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• 61. [Article] The relative contribution of climate to changes in lesser prairie-chicken abundance

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article is copyrighted by the author(s) and ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: The relative contribution of climate to changes in lesser prairie-chicken abundance Author: Haukos, David, Ross, Beth E., Hagen, Christian, Pitman, James To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. on behalf of the Ecological Society of American. It can be found at: http://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%292150-8925/ Title: The relative contribution of climate to changes in lesser prairie-chicken abundance Author: Haukos, David, Ross, Beth E., Hagen, Christian, Pitman, James To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The article is copyrighted by the author(s) and published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. on behalf of the Ecological Society of American. It can be found at: http://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/hub/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%292150-8925/ Close

• 62. [Article] Estimating Habitat-Specific Abundances of PIT-Tagged Juvenile Salmonids Using Mobile Antennas: A Comparison with Standard Electrofishing Techniques in a Small Stream

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted the American Fisheries Society and can be found at: http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujfm20/current.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Estimating Habitat-Specific Abundances of PIT-Tagged Juvenile Salmonids Using Mobile Antennas: A Comparison with Standard Electrofishing Techniques in a Small Stream Author: Sloat, Matthew R., Baker, Peter F., Ligon, Franklin K. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted the American Fisheries Society and can be found at: http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujfm20/current. Title: Estimating Habitat-Specific Abundances of PIT-Tagged Juvenile Salmonids Using Mobile Antennas: A Comparison with Standard Electrofishing Techniques in a Small Stream Author: Sloat, Matthew R., Baker, Peter F., Ligon, Franklin K. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted the American Fisheries Society and can be found at: http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujfm20/current. Close

• 63. [Article] A study of Myxobolus cerebralis in the Lostine River, Oregon : epizootiology, distribution and implications for resident and anadromous salmonids

  Myxobolus cerebralis, a myxozoan parasite that infects almost all species of wild and cultured salmonids, was first identified in northeastern Oregon in the Lostine River in 1986. Fish that are heavily ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A study of Myxobolus cerebralis in the Lostine River, Oregon : epizootiology, distribution and implications for resident and anadromous salmonids Author: Sandell, Todd A. Myxobolus cerebralis, a myxozoan parasite that infects almost all species of wild and cultured salmonids, was first identified in northeastern Oregon in the Lostine River in 1986. Fish that are heavily infected with M. cerebralis develop whirling disease, which was determined to be the cause of catastrophic declines in rainbow trout populations in Montana and Colorado in 1996. There have been no reports of severe salmonid population declines attributed to whirling disease in Oregon, although many populations are at levels that warrant protective listing under the Endangered Species Act. This study was undertaken to I) establish the distribution and seasonal prevalence of M. cerebralis infection in the Lostine River, 2) investigate the epizootiological factors influencing the occurrence of whirling disease in this river, 3) determine the potential impact of the parasite on chinook salmon, and 4) evaluate the suitability of a non-lethal tissue sampling protocol for the detection of M. cerebralis in juvenile and adult salmonids for use in monitoring the effects and distribution of the parasite in protected salmonid populations. Results of this study indicate that the parasite is present throughout the main stem of the Lostine River during all seasons, and that rainbow and anadromous steelhead trout fry emerging in the lower river are most likely to become infected and develop whirling disease. Chinook salmon were shown to be relatively resistant to M. cerebralis at low levels of exposure, but this effect was less evident when the parasite exposure increased. The non-lethal sampling protocol was successful in detecting M. cerebralis in juvenile salmonids but not in adults, where it is most needed. The information gathered during these studies was then correlated with the life histories of resident and anadromous salmonids in the Lostine River to determine the potential impact of M. cerebralis On salmonid populations in this region. Title: A study of Myxobolus cerebralis in the Lostine River, Oregon : epizootiology, distribution and implications for resident and anadromous salmonids Author: Sandell, Todd A. Myxobolus cerebralis, a myxozoan parasite that infects almost all species of wild and cultured salmonids, was first identified in northeastern Oregon in the Lostine River in 1986. Fish that are heavily infected with M. cerebralis develop whirling disease, which was determined to be the cause of catastrophic declines in rainbow trout populations in Montana and Colorado in 1996. There have been no reports of severe salmonid population declines attributed to whirling disease in Oregon, although many populations are at levels that warrant protective listing under the Endangered Species Act. This study was undertaken to I) establish the distribution and seasonal prevalence of M. cerebralis infection in the Lostine River, 2) investigate the epizootiological factors influencing the occurrence of whirling disease in this river, 3) determine the potential impact of the parasite on chinook salmon, and 4) evaluate the suitability of a non-lethal tissue sampling protocol for the detection of M. cerebralis in juvenile and adult salmonids for use in monitoring the effects and distribution of the parasite in protected salmonid populations. Results of this study indicate that the parasite is present throughout the main stem of the Lostine River during all seasons, and that rainbow and anadromous steelhead trout fry emerging in the lower river are most likely to become infected and develop whirling disease. Chinook salmon were shown to be relatively resistant to M. cerebralis at low levels of exposure, but this effect was less evident when the parasite exposure increased. The non-lethal sampling protocol was successful in detecting M. cerebralis in juvenile salmonids but not in adults, where it is most needed. The information gathered during these studies was then correlated with the life histories of resident and anadromous salmonids in the Lostine River to determine the potential impact of M. cerebralis On salmonid populations in this region. Close

