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• 2811. [Article] A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon

  The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon Author: Johnson, Neal S. The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses has been impeded by institutional constraints and the scarcity of information regarding instream flow benefits. The objectives of this thesis were to provide preliminary economic data on the value of instream water in "producing" recreational fishing and to examine the effect of forestry, agriculture, and livestock practices on temporal streamflow patterns and anadromous fish production. The steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) sport fishery within the John Day River basin in north-central Oregon provided the setting for this research. The interdisciplinary methodology employed in estimating the marginal value of water with respect to steelhead production consisted of two tasks. The first task involved valuing a marginal change in the quality of the steelhead recreational fishery. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was selected for this purpose. Both open- and closed-ended willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions were included in a questionnaire administered to John Day River steelhead anglers during the 1986/87 steelhead fishing season. Survey data were analyzed to arrive at individual and aggregate bid functions relating WTP to expected angling success rates. Results indicate that, under current conditions, the average angler is willing to pay approximately $7.20 to catch an additional steelhead. The second task of the instream water valuation methodology was directed at deriving a streamflow/steelhead production relationship. By including variables influencing steelhead production in a Ricker stock-recruitment model, it was possible to develop a model which could be estimated using linear regression techniques. Some difficulty arose, however, with interpretation of the model due to the unavailability of cohort escapement data and the subsequent use of standing crop data. While possibly masking the true magnitude of streamflow's effect on fish production, this drawback was not deemed limiting within the general context of the interdisciplinary methodology. Results of the biological model conformed to a priori expectations. Increases in summer and winter streamflows led to increased steelhead survival, whereas higher spring flows increased mortality levels. Other results indicate that the John Day Dam was responsible for a 31.5 percent decline in the population index for the 1969-1983 period. Combining the economic and biological results into one equation yielded an estimate of the marginal value of summer instream water in "producing" recreational steelhead angling. Similar equations were developed for winter and spring flows. The marginal value of water in producing recreational steelhead fishing within the John Day basin was estimated at $0.56 per acre-foot for summer flows, $0.046 for winter flows, and -$0.075 for spring flows. By including out-of-basin benefits, these values increased to $2.26, $0.19, and -$0.30, respectively. In comparison, water's value in irrigation within the John Day basin has been estimated at between $10 to $24 per acre-foot. However, nonuse values of steelhead, as well as the increased production of other fish species (such as spring chinook salmon) were not included in the instream water values. In addition, no attempt was made at valuing instream water's contribution to boating, camping, or other benefit-producing activities. A secondary objective of this thesis was to briefly examine the possible benefits accruing to other instream and out-of-stream users due to an alteration in streamflow patterns. In addition, the impact of activities by other resource users -- namely forestry, agriculture, and livestock production --on anadromous fish production was reviewed. Improper management practices by these activities can negatively impact the aquatic and riparian ecosystems. While no firm conclusions were drawn, it appears the quality of these ecosystems, as opposed to the amount of streamflow, has the largest marginal impact on anadromous fish populations. Title: A bioeconomic analysis of altering instream flows anadromous fish production and competing demands for water in the John Day River basin, Oregon Author: Johnson, Neal S. The growing demand for water in the arid regions of the West increases the need for optimal allocation of water among competing uses. An efficient allocation of water between instream and out-of-stream uses has been impeded by institutional constraints and the scarcity of information regarding instream flow benefits. The objectives of this thesis were to provide preliminary economic data on the value of instream water in "producing" recreational fishing and to examine the effect of forestry, agriculture, and livestock practices on temporal streamflow patterns and anadromous fish production. The steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) sport fishery within the John Day River basin in north-central Oregon provided the setting for this research. The interdisciplinary methodology employed in estimating the marginal value of water with respect to steelhead production consisted of two tasks. The first task involved valuing a marginal change in the quality of the steelhead recreational fishery. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was selected for this purpose. Both open- and closed-ended willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions were included in a questionnaire administered to John Day River steelhead anglers during the 1986/87 steelhead fishing season. Survey data were analyzed to arrive at individual and aggregate bid functions relating WTP to expected angling success rates. Results indicate that, under current conditions, the average angler is willing to pay approximately $7.20 to catch an additional steelhead. The second task of the instream water valuation methodology was directed at deriving a streamflow/steelhead production relationship. By including variables influencing steelhead production in a Ricker stock-recruitment model, it was possible to develop a model which could be estimated using linear regression techniques. Some difficulty arose, however, with interpretation of the model due to the unavailability of cohort escapement data and the subsequent use of standing crop data. While possibly masking the true magnitude of streamflow's effect on fish production, this drawback was not deemed limiting within the general context of the interdisciplinary methodology. Results of the biological model conformed to a priori expectations. Increases in summer and winter streamflows led to increased steelhead survival, whereas higher spring flows increased mortality levels. Other results indicate that the John Day Dam was responsible for a 31.5 percent decline in the population index for the 1969-1983 period. Combining the economic and biological results into one equation yielded an estimate of the marginal value of summer instream water in "producing" recreational steelhead angling. Similar equations were developed for winter and spring flows. The marginal value of water in producing recreational steelhead fishing within the John Day basin was estimated at $0.56 per acre-foot for summer flows, $0.046 for winter flows, and -$0.075 for spring flows. By including out-of-basin benefits, these values increased to $2.26, $0.19, and -$0.30, respectively. In comparison, water's value in irrigation within the John Day basin has been estimated at between $10 to $24 per acre-foot. However, nonuse values of steelhead, as well as the increased production of other fish species (such as spring chinook salmon) were not included in the instream water values. In addition, no attempt was made at valuing instream water's contribution to boating, camping, or other benefit-producing activities. A secondary objective of this thesis was to briefly examine the possible benefits accruing to other instream and out-of-stream users due to an alteration in streamflow patterns. In addition, the impact of activities by other resource users -- namely forestry, agriculture, and livestock production --on anadromous fish production was reviewed. Improper management practices by these activities can negatively impact the aquatic and riparian ecosystems. While no firm conclusions were drawn, it appears the quality of these ecosystems, as opposed to the amount of streamflow, has the largest marginal impact on anadromous fish populations. Close

• 2812. [Article] Forest Fire Effects on Radiative and Turbulent Fluxes over Snow : Implications for Snow Hydrology

