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• 501. [Image] Crisis to consensus : restoration planning for the Upper Klamath Basin

  	Executive Summary This report presents the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group's (Working Group) recommendations for the development and implementation of a restoration plan for the Upper Klamath Basin. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Crisis to consensus : restoration planning for the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Upper Klamath Basin Working Group Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 Executive Summary This report presents the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group's (Working Group) recommendations for the development and implementation of a restoration plan for the Upper Klamath Basin. In 1996, the 104th Congress of the United States chartered the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group (Public Law 104-333 - the Oregon Resources Conservation Act) to develop a plan for the Upper Basin that focuses on enhancing ecosystem restoration, improving economic stability, and minimizing impacts associated with drought on all resources and stakeholders. The Working Group is comprised of over 30 individuals appointed by the Governor of Oregon, representing federal, state, and local governments and agencies; the Klamath Tribes; conservation organizations; farmers and ranchers; and industry and local businesses. The objective of the Working Group is to develop and oversee a restorative course of action that allows for mutually beneficial gains for stakeholders wherein everybody in the Upper Basin can achieve positive, affirming results together, and where no one is left economically, culturally, or spiritually disadvantaged. Chapter 1 of this report presents a brief summary of the history of the Working Group and the conditions leading to the development of this effort. Chapter 2 describes the facilitated "interim planning process" the Working Group engaged in between April 2001 and July 2002. Chapter 3 presents the results of the interim planning process including key recommendations regarding Working Group decision-making and operating rules, technical data needs, future cost and time frame of the restoration planning process, and similar planning decisions. Chapter 4 describes the next steps and actions the Working Group is prepared to take to lead the restoration planning process. The Working Group's goals and objectives will be achieved through the Working Group's continued commitment to public outreach, collaborative problem solving, and implementation of real world solutions. Desired outcomes from implementation of the restoration plan include, but are not limited to, the following: improved water quality through the implementation of accepted Best Management Practices; restoration of wetlands and riparian habitat; enhancement of natural and structural water storage; improvements to irrigation efficiency and water conservation; economic growth and diversity through activities such as value added natural resource products and ecotourism; and enhancement of wildlife Tribal Trust resources. Title: Crisis to consensus : restoration planning for the Upper Klamath Basin Author: Upper Klamath Basin Working Group Year: 2002, 2005, 2004 Executive Summary This report presents the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group's (Working Group) recommendations for the development and implementation of a restoration plan for the Upper Klamath Basin. In 1996, the 104th Congress of the United States chartered the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group (Public Law 104-333 - the Oregon Resources Conservation Act) to develop a plan for the Upper Basin that focuses on enhancing ecosystem restoration, improving economic stability, and minimizing impacts associated with drought on all resources and stakeholders. The Working Group is comprised of over 30 individuals appointed by the Governor of Oregon, representing federal, state, and local governments and agencies; the Klamath Tribes; conservation organizations; farmers and ranchers; and industry and local businesses. The objective of the Working Group is to develop and oversee a restorative course of action that allows for mutually beneficial gains for stakeholders wherein everybody in the Upper Basin can achieve positive, affirming results together, and where no one is left economically, culturally, or spiritually disadvantaged. Chapter 1 of this report presents a brief summary of the history of the Working Group and the conditions leading to the development of this effort. Chapter 2 describes the facilitated "interim planning process" the Working Group engaged in between April 2001 and July 2002. Chapter 3 presents the results of the interim planning process including key recommendations regarding Working Group decision-making and operating rules, technical data needs, future cost and time frame of the restoration planning process, and similar planning decisions. Chapter 4 describes the next steps and actions the Working Group is prepared to take to lead the restoration planning process. The Working Group's goals and objectives will be achieved through the Working Group's continued commitment to public outreach, collaborative problem solving, and implementation of real world solutions. Desired outcomes from implementation of the restoration plan include, but are not limited to, the following: improved water quality through the implementation of accepted Best Management Practices; restoration of wetlands and riparian habitat; enhancement of natural and structural water storage; improvements to irrigation efficiency and water conservation; economic growth and diversity through activities such as value added natural resource products and ecotourism; and enhancement of wildlife Tribal Trust resources. Close

• 502. [Image] Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005

  	iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Title: Water Symposium: Symposium before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, First Session, on Water Issues, April 5, 2005 Author: Water Symposium (2005: Washington, D.C.) Year: 2005, 2006 iii; 99p.; "Printed for the use of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources"; Distributed to some depository libraries in microfiche Close

• 503. [Article] Direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing intensity on processes regulating grassland bird populations