• 64. [Article] Cormorant harassment to protect juvenile salmonids in Tillamook County, Oregon

  The goal of the Oregon Plan is to restore wild coho and wild steelhead runs. Under the federal Endangered Species Act, wild coho salmon along the Oregon Coast are listed as Threatened and wild Oregon Coast ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Cormorant harassment to protect juvenile salmonids in Tillamook County, Oregon Author: Bayer, Range D., 1947- The goal of the Oregon Plan is to restore wild coho and wild steelhead runs. Under the federal Endangered Species Act, wild coho salmon along the Oregon Coast are listed as Threatened and wild Oregon Coast steelhead are a candidate for listing. Although cormorants have been hazed at the Nehalem Estuary for at least 10 years and at the Tillamook and Nestucca Estuaries for at least three years, spawning ground counts of wild coho salmon, winter steelhead, and fall chinook have averaged less since hazing began. Thus, hazing does not appear to be useful in recovering wild salmonids. Hazing is not correlated with consistently improved hatchery returns. The survival of Coded Wire Tag marked coho smolts at the Nehalem was about the same whether hazing occurred or not, the percent return for coho smolts was not significantly greater at the hazed Nehalem than at the nonhazed Salmon River, and the number of returning adult coho salmon was significantly greater with hazing at the Nehalem hatchery but not at the Trask hatchery in the Tillamook Basin. For winter steelhead, the number of returning adults to the Nehalem and jacks to the Cedar Creek hatchery in the Nestucca Basin did not increase significantly with hazing, but the number of jacks returning to the Nehalem did. Changes in fisheries subsequent to hazing are mixed. Coho catches increased with hazing at the Nehalem but not at the Tillamook Basin. Nehalem steelhead catches averaged less with hazing, but chinook fisheries have grown. However, the increase in chinook catches occurred as the number of wild chinook at spawning areas declined, so the larger catch may be a consequence of a greater harvest of wild chinook rather than hazing. Returns may not have increased with hazing because it was ineffective in substantially reducing predation, because smolts saved by hazing died anyway, or because other factors such as unfavorable ocean conditions may have been much more important in affecting smolt survival than hazing. In any case, hazing does not appear to be a panacea for salmonid recovery, and it has costs. During 1996-1999, the Oregon Legislature spent $100,000 for cormorant hazing, and a biological cost of hazing is the disturbance of wildlife other than cormorants. Title: Cormorant harassment to protect juvenile salmonids in Tillamook County, Oregon Author: Bayer, Range D., 1947- The goal of the Oregon Plan is to restore wild coho and wild steelhead runs. Under the federal Endangered Species Act, wild coho salmon along the Oregon Coast are listed as Threatened and wild Oregon Coast steelhead are a candidate for listing. Although cormorants have been hazed at the Nehalem Estuary for at least 10 years and at the Tillamook and Nestucca Estuaries for at least three years, spawning ground counts of wild coho salmon, winter steelhead, and fall chinook have averaged less since hazing began. Thus, hazing does not appear to be useful in recovering wild salmonids. Hazing is not correlated with consistently improved hatchery returns. The survival of Coded Wire Tag marked coho smolts at the Nehalem was about the same whether hazing occurred or not, the percent return for coho smolts was not significantly greater at the hazed Nehalem than at the nonhazed Salmon River, and the number of returning adult coho salmon was significantly greater with hazing at the Nehalem hatchery but not at the Trask hatchery in the Tillamook Basin. For winter steelhead, the number of returning adults to the Nehalem and jacks to the Cedar Creek hatchery in the Nestucca Basin did not increase significantly with hazing, but the number of jacks returning to the Nehalem did. Changes in fisheries subsequent to hazing are mixed. Coho catches increased with hazing at the Nehalem but not at the Tillamook Basin. Nehalem steelhead catches averaged less with hazing, but chinook fisheries have grown. However, the increase in chinook catches occurred as the number of wild chinook at spawning areas declined, so the larger catch may be a consequence of a greater harvest of wild chinook rather than hazing. Returns may not have increased with hazing because it was ineffective in substantially reducing predation, because smolts saved by hazing died anyway, or because other factors such as unfavorable ocean conditions may have been much more important in affecting smolt survival than hazing. In any case, hazing does not appear to be a panacea for salmonid recovery, and it has costs. During 1996-1999, the Oregon Legislature spent $100,000 for cormorant hazing, and a biological cost of hazing is the disturbance of wildlife other than cormorants. Close