  As a result of a warming climate, subsequent declining snowpack, and a century of fire suppression, forest fires are increasing across the western United States. However, we still do not fully understand ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Forest Fire Effects on Radiative and Turbulent Fluxes over Snow : Implications for Snow Hydrology Author: Gleason, Kelly Erika As a result of a warming climate, subsequent declining snowpack, and a century of fire suppression, forest fires are increasing across the western United States. However, we still do not fully understand how forest fire effects snowpack energy balance, nor the volume and availability of snow melt and associated water resources. This dissertation investigated the radiative and turbulent energy fluxes over snow in a burned and unburned forest site using a suite of experimental, modeling, and remote sensing methods to determine the overall impact of forest fire disturbance to snowpack energy balance and snow hydrology. For three years following the Shadow Lake Fire, which occurred in September 2011 at the crest of the Oregon Cascades, a suite of field experiments were maintained, including snow water equivalent and snow spectral albedo measurement transects, snow surface sampling, snow depth and basic micro-meteorological monitoring and eddy covariance measurements of turbulent heat fluxes. These data were used to empirically characterize forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow, to parameterize key drivers of snowpack energy balance and to model forest fire effects to snow hydrology using a physically-based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model for both the burned and unburned forest sites. This resulted in three papers summarizing forest fire effects to snowpack energy balance and implications for snow hydrology. This dissertation documented forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow and evaluated implications for snow hydrology. These results showed a 40% reduction in snow albedo in the burned forest during the ablation period in the first year following fire, while 60% more solar radiation reached the snow surface, driving a 200% increase in net shortwave radiation. This dissertation documented that both sensible and latent heat fluxes were double the magnitude and variability in the burned forest compared to the nearby unburned forest. These results showed that the turbulent fluxes over snow can be periodically large and substantial over time. The contribution of sensible heat flux and loss of energy by the latent heat flux is responsible for a loss of snow mass of approximately 2% that measured snowmelt in the burned forest site during the clear-sky snowmelt period. Overall, the radiative fluxes dominate the overall snowpack energy balance in burned and unburned forests. An empirically-based parameterization was developed to represent the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo relative to days-since-snowfall in the burned and unburned forests, which was employed in a physically based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model. Using this variable snow albedo parameterization improved model performance in both burned and unburned forest sites, and better captured the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo and snow water equivalent than a fixed albedo parameterization. Overall this evaluation demonstrated that even though more snow may accumulate in burned areas than unburned forests, the combined effect of the increased postfire radiative forcing to snow and increased turbulent fluxes over snow accelerates snow melt, shortens the duration of snow cover, and advances the date of snow disappearance across the extent of the burned forest. Although this research focused on a relatively small burned area in the western Oregon Cascades, it has broad applications from regional to global scales particularly in forested maritime snow-dominated watersheds. Eighty percent of forest fires in the western United States occur in the seasonal snow zone, and those fires are 4.4 times larger than outside the seasonal snow zone. As forest fires increase and snowpacks decrease across forested montane headwater regions of the western US and beyond, it is critical that we incorporate forest fire disturbance effects to snow hydrology in our hydrologic modeling applications and our natural resource management decisions. Title: Forest Fire Effects on Radiative and Turbulent Fluxes over Snow : Implications for Snow Hydrology Author: Gleason, Kelly Erika As a result of a warming climate, subsequent declining snowpack, and a century of fire suppression, forest fires are increasing across the western United States. However, we still do not fully understand how forest fire effects snowpack energy balance, nor the volume and availability of snow melt and associated water resources. This dissertation investigated the radiative and turbulent energy fluxes over snow in a burned and unburned forest site using a suite of experimental, modeling, and remote sensing methods to determine the overall impact of forest fire disturbance to snowpack energy balance and snow hydrology. For three years following the Shadow Lake Fire, which occurred in September 2011 at the crest of the Oregon Cascades, a suite of field experiments were maintained, including snow water equivalent and snow spectral albedo measurement transects, snow surface sampling, snow depth and basic micro-meteorological monitoring and eddy covariance measurements of turbulent heat fluxes. These data were used to empirically characterize forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow, to parameterize key drivers of snowpack energy balance and to model forest fire effects to snow hydrology using a physically-based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model for both the burned and unburned forest sites. This resulted in three papers summarizing forest fire effects to snowpack energy balance and implications for snow hydrology. This dissertation documented forest fire effects to the radiative and turbulent fluxes over snow and evaluated implications for snow hydrology. These results showed a 40% reduction in snow albedo in the burned forest during the ablation period in the first year following fire, while 60% more solar radiation reached the snow surface, driving a 200% increase in net shortwave radiation. This dissertation documented that both sensible and latent heat fluxes were double the magnitude and variability in the burned forest compared to the nearby unburned forest. These results showed that the turbulent fluxes over snow can be periodically large and substantial over time. The contribution of sensible heat flux and loss of energy by the latent heat flux is responsible for a loss of snow mass of approximately 2% that measured snowmelt in the burned forest site during the clear-sky snowmelt period. Overall, the radiative fluxes dominate the overall snowpack energy balance in burned and unburned forests. An empirically-based parameterization was developed to represent the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo relative to days-since-snowfall in the burned and unburned forests, which was employed in a physically based spatially distributed snowpack energy and mass balance model. Using this variable snow albedo parameterization improved model performance in both burned and unburned forest sites, and better captured the temporal and spatial variability of snow albedo and snow water equivalent than a fixed albedo parameterization. Overall this evaluation demonstrated that even though more snow may accumulate in burned areas than unburned forests, the combined effect of the increased postfire radiative forcing to snow and increased turbulent fluxes over snow accelerates snow melt, shortens the duration of snow cover, and advances the date of snow disappearance across the extent of the burned forest. Although this research focused on a relatively small burned area in the western Oregon Cascades, it has broad applications from regional to global scales particularly in forested maritime snow-dominated watersheds. Eighty percent of forest fires in the western United States occur in the seasonal snow zone, and those fires are 4.4 times larger than outside the seasonal snow zone. As forest fires increase and snowpacks decrease across forested montane headwater regions of the western US and beyond, it is critical that we incorporate forest fire disturbance effects to snow hydrology in our hydrologic modeling applications and our natural resource management decisions. Close

• 2813. [Article] Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data

  Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data Author: Buffington, Kevin John Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, new methods are required that integrate data from the field and remote sensing platforms. Marsh elevation response models can be calibrated with site-specific data to determine the vulnerability of a marsh to sea-level rise and help guide management decisions. Elevation models are sensitive to initial elevation, the rate of accretion, and aboveground biomass. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to develop techniques to improve these important model inputs and evaluate the range of spatial and temporal variation. Light detection and ranging (lidar) is an invaluable tool for collecting elevation data, however dense vegetation prevents the accurate measurement of the tidal marsh surface. In Chapter 2, I describe the development of a technique to calibrate lidar digital elevation models with survey elevation data using readily available multispectral aerial imagery from the National Agricultural Inventory Program (NAIP). Using survey elevation data across 17 Pacific Coast tidal marshes, I demonstrated the utility of the Lidar Elevation Adjustment with NDVI (LEAN) technique to account for the positive bias in lidar due to vegetation. LEAN reduced error from an average of 23.1 cm to 7.2 cm root mean squared error and removed the positive bias caused by vegetation. This increase in accuracy will facilitate more accurate assessments of current and future vulnerability to sea-level rise. The phenology of aboveground biomass in tidal marsh plants in relation to climate variation has not been explored in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). In Chapter 3 I explain how I leveraged the Landsat archive and cloud computing capabilities to assess how Tasseled Cap Greenness (TCG, a proxy for aboveground biomass) in three PNW tidal marshes has responded to recent variation in climate to characterize sensitivity to climate change. Through analysis of over 3700 Landsat images obtained from 1984-2015, I found increased annual precipitation resulted in a higher peak TCG, while warmer May temperatures resulted in an earlier day of peak TCG. These results also demonstrate how time-series analysis of remote sensing data can be used to examine the sensitivity of tidal marsh plants to climate variability and directional change. The range of variation in tidal marsh accretion rates has not been characterized across the PNW. For Chapter 4, I collected and analyzed twenty-two soil cores from eight estuaries to estimate historic accretion rates with radioisotope dating techniques and evaluated the amount and source of variation across estuaries. I found that tidal marshes across the PNW had accretion rates greater than the current rate of sea-level rise, ranging from 2.3 – 7.3 mm yr⁻¹. Using a watershed-scale analysis, I found that long-term average annual fluvial discharge was the top predictor of tidal marsh accretion rates. Additionally, I found that calibrating the Wetland Accretion Rate Model for Ecosystem Resilience (WARMER) with accretion rate data from nearby estuaries can result in uncertainties of up to 41% (50 cm) after 100 years. Finally, in Chapter 5, I demonstrate that a range of 62 cm of error is possible in WARMER models after a 100 year simulation when both uncorrected lidar and non-local accretion rates are used, fundamentally changing the interpretation of the results. Altogether, this dissertation illustrates the importance of collecting site-specific wetland vegetation and elevation data and demonstrates how lidar and multispectral remote sensing data can be leveraged to improve our understanding of how climate variability and change impacts coastal ecosystems. Title: Improving Projections of Tidal Marsh Persistence under Climate Change with Remote Sensing and Site-Specific Data Author: Buffington, Kevin John Tidal marshes are dynamic ecosystems that are threatened by climate change and sea-level rise. To characterize baseline condition and historic climate sensitivities, and improve projections into the future, new methods are required that integrate data from the field and remote sensing platforms. Marsh elevation response models can be calibrated with site-specific data to determine the vulnerability of a marsh to sea-level rise and help guide management decisions. Elevation models are sensitive to initial elevation, the rate of accretion, and aboveground biomass. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to develop techniques to improve these important model inputs and evaluate the range of spatial and temporal variation. Light detection and ranging (lidar) is an invaluable tool for collecting elevation data, however dense vegetation prevents the accurate measurement of the tidal marsh surface. In Chapter 2, I describe the development of a technique to calibrate lidar digital elevation models with survey elevation data using readily available multispectral aerial imagery from the National Agricultural Inventory Program (NAIP). Using survey elevation data across 17 Pacific Coast tidal marshes, I demonstrated the utility of the Lidar Elevation Adjustment with NDVI (LEAN) technique to account for the positive bias in lidar due to vegetation. LEAN reduced error from an average of 23.1 cm to 7.2 cm root mean squared error and removed the positive bias caused by vegetation. This increase in accuracy will facilitate more accurate assessments of current and future vulnerability to sea-level rise. The phenology of aboveground biomass in tidal marsh plants in relation to climate variation has not been explored in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). In Chapter 3 I explain how I leveraged the Landsat archive and cloud computing capabilities to assess how Tasseled Cap Greenness (TCG, a proxy for aboveground biomass) in three PNW tidal marshes has responded to recent variation in climate to characterize sensitivity to climate change. Through analysis of over 3700 Landsat images obtained from 1984-2015, I found increased annual precipitation resulted in a higher peak TCG, while warmer May temperatures resulted in an earlier day of peak TCG. These results also demonstrate how time-series analysis of remote sensing data can be used to examine the sensitivity of tidal marsh plants to climate variability and directional change. The range of variation in tidal marsh accretion rates has not been characterized across the PNW. For Chapter 4, I collected and analyzed twenty-two soil cores from eight estuaries to estimate historic accretion rates with radioisotope dating techniques and evaluated the amount and source of variation across estuaries. I found that tidal marshes across the PNW had accretion rates greater than the current rate of sea-level rise, ranging from 2.3 – 7.3 mm yr⁻¹. Using a watershed-scale analysis, I found that long-term average annual fluvial discharge was the top predictor of tidal marsh accretion rates. Additionally, I found that calibrating the Wetland Accretion Rate Model for Ecosystem Resilience (WARMER) with accretion rate data from nearby estuaries can result in uncertainties of up to 41% (50 cm) after 100 years. Finally, in Chapter 5, I demonstrate that a range of 62 cm of error is possible in WARMER models after a 100 year simulation when both uncorrected lidar and non-local accretion rates are used, fundamentally changing the interpretation of the results. Altogether, this dissertation illustrates the importance of collecting site-specific wetland vegetation and elevation data and demonstrates how lidar and multispectral remote sensing data can be leveraged to improve our understanding of how climate variability and change impacts coastal ecosystems. Close