  In grasslands, grazing by large ungulates can influence vegetation structure, composition, primary productivity, and ultimately, ecosystem functioning. While grazing represents a complex disturbance, grazing ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing intensity on processes regulating grassland bird populations Author: Johnson, Tracey N. In grasslands, grazing by large ungulates can influence vegetation structure, composition, primary productivity, and ultimately, ecosystem functioning. While grazing represents a complex disturbance, grazing intensity largely determines the effects of grazing on vegetation. Structural and compositional changes in the plant community caused by grazing could have bottom-up effects on species and interactions at higher trophic levels. Thus, particular management strategies for domestic livestock in rangeland systems could exert a strong affect on grassland wildlife. Grassland-dependent songbirds may be particularly susceptible to the effects of domestic grazers because they depend on grassland vegetation for foraging and nesting. Domestic livestock may influence grassland-breeding bird populations by affecting settlement decisions, resource availability, or reproductive success. We investigated the effects of grazing intensity on grassland vegetation structure and songbird demography in a northwestern bunchgrass prairie using paddocks with experimentally-manipulated cattle stocking rates. We compared effects of four stocking rates (0, 14.4, 28.8, and 43.2 animal unit months) on songbirds using a randomized complete block design with four replicates of each stocking rate to address hypotheses regarding demography of grassland songbirds. Overall paddock-level vegetation structure decreased and structural heterogeneity of vegetation increased with higher stocking rates, and those effects carried over one-year post-grazing. However, most bird species were able to locate nesting sites with similar vegetation structure regardless of paddock-level effects of stocking rate. The exceptions were western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows; nests of these species in paddocks with higher stocking rates had less vegetative cover. Apparent nest density for grasshopper sparrows was negatively affected by higher stocking rates. Grazing treatment effects on songbird population density were restricted to negative effects of higher stocking rates on savannah sparrows, but this relationship was not observed until the post-treatment year. Songbird community composition differed between control and heavily-grazed paddocks, but diversity was not affected by stocking rate. Nest fates were evaluated to determine whether stocking rate influenced nest survival or cause-specific nest failure. Other variables such as vegetation structure and predator community, date, year, and nest age were included to help clarify which mechanisms might be responsible for differences in nest survival or failure rates among treatments. For our analysis, we introduce the use of a novel software package, McNestimate, to estimate the daily probability of nest survival and failure from specific causes. McNestimate estimates the probability of nest failure from competing causes when the exact dates of failure are unknown using a Markov Chain framework, and incorporates a model selection approach which allows the use of covariates to help identify variables important in explaining variation in the daily probability of nest failure. Nest predation rates increased with the age of the nest and throughout the breeding season, but were not affected by stocking rate. The probability of nest failure from adverse weather declined throughout the season, but the rate of decline depended on year. Nest failure rates due to trampling were higher in paddocks with higher stocking rates, but also depended on the number of days cattle were present during the nesting period. Patterns of overall probability of nest success were driven by predation patterns in the first year, but in the second year were strongly influenced by the chances of weather-related nest failure. Although starvation was not identified as a significant source of nest failure, grazing-induced changes to vegetation structure and composition could influence food availability for breeding songbirds, ultimately affecting the composition of nestling diets and nestling condition. To better understand the relationship between grazing intensity, nestling diet composition, and subsequent effects on nestling condition, we examined the invertebrate composition of nestling fecal samples. All species showed strong preferences for Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) larvae, and partial preferences for Coleoptera (beetles) and Araneae (spiders). The proportion of preferred prey items was not affected by stocking rate. There were effects of bird species on the proportion of Araneae and Coleoptera and the proportion of Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers) in the diet of western meadowlark nestlings decreased with high stocking rates. Growth rates for western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows were negatively affected by higher stocking rates. These results suggest that stocking rates can have variable effects on grassland songbird population and nest density depending on each species' habitat requirements. However, negative effects of high stocking rates on nest survival and nestling condition could have consequences for juvenile survival and recruitment. Overall, low-to-moderate stocking rates are likely compatible with many grassland bird species in northwest bunchgrass prairie, and although heavier livestock grazing may help create suitable vegetation structure for some songbird species, high stocking rates may influence grassland songbird diet quality, or have negative effects on nestling condition. We hypothesized that grazing intensity could influence the grassland songbird community through "bottom-up" effects on vegetation, but effects of grazing at different intensities did not translate directly through the food web to influence songbird populations as strongly as lower trophic levels. Processes responsible for changes in community composition such as immigration or emigration may not have had time to ensue during our short-term experiment; alternatively, sufficient spatial or temporal heterogeneity remained in the system, even at the highest grazing intensity, such that grazing-induced changes in lower trophic levels were irrelevant for most songbird species. Our results contribute to understanding grassland songbird demographic responses to different grazing intensities and identify specific mechanisms by which conservation measures for declining grassland bird populations can be improved. Title: Direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing intensity on processes regulating grassland bird populations Author: Johnson, Tracey N. In grasslands, grazing by large ungulates can influence vegetation structure, composition, primary productivity, and ultimately, ecosystem functioning. While grazing represents a complex disturbance, grazing intensity largely determines the effects of grazing on vegetation. Structural and compositional changes in the plant community caused by grazing could have bottom-up effects on species and interactions at higher trophic levels. Thus, particular management strategies for domestic livestock in rangeland systems could exert a strong affect on grassland wildlife. Grassland-dependent songbirds may be particularly susceptible to the effects of domestic grazers because they depend on grassland vegetation for foraging and nesting. Domestic livestock may influence grassland-breeding bird populations by affecting settlement decisions, resource availability, or reproductive success. We investigated the effects of grazing intensity on grassland vegetation structure and songbird demography in a northwestern bunchgrass prairie using paddocks with experimentally-manipulated cattle stocking rates. We compared effects of four stocking rates (0, 14.4, 28.8, and 43.2 animal unit months) on songbirds using a randomized complete block design with four replicates of each stocking rate to address hypotheses regarding demography of grassland songbirds. Overall paddock-level vegetation structure decreased and structural heterogeneity of vegetation increased with higher stocking rates, and those effects carried over one-year post-grazing. However, most bird species were able to locate nesting sites with similar vegetation structure regardless of paddock-level effects of stocking rate. The exceptions were western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows; nests of these species in paddocks with higher stocking rates had less vegetative cover. Apparent nest density for grasshopper sparrows was negatively affected by higher stocking rates. Grazing treatment effects on songbird population density were restricted to negative effects of higher stocking rates on savannah sparrows, but this relationship was not observed until the post-treatment year. Songbird community composition differed between control and heavily-grazed paddocks, but diversity was not affected by stocking rate. Nest fates were evaluated to determine whether stocking rate influenced nest survival or cause-specific nest failure. Other variables such as vegetation structure and predator community, date, year, and nest age were included to help clarify which mechanisms might be responsible for differences in nest survival or failure rates among treatments. For our analysis, we introduce the use of a novel software package, McNestimate, to estimate the daily probability of nest survival and failure from specific causes. McNestimate estimates the probability of nest failure from competing causes when the exact dates of failure are unknown using a Markov Chain framework, and incorporates a model selection approach which allows the use of covariates to help identify variables important in explaining variation in the daily probability of nest failure. Nest predation rates increased with the age of the nest and throughout the breeding season, but were not affected by stocking rate. The probability of nest failure from adverse weather declined throughout the season, but the rate of decline depended on year. Nest failure rates due to trampling were higher in paddocks with higher stocking rates, but also depended on the number of days cattle were present during the nesting period. Patterns of overall probability of nest success were driven by predation patterns in the first year, but in the second year were strongly influenced by the chances of weather-related nest failure. Although starvation was not identified as a significant source of nest failure, grazing-induced changes to vegetation structure and composition could influence food availability for breeding songbirds, ultimately affecting the composition of nestling diets and nestling condition. To better understand the relationship between grazing intensity, nestling diet composition, and subsequent effects on nestling condition, we examined the invertebrate composition of nestling fecal samples. All species showed strong preferences for Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) larvae, and partial preferences for Coleoptera (beetles) and Araneae (spiders). The proportion of preferred prey items was not affected by stocking rate. There were effects of bird species on the proportion of Araneae and Coleoptera and the proportion of Acrididae (short-horned grasshoppers) in the diet of western meadowlark nestlings decreased with high stocking rates. Growth rates for western meadowlarks and vesper sparrows were negatively affected by higher stocking rates. These results suggest that stocking rates can have variable effects on grassland songbird population and nest density depending on each species' habitat requirements. However, negative effects of high stocking rates on nest survival and nestling condition could have consequences for juvenile survival and recruitment. Overall, low-to-moderate stocking rates are likely compatible with many grassland bird species in northwest bunchgrass prairie, and although heavier livestock grazing may help create suitable vegetation structure for some songbird species, high stocking rates may influence grassland songbird diet quality, or have negative effects on nestling condition. We hypothesized that grazing intensity could influence the grassland songbird community through "bottom-up" effects on vegetation, but effects of grazing at different intensities did not translate directly through the food web to influence songbird populations as strongly as lower trophic levels. Processes responsible for changes in community composition such as immigration or emigration may not have had time to ensue during our short-term experiment; alternatively, sufficient spatial or temporal heterogeneity remained in the system, even at the highest grazing intensity, such that grazing-induced changes in lower trophic levels were irrelevant for most songbird species. Our results contribute to understanding grassland songbird demographic responses to different grazing intensities and identify specific mechanisms by which conservation measures for declining grassland bird populations can be improved. Close

• 504. [Article] Water and Soil Management Practices to Enhance Plant Growth, Berry Development, and Fruit Quality of Northern Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.)