• 65. [Article] Susceptibility of Juvenile Steelhead to Avian Predation: the Influence of Individual Fish Characteristics and River Conditions

  To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is published by Taylor & ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Susceptibility of Juvenile Steelhead to Avian Predation: the Influence of Individual Fish Characteristics and River Conditions Author: Evans, Allen F., Roby, Daniel D., Collis, Ken, Hostetter, Nathan J. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is published by Taylor & Francis and can be found at: http://www.taylorandfrancis.com/, and copyrighted by American Fisheries Society (http://fisheries.org/). Title: Susceptibility of Juvenile Steelhead to Avian Predation: the Influence of Individual Fish Characteristics and River Conditions Author: Evans, Allen F., Roby, Daniel D., Collis, Ken, Hostetter, Nathan J. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is published by Taylor & Francis and can be found at: http://www.taylorandfrancis.com/, and copyrighted by American Fisheries Society (http://fisheries.org/). Close

• 66. [Article] Colony Connectivity of Pacific Coast Double-Crested Cormorants Based on Post-Breeding Dispersal From the Region’s Largest Colony

  This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291937-2817. To the best of ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Colony Connectivity of Pacific Coast Double-Crested Cormorants Based on Post-Breeding Dispersal From the Region’s Largest Colony Author: Roby, Daniel D., Lyons, Donald E., Adkins, Jessica Y., Courtot, Karen N., Larsen, R. Scott, King, D. Tommy This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291937-2817. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Title: Colony Connectivity of Pacific Coast Double-Crested Cormorants Based on Post-Breeding Dispersal From the Region’s Largest Colony Author: Roby, Daniel D., Lyons, Donald E., Adkins, Jessica Y., Courtot, Karen N., Larsen, R. Scott, King, D. Tommy This is the publisher’s final pdf. The published article is copyrighted by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and can be found at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291937-2817. To the best of our knowledge, one or more authors of this paper were federal employees when contributing to this work. Close

• 67. [Article] IMST Review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 Biological Opinions on Management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and Related Reports

  This report was prepared by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team to the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds.

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: IMST Review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 Biological Opinions on Management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and Related Reports Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) This report was prepared by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team to the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. Title: IMST Review of the USFWS and NMFS 2001 Biological Opinions on Management of the Klamath Reclamation Project and Related Reports Author: Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team (Or.) This report was prepared by the Independent Multidisciplinary Science Team to the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds. Close

• 68. [Article] Survey of Pathogens in Juvenile Salmon Oncorhynchus Spp. Migrating through Pacific Northwest Estuaries