• 2814. [Article] Sandy beach surf zones : what is their role in the early life history of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)?

  Early life stages of many marine and diadromous fish species use sandy beach surf zones, which occur along >50% of the world's marine coastlines. This extensive habitat can provide juvenile fishes with ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Sandy beach surf zones : what is their role in the early life history of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)? Author: Marin Jarrin, Jose R., 1980- Early life stages of many marine and diadromous fish species use sandy beach surf zones, which occur along >50% of the world's marine coastlines. This extensive habitat can provide juvenile fishes with an abundant supply of potential prey and the ability to hide from predators in its shallow turbid waters. Chinook salmon is an anadromous species that migrates to the ocean during their first (subyearlings) or second (yearlings) year of life. The majority of subyearlings reside in estuaries during their first summer season; however, a small number of juveniles also use surf zones. Early marine residence is considered a critical period for Chinook salmon due to high mortality rates; however the role of surf zones in Chinook salmon life history is unclear. Therefore, I determined the distribution of juvenile Chinook salmon on beaches of the eastern North Pacific, compared the migration and growth patterns observed in surf zones and estuaries, identified the factors that accounted for variation in juvenile surf zone catch, explored the factors that influence growth rate variation in surf zones and estuaries, and modeled how growth rates in these coastal habitats may vary in the near future with predicted changes in climate. The majority (94%) of juveniles were caught in surf zones adjacent to estuaries with trough areas, which are beach sections where sand moved by currents and waves produce a trench-like shape. Surf zone fish were collected in significantly lower numbers than estuarine juveniles but entered brackish/ocean waters at similar sizes. Juveniles in surf zones consumed similar organisms (gammarid amphipods, crustacean larvae and insects) as in estuaries. Furthermore, stomach fullness indices (average = 2% of body weight) and growth rates (average = 0.4 mm day⁻¹) were similar in surf zones and estuaries. At one surf zone, juvenile catch was positively correlated to short-term specific growth rates (14 days prior to capture). A bioenergetics modeling approach indicated that given current conditions, consumption rates accounted for more of the variation in growth than prey energetic content and temperature. Climate models predict future increases in fresh water temperature (1.5 to 5.8°C), sea surface temperature (1.2°C) and wave height (0.75 m) that could influence estuarine and surf zone use. Therefore, I developed a local mixing model based on these predictions to estimate future surf zone and estuarine water temperatures in two of the watersheds studied. Based on these temperature projections and the bioenergetics model, I predicted how juvenile specific growth rates would vary in both habitats. I determined that increases in water temperature in both habitats would reduce specific growth rates by 9 to 40% in surf zones and estuaries if diet composition and consumption rates remain similar to present conditions. To compensate for the decline in growth, juveniles may increase their consumption rates or consume more energetically rich prey, if available. If they are not able to compensate, their size at the end of the season may be reduced, which could reduce their overall survival. These results confirm that a small number of suyearling Chinook salmon use sandy beach surf zones, mostly adjacent to estuary mouths, where they experience growth conditions comparable to estuaries. My findings indicate that, in certain situations, juvenile Chinook salmon surf zone use can be influenced by surf zone growth conditions, while variation in growth rates are themselves most strongly influenced by variation in consumption rates in surf zones and estuaries. Predicted changes in coastal western North American climate will likely modify juvenile growth conditions in the next 50 years, and potentially reduce overall survival. Additional insights into the potential impacts of climate change on juvenile salmon will require estimates of changes in the composition, energetic quality and abundance of prey communities inhabiting coastal environments. Title: Sandy beach surf zones : what is their role in the early life history of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)? Author: Marin Jarrin, Jose R., 1980- Early life stages of many marine and diadromous fish species use sandy beach surf zones, which occur along >50% of the world's marine coastlines. This extensive habitat can provide juvenile fishes with an abundant supply of potential prey and the ability to hide from predators in its shallow turbid waters. Chinook salmon is an anadromous species that migrates to the ocean during their first (subyearlings) or second (yearlings) year of life. The majority of subyearlings reside in estuaries during their first summer season; however, a small number of juveniles also use surf zones. Early marine residence is considered a critical period for Chinook salmon due to high mortality rates; however the role of surf zones in Chinook salmon life history is unclear. Therefore, I determined the distribution of juvenile Chinook salmon on beaches of the eastern North Pacific, compared the migration and growth patterns observed in surf zones and estuaries, identified the factors that accounted for variation in juvenile surf zone catch, explored the factors that influence growth rate variation in surf zones and estuaries, and modeled how growth rates in these coastal habitats may vary in the near future with predicted changes in climate. The majority (94%) of juveniles were caught in surf zones adjacent to estuaries with trough areas, which are beach sections where sand moved by currents and waves produce a trench-like shape. Surf zone fish were collected in significantly lower numbers than estuarine juveniles but entered brackish/ocean waters at similar sizes. Juveniles in surf zones consumed similar organisms (gammarid amphipods, crustacean larvae and insects) as in estuaries. Furthermore, stomach fullness indices (average = 2% of body weight) and growth rates (average = 0.4 mm day⁻¹) were similar in surf zones and estuaries. At one surf zone, juvenile catch was positively correlated to short-term specific growth rates (14 days prior to capture). A bioenergetics modeling approach indicated that given current conditions, consumption rates accounted for more of the variation in growth than prey energetic content and temperature. Climate models predict future increases in fresh water temperature (1.5 to 5.8°C), sea surface temperature (1.2°C) and wave height (0.75 m) that could influence estuarine and surf zone use. Therefore, I developed a local mixing model based on these predictions to estimate future surf zone and estuarine water temperatures in two of the watersheds studied. Based on these temperature projections and the bioenergetics model, I predicted how juvenile specific growth rates would vary in both habitats. I determined that increases in water temperature in both habitats would reduce specific growth rates by 9 to 40% in surf zones and estuaries if diet composition and consumption rates remain similar to present conditions. To compensate for the decline in growth, juveniles may increase their consumption rates or consume more energetically rich prey, if available. If they are not able to compensate, their size at the end of the season may be reduced, which could reduce their overall survival. These results confirm that a small number of suyearling Chinook salmon use sandy beach surf zones, mostly adjacent to estuary mouths, where they experience growth conditions comparable to estuaries. My findings indicate that, in certain situations, juvenile Chinook salmon surf zone use can be influenced by surf zone growth conditions, while variation in growth rates are themselves most strongly influenced by variation in consumption rates in surf zones and estuaries. Predicted changes in coastal western North American climate will likely modify juvenile growth conditions in the next 50 years, and potentially reduce overall survival. Additional insights into the potential impacts of climate change on juvenile salmon will require estimates of changes in the composition, energetic quality and abundance of prey communities inhabiting coastal environments. Close