  Drought and mandatory water restrictions are limiting the availability of irrigation water in many important blueberry growing regions and new strategies are needed to maintain yield and fruit quality ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Water and Soil Management Practices to Enhance Plant Growth, Berry Development, and Fruit Quality of Northern Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) Author: Almutairi, Khalid F. Drought and mandatory water restrictions are limiting the availability of irrigation water in many important blueberry growing regions and new strategies are needed to maintain yield and fruit quality with less water. Three potential options for reducing water use, including deficit irrigation, irrigation cut-offs, and crop thinning, were evaluated for 2 years in a mature planting of northern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L. ‘Elliott’). Treatments consisted of no thinning and 50% crop removal in combination with either full irrigation at 100% of estimated crop evapotranspiration (ETsubscript c]), deficit irrigation at 50% ET[subscript c] (applied for the entire growing season), or full irrigation with irrigation cut-off for 4–6 weeks during early or late stages of fruit development. Stem water potential was similar with full and deficit irrigation but, regardless of crop thinning, declined by 0.5–0.6 MPa when irrigation was cut-off early and by > 2.0 MPa when irrigation was cut-off late. In one or both years, the fruiting season was advanced with either deficit irrigation or late cut-off, whereas cutting off irrigation early delayed the season. Yield was not affected by deficit irrigation in plants with a full crop load but was reduced by an average of 35% when irrigation was cut-off late each year. Cutting off irrigation early likewise reduced yield, but only in the second year when the plants were not thinned; however, early cut-off also reduced fruit soluble solids and berry weight by 7% to 24%compared to full irrigation. Cutting off irrigation late produced the smallest and firmest fruit with the highest soluble solids and total acidity among the treatments, as well as the slowest rate of fruit loss in cold storage. Deficit irrigation had the least effect on fruit quality and, based on these results, appears to be the most viable option for maintaining yield with less water (2.5 ML·ha⁻¹ less water per season). A second study was conducted in a 7-year-old field of certified organic highbush blueberry. Two cultivars (‘Duke’ and ‘Liberty’) mulched with either porous polyethylene ground cover (“weed mat”) or yard debris compost topped with sawdust (sawdust+compost) and each fertilized with either feather meal or fish emulsion were evaluated. One-year-old fruiting laterals were randomly-selected at three heights (top, middle, and bottom) on the east and west side of the plants. Bud, flower, and fruit development were monitored through fruit harvest. There was relatively little effect of mulch type or fertilizer source on the measured variables. Fruit harvest occurred ≈8 d after the fruit were fully blue and ranged from 2-25 July 2012 and 26 June-3 July 2013 in ‘Duke’ and from 1-20 Aug. 2012 and 17 July-7 Aug. 2013 in ‘Liberty’. Proportionally more fruit buds occurred on middle laterals than upper and lower laterals. The dates of bud swell and bud break were not affected by cultivar or lateral position. ‘Duke’ and ‘Liberty’ produced 6-8 and 7-9 flowers/bud, respectively. Fruit set was high in both cultivars, averaging ≈95%. However, 13-18% and 29-38 % of the initial set fruit dropped in ’Duke’ and ‘Liberty’ in late May to early June. Fruit ripening was more uniform within clusters in ‘Duke’ than in ‘Liberty’, and average fruit size was similar among harvests in ‘Duke’ but decreased by 25-40% between the first and last harvest in ‘Liberty’. Fruit matured 3−5 d earlier on the east side of the canopy than on the west side. The results suggest that pruning proportionally more on the lower part of the canopy than on the upper part will result in larger fruit at harvest than uniform pruning throughout the bush. The final study was conducted to determine the potential of applying micronized elemental sulfur (S°) by chemigation through the drip system to reduce high soil pH in a new planting of ‘Duke’ blueberry. The S° was mixed with water and injected weekly for 2 months prior to planting, as well as 2 years after planting, atrates of 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg·ha⁻¹ per year, and was compared to the conventional practice of incorporating prilled S° into the soil prior to planting (two applications of 750 kg·ha⁻¹ each). Chemigation quickly reduced soil pH (0-10 cm) within a month from 6.6 with no S° to 6.1 with 50 kg·ha-1 S° and 5.8 with 100 or 150 kg·ha⁻¹ S°. The change was short-term, however, and by May of the following year, soil pH averaged 6.7, 6.5, 6.2, and 6.1 with each increasing rate of S° chemigation, respectively. The conventional treatment, in comparison, averaged 6.6 on the first date and 6.3 on the second date. In July of the following year, soil pH ranged from an average of 6.4 with no S° to 6.2 with 150 kg·ha⁻¹ S° and 5.5 with prilled S°. Soil pH declined thereafter to as low as 5.9 with additional S° chemigation and at lower depths (10-30 cm) was similar to the conventional treatment. None of the treatments had any effect on winter pruning weight in year 1 or on yield, berry weight, and plant dry weight in year 2. Chemigation with S° can be used to quickly reduce soil pH following planting and, therefore, may be a useful practice to correct high pH problems in established blueberry fields. However, it was less effective and more time consuming than applying prilled S° prior to planting. Title: Water and Soil Management Practices to Enhance Plant Growth, Berry Development, and Fruit Quality of Northern Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) Author: Almutairi, Khalid F. Drought and mandatory water restrictions are limiting the availability of irrigation water in many important blueberry growing regions and new strategies are needed to maintain yield and fruit quality with less water. Three potential options for reducing water use, including deficit irrigation, irrigation cut-offs, and crop thinning, were evaluated for 2 years in a mature planting of northern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L. ‘Elliott’). Treatments consisted of no thinning and 50% crop removal in combination with either full irrigation at 100% of estimated crop evapotranspiration (ETsubscript c]), deficit irrigation at 50% ET[subscript c] (applied for the entire growing season), or full irrigation with irrigation cut-off for 4–6 weeks during early or late stages of fruit development. Stem water potential was similar with full and deficit irrigation but, regardless of crop thinning, declined by 0.5–0.6 MPa when irrigation was cut-off early and by > 2.0 MPa when irrigation was cut-off late. In one or both years, the fruiting season was advanced with either deficit irrigation or late cut-off, whereas cutting off irrigation early delayed the season. Yield was not affected by deficit irrigation in plants with a full crop load but was reduced by an average of 35% when irrigation was cut-off late each year. Cutting off irrigation early likewise reduced yield, but only in the second year when the plants were not thinned; however, early cut-off also reduced fruit soluble solids and berry weight by 7% to 24%compared to full irrigation. Cutting off irrigation late produced the smallest and firmest fruit with the highest soluble solids and total acidity among the treatments, as well as the slowest rate of fruit loss in cold storage. Deficit irrigation had the least effect on fruit quality and, based on these results, appears to be the most viable option for maintaining yield with less water (2.5 ML·ha⁻¹ less water per season). A second study was conducted in a 7-year-old field of certified organic highbush blueberry. Two cultivars (‘Duke’ and ‘Liberty’) mulched with either porous polyethylene ground cover (“weed mat”) or yard debris compost topped with sawdust (sawdust+compost) and each fertilized with either feather meal or fish emulsion were evaluated. One-year-old fruiting laterals were randomly-selected at three heights (top, middle, and bottom) on the east and west side of the plants. Bud, flower, and fruit development were monitored through fruit harvest. There was relatively little effect of mulch type or fertilizer source on the measured variables. Fruit harvest occurred ≈8 d after the fruit were fully blue and ranged from 2-25 July 2012 and 26 June-3 July 2013 in ‘Duke’ and from 1-20 Aug. 2012 and 17 July-7 Aug. 2013 in ‘Liberty’. Proportionally more fruit buds occurred on middle laterals than upper and lower laterals. The dates of bud swell and bud break were not affected by cultivar or lateral position. ‘Duke’ and ‘Liberty’ produced 6-8 and 7-9 flowers/bud, respectively. Fruit set was high in both cultivars, averaging ≈95%. However, 13-18% and 29-38 % of the initial set fruit dropped in ’Duke’ and ‘Liberty’ in late May to early June. Fruit ripening was more uniform within clusters in ‘Duke’ than in ‘Liberty’, and average fruit size was similar among harvests in ‘Duke’ but decreased by 25-40% between the first and last harvest in ‘Liberty’. Fruit matured 3−5 d earlier on the east side of the canopy than on the west side. The results suggest that pruning proportionally more on the lower part of the canopy than on the upper part will result in larger fruit at harvest than uniform pruning throughout the bush. The final study was conducted to determine the potential of applying micronized elemental sulfur (S°) by chemigation through the drip system to reduce high soil pH in a new planting of ‘Duke’ blueberry. The S° was mixed with water and injected weekly for 2 months prior to planting, as well as 2 years after planting, atrates of 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg·ha⁻¹ per year, and was compared to the conventional practice of incorporating prilled S° into the soil prior to planting (two applications of 750 kg·ha⁻¹ each). Chemigation quickly reduced soil pH (0-10 cm) within a month from 6.6 with no S° to 6.1 with 50 kg·ha-1 S° and 5.8 with 100 or 150 kg·ha⁻¹ S°. The change was short-term, however, and by May of the following year, soil pH averaged 6.7, 6.5, 6.2, and 6.1 with each increasing rate of S° chemigation, respectively. The conventional treatment, in comparison, averaged 6.6 on the first date and 6.3 on the second date. In July of the following year, soil pH ranged from an average of 6.4 with no S° to 6.2 with 150 kg·ha⁻¹ S° and 5.5 with prilled S°. Soil pH declined thereafter to as low as 5.9 with additional S° chemigation and at lower depths (10-30 cm) was similar to the conventional treatment. None of the treatments had any effect on winter pruning weight in year 1 or on yield, berry weight, and plant dry weight in year 2. Chemigation with S° can be used to quickly reduce soil pH following planting and, therefore, may be a useful practice to correct high pH problems in established blueberry fields. However, it was less effective and more time consuming than applying prilled S° prior to planting. Close

