the ARC. Warm (cold) SST perturbations produce positive (negative) wind stress magnitude perturbations, leading to short-scale perturbations in the wind stress curl and divergence fields that are linearly related to the crosswind and downwind components of the SST gradient, respectively. The magnitudes of the curl and divergence responses vary seasonally and spatially with a response nearly twice as strong during the winter than during the summer along a zonal band between 40° and 50°S. These seasonal variations closely correspond to seasonal and spatial variability of large-scale MABL stability and surface sensible heat flux estimated from NCEP reanalysis fields. SST-induced deepening of the MABL over warm water is evident in AMSR measurements of CLW. Typical annual mean differences in cloud thickness between cold and warm SST perturbations are estimated to be about 300 m Close

• 23. [Article] SST–Wind Interaction in Coastal Upwelling: Oceanic Simulation with Empirical Coupling

  Observations, primarily from satellites, have shown a statistical relationship between the surface wind stress and underlying sea surface temperature (SST) on intermediate space and time scales, in many ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: SST–Wind Interaction in Coastal Upwelling: Oceanic Simulation with Empirical Coupling Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Kurian, Jaison, Jin, Xin, McWilliams, James C., Li, Zhijin, Dong, Changming Observations, primarily from satellites, have shown a statistical relationship between the surface wind stress and underlying sea surface temperature (SST) on intermediate space and time scales, in many regions inclusive of eastern boundary upwelling current systems. In this paper, this empirical SST–wind stress relationship is utilized to provide a simple representation of mesoscale air–sea coupling for an oceanic model forced by surface winds, namely, the Regional Oceanic Modeling System (ROMS). This model formulation is applied to an idealized upwelling problem with prevailing equatorward winds to determine the coupling consequences on flow, SST, stratification, and wind evolutions. The initially uniform wind field adjusts through coupling to a cross-shore profile with weaker nearshore winds, similar to realistic ones. The modified wind stress weakens the nearshore upwelling circulation and increases SST in the coastal zone. The SST-induced wind stress curl strengthens offshore upwelling through Ekman suction. The total curl-driven upwelling exceeds the coastal upwelling. The SST-induced changes in the nearshore wind stress field also strengthen and broaden the poleward undercurrent. The coupling also shows significant impact on the developing mesoscale eddies by damaging cyclonic eddies more than anticyclonic eddies, which leads to dominance by the latter. Dynamically, this is a consequence of cyclones with stronger SST gradients that induce stronger wind perturbations in this particular upwelling problem and that are therefore generally more susceptible to disruption than anticyclones at finite Rossby number. The net effect is a weakening of eddy kinetic energy. Title: SST–Wind Interaction in Coastal Upwelling: Oceanic Simulation with Empirical Coupling Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Kurian, Jaison, Jin, Xin, McWilliams, James C., Li, Zhijin, Dong, Changming Observations, primarily from satellites, have shown a statistical relationship between the surface wind stress and underlying sea surface temperature (SST) on intermediate space and time scales, in many regions inclusive of eastern boundary upwelling current systems. In this paper, this empirical SST–wind stress relationship is utilized to provide a simple representation of mesoscale air–sea coupling for an oceanic model forced by surface winds, namely, the Regional Oceanic Modeling System (ROMS). This model formulation is applied to an idealized upwelling problem with prevailing equatorward winds to determine the coupling consequences on flow, SST, stratification, and wind evolutions. The initially uniform wind field adjusts through coupling to a cross-shore profile with weaker nearshore winds, similar to realistic ones. The modified wind stress weakens the nearshore upwelling circulation and increases SST in the coastal zone. The SST-induced wind stress curl strengthens offshore upwelling through Ekman suction. The total curl-driven upwelling exceeds the coastal upwelling. The SST-induced changes in the nearshore wind stress field also strengthen and broaden the poleward undercurrent. The coupling also shows significant impact on the developing mesoscale eddies by damaging cyclonic eddies more than anticyclonic eddies, which leads to dominance by the latter. Dynamically, this is a consequence of cyclones with stronger SST gradients that induce stronger wind perturbations in this particular upwelling problem and that are therefore generally more susceptible to disruption than anticyclones at finite Rossby number. The net effect is a weakening of eddy kinetic energy. Close

• 24. [Article] Observations of SST-Induced Perturbations of the Wind Stress Field over the Southern Ocean on Seasonal Timescales