• 2815. [Article] Soil moisture depletion trends under five plant species present on the Douglas-fir clear-cuts of Mary's Peak, Oregon

  Soil moisture depletion trends under five plant species growing on the clear-cuts of the Marys Peak Watershed near Corvallis, Oregon, were followed during the summers of 1963 and 1964. The species were ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Soil moisture depletion trends under five plant species present on the Douglas-fir clear-cuts of Mary's Peak, Oregon Author: Drew, Stephen Ernest Soil moisture depletion trends under five plant species growing on the clear-cuts of the Marys Peak Watershed near Corvallis, Oregon, were followed during the summers of 1963 and 1964. The species were Holcus lanatus, Lotus crassifolius var. subglaber, Gaultheria shallon, Berberis nervosa, and Acer circinatum; and were dominant plants of several stages in a successional sere occurring on the clear-cuts. Sampling of the moisture trends was limited to two clear-cut areas in order to reduce the variability due to location. On one area, Gaultheria, Berberis, and Lotus were growing in individual, pure stands. On the other, Acer was growing in closely grouped clumps and Holcus occupied the areas in between, The soil moisture was measured by an electrical resistance method. Plaster-of-paris blocks were installed at 6-, 12-, and 24-inch depths at nine locations in each species. The measurements were taken two or three times a week with an ohmmeter and expressed as an average in terms of atmospheres of tension for each day and depth. Supporting information on the precipitation, root distribution, and soils was also obtained. A root count for roots less than two millimeters in diameter was made from the face of a trench dug in each species. Soil descriptions made of the trench profiles, a particle size analysis, and 15 atmospheres determinations indicated that the soils of the two clear-cuts were similar. Each species had characteristic moisture depletion trends during the two years. Trends for Gaultheria indicated slow rates of moisture loss at all three depths and very little influence of precipitation. Gaultheria, an evergreen shrub, has thick, leathery leaves (characteristics which are generally associated with few stomata) and has a long period during which new stems emerge. The roots were concentrated near the surface just under the one and half to two inches of litter, and a few were growing inside large, dead roots of Douglas-fir. Depletion trends associated with Berberis were similar to Gaultheria except moisture losses at the 6-inch depth were more rapid. Berberis plants are also evergreen shrubs and have thick, leathery leaves but grow during a short period in the spring. Most of the roots developed in the top few inches of soil. Litter accumulation was slightly less (one to one and a half inches) and was not as uniformly distributed. Under Lotus, moisture trends at 6 and 12 inches fluctuated considerably. Depletion rates were rapid at all three depths. Lotus, a herbaceous species, grew quickly and flowered in the spring, then died back in mid-summer, evidently allowing increased infiltration of the rainfall. The rhizomes penetrated throughout the profile. Litter accumulation was about an inch, and the soil surface was somewhat rocky. Holcus trends at 6 and 12 inches showed an early and rapid moisture loss but a slightly delayed and slower loss at 24 inches. Holcus, a perennial bunch grass, also grew rapidly in the spring and then died back about mid-summer. Regrowth occurred following a substantial rainfall. The erect culms and dense mat of grass leaves (about two inches) surrounding the base of each plant created high air temperatures which may have caused high evapo-transpiration rates. Root concentration was greatest near the surface and decreased sharply with depth. Moisture losses under Acer were rapid at all three depths and very consistent without any fluctuations. Acer clumps grew during the spring and maintained their leaves throughout the summer. Such comparatively large plants (six to seven feet high) evidently had a high transpirational stress, and along with the one to two inches of litter, intercepted most of the precipitation. Root concentration decreased gradually with depth. This study provides a partial explanation for the replacement of Holcus by Lotus. It appears that Lotus is able to invade Holcus by producing rhizomes which grow underneath the dense root system of Holcus and utilize the moisture there. Lotus then increases in dominance by sending up shoots from the rhizomes. Possible explanations for the replacement of other species were not evident; however, there were some interesting correlations of the results with the sequence. With each advancing stage the depletion trends became more consistent. And, except for Lotus which had the smallest number of roots, the root count decreased with each advancing stage. The decrease was a reflection of an increase in the relative size of the roots. Results of this study are applicable to forest regeneration problems. In terms of influence upon soil moisture Acer stands would be very competitive with tree seedlings. Holcus and Lotus stands would also be competitive, Lotus perhaps more so at the deeper levels. Gaultheria and Berberís stands, on the other hand, would not be nearly as detrimental to tree seedling establishment. Title: Soil moisture depletion trends under five plant species present on the Douglas-fir clear-cuts of Mary's Peak, Oregon Author: Drew, Stephen Ernest Soil moisture depletion trends under five plant species growing on the clear-cuts of the Marys Peak Watershed near Corvallis, Oregon, were followed during the summers of 1963 and 1964. The species were Holcus lanatus, Lotus crassifolius var. subglaber, Gaultheria shallon, Berberis nervosa, and Acer circinatum; and were dominant plants of several stages in a successional sere occurring on the clear-cuts. Sampling of the moisture trends was limited to two clear-cut areas in order to reduce the variability due to location. On one area, Gaultheria, Berberis, and Lotus were growing in individual, pure stands. On the other, Acer was growing in closely grouped clumps and Holcus occupied the areas in between, The soil moisture was measured by an electrical resistance method. Plaster-of-paris blocks were installed at 6-, 12-, and 24-inch depths at nine locations in each species. The measurements were taken two or three times a week with an ohmmeter and expressed as an average in terms of atmospheres of tension for each day and depth. Supporting information on the precipitation, root distribution, and soils was also obtained. A root count for roots less than two millimeters in diameter was made from the face of a trench dug in each species. Soil descriptions made of the trench profiles, a particle size analysis, and 15 atmospheres determinations indicated that the soils of the two clear-cuts were similar. Each species had characteristic moisture depletion trends during the two years. Trends for Gaultheria indicated slow rates of moisture loss at all three depths and very little influence of precipitation. Gaultheria, an evergreen shrub, has thick, leathery leaves (characteristics which are generally associated with few stomata) and has a long period during which new stems emerge. The roots were concentrated near the surface just under the one and half to two inches of litter, and a few were growing inside large, dead roots of Douglas-fir. Depletion trends associated with Berberis were similar to Gaultheria except moisture losses at the 6-inch depth were more rapid. Berberis plants are also evergreen shrubs and have thick, leathery leaves but grow during a short period in the spring. Most of the roots developed in the top few inches of soil. Litter accumulation was slightly less (one to one and a half inches) and was not as uniformly distributed. Under Lotus, moisture trends at 6 and 12 inches fluctuated considerably. Depletion rates were rapid at all three depths. Lotus, a herbaceous species, grew quickly and flowered in the spring, then died back in mid-summer, evidently allowing increased infiltration of the rainfall. The rhizomes penetrated throughout the profile. Litter accumulation was about an inch, and the soil surface was somewhat rocky. Holcus trends at 6 and 12 inches showed an early and rapid moisture loss but a slightly delayed and slower loss at 24 inches. Holcus, a perennial bunch grass, also grew rapidly in the spring and then died back about mid-summer. Regrowth occurred following a substantial rainfall. The erect culms and dense mat of grass leaves (about two inches) surrounding the base of each plant created high air temperatures which may have caused high evapo-transpiration rates. Root concentration was greatest near the surface and decreased sharply with depth. Moisture losses under Acer were rapid at all three depths and very consistent without any fluctuations. Acer clumps grew during the spring and maintained their leaves throughout the summer. Such comparatively large plants (six to seven feet high) evidently had a high transpirational stress, and along with the one to two inches of litter, intercepted most of the precipitation. Root concentration decreased gradually with depth. This study provides a partial explanation for the replacement of Holcus by Lotus. It appears that Lotus is able to invade Holcus by producing rhizomes which grow underneath the dense root system of Holcus and utilize the moisture there. Lotus then increases in dominance by sending up shoots from the rhizomes. Possible explanations for the replacement of other species were not evident; however, there were some interesting correlations of the results with the sequence. With each advancing stage the depletion trends became more consistent. And, except for Lotus which had the smallest number of roots, the root count decreased with each advancing stage. The decrease was a reflection of an increase in the relative size of the roots. Results of this study are applicable to forest regeneration problems. In terms of influence upon soil moisture Acer stands would be very competitive with tree seedlings. Holcus and Lotus stands would also be competitive, Lotus perhaps more so at the deeper levels. Gaultheria and Berberís stands, on the other hand, would not be nearly as detrimental to tree seedling establishment. Close

• 2816. [Article] Pacific Northwest Estuarine Wetland Restoration Information Gaps Survey.