  Although the adverse impact of pathogens on salmon populations in the Pacific Northwest is often discussed and recognized, little is currently known regarding the incidence and corresponding significance ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Survey of Pathogens in Juvenile Salmon Oncorhynchus Spp. Migrating through Pacific Northwest Estuaries Author: Jacobson, Kym C., Reno, Paul W., Clemons, Ethan, Collier, T.K., Arkoosh, Mary R., Glass, A.C., Johnson, L.L., Kagley, Anna N., Myers, M.S., Stafford, Coral L., Loge, F., Casillas, Edmundo Although the adverse impact of pathogens on salmon populations in the Pacific Northwest is often discussed and recognized, little is currently known regarding the incidence and corresponding significance of delayed disease-induced mortalities. In the study reported herein, we surveyed the presence and prevalence of selected micro- and macroparasites in out-migrant juvenile coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch and Chinook salmon O. tshawytscha from 12 coastal estuaries in the Pacific Northwest over a 6-year period (1996-2001). The major finding of this study was the widespread occurrence of pathogens in wild salmon from Pacific Northwest estuaries. The six most prevalent pathogens infecting both juvenile Chinook and coho salmon were Renibacterium salmoninarum, Nanophyetus salmincola, an erythrocytic cytoplasmic virus (erythrocytic inclusion body syndrome or erythrocytic necrosis virus), and three gram-negative bacteria (Listonella anguillarum, Yersinia ruckeri, and Aeromonas salmonicida). The most prevalent pathogen in both Chinook and coho salmon was N. salmincola, followed by the pathogens R. salmoninarum and the erythrocytic cytoplasmic virus. Statistically significant differences in the prevalence of R.. salmoninarum and N. salmincola were observed between Chinook and coho salmon. Based on the prevalence of pathogens observed in this study, disease appears to be a potentially significant factor governing the population numbers of salmon in the Pacific Northwest. Development of a detailed understanding of the principal components influencing the ecology of infectious disease will aid in the development of management and control strategies to mitigate disease in and hence further the recovery of salmon stocks listed under the Endangered Species Act. Title: Survey of Pathogens in Juvenile Salmon Oncorhynchus Spp. Migrating through Pacific Northwest Estuaries Author: Jacobson, Kym C., Reno, Paul W., Clemons, Ethan, Collier, T.K., Arkoosh, Mary R., Glass, A.C., Johnson, L.L., Kagley, Anna N., Myers, M.S., Stafford, Coral L., Loge, F., Casillas, Edmundo Although the adverse impact of pathogens on salmon populations in the Pacific Northwest is often discussed and recognized, little is currently known regarding the incidence and corresponding significance of delayed disease-induced mortalities. In the study reported herein, we surveyed the presence and prevalence of selected micro- and macroparasites in out-migrant juvenile coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch and Chinook salmon O. tshawytscha from 12 coastal estuaries in the Pacific Northwest over a 6-year period (1996-2001). The major finding of this study was the widespread occurrence of pathogens in wild salmon from Pacific Northwest estuaries. The six most prevalent pathogens infecting both juvenile Chinook and coho salmon were Renibacterium salmoninarum, Nanophyetus salmincola, an erythrocytic cytoplasmic virus (erythrocytic inclusion body syndrome or erythrocytic necrosis virus), and three gram-negative bacteria (Listonella anguillarum, Yersinia ruckeri, and Aeromonas salmonicida). The most prevalent pathogen in both Chinook and coho salmon was N. salmincola, followed by the pathogens R. salmoninarum and the erythrocytic cytoplasmic virus. Statistically significant differences in the prevalence of R.. salmoninarum and N. salmincola were observed between Chinook and coho salmon. Based on the prevalence of pathogens observed in this study, disease appears to be a potentially significant factor governing the population numbers of salmon in the Pacific Northwest. Development of a detailed understanding of the principal components influencing the ecology of infectious disease will aid in the development of management and control strategies to mitigate disease in and hence further the recovery of salmon stocks listed under the Endangered Species Act. Close

• 69. [Article] Breeding and foraging ecology of Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) in the mid-Columbia River : predation on juvenile salmonids and management implications

  I investigated Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) breeding at colonies on the Columbia Plateau (southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon), with emphasis on the breeding and foraging ecology of Caspian ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Breeding and foraging ecology of Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) in the mid-Columbia River : predation on juvenile salmonids and management implications Author: Antolos, Michelle I investigated Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) breeding at colonies on the Columbia Plateau (southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon), with emphasis on the breeding and foraging ecology of Caspian terns nesting at colonies in the mid-Columbia River. I focused research at colonies where Caspian terns foraged on juvenile salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) because of potential impacts to stocks listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Caspian tern colony size on the Columbia Plateau ranged from tens of breeding pairs to nearly 700 pairs at Crescent Island in the mid-Columbia River; total population size in the study area was about 1,000 pairs and appeared to be stable. The size and number of Caspian tern colonies in the Columbia Plateau region are likely constrained by the availability of suitable nesting habitat near abundant prey, a resource that appears limited within the study area. Productivity of Caspian terns was not affected by nest density at Crescent Island, information that may be helpful for resource managers deciding minimum area requirements for breeding Caspian terns at managed colony sites. At colonies on the mid- Columbia River, the majority of Caspian tern prey items consisted of juvenile salmonids. I estimated that Caspian terns nesting at Crescent Island in the mid- Columbia River consumed 382,000-547,000 and 533,000-825,000 juvenile salmonids during the breeding season in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Total salmonid predation by Crescent Island Caspian terns was less than that reported for some other predators in the Columbia River that have been managed to reduce predation rates on juvenile salmonids. The results of this research will be used by state, federal, and tribal resource managers to decide whether Caspian tern management is warranted at Crescent Island. Title: Breeding and foraging ecology of Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) in the mid-Columbia River : predation on juvenile salmonids and management implications Author: Antolos, Michelle I investigated Caspian terns (Sterna caspia) breeding at colonies on the Columbia Plateau (southeastern Washington and northeastern Oregon), with emphasis on the breeding and foraging ecology of Caspian terns nesting at colonies in the mid-Columbia River. I focused research at colonies where Caspian terns foraged on juvenile salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) because of potential impacts to stocks listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Caspian tern colony size on the Columbia Plateau ranged from tens of breeding pairs to nearly 700 pairs at Crescent Island in the mid-Columbia River; total population size in the study area was about 1,000 pairs and appeared to be stable. The size and number of Caspian tern colonies in the Columbia Plateau region are likely constrained by the availability of suitable nesting habitat near abundant prey, a resource that appears limited within the study area. Productivity of Caspian terns was not affected by nest density at Crescent Island, information that may be helpful for resource managers deciding minimum area requirements for breeding Caspian terns at managed colony sites. At colonies on the mid- Columbia River, the majority of Caspian tern prey items consisted of juvenile salmonids. I estimated that Caspian terns nesting at Crescent Island in the mid- Columbia River consumed 382,000-547,000 and 533,000-825,000 juvenile salmonids during the breeding season in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Total salmonid predation by Crescent Island Caspian terns was less than that reported for some other predators in the Columbia River that have been managed to reduce predation rates on juvenile salmonids. The results of this research will be used by state, federal, and tribal resource managers to decide whether Caspian tern management is warranted at Crescent Island. Close