  The surface wind stress response to sea surface temperature (SST) over the latitude range 30°–60°S in the Southern Ocean is described from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's QuikSCAT scatterometer ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Observations of SST-Induced Perturbations of the Wind Stress Field over the Southern Ocean on Seasonal Timescales Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Esbensen, Steven K., O'Neill, Larry W. The surface wind stress response to sea surface temperature (SST) over the latitude range 30°–60°S in the Southern Ocean is described from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's QuikSCAT scatterometer observations of wind stress and Reynolds analyses of SST during the 2-yr period August 1999 to July 2001. While ocean–atmosphere coupling at midlatitudes has previously been documented from several case studies, this is the first study to quantify this relation over the entire Southern Ocean. The spatial structures of the surface wind perturbations with wavelengths shorter than 10° latitude by 30° longitude are closely related to persistent spatial variations of the SST field on the same scales. The wind stress curl and divergence are shown to be linearly related, respectively, to the crosswind and downwind components of the SST gradient. The curl response has a magnitude only about half that of the divergence response. This observed coupling is consistent with the hypothesis that SST modification of marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) stability affects vertical turbulent mixing of momentum, inducing perturbations in the surface winds. The nonequivalence between the responses of the curl and divergence to the crosswind and downwind SST gradients suggests that secondary circulations in the MABL may also play an important role by producing significant perturbations in the surface wind field near SST fronts that are distinct from the vertical turbulent transfer of momentum. The importance of the wind stress curl in driving Ekman vertical velocity in the open ocean implies that the coupling between winds and SST may have important feedback effects on upper ocean processes near SST fronts Title: Observations of SST-Induced Perturbations of the Wind Stress Field over the Southern Ocean on Seasonal Timescales Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Esbensen, Steven K., O'Neill, Larry W. The surface wind stress response to sea surface temperature (SST) over the latitude range 30°–60°S in the Southern Ocean is described from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's QuikSCAT scatterometer observations of wind stress and Reynolds analyses of SST during the 2-yr period August 1999 to July 2001. While ocean–atmosphere coupling at midlatitudes has previously been documented from several case studies, this is the first study to quantify this relation over the entire Southern Ocean. The spatial structures of the surface wind perturbations with wavelengths shorter than 10° latitude by 30° longitude are closely related to persistent spatial variations of the SST field on the same scales. The wind stress curl and divergence are shown to be linearly related, respectively, to the crosswind and downwind components of the SST gradient. The curl response has a magnitude only about half that of the divergence response. This observed coupling is consistent with the hypothesis that SST modification of marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) stability affects vertical turbulent mixing of momentum, inducing perturbations in the surface winds. The nonequivalence between the responses of the curl and divergence to the crosswind and downwind SST gradients suggests that secondary circulations in the MABL may also play an important role by producing significant perturbations in the surface wind field near SST fronts that are distinct from the vertical turbulent transfer of momentum. The importance of the wind stress curl in driving Ekman vertical velocity in the open ocean implies that the coupling between winds and SST may have important feedback effects on upper ocean processes near SST fronts Close