  In March 2007, Craig Cornu (South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve), with the assistance of Laura Brophy (Green Point Consulting/Estuary Technical Group, Institute for Applied Ecology), John ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Pacific Northwest Estuarine Wetland Restoration Information Gaps Survey. Author: South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve In March 2007, Craig Cornu (South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve), with the assistance of Laura Brophy (Green Point Consulting/Estuary Technical Group, Institute for Applied Ecology), John Bragg (South Slough NERR) and Derek Sowers (former South Slough NERR), developed the Pacific Northwest Estuarine Wetland Restoration Information Gaps Survey using the on-line format provided by SurveyMonkey.com. The goals of the survey were to: 1) provide an end-user “reality check” with respect to the tidal wetland habitats selected for the development of a reference conditions database for Oregon tidal wetlands (Brophy et al. 2011); and 2) provide the basis for discussions about adaptive approaches to estuarine wetland restoration in the Pacific Northwest at an estuarine wetland restoration advisory group meeting convened at the South Slough NERR in July 2007. The survey was distributed via e-mail on April 3, 2007 to 50 restoration scientists, planners, and practitioners from government agencies, and non-profit, consulting, and academic organizations including watershed associations. The response rate for the survey was 62% (31 respondents). In general, the survey respondents identified priority tidal wetland habitat classes for restoration in Oregon: high and low emergent marsh and scrub shrub and forested swamps. Other survey highlights included: Scrub-shrub and forested tidal wetlands and tidally-influenced freshwater floodplains were the habitats most often mentioned (35% of respondents) when asked which habitat classes are not being restored but should be. Unvegetated tidal flats were the second most commonly mentioned habitat class (10% of respondents). Most respondents undertake effectiveness monitoring as a part of their restoration projects (80%). When asked why they do not conduct effectiveness monitoring (or do not collect as much information as they would like), the overwhelming response was lack of funding. 80% indicated general lack of funding for monitoring, and 52% responded that funders require monitoring but do not provide adequate funding. No respondents (0%) chose administrative constraints or lack of monitoring guidance as obstacles to effectiveness monitoring. Most respondents (70%) report that they conduct monitoring for additional reasons besides evaluation of project effectiveness. The reason given by most respondents (55%) was to contribute to the science of habitat restoration (e.g., evaluate various restoration treatments; answer specific ecological or physical process-based questions). Specific research questions and hypotheses being addressed by respondents are listed in the report. When asked whether they use reference sites as part of project monitoring, most respondents (76%) answered that they did. When asked if they were able to find reference sites from which they could collect useful data, most said they could (70%), but the comments indicated some concern over the appropriateness of the reference sites being used, as well as the need for high quality reference condition datasets. When asked whether and how they would use long term reference condition data sets if such data were made available, an overwhelming number of respondents indicated that they would use them for evaluating restoration projects (93%), designing restoration projects (80%), and evaluating adaptive management options (80%). Finally, the survey asked respondents in four separate questions to articulate their top “burning questions,” which, if answered, would help them improve coastal habitat restoration prioritization, design, implementation, and evaluation. Their responses are listed in the report and became the basis for discussion at the 2007 estuarine wetland restoration advisory group workshop at South Slough NERR. Brophy, L.S., C.E. Cornu, P.R. Adamus, J.A. Christy, A. Gray, L. Huang, M.A. MacClellan, J.A. Doumbia, and R.L. Tully. 2011. New Tools for Tidal Wetland Restoration: Development of a Reference Conditions Database and a Temperature Sensor Method for Detecting Tidal Inundation in Least-disturbed Tidal Wetlands of Oregon, USA. Prepared for the Cooperative Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Environmental Technology (CICEET). 198pp. Title: Pacific Northwest Estuarine Wetland Restoration Information Gaps Survey. Author: South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve In March 2007, Craig Cornu (South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve), with the assistance of Laura Brophy (Green Point Consulting/Estuary Technical Group, Institute for Applied Ecology), John Bragg (South Slough NERR) and Derek Sowers (former South Slough NERR), developed the Pacific Northwest Estuarine Wetland Restoration Information Gaps Survey using the on-line format provided by SurveyMonkey.com. The goals of the survey were to: 1) provide an end-user “reality check” with respect to the tidal wetland habitats selected for the development of a reference conditions database for Oregon tidal wetlands (Brophy et al. 2011); and 2) provide the basis for discussions about adaptive approaches to estuarine wetland restoration in the Pacific Northwest at an estuarine wetland restoration advisory group meeting convened at the South Slough NERR in July 2007. The survey was distributed via e-mail on April 3, 2007 to 50 restoration scientists, planners, and practitioners from government agencies, and non-profit, consulting, and academic organizations including watershed associations. The response rate for the survey was 62% (31 respondents). In general, the survey respondents identified priority tidal wetland habitat classes for restoration in Oregon: high and low emergent marsh and scrub shrub and forested swamps. Other survey highlights included: Scrub-shrub and forested tidal wetlands and tidally-influenced freshwater floodplains were the habitats most often mentioned (35% of respondents) when asked which habitat classes are not being restored but should be. Unvegetated tidal flats were the second most commonly mentioned habitat class (10% of respondents). Most respondents undertake effectiveness monitoring as a part of their restoration projects (80%). When asked why they do not conduct effectiveness monitoring (or do not collect as much information as they would like), the overwhelming response was lack of funding. 80% indicated general lack of funding for monitoring, and 52% responded that funders require monitoring but do not provide adequate funding. No respondents (0%) chose administrative constraints or lack of monitoring guidance as obstacles to effectiveness monitoring. Most respondents (70%) report that they conduct monitoring for additional reasons besides evaluation of project effectiveness. The reason given by most respondents (55%) was to contribute to the science of habitat restoration (e.g., evaluate various restoration treatments; answer specific ecological or physical process-based questions). Specific research questions and hypotheses being addressed by respondents are listed in the report. When asked whether they use reference sites as part of project monitoring, most respondents (76%) answered that they did. When asked if they were able to find reference sites from which they could collect useful data, most said they could (70%), but the comments indicated some concern over the appropriateness of the reference sites being used, as well as the need for high quality reference condition datasets. When asked whether and how they would use long term reference condition data sets if such data were made available, an overwhelming number of respondents indicated that they would use them for evaluating restoration projects (93%), designing restoration projects (80%), and evaluating adaptive management options (80%). Finally, the survey asked respondents in four separate questions to articulate their top “burning questions,” which, if answered, would help them improve coastal habitat restoration prioritization, design, implementation, and evaluation. Their responses are listed in the report and became the basis for discussion at the 2007 estuarine wetland restoration advisory group workshop at South Slough NERR. Brophy, L.S., C.E. Cornu, P.R. Adamus, J.A. Christy, A. Gray, L. Huang, M.A. MacClellan, J.A. Doumbia, and R.L. Tully. 2011. New Tools for Tidal Wetland Restoration: Development of a Reference Conditions Database and a Temperature Sensor Method for Detecting Tidal Inundation in Least-disturbed Tidal Wetlands of Oregon, USA. Prepared for the Cooperative Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Environmental Technology (CICEET). 198pp. Close