• 70. [Article] Salmon recovery in the Pacific Northwest : defining what constitutes a wild salmon

  In spite of considerable efforts to restore natural runs of anadromous salmonids in the Pacific Northwest, they remain at risk of extirpation. Along with many other factors influencing the decline, stocking ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Salmon recovery in the Pacific Northwest : defining what constitutes a wild salmon Author: Courter, Ian I. In spite of considerable efforts to restore natural runs of anadromous salmonids in the Pacific Northwest, they remain at risk of extirpation. Along with many other factors influencing the decline, stocking from hatcheries over the past hundred years is often suggested to be a major cause. The listing of over two dozen runs of salmon under the Endangered Species Act has catalyzed a re-assessment of hatchery effects on naturally spawning salmon. Recent policies have placed a much greater emphasis on restoring runs of wild salmon rather than maintaining runs through stocking from hatchery production. Except at the most superficial level, there is no consensus about how to define "wild." Rather, there is a continuum of definitions for "wild" and each definition supports an implicit policy goal. The precise way in which "wild salmon" is defined potentially has profound policy implications. Ultimately, the choice of definition is a policy decision that incorporates science as one of several factors influencing the decision. A suite of options, often poorly articulated, for defining "wild" are available to policy makers who are selecting recovery goals. To test a subset of the available definitions of wild, I quantified the number of hatchery and naturally spawning salmon for 19 populations of Oregon coastal coho. "Wild" was defined by types 1 through 5 based on the number of hatchery fish released annually and the number of naturally spawning hatchery adults. As currently managed by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, the Oregon coast has a range of "types" of coho salmon. By clearly and explicitly defining "wild" as steps along a continuum, policy makers and managers can more effectively monitor and achieve specific salmon recovery goals. Title: Salmon recovery in the Pacific Northwest : defining what constitutes a wild salmon Author: Courter, Ian I. In spite of considerable efforts to restore natural runs of anadromous salmonids in the Pacific Northwest, they remain at risk of extirpation. Along with many other factors influencing the decline, stocking from hatcheries over the past hundred years is often suggested to be a major cause. The listing of over two dozen runs of salmon under the Endangered Species Act has catalyzed a re-assessment of hatchery effects on naturally spawning salmon. Recent policies have placed a much greater emphasis on restoring runs of wild salmon rather than maintaining runs through stocking from hatchery production. Except at the most superficial level, there is no consensus about how to define "wild." Rather, there is a continuum of definitions for "wild" and each definition supports an implicit policy goal. The precise way in which "wild salmon" is defined potentially has profound policy implications. Ultimately, the choice of definition is a policy decision that incorporates science as one of several factors influencing the decision. A suite of options, often poorly articulated, for defining "wild" are available to policy makers who are selecting recovery goals. To test a subset of the available definitions of wild, I quantified the number of hatchery and naturally spawning salmon for 19 populations of Oregon coastal coho. "Wild" was defined by types 1 through 5 based on the number of hatchery fish released annually and the number of naturally spawning hatchery adults. As currently managed by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, the Oregon coast has a range of "types" of coho salmon. By clearly and explicitly defining "wild" as steps along a continuum, policy makers and managers can more effectively monitor and achieve specific salmon recovery goals. Close