• 505. [Article] Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1992

  Evaluation of previously established field trials of remedial internal treatments demonstrates the continued performance of chioropicrin, Vorlex, and methylisothiocyanate (MITC). While the degree of protection ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1992 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) Evaluation of previously established field trials of remedial internal treatments demonstrates the continued performance of chioropicrin, Vorlex, and methylisothiocyanate (MITC). While the degree of protection afforded by these treatments has declined with time, residual fungitoxic levels remain in many tests. Field trials of gelatin encapsulated MITC indicate that gelatin had no negative effect on fumigant performance even when no water was added at the time of treatment. Closed tube bioassays, chemical analyses, and culturing of Douglas-fir and southern pine poles treated with glass encapsulated METC (MITC-Fume) indicate that this chemical is outperforming metham sodium 3 years after application. While the glass vials lost chemical very slowly, the slow release rate did not appear to adversely affect MITC performance. Trials to evaluate the performance of fused borate rods were sampled after 1 or 2 years of exposure. Chemical analysis of cores removed from the test poles revealed that none of the treatments contained boron at levels which would be considered adequate for arresting or preventing colonization by wood decay fungi. Interestingly, boron levels in poles exposed in Hilo, Hawaii were highest above the treatment hole, suggesting that some upward diffusion of this chemical is possible. The low boron levels in these poles are reason for concern, since a number of utilities are considering the using this formulation for remedial treatment at the groundline. Evaluations of new solid fumigants are progressing. Trials with Basamid indicate that the addition of copper compounds improved the rate of decomposition to produce MITC. Simultaneous addition of copper sulfate and Basamid may be useful for accelerating the decomposition of this compound, making it practical for control of internal decay fungi. Trials have been established to evaluate the performance of gelled and pelletized metham sodium and a sodium fluoride/boron rod. These trials will be evaluated in future reports. A third field trial to evaluate the performance of a copper naphthenate/boron paste for internal treatment of Douglas-fir poles is currently be evaluated to determine chemical levels 3 years after treatment. The performance of gelled metham sodium was further evaluated under laboratory conditions to better understand the performance of this chemical. Gelled metham sodium provided improved fungal control in comparison with liquid metham sodium and appeared to produce increased MITC levels under a variety of test conditions. The improved performance of this formulation may reflect the ability of the gell to retain moisture for longer periods of time than the liquid metham sodium formulation. Further studies of this formulation are underway. Laboratory studies were also performed to evaluate the effects of various additives on the performance of Basamid. Once again, the addition of copper compounds enhanced the production of MITC. A number of other compounds shifted decomposition to the production of carbon disulfide and carbonyl sulfide, two less fungitoxic compounds. Further studies are underway to identify non-sulfur products which may provide some protection against wood decay fungi. Evaluations of the effects of artificial voids on performance of fumigants in Douglas-fir poles indicate that voids had little or no effect on fumigant distribution. As a result, fumigant treatment of solid wood around voids represents a viable strategy for improving pole service life. Evaluation of timbers treated with metham sodium indicate that detectable levels of MITC were present one year after treatment. These timbers will be evaluated in subsequent years to determine the protective period provided by fumigants in sawn material. We continue development of a fumigant movement model using data previously developed on MITC. This year, we evaluated a previously developed system, ANSYS. Results of preliminary trials are similar to data previously developed on MITC-Fume treated poles and indicate that modeling MITC movement should be possible. Further trials are underway to confirm and expand this model. The effect of wood moisture content, temperature and wood species on metham sodium decomposition was investigated under laboratory conditions. The efficiency of dcomposition to MITC varied widely, but was most affected by temperature and wood moisture content. The results suggests that there is considerable potential for improving decomposition efficiency to enhance performance of this fumigant. Further studies to characterize the relationship between chemical content of the wood species and decomposition are underway. Field trials to identify safer treatments for preventing decay of cedar sapwood and protecting field drilled bolt holes are continuing. Diffusible treatments continue to provide excellent protection for field drilled bolt holes. A study to develop estimates of the extent of decay above the groundline in Douglas-fir poles in the Pacific Northwest is underway. The data from this study will be used to develop estimates of the potential for damage and provide some insight into the extent of this problem. Studies to develop guidelines for sterilization of Douglas-fir poles following air-seasoning are continuing. Evaluations of internal temperature development during kiln-drying were completed this year and indicate that internal temperatures during typical pole drying schedules were more than adequate for acheiving sterilization. Further evaluations of the data are underway to develop reliable heating curves for this process. Evaluations of groundline preservative systems have been established at Corvallis, OR and Merced, CA. The results indicate that all of the formulations are moving well through the wood in a manner similar to that found with pentachlorophenol-based systems. Chemical levels in some treatments; however, are beginning to decline 30 months after treatment. Studies are now underway to establish thresholds for combinations of the various formulations. Copper naphthenate treated western redcedar stakelets continue to perform well in fungus cellar trials. Stakes weathered prior to treatment are degrading slightly faster, while freshly sawn stakelets continue to perform well. Field trials have also been established to evaluate the performance of copper naphthenate treated Douglas-fir utility poles in California and Oregon. The chemical levels and fungal colonization will be monitored in these poles to provide a guide to performance of this chemical in western wood species. Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1992 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) Evaluation of previously established field trials of remedial internal treatments demonstrates the continued performance of chioropicrin, Vorlex, and methylisothiocyanate (MITC). While the degree of protection afforded by these treatments has declined with time, residual fungitoxic levels remain in many tests. Field trials of gelatin encapsulated MITC indicate that gelatin had no negative effect on fumigant performance even when no water was added at the time of treatment. Closed tube bioassays, chemical analyses, and culturing of Douglas-fir and southern pine poles treated with glass encapsulated METC (MITC-Fume) indicate that this chemical is outperforming metham sodium 3 years after application. While the glass vials lost chemical very slowly, the slow release rate did not appear to adversely affect MITC performance. Trials to evaluate the performance of fused borate rods were sampled after 1 or 2 years of exposure. Chemical analysis of cores removed from the test poles revealed that none of the treatments contained boron at levels which would be considered adequate for arresting or preventing colonization by wood decay fungi. Interestingly, boron levels in poles exposed in Hilo, Hawaii were highest above the treatment hole, suggesting that some upward diffusion of this chemical is possible. The low boron levels in these poles are reason for concern, since a number of utilities are considering the using this formulation for remedial treatment at the groundline. Evaluations of new solid fumigants are progressing. Trials with Basamid indicate that the addition of copper compounds improved the rate of decomposition to produce MITC. Simultaneous addition of copper sulfate and Basamid may be useful for accelerating the decomposition of this compound, making it practical for control of internal decay fungi. Trials have been established to evaluate the performance of gelled and pelletized metham sodium and a sodium fluoride/boron rod. These trials will be evaluated in future reports. A third field trial to evaluate the performance of a copper naphthenate/boron paste for internal treatment of Douglas-fir poles is currently be evaluated to determine chemical levels 3 years after treatment. The performance of gelled metham sodium was further evaluated under laboratory conditions to better understand the performance of this chemical. Gelled metham sodium provided improved fungal control in comparison with liquid metham sodium and appeared to produce increased MITC levels under a variety of test conditions. The improved performance of this formulation may reflect the ability of the gell to retain moisture for longer periods of time than the liquid metham sodium formulation. Further studies of this formulation are underway. Laboratory studies were also performed to evaluate the effects of various additives on the performance of Basamid. Once again, the addition of copper compounds enhanced the production of MITC. A number of other compounds shifted decomposition to the production of carbon disulfide and carbonyl sulfide, two less fungitoxic compounds. Further studies are underway to identify non-sulfur products which may provide some protection against wood decay fungi. Evaluations of the effects of artificial voids on performance of fumigants in Douglas-fir poles indicate that voids had little or no effect on fumigant distribution. As a result, fumigant treatment of solid wood around voids represents a viable strategy for improving pole service life. Evaluation of timbers treated with metham sodium indicate that detectable levels of MITC were present one year after treatment. These timbers will be evaluated in subsequent years to determine the protective period provided by fumigants in sawn material. We continue development of a fumigant movement model using data previously developed on MITC. This year, we evaluated a previously developed system, ANSYS. Results of preliminary trials are similar to data previously developed on MITC-Fume treated poles and indicate that modeling MITC movement should be possible. Further trials are underway to confirm and expand this model. The effect of wood moisture content, temperature and wood species on metham sodium decomposition was investigated under laboratory conditions. The efficiency of dcomposition to MITC varied widely, but was most affected by temperature and wood moisture content. The results suggests that there is considerable potential for improving decomposition efficiency to enhance performance of this fumigant. Further studies to characterize the relationship between chemical content of the wood species and decomposition are underway. Field trials to identify safer treatments for preventing decay of cedar sapwood and protecting field drilled bolt holes are continuing. Diffusible treatments continue to provide excellent protection for field drilled bolt holes. A study to develop estimates of the extent of decay above the groundline in Douglas-fir poles in the Pacific Northwest is underway. The data from this study will be used to develop estimates of the potential for damage and provide some insight into the extent of this problem. Studies to develop guidelines for sterilization of Douglas-fir poles following air-seasoning are continuing. Evaluations of internal temperature development during kiln-drying were completed this year and indicate that internal temperatures during typical pole drying schedules were more than adequate for acheiving sterilization. Further evaluations of the data are underway to develop reliable heating curves for this process. Evaluations of groundline preservative systems have been established at Corvallis, OR and Merced, CA. The results indicate that all of the formulations are moving well through the wood in a manner similar to that found with pentachlorophenol-based systems. Chemical levels in some treatments; however, are beginning to decline 30 months after treatment. Studies are now underway to establish thresholds for combinations of the various formulations. Copper naphthenate treated western redcedar stakelets continue to perform well in fungus cellar trials. Stakes weathered prior to treatment are degrading slightly faster, while freshly sawn stakelets continue to perform well. Field trials have also been established to evaluate the performance of copper naphthenate treated Douglas-fir utility poles in California and Oregon. The chemical levels and fungal colonization will be monitored in these poles to provide a guide to performance of this chemical in western wood species. Close