• 25. [Article] Coupled ocean-atmosphere interaction at oceanic mesoscales

  Satellite observations have revealed a remarkably strong positive correlation between sea surface temperature (SST) and surface winds on oceanic mesoscales of 10–1000 km. Although SST influence on the ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Coupled ocean-atmosphere interaction at oceanic mesoscales Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Xie, Shang-Ping Satellite observations have revealed a remarkably strong positive correlation between sea surface temperature (SST) and surface winds on oceanic mesoscales of 10–1000 km. Although SST influence on the atmosphere had previously been identified from several in situ observational studies, its widespread existence in regions of strong SST gradients throughout the world’s ocean and the detailed structure of the surface wind response to SST have only become evident over the past decade from simultaneous satellite measurements of SST and surface winds. This has stimulated considerable scientific interest in the implications of this air-sea interaction to large-scale and mesoscale circulation of the atmosphere and ocean. Convergence and divergence of surface winds in regions of spatially varying SST generate vertical motion that can penetrate deep into the atmosphere. Spatial variability of the SST field also results in a curl of the wind stress and associated upwelling and downwelling that feeds back on the ocean and alters SST itself. Significant progress has been made toward understanding the two-way coupling between the ocean and atmosphere but many exciting research opportunities remain. In addition to regional and global modeling, future research on coupled ocean-atmosphere interaction will continue to be guided by satellite observations. In particular, high-resolution measurements in the vicinity of narrow, intense SST fronts and immediately adjacent to land provided by the next-generation scatterometer will open up new areas of research that cannot be addressed from presently available data sets. Title: Coupled ocean-atmosphere interaction at oceanic mesoscales Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Xie, Shang-Ping Satellite observations have revealed a remarkably strong positive correlation between sea surface temperature (SST) and surface winds on oceanic mesoscales of 10–1000 km. Although SST influence on the atmosphere had previously been identified from several in situ observational studies, its widespread existence in regions of strong SST gradients throughout the world’s ocean and the detailed structure of the surface wind response to SST have only become evident over the past decade from simultaneous satellite measurements of SST and surface winds. This has stimulated considerable scientific interest in the implications of this air-sea interaction to large-scale and mesoscale circulation of the atmosphere and ocean. Convergence and divergence of surface winds in regions of spatially varying SST generate vertical motion that can penetrate deep into the atmosphere. Spatial variability of the SST field also results in a curl of the wind stress and associated upwelling and downwelling that feeds back on the ocean and alters SST itself. Significant progress has been made toward understanding the two-way coupling between the ocean and atmosphere but many exciting research opportunities remain. In addition to regional and global modeling, future research on coupled ocean-atmosphere interaction will continue to be guided by satellite observations. In particular, high-resolution measurements in the vicinity of narrow, intense SST fronts and immediately adjacent to land provided by the next-generation scatterometer will open up new areas of research that cannot be addressed from presently available data sets. Close

• 26. [Article] On the Use of QuikSCAT Scatterometer Measurements of Surface Winds for Marine Weather Prediction

  The value of Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) measurements of 10-m ocean vector winds for marine weather prediction is investigated from two Northern Hemisphere case studies. The first of these focuses on an ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: On the Use of QuikSCAT Scatterometer Measurements of Surface Winds for Marine Weather Prediction Author: Von Ahn, Joan M., Freilich, Michael H., Chelton, Dudley B., Sienkiewicz, Joseph M. The value of Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) measurements of 10-m ocean vector winds for marine weather prediction is investigated from two Northern Hemisphere case studies. The first of these focuses on an intense cyclone with hurricane-force winds that occurred over the extratropical western North Pacific on 10 January 2005. The second is a 17 February 2005 example that is typical of sea surface temperature influence on low-level winds in moderate wind conditions in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream in the western North Atlantic. In both cases, the analyses of 10-m winds from the NCEP and ECMWF global numerical weather prediction models considerably underestimated the spatial variability of the wind field on scales smaller than 1000 km compared with the structure determined from QuikSCAT observations. The NCEP and ECMWF models both assimilate QuikSCAT observations. While the accuracies of the 10-m wind analyses from these models measurably improved after implementation of the QuikSCAT data assimilation, the information content in the QuikSCAT data is underutilized by the numerical models. QuikSCAT data are available in near–real time in the NOAA/NCEP Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (N-AWIPS) and are used extensively in manual analyses of surface winds. The high resolution of the QuikSCAT data is routinely utilized by forecasters at the NOAA/NCEP Ocean Prediction Center, Tropical Prediction Center, and other NOAA weather forecast offices to improve the accuracies of wind warnings in marine forecasts. Title: On the Use of QuikSCAT Scatterometer Measurements of Surface Winds for Marine Weather Prediction Author: Von Ahn, Joan M., Freilich, Michael H., Chelton, Dudley B., Sienkiewicz, Joseph M. The value of Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) measurements of 10-m ocean vector winds for marine weather prediction is investigated from two Northern Hemisphere case studies. The first of these focuses on an intense cyclone with hurricane-force winds that occurred over the extratropical western North Pacific on 10 January 2005. The second is a 17 February 2005 example that is typical of sea surface temperature influence on low-level winds in moderate wind conditions in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream in the western North Atlantic. In both cases, the analyses of 10-m winds from the NCEP and ECMWF global numerical weather prediction models considerably underestimated the spatial variability of the wind field on scales smaller than 1000 km compared with the structure determined from QuikSCAT observations. The NCEP and ECMWF models both assimilate QuikSCAT observations. While the accuracies of the 10-m wind analyses from these models measurably improved after implementation of the QuikSCAT data assimilation, the information content in the QuikSCAT data is underutilized by the numerical models. QuikSCAT data are available in near–real time in the NOAA/NCEP Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (N-AWIPS) and are used extensively in manual analyses of surface winds. The high resolution of the QuikSCAT data is routinely utilized by forecasters at the NOAA/NCEP Ocean Prediction Center, Tropical Prediction Center, and other NOAA weather forecast offices to improve the accuracies of wind warnings in marine forecasts. Close