• 2817. [Article] An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

  Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Title: An evaluation of the likelihood of successful implementation of the long term coral reef monitoring program on the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Author: Kylstra, Pam Coral reef ecosystems are the oceanic equivalent of tropical rainforests, in terms of biodiversity. The estimated 1,037,000 square kilometers worldwide of reef provide habitat for over one million species of plants and animals (Hinrichsen, 1997). Coral reefs are important to the economy of coastal nations because of the fisheries and tourism industries they support. Reef ecosystems provide a host of important natural services such as storm buffering, a protein source for islanders, breeding and nursery grounds for marine organisms, water filtration and a source of biomedically important products. Coral reef areas also have aesthetic and intrinsic value that is reason enough to protect them. Coral reefs are also among the most endangered ecosystems on Earth. Naturally occurring disturbances are compounded by the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance. Factors that threaten the health of coral reef ecosystems on a global scale include global warming, the continuing increase in coastal populations and associated impacts such as nutrient pollution, sedimentation and runoff, coral mining, ship groundings, overfishing, and recreational overuse. Globally, coastal areas accommodate about 60% of Earth's human population. A significant portion of the population lies within tropical regions. This population pressure subjects coral reef environments to effects of increased competition for coastal resources, increased coastal pollution and problems related to coastal construction. The synergistic effect of stressors has been the irreversible degradation worldwide of 10% of reefs and another 60% in critical condition leaving, only 30% as stable (Wilkinson, 1993). The coral reefs of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are a good example of how the combination of increasing human population and the associated environmental pressure has resulted in degradation of the reef ecosystem. The CNMI has undergone significant change in economic and population growth within the past decade. To accommodate the rapid and continuing development of the tourism industry, numerous golf courses and resort hotels have been constructed on Saipan. The population of Saipan has increased over 30% in the last ten years. Currently, the local/resident population is 60,000 while the visitor population is 750,000 per year. This rapid growth has had serious ecological consequences. Coral roads have been converted to four lane highways and infrastructure such as septic tank systems has not been improved to meet higher demand. More and more development projects have been proposed without adequate consideration of environmental impacts. Conflicts over the use and conservation of marine and watershed resources continue to arise. The continuing decline of reef systems globally and in specific areas like the CNMI, highlights the need for effective methods of assessing change in nearshore ecosystems. This paper explores the ways that coral reef monitoring can provide information about reef health that serves to affect positive changes in management strategies for marine systems. Using a criteria drawn from case study comparisons of ongoing, well established coral monitoring programs and evaluation framework proposed by policy analysts Using criteria drawn from case, the Long Term Marine Monitoring Program (LTMMP) on Saipan, CNMI is evaluated. The evaluation provides insight about coral monitoring plan components that are essential to the effectiveness of coral reef monitoring programs. This report is an outgrowth of an internship the author performed with the CNMI Division of Environmental Quality on the island of Saipan from June to October of 1997. The University of Oregon Micronesia and South Pacific Program and the government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI) sponsored the internship project. The objectives of the internship were to assist in field data collection and continuing development of the ongoing Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan (LTMMP) Assist and instruct Marine Monitoring Team (MMT) members in basic computer skills, understanding of data applicability, management, interpretation and analysis, basic biology and resource management techniques as it relates to marine monitoring work Facilitate inter-governmental agency coordination of marine monitoring activities Assess likelihood of success and explore challenges facing Saipan in implementation of the monitoring program This report first describes functions and services provided by coral reefs and an introduction to the stresses and disturbances that compromise the health of reef systems globally. Using examples from case studies of established marine monitoring programs, this report considers how effective monitoring can reveal changes in the reef system over time, enabling conservation measures to be taken. It then turns to the island of Saipan and briefly describes the environmental and socio-economic framework within which the coral reef related provisions of the CNMI coastal management program are considered. This background information is used to evaluate the Long Term Marine Monitoring Plan currently in place on the CNMI. This evaluation provides insight into the challenges to implementation of coral reef monitoring plans and recommendations for improvements in the LTMMP on Saipan. Close

• 2818. [Article] Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity

  Fire, other disturbances, physical setting, weather, and climate shape the structure and function of forests throughout the Western United States. More than 80 years of fire research have shown that physical ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity Author: Graham, Russell T., McCaffrey, Sarah, Jain, Theresa B. Fire, other disturbances, physical setting, weather, and climate shape the structure and function of forests throughout the Western United States. More than 80 years of fire research have shown that physical setting, fuels, and weather combine to determine wildfire intensity (the rate at which it consumes fuel) and severity (the effect fire has on vegetation, soils, buildings, watersheds, and so forth). Millions of acres of forestlands (mainly in dry forests dominated by ponderosa pine and/or Douglas-fir) contain a high accumulation of flammable fuels compared to conditions prior to the 20th century. Forests with high stem density and fuel loading combined with extreme fire weather conditions have led to severe and large wildfires (such as those seen in the summers of 2000, 2002, and 2003) that have put a number of important values at risk. Although homes in the path of a wildfire are perhaps the most immediately recognized value, these wildfires also put numerous other human and ecological values at risk, such as power grids, drinking water supplies, firefighter safety, critical habitat, soil productivity, and air quality. For a given set of weather conditions, fire behavior is strongly influenced by stand and fuel structure. Crown fires in the dry forest types represent an increasing challenge for fire management as well as a general threat to the ecology of these forests and the closely associated human values. Crown fires are dependent on the sequence of available fuels starting from the ground surface to the canopy. Limiting crown fire in these forests can be accomplished by actions that manage in concert the surface, ladder, and crown fuels. Reducing crown fire and wildland fire growth across landscapes decreases the chances of developing large wildfires that affect human values adjacent to forested areas. However, a narrow focus on minimizing crown fire potential will not necessarily reduce the damage to homes and ecosystems when fires do occur. Homes are often ignited by embers flying far from the fire front, and by surface fires. Fire effects on ecosystems can also occur during surface fires where surface and understory fuels and deep organic layers are sufficient to generate high temperatures for long periods. Fuel treatments can help produce forest structures and fuel characteristics that then reduce the likelihood that wildfires will cause large, rapid changes in biophysical conditions. Fuel treatments can also help modify fire behavior sufficiently so that some wildfires can be suppressed more easily. Subsequent, sustained fuel treatments can maintain these conditions. Different fuel reduction methods target different components of the fuel bed. Thinning mainly affects standing vegetation, and other types of fuel treatments such as prescribed fire and pile burning woody fuels are needed to modify the combustion environment of surface fuels. In forests that have not experienced fire for many decades, multiple fuel treatments—that is, thinning and surface fuel reduction—may be required to significantly affect crown fire and surface fire hazard. Fuel treatments cannot guarantee benign fire behavior but can reduce the probability that extreme fire behavior will occur. Fuel treatments can be designed to restore forest conditions to a more resilient and resistant condition than now exists in many forests, and subsequent management could maintain these conditions, particularly in dry forests (ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir) where crown fires were historically infrequent. The degree of risk reduction will depend to some degree on the level of investment, social and economic acceptability of treatments, and concurrent consideration of other resource values (for example, wildlife). This report describes the kinds, quality, amount, and gaps of scientific knowledge for making informed decisions on fuel treatments used to modify wildfire behavior and effects in dry forests of the interior Western United States (especially forests dominated by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir). A review of scientific principles and applications relevant to fuel treatment primarily for the dry forests is provided for the following topics: fuels, fire hazard, fire behavior, fire effects, forest structure, treatment effects and longevity, landscape fuel patterns, and scientific tools useful for management and planning. Title: Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity Author: Graham, Russell T., McCaffrey, Sarah, Jain, Theresa B. Fire, other disturbances, physical setting, weather, and climate shape the structure and function of forests throughout the Western United States. More than 80 years of fire research have shown that physical setting, fuels, and weather combine to determine wildfire intensity (the rate at which it consumes fuel) and severity (the effect fire has on vegetation, soils, buildings, watersheds, and so forth). Millions of acres of forestlands (mainly in dry forests dominated by ponderosa pine and/or Douglas-fir) contain a high accumulation of flammable fuels compared to conditions prior to the 20th century. Forests with high stem density and fuel loading combined with extreme fire weather conditions have led to severe and large wildfires (such as those seen in the summers of 2000, 2002, and 2003) that have put a number of important values at risk. Although homes in the path of a wildfire are perhaps the most immediately recognized value, these wildfires also put numerous other human and ecological values at risk, such as power grids, drinking water supplies, firefighter safety, critical habitat, soil productivity, and air quality. For a given set of weather conditions, fire behavior is strongly influenced by stand and fuel structure. Crown fires in the dry forest types represent an increasing challenge for fire management as well as a general threat to the ecology of these forests and the closely associated human values. Crown fires are dependent on the sequence of available fuels starting from the ground surface to the canopy. Limiting crown fire in these forests can be accomplished by actions that manage in concert the surface, ladder, and crown fuels. Reducing crown fire and wildland fire growth across landscapes decreases the chances of developing large wildfires that affect human values adjacent to forested areas. However, a narrow focus on minimizing crown fire potential will not necessarily reduce the damage to homes and ecosystems when fires do occur. Homes are often ignited by embers flying far from the fire front, and by surface fires. Fire effects on ecosystems can also occur during surface fires where surface and understory fuels and deep organic layers are sufficient to generate high temperatures for long periods. Fuel treatments can help produce forest structures and fuel characteristics that then reduce the likelihood that wildfires will cause large, rapid changes in biophysical conditions. Fuel treatments can also help modify fire behavior sufficiently so that some wildfires can be suppressed more easily. Subsequent, sustained fuel treatments can maintain these conditions. Different fuel reduction methods target different components of the fuel bed. Thinning mainly affects standing vegetation, and other types of fuel treatments such as prescribed fire and pile burning woody fuels are needed to modify the combustion environment of surface fuels. In forests that have not experienced fire for many decades, multiple fuel treatments—that is, thinning and surface fuel reduction—may be required to significantly affect crown fire and surface fire hazard. Fuel treatments cannot guarantee benign fire behavior but can reduce the probability that extreme fire behavior will occur. Fuel treatments can be designed to restore forest conditions to a more resilient and resistant condition than now exists in many forests, and subsequent management could maintain these conditions, particularly in dry forests (ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir) where crown fires were historically infrequent. The degree of risk reduction will depend to some degree on the level of investment, social and economic acceptability of treatments, and concurrent consideration of other resource values (for example, wildlife). This report describes the kinds, quality, amount, and gaps of scientific knowledge for making informed decisions on fuel treatments used to modify wildfire behavior and effects in dry forests of the interior Western United States (especially forests dominated by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir). A review of scientific principles and applications relevant to fuel treatment primarily for the dry forests is provided for the following topics: fuels, fire hazard, fire behavior, fire effects, forest structure, treatment effects and longevity, landscape fuel patterns, and scientific tools useful for management and planning. Close