• 506. [Article] Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1987

  This seventh annual report outlines our continued progress on each of six objectives. Improved fumigants: We continue to evaluate previously established field tests, which inlicate that chioropicrin continues ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1987 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) This seventh annual report outlines our continued progress on each of six objectives. Improved fumigants: We continue to evaluate previously established field tests, which inlicate that chioropicrin continues to protect Douglas-fir poles after 17 years and piling after 12 years. Vorlex treated poles are being gradually recolonized by decay fungi, while the Vapam treated poles appear to have little resistance to decay fungi. The latter poles were retreated last summer and will be used to determine the effectiveness of fumigant retreatment. Solid methylisothiocyanate (NIT) continues to protect Douglasfir poles, although the 20 percent NIT treatment has experienced slightly higher levels of colonization after 9 years. Additional tests to evaluate the effectiveness of gelatin encapsulated MIT or chioropicrin indicate that both chemicals continue to remain effective. In addition, there now appears to be little difference between the levels of control exhibited following addition of varying amounts of water to the poles along with gelatin encapsulated NIT. Closed tube bioassays indicate the chioropicrin remains at fungitoxic levels after 17 years, while no volatile fungitoxins appear to be present in Vapam or Vorlex treated wood. The evaluation of untreated Douglas-fir posts treated with NIT, chloropicrin, or Vapam indicate that fumigants can not ccatletely protect untreated wood in ground contact unless there is sane other type of preservative treated barrier present. Although the NIT treatment provided the best protection, all of the posts experienced some surface decay and termite attack after 10 years. These results appear similar to those found with more recent tests of posts treated with various coLthinations of preservative containing wraps and fuinigants. Evaluation of Mylone and tridipain, two solid chemicals that degrade to produce NIT, initcates that NIT production and fungal control are enhanced by the addition of basic pH buffers; however, only the pH 12 buffer resulted in rapid fungal control. These results Jnitcate that the rate of fumigant release can be tailored to control specific decay problems. We have also investigated the decomposition of Vapam in wood. As previously reported, there are over 14 potential deccmposition products from this chemical. This past year we developed methods for assaying these chemicals, evaluated the long-term stability of each, and prepared test blocks for evaluating decc*,osjtion in wood. In addition, we have studied the migration of volatile compounds from Vapam and NIT treated blocks under controlled aeration. After 5,000 hours, detectable levesis of NIT, carbon disulfide, and carbon oxysulfide are still present in air surrounding the Douglas-fir blocks. These tests indicate that low levels of volatile chemicals are continuously eninitted from fumigant treated wood. While this poses little difficulty for utility poles, it may pose some hazard for wood in closed spaces. Evaluations will continue until the emission levels decline below detectable limits. In addition to Vapam deccmposition studies, we have also evaluated the decoxrosition, movement and fungitoxicity of NIT under a variety of environmental conditions. In general, wet wood held less NIT, but the degree of control produced was more rapid. These results suggest that dry wood will act as a reseivoir of NIT, which will be released as moisture enters and swells the wood. This effect may provide an excellent long-term decay control strategy. The information from these studies will be used to develop more 111 ecific recaimrndations for fumigant treatment. Cedar Saood Decay Control: This past year we reestablished the field test of promising nei pentachiorophenol replacements, incorporating 26 chemicals into these tests. These saitles will be evaluated after 1 and 2 years to determine efficacy. In addition to the field test, we evaluated 13 new formulations or cinations of formulations in our laboratory screening tests. A nuner of chemicals including Isothiazolone, Amical 48 and a nurrer of quaternary aimnonium compounds appear promising and have been included in the field test. Bolt Hole Decay Prevention: Test established 5 years ago to determine the effectiveness of sprays, liquids or pastes applied to field drilled bolts holes indicate that airanonium bifluoride, Boracol 40, and 10% penta provided greater protection than Polybor or Patox washers. In addition, no evidence of corrosion was associated with any of the treatments. Fumigant treatments below the bolt holes continue to eliminate decay fungi, although samples removed from further down the pole indicate an incoIr)1ete distribution of MIT. These tests will be reevaluated this coming year. Detecting Early Decay and Estimating Residual Strength: We continue to evaluate the use of fluorescent coupled lectins and infra-red spectroscopy for detecting fungi in wood and early decay under controlled laboratory conditions. We have also continued evaluation of longitudinal compression (L) as a measure of ultite wood strength using a series of 27 Ldgepole pine posts. While the dense knot clusters interferred with the analysis, LCS, in combination with other parameters, was a reasonably good predictor of bending strength. These tests will continue with more uniform material. iv In addition to tests of LCS, we have evaluated the ability of small scal e tests to determine the strength of various wood pole connectors. Out results were in close agreement with those obtained using full scale tests aii illustrate the value of using small r1 e tests to develop strength information. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir: We continue to evaluate the data developed in the air-seasoning st1wies. This past year we began to develop information on the effects of various colony sizes on wood strength. This data will help us assign strength values to the colony size data we ha developed frau the air-seasoning study. At present, only Peniophora spp. has been tested, but . carbonica, P. placenta, and Haematostereum sanguinolentuin will also be included. Evaluation of the teinperatures required to eliminate fungi from Douglas-f ir poles also continue. We have ccatpleted 9 test charges which indicate that the penta treatmants involving a Boulton-seasoning cycle result in a ixre than adequate heating of the wood, while steam treants associated with amnniacal copper arsenate are nre variable. We feel that longer heating periods are required for poles greater than 12 inches in diamater, but that the current 6 hour steam period will result in heating of the center to 67 C for over 1 hour in smaller poles. Microfungi in Douglas-fir Poles: We continue to evaluate the effects of nticrofungi on properties of fumigant treated Douglas-fir poles. These tests indicate that prior colonization of fumigant treated wood by Scytalidium or Trichoderma species resulted in lower weight losses by P. placenta and . carbonica. Evaluation of a Cellon treated Douglas-fir laminated beam indicated that V severe penta depletion was associated with virtually all of the surface decay present. This beam had only been in service for 12 years