• 27. [Article] Satellite Observations of Mesoscale Eddy-Induced Ekman Pumping

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the American Meteorological Society and can be found at: http://journals.ametsoc.org/loi/phoc.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Satellite Observations of Mesoscale Eddy-Induced Ekman Pumping Author: Gaube, Peter, Chelton, Dudley B., Schlax, Michael G., Samelson, Roger M., O'Neill, Larry W. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the American Meteorological Society and can be found at: http://journals.ametsoc.org/loi/phoc. Title: Satellite Observations of Mesoscale Eddy-Induced Ekman Pumping Author: Gaube, Peter, Chelton, Dudley B., Schlax, Michael G., Samelson, Roger M., O'Neill, Larry W. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by the American Meteorological Society and can be found at: http://journals.ametsoc.org/loi/phoc. Close

• 28. [Article] Zonal and Meridional Discontinuities and Other Issues with the HadISST1.1 Dataset

  4) There is a large zonal discontinuity of SST in the HadISST1.1 dataset along 179.5°W that results in SST variations that are typically smaller in magnitude by about 0.2°C compared with the adjacent 1° ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Zonal and Meridional Discontinuities and Other Issues with the HadISST1.1 Dataset Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Risien, Craig M. 4) There is a large zonal discontinuity of SST in the HadISST1.1 dataset along 179.5°W that results in SST variations that are typically smaller in magnitude by about 0.2°C compared with the adjacent 1° grid cells to the west and east. It appears that this discontinuity becomes noticeable abruptly in 1949. Title: Zonal and Meridional Discontinuities and Other Issues with the HadISST1.1 Dataset Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Risien, Craig M. 4) There is a large zonal discontinuity of SST in the HadISST1.1 dataset along 179.5°W that results in SST variations that are typically smaller in magnitude by about 0.2°C compared with the adjacent 1° grid cells to the west and east. It appears that this discontinuity becomes noticeable abruptly in 1949. Close

• 29. [Article] An Assessment of the Sea Surface Temperature Influence on Surface Wind Stress in Numerical Weather Prediction and Climate Models