• 2819. [Article] Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity

  Fire, other disturbances, physical setting, weather, and climate shape the structure and function of forests throughout the Western United States. More than 80 years of fire research have shown that physical ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity Author: Graham, Russell T., McCaffrey, Sarah, Jain, Theresa B. Fire, other disturbances, physical setting, weather, and climate shape the structure and function of forests throughout the Western United States. More than 80 years of fire research have shown that physical setting, fuels, and weather combine to determine wildfire intensity (the rate at which it consumes fuel) and severity (the effect fire has on vegetation, soils, buildings, watersheds, and so forth). Millions of acres of forestlands (mainly in dry forests dominated by ponderosa pine and/or Douglas-fir) contain a high accumulation of flammable fuels compared to conditions prior to the 20th century. Forests with high stem density and fuel loading combined with extreme fire weather conditions have led to severe and large wildfires (such as those seen in the summers of 2000, 2002, and 2003) that have put a number of important values at risk. Although homes in the path of a wildfire are perhaps the most immediately recognized value, these wildfires also put numerous other human and ecological values at risk, such as power grids, drinking water supplies, firefighter safety, critical habitat, soil productivity, and air quality. For a given set of weather conditions, fire behavior is strongly influenced by stand and fuel structure. Crown fires in the dry forest types represent an increasing challenge for fire management as well as a general threat to the ecology of these forests and the closely associated human values. Crown fires are dependent on the sequence of available fuels starting from the ground surface to the canopy. Limiting crown fire in these forests can be accomplished by actions that manage in concert the surface, ladder, and crown fuels. Reducing crown fire and wildland fire growth across landscapes decreases the chances of developing large wildfires that affect human values adjacent to forested areas. However, a narrow focus on minimizing crown fire potential will not necessarily reduce the damage to homes and ecosystems when fires do occur. Homes are often ignited by embers flying far from the fire front, and by surface fires. Fire effects on ecosystems can also occur during surface fires where surface and understory fuels and deep organic layers are sufficient to generate high temperatures for long periods. Fuel treatments can help produce forest structures and fuel characteristics that then reduce the likelihood that wildfires will cause large, rapid changes in biophysical conditions. Fuel treatments can also help modify fire behavior sufficiently so that some wildfires can be suppressed more easily. Subsequent, sustained fuel treatments can maintain these conditions. Different fuel reduction methods target different components of the fuel bed. Thinning mainly affects standing vegetation, and other types of fuel treatments such as prescribed fire and pile burning woody fuels are needed to modify the combustion environment of surface fuels. In forests that have not experienced fire for many decades, multiple fuel treatments—that is, thinning and surface fuel reduction—may be required to significantly affect crown fire and surface fire hazard. Fuel treatments cannot guarantee benign fire behavior but can reduce the probability that extreme fire behavior will occur. Fuel treatments can be designed to restore forest conditions to a more resilient and resistant condition than now exists in many forests, and subsequent management could maintain these conditions, particularly in dry forests (ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir) where crown fires were historically infrequent. The degree of risk reduction will depend to some degree on the level of investment, social and economic acceptability of treatments, and concurrent consideration of other resource values (for example, wildlife). This report describes the kinds, quality, amount, and gaps of scientific knowledge for making informed decisions on fuel treatments used to modify wildfire behavior and effects in dry forests of the interior Western United States (especially forests dominated by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir). A review of scientific principles and applications relevant to fuel treatment primarily for the dry forests is provided for the following topics: fuels, fire hazard, fire behavior, fire effects, forest structure, treatment effects and longevity, landscape fuel patterns, and scientific tools useful for management and planning. Title: Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity Author: Graham, Russell T., McCaffrey, Sarah, Jain, Theresa B. Fire, other disturbances, physical setting, weather, and climate shape the structure and function of forests throughout the Western United States. More than 80 years of fire research have shown that physical setting, fuels, and weather combine to determine wildfire intensity (the rate at which it consumes fuel) and severity (the effect fire has on vegetation, soils, buildings, watersheds, and so forth). Millions of acres of forestlands (mainly in dry forests dominated by ponderosa pine and/or Douglas-fir) contain a high accumulation of flammable fuels compared to conditions prior to the 20th century. Forests with high stem density and fuel loading combined with extreme fire weather conditions have led to severe and large wildfires (such as those seen in the summers of 2000, 2002, and 2003) that have put a number of important values at risk. Although homes in the path of a wildfire are perhaps the most immediately recognized value, these wildfires also put numerous other human and ecological values at risk, such as power grids, drinking water supplies, firefighter safety, critical habitat, soil productivity, and air quality. For a given set of weather conditions, fire behavior is strongly influenced by stand and fuel structure. Crown fires in the dry forest types represent an increasing challenge for fire management as well as a general threat to the ecology of these forests and the closely associated human values. Crown fires are dependent on the sequence of available fuels starting from the ground surface to the canopy. Limiting crown fire in these forests can be accomplished by actions that manage in concert the surface, ladder, and crown fuels. Reducing crown fire and wildland fire growth across landscapes decreases the chances of developing large wildfires that affect human values adjacent to forested areas. However, a narrow focus on minimizing crown fire potential will not necessarily reduce the damage to homes and ecosystems when fires do occur. Homes are often ignited by embers flying far from the fire front, and by surface fires. Fire effects on ecosystems can also occur during surface fires where surface and understory fuels and deep organic layers are sufficient to generate high temperatures for long periods. Fuel treatments can help produce forest structures and fuel characteristics that then reduce the likelihood that wildfires will cause large, rapid changes in biophysical conditions. Fuel treatments can also help modify fire behavior sufficiently so that some wildfires can be suppressed more easily. Subsequent, sustained fuel treatments can maintain these conditions. Different fuel reduction methods target different components of the fuel bed. Thinning mainly affects standing vegetation, and other types of fuel treatments such as prescribed fire and pile burning woody fuels are needed to modify the combustion environment of surface fuels. In forests that have not experienced fire for many decades, multiple fuel treatments—that is, thinning and surface fuel reduction—may be required to significantly affect crown fire and surface fire hazard. Fuel treatments cannot guarantee benign fire behavior but can reduce the probability that extreme fire behavior will occur. Fuel treatments can be designed to restore forest conditions to a more resilient and resistant condition than now exists in many forests, and subsequent management could maintain these conditions, particularly in dry forests (ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir) where crown fires were historically infrequent. The degree of risk reduction will depend to some degree on the level of investment, social and economic acceptability of treatments, and concurrent consideration of other resource values (for example, wildlife). This report describes the kinds, quality, amount, and gaps of scientific knowledge for making informed decisions on fuel treatments used to modify wildfire behavior and effects in dry forests of the interior Western United States (especially forests dominated by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir). A review of scientific principles and applications relevant to fuel treatment primarily for the dry forests is provided for the following topics: fuels, fire hazard, fire behavior, fire effects, forest structure, treatment effects and longevity, landscape fuel patterns, and scientific tools useful for management and planning. Close

• 2820. [Article] Distribution of amphibians in wadeable streams and ponds in western and southeast Oregon, Information Report 2009-02

  Abstract -- The Oregon Conservation Strategy (ODFW 2006) identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest ...