in an extremely dry climate arxl it is unclear why the decay was so rapid. Title: Conserving energy by environmentally acceptable practices in maintaining and procuring transmission poles for long service ; August 1987 Author: Morrell, Jeffrey J., Oregon State University. Dept. of Forest Products, Corden, M. E. (Malcolm E.) This seventh annual report outlines our continued progress on each of six objectives. Improved fumigants: We continue to evaluate previously established field tests, which inlicate that chioropicrin continues to protect Douglas-fir poles after 17 years and piling after 12 years. Vorlex treated poles are being gradually recolonized by decay fungi, while the Vapam treated poles appear to have little resistance to decay fungi. The latter poles were retreated last summer and will be used to determine the effectiveness of fumigant retreatment. Solid methylisothiocyanate (NIT) continues to protect Douglasfir poles, although the 20 percent NIT treatment has experienced slightly higher levels of colonization after 9 years. Additional tests to evaluate the effectiveness of gelatin encapsulated MIT or chioropicrin indicate that both chemicals continue to remain effective. In addition, there now appears to be little difference between the levels of control exhibited following addition of varying amounts of water to the poles along with gelatin encapsulated NIT. Closed tube bioassays indicate the chioropicrin remains at fungitoxic levels after 17 years, while no volatile fungitoxins appear to be present in Vapam or Vorlex treated wood. The evaluation of untreated Douglas-fir posts treated with NIT, chloropicrin, or Vapam indicate that fumigants can not ccatletely protect untreated wood in ground contact unless there is sane other type of preservative treated barrier present. Although the NIT treatment provided the best protection, all of the posts experienced some surface decay and termite attack after 10 years. These results appear similar to those found with more recent tests of posts treated with various coLthinations of preservative containing wraps and fuinigants. Evaluation of Mylone and tridipain, two solid chemicals that degrade to produce NIT, initcates that NIT production and fungal control are enhanced by the addition of basic pH buffers; however, only the pH 12 buffer resulted in rapid fungal control. These results Jnitcate that the rate of fumigant release can be tailored to control specific decay problems. We have also investigated the decomposition of Vapam in wood. As previously reported, there are over 14 potential deccmposition products from this chemical. This past year we developed methods for assaying these chemicals, evaluated the long-term stability of each, and prepared test blocks for evaluating decc*,osjtion in wood. In addition, we have studied the migration of volatile compounds from Vapam and NIT treated blocks under controlled aeration. After 5,000 hours, detectable levesis of NIT, carbon disulfide, and carbon oxysulfide are still present in air surrounding the Douglas-fir blocks. These tests indicate that low levels of volatile chemicals are continuously eninitted from fumigant treated wood. While this poses little difficulty for utility poles, it may pose some hazard for wood in closed spaces. Evaluations will continue until the emission levels decline below detectable limits. In addition to Vapam deccmposition studies, we have also evaluated the decoxrosition, movement and fungitoxicity of NIT under a variety of environmental conditions. In general, wet wood held less NIT, but the degree of control produced was more rapid. These results suggest that dry wood will act as a reseivoir of NIT, which will be released as moisture enters and swells the wood. This effect may provide an excellent long-term decay control strategy. The information from these studies will be used to develop more 111 ecific recaimrndations for fumigant treatment. Cedar Saood Decay Control: This past year we reestablished the field test of promising nei pentachiorophenol replacements, incorporating 26 chemicals into these tests. These saitles will be evaluated after 1 and 2 years to determine efficacy. In addition to the field test, we evaluated 13 new formulations or cinations of formulations in our laboratory screening tests. A nuner of chemicals including Isothiazolone, Amical 48 and a nurrer of quaternary aimnonium compounds appear promising and have been included in the field test. Bolt Hole Decay Prevention: Test established 5 years ago to determine the effectiveness of sprays, liquids or pastes applied to field drilled bolts holes indicate that airanonium bifluoride, Boracol 40, and 10% penta provided greater protection than Polybor or Patox washers. In addition, no evidence of corrosion was associated with any of the treatments. Fumigant treatments below the bolt holes continue to eliminate decay fungi, although samples removed from further down the pole indicate an incoIr)1ete distribution of MIT. These tests will be reevaluated this coming year. Detecting Early Decay and Estimating Residual Strength: We continue to evaluate the use of fluorescent coupled lectins and infra-red spectroscopy for detecting fungi in wood and early decay under controlled laboratory conditions. We have also continued evaluation of longitudinal compression (L) as a measure of ultite wood strength using a series of 27 Ldgepole pine posts. While the dense knot clusters interferred with the analysis, LCS, in combination with other parameters, was a reasonably good predictor of bending strength. These tests will continue with more uniform material. iv In addition to tests of LCS, we have evaluated the ability of small scal e tests to determine the strength of various wood pole connectors. Out results were in close agreement with those obtained using full scale tests aii illustrate the value of using small r1 e tests to develop strength information. Initiation of Decay in Air-Seasoning Douglas-fir: We continue to evaluate the data developed in the air-seasoning st1wies. This past year we began to develop information on the effects of various colony sizes on wood strength. This data will help us assign strength values to the colony size data we ha developed frau the air-seasoning study. At present, only Peniophora spp. has been tested, but . carbonica, P. placenta, and Haematostereum sanguinolentuin will also be included. Evaluation of the teinperatures required to eliminate fungi from Douglas-f ir poles also continue. We have ccatpleted 9 test charges which indicate that the penta treatmants involving a Boulton-seasoning cycle result in a ixre than adequate heating of the wood, while steam treants associated with amnniacal copper arsenate are nre variable. We feel that longer heating periods are required for poles greater than 12 inches in diamater, but that the current 6 hour steam period will result in heating of the center to 67 C for over 1 hour in smaller poles. Microfungi in Douglas-fir Poles: We continue to evaluate the effects of nticrofungi on properties of fumigant treated Douglas-fir poles. These tests indicate that prior colonization of fumigant treated wood by Scytalidium or Trichoderma species resulted in lower weight losses by P. placenta and . carbonica. Evaluation of a Cellon treated Douglas-fir laminated beam indicated that V severe penta depletion was associated with virtually all of the surface decay present. This beam had only been in service for 12 years in an extremely dry climate arxl it is unclear why the decay was so rapid. Close