  The ability of six climate models to capture the observed coupling between SST and surface wind stress in the vicinity of strong midlatitude SST fronts is analyzed. The analysis emphasizes air–sea interactions ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An Assessment of the Sea Surface Temperature Influence on Surface Wind Stress in Numerical Weather Prediction and Climate Models Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Maloney, Eric D. The ability of six climate models to capture the observed coupling between SST and surface wind stress in the vicinity of strong midlatitude SST fronts is analyzed. The analysis emphasizes air–sea interactions associated with ocean meanders in the eastward extensions of major western boundary current systems such as the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio, and Agulhas Current. Satellite observations of wind stress from the SeaWinds scatterometer on NASA’s Quick Scatterometer and SST from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer clearly indicate the influence of SST on surface wind stress on scales smaller than about 30° longitude × 10° latitude. Spatially high-pass-filtered SST and wind stress variations are linearly related, with higher SST associated with higher wind stress. The influence of SST on wind stress is also clearly identifiable in the ECMWF operational forecast model, having a grid resolution of 0.35° × 0.35° (T511). However, the coupling coefficient between wind stress and SST, as indicated by the slope of the linear least squares fit, is only half as strong as for satellite observations. The ability to simulate realistic air–sea interactions is present to varying degrees in the coupled climate models examined. The Model for Interdisciplinary Research on Climate 3.2 (MIROC3.2) high-resolution version (HIRES) (1.1° × 1.1°, T106) and the NCAR Community Climate System Model 3.0 (1.4° × 1.4°, T85) are the highest-resolution models considered and produce the most realistic air–sea coupling associated with midlatitude current systems. Coupling coefficients between SST and wind stress in MIROC3.2_HIRES and the NCAR model are at least comparable to those in the ECMWF operational model. The spatial scales of midlatitude SST variations and SST-induced wind perturbations in MIROC3.2_HIRES are comparable to those of satellite observations. The spatial scales of SST variability in the NCAR model are larger than those in the ECMWF model and satellite observations, and hence the spatial scales of SST-induced perturbations in the wind fields are larger. It is found that the ability of climate models to simulate air–sea interactions degrades with decreasing grid resolution. SST anomalies in the GFDL Climate Model 2.0 (CM2.0) (2.0° × 2.5°), Met Office Third Hadley Centre Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere General Circulation Model (HadCM3) (2.5° × 3.8°), and MIROC3.2 medium-resolution version (MEDRES) (2.8° × 2.8°, T42) have larger spatial scales and are more geographically confined than in the higher-resolution models. The GISS Model E20/Russell (4.0° × 5.0°) is unable to resolve the midlatitude ocean eddies that produce prominent air–sea interaction. Notably, MIROC3.2_MEDRES exhibits much weaker coupling between wind stress and SST than does the higher vertical and horizontal resolution version of the same model. GFDL CM2.0 and Met Office HadCM3 exhibit a linear relationship between SST and wind stress. However, coupling coefficients for the Met Office model are significantly weaker than in the GFDL and higher-resolution models. In addition to model grid resolution (both vertical and horizontal), deficiencies in the parameterization of boundary layer processes may be responsible for some of these differences in air–sea coupling between models and observations. Title: An Assessment of the Sea Surface Temperature Influence on Surface Wind Stress in Numerical Weather Prediction and Climate Models Author: Chelton, Dudley B., Maloney, Eric D. The ability of six climate models to capture the observed coupling between SST and surface wind stress in the vicinity of strong midlatitude SST fronts is analyzed. The analysis emphasizes air–sea interactions associated with ocean meanders in the eastward extensions of major western boundary current systems such as the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio, and Agulhas Current. Satellite observations of wind stress from the SeaWinds scatterometer on NASA’s Quick Scatterometer and SST from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer clearly indicate the influence of SST on surface wind stress on scales smaller than about 30° longitude × 10° latitude. Spatially high-pass-filtered SST and wind stress variations are linearly related, with higher SST associated with higher wind stress. The influence of SST on wind stress is also clearly identifiable in the ECMWF operational forecast model, having a grid resolution of 0.35° × 0.35° (T511). However, the coupling coefficient between wind stress and SST, as indicated by the slope of the linear least squares fit, is only half as strong as for satellite observations. The ability to simulate realistic air–sea interactions is present to varying degrees in the coupled climate models examined. The Model for Interdisciplinary Research on Climate 3.2 (MIROC3.2) high-resolution version (HIRES) (1.1° × 1.1°, T106) and the NCAR Community Climate System Model 3.0 (1.4° × 1.4°, T85) are the highest-resolution models considered and produce the most realistic air–sea coupling associated with midlatitude current systems. Coupling coefficients between SST and wind stress in MIROC3.2_HIRES and the NCAR model are at least comparable to those in the ECMWF operational model. The spatial scales of midlatitude SST variations and SST-induced wind perturbations in MIROC3.2_HIRES are comparable to those of satellite observations. The spatial scales of SST variability in the NCAR model are larger than those in the ECMWF model and satellite observations, and hence the spatial scales of SST-induced perturbations in the wind fields are larger. It is found that the ability of climate models to simulate air–sea interactions degrades with decreasing grid resolution. SST anomalies in the GFDL Climate Model 2.0 (CM2.0) (2.0° × 2.5°), Met Office Third Hadley Centre Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere General Circulation Model (HadCM3) (2.5° × 3.8°), and MIROC3.2 medium-resolution version (MEDRES) (2.8° × 2.8°, T42) have larger spatial scales and are more geographically confined than in the higher-resolution models. The GISS Model E20/Russell (4.0° × 5.0°) is unable to resolve the midlatitude ocean eddies that produce prominent air–sea interaction. Notably, MIROC3.2_MEDRES exhibits much weaker coupling between wind stress and SST than does the higher vertical and horizontal resolution version of the same model. GFDL CM2.0 and Met Office HadCM3 exhibit a linear relationship between SST and wind stress. However, coupling coefficients for the Met Office model are significantly weaker than in the GFDL and higher-resolution models. In addition to model grid resolution (both vertical and horizontal), deficiencies in the parameterization of boundary layer processes may be responsible for some of these differences in air–sea coupling between models and observations. Close