  Citation × Citation Citation Abstract Copy Title: Distribution of amphibians in wadeable streams and ponds in western and southeast Oregon, Information Report 2009-02 Abstract -- The Oregon Conservation Strategy (ODFW 2006) identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation Need (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide much information about amphibian distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian observational surveys with existing aquatic habitat surveys conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams (wadeable) in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The amphibian component was consistent with the survey protocol used by the US Geological Survey’s Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative. The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. In the summer of 2006, AIP began collecting amphibian occurrence data during physical stream habitat surveys as a pilot study to determine if our standard survey protocol could be modified to document distribution of amphibians characterized as Strategy Species under the Oregon Conservation Strategy. During the summer season, field crews observed four strategy species of amphibians and eleven amphibian species total. The potential to use these data to fill the gaps within the known current distribution of amphibians and to potentially develop a habitat based distribution models for these species led to the summer 2007 work. Amphibian data are also collected during four other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these four projects are also included in this report. The four projects are as follows: • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. • Surveys to document the distribution of Oregon chub also record amphibian data from over 1,000 pond and slough sites within the Willamette Valley floodplain since 1991. • The Native Fish Investigations Project began a study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of Redband Trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. Surveys in the summer of 2007 occurred in 8 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1)(Omernick 1994). Ecoregions are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological characteristics; flora and fauna communities and geographic conditions are typically distinct. Ecoregions provide an ecological framework for describing amphibian distribution across the state. The goals of our 2007 work were to: • Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. • Increase knowledge of distribution and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in western Oregon (location, stream size and type), and infer distribution in all coastal and lower Columbia drainages. • Describe temporal changes in stream habitat use by amphibians (seasonal, annual). • Estimate surveyor bias by comparing standard crew data with intensive resurveys. • Describe distribution of amphibians in ponds, sloughs and other off channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. • Describe distribution of amphibians in the Great Basin of eastern Oregon. Many of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and many adults remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. The aquatic habitat and redband trout surveys are appropriate opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. Likewise the Oregon chub surveys are likely to observe amphibian species and life stages in ponds and sloughs during the spring and fall. These types of surveys are an efficient and cost-effective means to collect information on amphibian species that are closely tied to aquatic habitat throughout their life cycle. Amphibian species that are more terrestrial in nature may be better surveyed through a different approach. Title: Distribution of amphibians in wadeable streams and ponds in western and southeast Oregon, Information Report 2009-02 Abstract -- The Oregon Conservation Strategy (ODFW 2006) identified monitoring needs for 17 amphibian species native to the state of Oregon that are designated as “Strategy species”, or Species of Greatest Conservation Need (per USFWS requirements for State Wildlife Action Plans). The distribution of many species of amphibians in western Oregon is sparsely documented (Oregon Conservation Strategy, page 27). Although a broad-scale survey for amphibian presence would provide much information about amphibian distribution, most studies have focused on limited areas. One cost-effective approach is to combine amphibian observational surveys with existing aquatic habitat surveys conducted as part of the Oregon Plan for Salmon and Watersheds (OCSRI 1997). The Oregon Plan has been in place since 1997 and the monitoring component provides a survey framework for streams in the lower Columbia River and Oregon coast drainages. The sampling framework is also compatible with implementation of the aquatic components of the Conservation Strategy, as demonstrated by this study. This study describes the presence of amphibians in and along wadeable streams in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages of Oregon, ponds and sloughs in the Willamette Valley, and selected streams in the Great Basin of southeast and central Oregon. As a component of monitoring under the Oregon Plan, the Aquatic Inventories Project (AIP) conducts aquatic habitat surveys at randomly selected and spatially balanced sites across all 1st through 4th order streams (wadeable) in coastal and lower Columbia River drainages. The purpose of the habitat surveys is to describe stream morphology, instream physical habitat, and riparian vegetation. Because the surveyors were already observing features within and alongside the stream channel, they were able to record observations of amphibians. The amphibian component was consistent with the survey protocol used by the US Geological Survey’s Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative. The advantage of coupling an amphibian component with the OR Plan aquatic surveys was that it not only was an efficient use of resources, but more importantly, provided information using a statistically rigorous survey design across a broad geographic area. In the summer of 2006, AIP began collecting amphibian occurrence data during physical stream habitat surveys as a pilot study to determine if our standard survey protocol could be modified to document distribution of amphibians characterized as Strategy Species under the Oregon Conservation Strategy. During the summer season, field crews observed four strategy species of amphibians and eleven amphibian species total. The potential to use these data to fill the gaps within the known current distribution of amphibians and to potentially develop a habitat based distribution models for these species led to the summer 2007 work. Amphibian data are also collected during four other survey projects, and although the site selection procedure does not conform to the same statistical standards as the Oregon Plan survey design, the projects offer a number of opportunities to collect amphibian occurrence information over a wide variety of habitats. The amphibian observations from these four projects are also included in this report. The four projects are as follows: • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys on selected streams throughout the state. • AIP conducts aquatic habitat surveys at stream habitat restoration projects in Western Oregon. • Surveys to document the distribution of Oregon chub also record amphibian data from over 1,000 pond and slough sites within the Willamette Valley floodplain since 1991. • The Native Fish Investigations Project began a study in 2007 to document the distribution and abundance of Redband Trout in the Great Basin region of Eastern Oregon. Surveys in the summer of 2007 occurred in 8 of Oregon’s 10 ecoregions (Figure 1)(Omernick 1994). Ecoregions are relatively large areas defined by distinctive geographic and ecological characteristics; flora and fauna communities and geographic conditions are typically distinct. Ecoregions provide an ecological framework for describing amphibian distribution across the state. The goals of our 2007 work were to: • Increase the consistency, efficiency and ability of habitat crews in identifying amphibians through improved training. • Increase knowledge of distribution and habitat associations of amphibians in streams in western Oregon (location, stream size and type), and infer distribution in all coastal and lower Columbia drainages. • Describe temporal changes in stream habitat use by amphibians (seasonal, annual). • Estimate surveyor bias by comparing standard crew data with intensive resurveys. • Describe distribution of amphibians in ponds, sloughs and other off channel aquatic habitats in the Willamette Valley. • Describe distribution of amphibians in the Great Basin of eastern Oregon. Many of Oregon’s amphibians rely on aquatic habitats at some point of their life, either for breeding and juvenile development or to inhabit as adults. Most aquatic amphibians breed from late winter to early summer, and many adults remain in or near their breeding sites into the summer. Most tadpoles and juvenile amphibians are also active in and occupy aquatic habitats during the summer. The aquatic habitat and redband trout surveys are appropriate opportunities to observe species and life stages (breeding adults, tadpoles and juveniles) that occupy aquatic or riparian habitats during the summer. Likewise the Oregon chub surveys are likely to observe amphibian species and life stages in ponds and sloughs during the spring and fall. These types of surveys are an efficient and cost-effective means to collect information on amphibian species that are closely tied to aquatic habitat throughout their life cycle. Amphibian species that are more terrestrial in nature may be better surveyed through a different approach. Close