• 507. [Article] Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i

  The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i Author: Malachowski, Christopher P. The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as habitat loss, overharvest, introduced mammalian predators, and hybridization with introduced feral Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). A key objective for Hawaiian Duck recovery is to establish a protected and managed network of wetland habitats; however, development of effective habitat management plans is stymied by the lack of information on patterns of habitat use in relation to fundamental resource requirements. Furthermore, many generalizations regarding dabbling duck behavior and resource requirements that guide seasonal wetland management objectives in North America may not apply to tropical regions and island systems. In this thesis, I compare the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck with closely related island-endemic waterfowl and migratory North American Anas, I investigate the behavioral response of Hawaiian Ducks to wetland habitat management and taro cultivation, and I examine the effects of environmental, climatic, temporal, and social factors on the activity budgets of Hawaiian Ducks. I conducted instantaneous focal sampling (n = 984 observation sessions; 328.8 hr) throughout the annual cycle from September 2010 to August 2011 at managed wetlands and taro lo'i within Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Kaua'i. I documented 73 specific Hawaiian Duck behaviors in eight broad behavior categories including foraging, maintenance, resting, locomotion, alert, courtship, and intraspecific and interspecific agonistic interactions. I found that the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck was similar to that of the Mallard; however, subtle variations in the form and linkage of certain courtship displays, such as nod-swimming, were observed. Additionally, male Hawaiian Ducks were occasionally associated with brood-rearing females (11% of brood observations), and this behavior appeared to be a male strategy whereby females received little perceived benefit , but males may have potentially garnered additional breeding attempts or maintained pair-bonds for subsequent breeding seasons. After accounting for sex, pair status, month, and time of day, the diurnal behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed between managed wetlands and taro habitats (F₆,₉₆₀ = 30.3, P < 0.001). Hawaiian Ducks utilized taro predominantly for resting (44%), maintenance (21%), and foraging (15%), while birds used managed wetlands for a variety of activities, including foraging (11%), maintenance (28%), resting (27%), and locomotion (22%). Social activities, particularly courtship, occurred more frequently in managed wetlands than in taro (H₁ = 11.9, P < 0.001). In managed wetlands, birds foraged slightly more with increasing cover of Cyperus spp. (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and Fimbristylis littoralis (r = 0.17, P < 0.01) and decreasing cover of Urochloa mutica (r = -0.15, P < 0.01) and wetland vegetation height (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Within taro habitat, the behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed significantly between birds in lo'i and on dikes (F₆,₄₆₈ = 142.8, P < 0.001); birds utilized lo‘i dikes for resting (60%) and maintenance activities (21%), whereas birds entered lo‘i primarily to forage (45%). The activity budget of Hawaiian Ducks was strongly influenced by time of day (F₁₈,₂₇₁₅.₇₈ = 6.4, P < 0.001), and birds spent more time engaged in active behaviors (i.e., foraging, locomotion, and alert) and less time resting during early morning and evening than during late morning and afternoon. While strong seasonal shifts in most behavioral patterns were not detected, males allocated more time to courting (1.1 vs. 0.3%; H1 = 6.92, P = 0.009) and mate-guarding (0.5 vs. <0.1%; H₁ = 9.83, P = 0.002) in managed wetlands between November and March than the remainder of the year. The effects of sex (F₆,₉₆₀ = 6.06, P < 0.001) and social status (F₆,₆₈₂ = 6.69, P < 0.001) on activity budgets were also significant. Females spent more time foraging (18 vs. 12%) and less time in alert, locomotor, and social behaviors than males. Paired birds allocated more time to aggression towards conspecifics, mate-guarding, and courtship, and within taro lo‘i, paired birds foraged more and rested less than unpaired birds. Overall, Hawaiian Duck allocated diurnal activity budgets differently in managed and cultivated wetland habitat at Hanalei NWR, suggesting that both systems may play an important role in fulfilling fundamental daily and seasonal resource requirements. The increased range of activities and foraging tactics used in managed wetlands may indicate the greater habitat diversity (e.g., vegetation structure, patchiness, plant species richness, range of water depths) provided by seasonal wetlands. In general, Hawaiian Duck allocated less time to diurnal foraging than North American Anas, such Mallard and Mottled Duck (A. fulvigula), suggesting that Hawaiian Duck may have lower daily and seasonal energy demands, have access to higher quality diet, or allot more time to nocturnal foraging activities. Also, unlike many North American migratory waterfowl that demonstrate significant behavioral plasticity in adjusting activity budgets to meet seasonal energy demands associated with breeding, molting, wintering, and migration, Hawaiian Duck did not exhibit a strong seasonal shift in most behaviors which may reflect their non-migratory nature and asynchronous life history cycle. Title: Hawaiian duck (Anas wyvilliana) behavior and response to wetland habitat management at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua'i Author: Malachowski, Christopher P. The endangered Hawaiian Duck (koloa maoli; Anas wyvilliana), a non-migratory and island-endemic species, experienced a significant population decline during the twentieth century due to factors such as habitat loss, overharvest, introduced mammalian predators, and hybridization with introduced feral Mallards (A. platyrhynchos). A key objective for Hawaiian Duck recovery is to establish a protected and managed network of wetland habitats; however, development of effective habitat management plans is stymied by the lack of information on patterns of habitat use in relation to fundamental resource requirements. Furthermore, many generalizations regarding dabbling duck behavior and resource requirements that guide seasonal wetland management objectives in North America may not apply to tropical regions and island systems. In this thesis, I compare the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck with closely related island-endemic waterfowl and migratory North American Anas, I investigate the behavioral response of Hawaiian Ducks to wetland habitat management and taro cultivation, and I examine the effects of environmental, climatic, temporal, and social factors on the activity budgets of Hawaiian Ducks. I conducted instantaneous focal sampling (n = 984 observation sessions; 328.8 hr) throughout the annual cycle from September 2010 to August 2011 at managed wetlands and taro lo'i within Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Kaua'i. I documented 73 specific Hawaiian Duck behaviors in eight broad behavior categories including foraging, maintenance, resting, locomotion, alert, courtship, and intraspecific and interspecific agonistic interactions. I found that the behavioral repertoire of the Hawaiian Duck was similar to that of the Mallard; however, subtle variations in the form and linkage of certain courtship displays, such as nod-swimming, were observed. Additionally, male Hawaiian Ducks were occasionally associated with brood-rearing females (11% of brood observations), and this behavior appeared to be a male strategy whereby females received little perceived benefit , but males may have potentially garnered additional breeding attempts or maintained pair-bonds for subsequent breeding seasons. After accounting for sex, pair status, month, and time of day, the diurnal behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed between managed wetlands and taro habitats (F₆,₉₆₀ = 30.3, P < 0.001). Hawaiian Ducks utilized taro predominantly for resting (44%), maintenance (21%), and foraging (15%), while birds used managed wetlands for a variety of activities, including foraging (11%), maintenance (28%), resting (27%), and locomotion (22%). Social activities, particularly courtship, occurred more frequently in managed wetlands than in taro (H₁ = 11.9, P < 0.001). In managed wetlands, birds foraged slightly more with increasing cover of Cyperus spp. (r = 0.18, P < 0.001) and Fimbristylis littoralis (r = 0.17, P < 0.01) and decreasing cover of Urochloa mutica (r = -0.15, P < 0.01) and wetland vegetation height (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Within taro habitat, the behavioral activities of Hawaiian Ducks differed significantly between birds in lo'i and on dikes (F₆,₄₆₈ = 142.8, P < 0.001); birds utilized lo‘i dikes for resting (60%) and maintenance activities (21%), whereas birds entered lo‘i primarily to forage (45%). The activity budget of Hawaiian Ducks was strongly influenced by time of day (F₁₈,₂₇₁₅.₇₈ = 6.4, P < 0.001), and birds spent more time engaged in active behaviors (i.e., foraging, locomotion, and alert) and less time resting during early morning and evening than during late morning and afternoon. While strong seasonal shifts in most behavioral patterns were not detected, males allocated more time to courting (1.1 vs. 0.3%; H1 = 6.92, P = 0.009) and mate-guarding (0.5 vs. <0.1%; H₁ = 9.83, P = 0.002) in managed wetlands between November and March than the remainder of the year. The effects of sex (F₆,₉₆₀ = 6.06, P < 0.001) and social status (F₆,₆₈₂ = 6.69, P < 0.001) on activity budgets were also significant. Females spent more time foraging (18 vs. 12%) and less time in alert, locomotor, and social behaviors than males. Paired birds allocated more time to aggression towards conspecifics, mate-guarding, and courtship, and within taro lo‘i, paired birds foraged more and rested less than unpaired birds. Overall, Hawaiian Duck allocated diurnal activity budgets differently in managed and cultivated wetland habitat at Hanalei NWR, suggesting that both systems may play an important role in fulfilling fundamental daily and seasonal resource requirements. The increased range of activities and foraging tactics used in managed wetlands may indicate the greater habitat diversity (e.g., vegetation structure, patchiness, plant species richness, range of water depths) provided by seasonal wetlands. In general, Hawaiian Duck allocated less time to diurnal foraging than North American Anas, such Mallard and Mottled Duck (A. fulvigula), suggesting that Hawaiian Duck may have lower daily and seasonal energy demands, have access to higher quality diet, or allot more time to nocturnal foraging activities. Also, unlike many North American migratory waterfowl that demonstrate significant behavioral plasticity in adjusting activity budgets to meet seasonal energy demands associated with breeding, molting, wintering, and migration, Hawaiian Duck did not exhibit a strong seasonal shift in most behaviors which may reflect their non-migratory nature and asynchronous life history cycle. Close

• 508. [Image] A framework for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins

  	Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T.; Quigley, Thomas M., tech. eds. 1996. A framework for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia Basin including portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A framework for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Year: 1996, 2005 Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T.; Quigley, Thomas M., tech. eds. 1996. A framework for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia Basin including portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-374. Portland, OR; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p. A framework for ecosystem management is proposed. This framework assumes the purpose of ecosystem management is to maintain the integrity of ecosystems over time and space. It is based on four ecosystem principles: ecosystems are dynamic, can be viewed as hierarchies with temporal and spatial dimensions, have limits, and are relatively unpredictable. This approach recognizes that people are part of ecosystems and that stewardship must be able to resolve tough challenges including how to meet multiple demands with finite resources. The framework describes a general planning model for ecosystem management that has four iterative steps: monitoring, assessment, decision-making, and implementation. Since ecosystems cross jurisdictional lines, the implementation of the framework depends on partnerships among land managers, the scientific community, and stakeholders. It proposes that decision-making be based on information provided by the best available science and the most appropriate technologies for land management. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, ecosystem principles, ecosystem management, planning models, management goals, risk analysis. Title: A framework for ecosystem management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins Year: 1996, 2005 Haynes, Richard W.; Graham, Russell T.; Quigley, Thomas M., tech. eds. 1996. A framework for ecosystem management in the Interior Columbia Basin including portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-374. Portland, OR; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p. A framework for ecosystem management is proposed. This framework assumes the purpose of ecosystem management is to maintain the integrity of ecosystems over time and space. It is based on four ecosystem principles: ecosystems are dynamic, can be viewed as hierarchies with temporal and spatial dimensions, have limits, and are relatively unpredictable. This approach recognizes that people are part of ecosystems and that stewardship must be able to resolve tough challenges including how to meet multiple demands with finite resources. The framework describes a general planning model for ecosystem management that has four iterative steps: monitoring, assessment, decision-making, and implementation. Since ecosystems cross jurisdictional lines, the implementation of the framework depends on partnerships among land managers, the scientific community, and stakeholders. It proposes that decision-making be based on information provided by the best available science and the most appropriate technologies for land management. Keywords: Ecosystem assessment, ecosystem principles, ecosystem management, planning models, management goals, risk analysis. Close

• 509. [Image] The Endangered Species Act and its impact on agricultural producers: hearing before the Subcommittee on Conservation, Credit, Rural Development, and Research of the Committee on Agriculture, House of representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, July 26, 2004, Greely, CO.

  	CONTENTS Lucas, Hon. Frank, a Representative in Congress from the State of Oklahoma, opening statement .................................................................................... 1 Musgrave, ...
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The Endangered Species Act and its impact on agricultural producers: hearing before the Subcommittee on Conservation, Credit, Rural Development, and Research of the Committee on Agriculture, House of representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, July 26, 2004, Greely, CO. Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Agriculture. Subcommittee on Conservation, Credit, Rural Development, and Research. Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS Lucas, Hon. Frank, a Representative in Congress from the State of Oklahoma, opening statement .................................................................................... 1 Musgrave, Hon. Marilyn N., a Representative in Congress from the State of Colorado, opening statement........................................................................... 2 Witnesses Foutz, Alan, president, Colorado Farm Bureau, Centennial, CO ........................ 10 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 38 George, Russell, executive director, Colorado Department of Natural Resources, Denver, CO............................................................................................. 4 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 29 Palmer, William, executive director, Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory, Brighton, CO ........................................................................................................ 16 Prepared statement.......................................................................................... 60 Sims, James T., executive director, Western Business Roundtable, Golden, CO.......................................................................................................................... 13 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 43 Stetson, Jean, co-chairman, Endangered Species Committee, Colorado Cattlemen, Craig, CO..................................................................................................... 7 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 36 Submitted Material Weege, Merle, secretary, Ginseng Board of Wisconsin, statement...................... 65 Title: The Endangered Species Act and its impact on agricultural producers: hearing before the Subcommittee on Conservation, Credit, Rural Development, and Research of the Committee on Agriculture, House of representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, second session, July 26, 2004, Greely, CO. Author: United States. Congress. House. Committee on Agriculture. Subcommittee on Conservation, Credit, Rural Development, and Research. Year: 2004, 2005 CONTENTS Lucas, Hon. Frank, a Representative in Congress from the State of Oklahoma, opening statement .................................................................................... 1 Musgrave, Hon. Marilyn N., a Representative in Congress from the State of Colorado, opening statement........................................................................... 2 Witnesses Foutz, Alan, president, Colorado Farm Bureau, Centennial, CO ........................ 10 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 38 George, Russell, executive director, Colorado Department of Natural Resources, Denver, CO............................................................................................. 4 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 29 Palmer, William, executive director, Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory, Brighton, CO ........................................................................................................ 16 Prepared statement.......................................................................................... 60 Sims, James T., executive director, Western Business Roundtable, Golden, CO.......................................................................................................................... 13 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 43 Stetson, Jean, co-chairman, Endangered Species Committee, Colorado Cattlemen, Craig, CO..................................................................................................... 7 Prepared statement .......................................................................................... 36 Submitted Material Weege, Merle, secretary, Ginseng Board of Wisconsin, statement...................... 65 Close

• 510. [Image] Technical assistance and the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: a statewide assessment by the Healthy Streams Partnership

  	"November 2002"; 66 p. in various paginations: ill., form -- Executive summary ([6]p.)
  	Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Technical assistance and the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: a statewide assessment by the Healthy Streams Partnership Author: Healthy Streams Partnership Year: 2002, 2007, 2005 "November 2002"; 66 p. in various paginations: ill., form -- Executive summary ([6]p.) Title: Technical assistance and the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds: a statewide assessment by the Healthy Streams Partnership Author: Healthy Streams Partnership Year: 2002, 2007, 2005 "November 2002"; 66 p. in various paginations: ill., form -- Executive summary ([6]p.) Close